Seoul 2000 FISITA World Automotive Congress June 12-15, 2000, Seoul, Korea

F2000IS001

Basic Considerations for the Concepts of Wheeled off-Road Vehicles

Gnter H. Hohl,1), 2) ; Alexander Corrieri 1)
2)

Austrian Military Technology Agency Austrian Society for Automotive Engineers

1)

The demand for greater mobility on unprepared terrain in all seasons by agriculture, construction, and the military has stimulated interest in the study of off-road vehicles. Thus the use of automobiles for cross-country movements and the potential for building more efficient automobiles and vehicles with high off-road mobility has also increased significantly. The engineers and designers of off-road vehicles face a lack of generally recognized theories. Usually, the concept of terrain vehicles are developed very empirically and are based on principles of mechanics and land locomotion. The author presents a general overview on models and considerations for wheeled off-road vehicle concepts. First vehicle and soil are defined, then the interaction between these two elements is discussed. Based on these models, methods to predict and measure traction of off-road vehicles are evaluated. The relevant elements of off-road vehicles and their influence on mobility are presented. At last the human factors and future developments are shown. Keywords: Terrain vehicles, Terra mechanics,

1. Introduction
The importance of off-road mobility is inversely proportional to the density of the network of hard surface roads. However, to some extent, it is also relevant for regions with a well-developed network of roads because of the possible need of transporting cargo and persons to places away from the road. Off-road vehicles share many components and design principles with commercial vehicles. To operate in terrain, these vehicles need different considerations, a new design or modifications of components. First the designer of an off-road vehicle has to ask where the vehicle will operate. The user, too, has great influence on the layout of a terrain vehicle. In technology one always the tries to form categories. This attempt has also been made for terrain and for vehicles. Unfortunately there are generally accepted theories about that. Models are available to describe the influence of the vehicles components, which are necessary for the off-road operation and interaction with the terrain.
Vegetatio

The first question for a concept of an off-road vehicle is: What is the difference between road and terrain, and what are the resulting influences? If the strength and deformation of terrain material can provide the necessary flotation and traction to keep a vehicle in constant travel and produce the required tractive force, terrain cover characteristics can constitute another factor which could restrict vehicle speed, or even cause total vehicle immobilization. These factors can be identified in Fig. 1 as: (a) slope, (b) obstacles, (c) vegetation, (d) visibility and (e) roughness. (a) Slope: In terrain, slope can be anything up to a vertical wall, whereas roads do not exceed 18%. Motion resistance increases because of the gravitational component of the vehicle along the slope. When traversing a slope. For this the torque on the wheels has to be increased either by a high torque of the engine or by the gear boxes in the drive line. The position of the center of gravity must be considered to prevent overturning. (b) Obstacles: These include surface features, such as boulders, stumps, logs, dikes, potholes, mounds, ditches, etc., which are impediments to vehicles. These will cause a vehicle to move slowly or circumvent the obstacle. Maneuvering around obstacles will generally require additional traction forces to account for steering, in particular for any distance between two obstacles less than two vehicle lengths. Two criteria are required for a vehicle to cross an obstacle. There must be (1) no interference between the obstacle and the bottom profile of the vehicle and (2) enough traction and enough torque at the driving wheels.

Visibility Ditch

Mound

Obstacles Roughness Slope

Figure 1: Vehicle in terrain [11]

(c) Vegetation: Vegetation causes additional resistance to vehicle motion. Maneuvering around vegetation, e.g. trees and bushes requires additional traction forces and a small steering radius. (d) Visibility: This is also referred to as driver recognition distance. Visibility controls the maximum speed at which a driver may proceed. It influences the design of the braking system. (e) Roughness: This can be defined as random ground surface irregularities, which are the source of vibrations to the vehicle body through the tire/wheel assembly and at last to the crew. Surface roughness can be described using statistical methods for collecting data of the profile of the ground surface (power spectral density). Terrain data are collected in terms of elevation at regular intervals using land survey or aerial photography techniques and calculated as the root mean square (RMS) of the terrain roughness. Water: Off-road vehicles often need to cross rivers or lakes, where they move at slow speeds on the ground. These should not be called amphibious. For this purpose there are special designs, so that the water cannot damage any component of the vehicle. For a first consideration of a terrain vehicle, a very simple model, the so-called Driver-VehicleTerrain Model, can be used.

2. Selecting Vehicle Concepts: System analysis of off-road vehicles results in the increasing complexity of the interaction between man, machine and the environment. Developing offroad vehicle concepts for given missions and defined environment are good examples for system analysis. The objectives of the analysis in this chapter are to show methods to find concepts which will lead to mission accomplishment with acceptable approximation of performance. Vehicle concepts are generally definable in this context, in a form-size-weight- power relationship.

Environment of Locomotion

Vehicle Mission

Geometry of Terrain Surface

Physics of Soil

Functional

Operational

Vehicle Concept

Form

Size

Weight

Power

Figure 3: Elements of a terrain-vehicle system for off-road locomotion [3] In addition, fuel economy, safety, cost, impact on the environment, reliability, maintainability and other factors have to be taken into consideration. To define the optimum vehicle configuration for a given mission and environment, a system analysis approach should therefore be adopted. The analysis of terrain-vehicle systems usually begins with defining mission requirements, such as the type of work to be performed, the kind of payload to be transported, and the operational characteristics of the vehicle system, including environmental considerations and economy. The physical and geometric properties of the terrain on which the vehicle is expected to operate are collected as inputs. Based on past experience and future development trends competitive vehicle concepts with probability of accomplishing the specified mission requirements are chosen,. The operational characteristics and performance of the candidates are then analyzed and compared. As a result of the system analysis, an order of the candidates is established, from which the optimum vehicle configuration is selected.

Figure 2: The driver-vehicle-terrain model [8] These three elements influence each other. It is clearly to be seen that the driver influences the vehicle by handling the controls which are necessary for the mobility of the vehicle. Vice versa, the vehicle and its components give a response to the driver. But also the vehicle and the terrain have mutual interaction. The terrain influences the driver in many ways, as mentioned above. But there is also an impact of the driver on the terrain, as he chooses the route and can remove small obstacles or put rigid objects on soft terrain in case of immobility.

3. Vehicle Terrain Interaction

Gearbox Engine

3.1

General
Frame ACTION Suspension

Usually automobiles are intended to move over specially prepared surfaces, which are easily defined. Contrary to this it is very difficult to give an exact definition of the terrain properties. Due to the large variety of natural surfaces, the ir properties must be evaluated statistically, and the probability of satisfying these condition over a given route must be appropriately considered as an index of off -road mobility. Terrain vehicles are characterized by special properties for off-road mobility, which also must be defined. To categorize an off-road vehicle for a certain degree of Mobility, one must evaluate the tractive characteristics, the maneuverability and the stability of the automobile. Both specifications, of the terrain and of the vehicle, have to be considered in their interaction. 3.2 Terrain Specifications

Interface Compression of Bearing Substrate Thrust Action

REACTION

Figure 5: Elements of vehicle-terrain interaction The interface and boundary shear layer is responsible for the effectiveness of thrust development and transfer into the substrate depends on frictional and adhesion characteristics established between running gear and terrain slip. The bearing stability of the substrate must be considered, too. Yong [11] proposed the following five major classes of soil types for trafficability purposes: (a) cohesive soil , (b) cohesionless soil, (c) mixed soil, (d) muskeg, and (e) snow. The characteristics of these types of material for trafficability purposes differ widely. Grass covered surfaces as lawn and muskeg and snow are very difficult to describe. Some attempts have been made to specify these kinds of terrain. [10]., but a generally accepted and used model is not available. Widely used methods for the determination of pure soil and how to use the properties for calculation of traction and mobility prediction are presented below. Among others, there are two accepted and used methods to describe soil properties: Bekker Values Cone Index

One way to describe the terrain is to specify the irregularities as obstacles and roughness. Figure 4 shows a schematic representation of how some of these obstacles might appear in an off-road mission.

Figure 4: Obstacle dimensions [3] Surface roughness can be described using statistical methods for reducing data of continuous profile of ground surface (power spectral density). An additional way to describe the terrain is to investigate the interaction between the running gear, which is the umbrella term for wheels and tracks. In the figure below the main elements of a terrain vehicle and the interaction between the vehicle and the terrain are shown in a simplified form. The interaction is a typical example for the law of action and reaction. The running gear acts on the terrain in many ways. The bearing substrate requires expenditure of input energy as part of thrust development.

Based on the model in figure 4 and observing an offroad vehicle in motion, two effects can be seen.: - vertical sinkage - horizontal movement (slippage) of the running gear at the point of interaction with the terrain. These considerations can be expained in a simple plate model:
j

Figure 6: Simple plate model

The pressure (p)-sinkage (z) relationship can be characterized by the Bekker equation:

k p = c + k z n b
Whereby kc, k and n are soil properties. The smaller width of a rectangular plate is defined as b. The shear stress -shear displacement (j)relationship may be described by an exponential function of the following form, proposed by Janosi and Hanamoto:
j k 1 e max = (c + p tan )

ground clearance

angle of approach

ramp angle

angle of departure

Figure 8: Geometrical properties of a wheeled offroad vehicle The definition of off-road mobility is complicated. One of the methods was developed by WES to predict wheeled vehicle performance in an empirical equation. They introduced the Mobility Index MI, which tries to define the Off-Road Performance of the vehicle. The MI for a wheeled vehicle is given by: The definition of the various factors can be found in [9] on page 107 108. To predict the mobility of the vehicle in a certain terrain, which is defined in values of CI or RCI, it is necessary to transform the MI into a fictive Cone
Mobility = Index contact pressure x weight factor factor transmission + wheel - clearance x engine x grouser load tire factor factor factor factor factor

Due to the linear relationship between max and normal pressure (p), c is defined as the cohesion, which is zero for sand. The angle defines the inclination of the line. Cone Index: The cone pentrometer used for soil trafficability studies and forecasting was developed by the U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station. The dimensions of the instrument can be seen in figure 7. The measured value is the cone index (CI) which has the dimension of a pressure in psi, or in kN/cm2 The range is between 0-300 kN/cm2 .
Cone Index (CI) = Force Cone Base Area

15.9mm (5/8 in)

L=3 ft.

Index value, the so-called Vehicle Cone Index (VCI):

Penetration velocity = 30 mm/s Cone angle = 30 Cone Base Area = 323 mm2

For a self-propelled wheeled vehicle, the VCI1 for one press and VCI50 for 50 presses, is related to the MI through the following empirical equation:

Figure 7: Cone Index Many soils with low strength in situ condition will become even weaker under the action (remolding effect) of a vehicle. The so-called Rating Cone Index (RCI) takes the remolding effect into consideration. The method to determine the RCI is described in [9] on page 285. The CI or the RCI can be used for the prediction of the mobility of a whole vehicle or of the performance of a single tire. 3.3 Vehicle Classification

39.2 VCI 1 = 7.0 + 0.2 MI MI + 5.6 125.79 VCI 50 = 19.27 + 0.43MI MI + 7.08
After the strength of the soil (RCI) to be traversed and the vehicle performance (VCI) have been determined, the mobility and the performance parameters of a wheeled vehicle, such as the net maximum drawbar pull coefficient and the towed motion resistance coefficient, can then be predicted using empirical relations. The performance parameters are related to the excess of RCI over VCI ( RCI VCI). If the vehicle cone index is higher than the rating cone index, the area is considered impassable for the vehicle. This method has some shortcomings, too. Some elements as all-wheel drive, differential locks and 4

Terrain vehicles can be classified by their static properties as weight and geometrical contours. These properties do not describe the whole off-road capability and their automotive properties. The main dimensions related to off-road mobility are to be seen in the figure below.

some geometrical properties are not taken into consideration.

0,7 Net Maximum Drawbar Pull Coeff. 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 Rating Cone Index - Vehicle Cone Index

Figure 9 RCIVCI versus max. DP-coefficient 4. Elements of Off-Road Vehicles

4.1 Drive Line As symbolized in figure 1 the drive line consists of engine, gearbox, transfer case and in some cases of a final drive or additional gear elements. Unalterable demands for an off-road vehicle are all-wheel-drive and differential locks. There are two limiting factors for the performance of an off-road vehicle: one is the maximum tractive effort that the tire-ground contact can support, and the other is the tractive effort that the engine torque with a given transmission can provide. The smaller of these two will determine the performance potential of the vehicle. The maximum power Pmax required to keep the vehicle mass mv moving under the given conditions (rolling resistance fR, required DP and vmax, is determined by the formula given below:

continuous variable transmission (CVT) and the hydrostatic transmission are not often used in highly mobile terrain vehicles. With the addition of the front wheels as driving members of an all-wheel drive vehicle to supply more traction, a transfer case is necessary The transfer case splits the torque to be transferred. Various types of all-wheel drive systems are employed: Permanent all-wheel drive, with 50% distribution using a conventional gear differential or asymmetrical distribution via planetary gear unit. The theoretical torque distribution is modified by the effect of automatic or controlled limited-slip differentials. Driver-selected all-wheel drive (solid couplings at front/rear, viscous coupling or transfer case), with driver-actuated differential locks in the transfer case and the final drive. Transfer cases for off-road vehicles incorporate an additional driver-controlled conversion range for steep gradients, low speeds and high torque transfer. The viscous coupling (an encapsulated multiplate unit with a high-viscosity silicone fluid) represents yet another means of activating the all-wheel drive. The purpose of a final drive is to increase torque at the end of the drive line and thus to reduce the weight of the drive line elements. The final drive gear box can be based on a planetary gear, which is in the hub of the wheel, or free portal axle design with a spur gear unit. The differential unit compensates differences in the respective rotation rates of the drive wheels, but also in case of a permanent all wheel drive between different drive axles. Lateral variations in terrain surfaces produce different traction values at the respectively wheels, that means there will be no traction in the other wheel even though its tire-toterrain adhesion is good. The purpose of a differential lock is to rigidly join the half-shafts or drive-shafts of an axle. This engagement can be done manually or automatically (see 5.1) 4.2 Frame

Pmax =
Wheel arrang ement 4x2 0.90.95

( f R mv g + DP)vmax 3600
4x4 0.850.9 6x6 0.80.85 8x8 0.750.8

6x4 0.850.9

An increase in the specific power improves the offroad mobility of the automobile. Moreover, increased engine power is accompanied by negative consequences, by increased mass of the power plant and transmission and by the increased cost of the automobile. Also important is the selection of the engine type; for the same power requirement, the use of a diesel engine ensures higher off-road mobility indices compared to those of a gasoline engine. The selection of transmission parameters is such that the automobile has maximum tractive force on the one side and high maximum speed on the other side. There are two common types of transmission for offroad vehicles: manual and automatic with a torque converter. Other types of transmission, like the 5

To appreciate the design and construction of an offroad vehicle frame, an understanding of the operating environment is necessary. Once the terrain conditions are known, a comparison of the different frame layouts can be made.

Side-member

Cross-member

Figure 10 Ladder frame The most popular type of frame is the ladder-frame which is a simple, rugged, channel iron construction.

The side rails are usually parallel to each other to permit the mounting of engine, transmissions, transfer assemblies, and axles. For off-road vehicles the torsional or twisting ability is very important. When front and rear diagonally opposite wheels roll over an obstacle simultaneously , the two ends of the chassis will be twisted in opposite directions. Both the side and the crossmembers will thus be subjected to longitudinal torsion which distorts the frame. The designer of an off-road vehicle can choose from two philosophies. The one is to use a torsion friendly frame, which twists or a torsion resistant frame, which does not.
Stiff Frame 30 20
77 % 13 %

Springs & dampers Axles

In most cases off-road vehicles have mechanical springs. The three main systems are shown in the figure below.

Leaf spring

Torsion Friendly Frame Cylindrical coil spring Frame

57 %

Barral shaped coil spring

Springs Torsion bar

10
10%

Tires
30

36 % 7%

Twisting of the axles

30 Twisting of the axles

Figure:12 Spring systems Leaf springs have the advantage of low cost, a certain damping ability and a good transfer of forces to the frame. The disadvantage is the limited spring displacement. Therefore, the leaf springs are used for vehicles with medium off-road ability. Coil springs have no self-damping and thus need stronger shock absorbers. They need additional components to control wheel movement. Variable compliance rates or conical-wire designs provide a progressive characteristic and extended spring movement. Torsion bar systems are rarely used. Their advantage is that they are maintenance free and the vehicle height is adjustable. Suspension systems for wheeled off-road vehicles are classified into two major categories: nonindependent and independent types, depending on the mechanical relationship of the wheels.

Figure11 Comparison of twisting ability A closed rectangular profile for the frame side members in combination with circular closed cross member profiles have a good resistance to longitudinal torsion. A rarely used, but a very torsion resistant design is the central tube frame (Pinzgauer, Tatra). The X frame would be very stiff, but it is almost useless, because there is no space for vehicle components.

4.3

Suspension

As explained earlier and in chapter 5.1, the permissible speed on uneven surfaces is limited by body vibrations and dynamic loads. The main parameters on which suspension characteristics are evaluated include the energy storing capacity of the suspension, the displacement amplitudes of the shock absorbing and non-shock absorbing masses and vertical vibrational acceleration. The energy storing capacity of the suspension reflects the ability to cross bumps with less shock in the shock absorber. The displacement amplitude of the shock absorbing and non-shock absorbing masses determines the variation of the normal wheel load and the likelihood of the wheels separating from the surface. Vertical vibrational accelerations are the main indicator of the effect of vibration on man. These parameters vary, depending on the extent of road unevenness, speed, suspension parameters and the overall parameters of the automobile. The suspension system of off-road vehicles usually consists of two main elements: 6

Figure 13 Suspension systems for wheeled vehicles

As both systems are used, it is worth while to investigate their advantages and disadvantages. Suspension systems can be examined with respect to their ability to twist, body roll in curves and on slopes, wheel and steering control, economic, practical and design considerations overall height & configuration of vehicle belly.

A new and very realistic method is the finite element method, which is described in detail at this congress by I Schmid. For more details about off-road tires consider the presentation of H. Stumpf. 5. Human Factors

Sometimes in the development of off-road vehicles the crew vehicle, is not taken into consideration. In this respect, two factors can be pointed out: - Ride comfort, and - Automation 5.1 Ride Comfort of Off-road Vehicles

To maximize the twisting ability, rigid axles are superior in their off-road capabilities, as the difference in wheel loads of two axles twisting in opposite directions is smaller than that for independent suspension systems. Contrary to the above, independent suspensions, are better with respect to body roll in curves and when crossing slopes. A hump crossed by one wheel causes a vertical displacement relative to the chassis. In case of a rigid axle not only the wheel which crosses the obstacle is influenced, but also the other wheel of the same axle. This causes a gyroscopic moment which has a negative influence on the steering ability and on wheel control. From an economic, practical and design standpoint, rigid axles have the advantage that they have been adapted from standard commercial trucks and that they can be connected to the springs in a simple and inexpensive way. This is one of the reasons why rigid axles have been used for off-road vehicles for a very long time. The overall height is lower for independent suspensions. 4.4 Tires The interaction between tire and soil is a very complex process. Both elements are not completely defined. There are several methods available to asses the performance of a tire. Practical Test Methods: The tire is mounted on a vehicle, a single wheel tester or on a rig in a test bin. Torque, speed tractive force and the rpms of the wheel(s) are measured. With these values, drawbar pull (DP) and slip can be determined. This method has the advantage, that the tire is exposed to realistic conditions. On the other hand it is complicated, expensive and in many cases impossible to vary tire performance and the parameters. Computer Aided Methods: A widely used approach is the analytical method. This method, developed by Bekker and Wong takes the normal and shear stresses into account. The basic idea is to integrate the vertical components of the shear and normal stresses over the contact area. The result is equal to the wheel load. Then the horizontal components of both these stresses are integrated over the contact area. This value represents the DP.

Because of the roughness of the terrain, off-road vehicles are exposed to more shock and vibration than ordinary vehicles. Hence, off-road speed is usually limited by the ability of the driver to withstand these vibrations and to retain adequate control of the vehicle. In addition to other factors, the comfort of the driver contributes to his general safety. It also depends on the physical characteristics of the seat, which is the link between the driver and the vehicle. During the last years great attempts have been made to improve the driver seat. Such developments, however, should not be at the expense of the drivers ability to feel the terrain. Usually the driver is better situated than the other crew members. He is able to control speed (the main factor affecting vibration), and to observe obstacles in front of the vehicle. Soldiers sitting in the rear of a truck or in the crew compartment of a tracked vehicle are affected not only by vibrations, but also by exhaust fumes and by psychological effects. The human body itself has no special sense to register mechanical vibrations, nor does it have any specific defense mechanism to counter those vibrations. The influence of mechanical vibrations on humans may be tested either by collecting statistical data or by experimental research. Both methods of investigation lead to the conclusion that a human being exposed to mechanical vibrations can be affected by reduced comfort, fatigue, decreased proficiency, and finally by impairment of his safety and health. Tests carried out by the Austrian Armed Forces showed that the main influence for the perception of vibration are terrain roughness and speed. Suspension and seat are of minor influence. 5.2 Automation

Very early in the development of the automobile, vehicle designers tried to make the man machine interface as comfortable as possible for common cars. For a long time, terrain vehicles as well as trucks were not included in this development. But in the last two decades, off-road vehicles got power assisted steering or an automatic gearbox too. But manually operated traction systems, as all wheel 7

drive and differential locks on all axles are still the standard for off-road vehicles. Automation is required along with this general tendency to make the operation of the drive-train components more comfortable. Simpler control and greater comfort are also important safety factors because both allow the driver to concentrate on steering the vehicle, to observe the surrounding terrain, and to listen to information and orders from his commander, as an example for a military application. This reduced workload is an advantage, both for trained and untrained drivers. But to use all-wheel drive and differential locks properly and at the right time, takes a long time of training and great experience. Human beings have the tendency to operate on the safe side. Therefore, the drivers of cross-country vehicles often engage these components too early and keep them engaged too long and in situations when it is not necessary. The purpose of a differential lock is to rigidly join both half-shafts of an axle. This is normally achieved by locking together any two convenient components of the differential which have relative movement. The differential locks are engaged manually by the driver or automatically. The automatic engagement can be done mechanically or electronically. The limited-slip employs friction plates, friction cones, self-locking gears, or multi-plate units in high-viscosity fluids to limit the differential effect. The locking factor defines the effectiveness of the limited-slip differential. Limited-slip differentials can also employ electronic control to adapt to a widely varying range of operating conditions: A high locking factor for starting conditions can be followed by a lower factor as speed increases or as the traction limit is reached. The value of the locking factor usually is between 25 and 40%. One of these systems is the Automatic Drive-Train Management (ADM) System. The ADM System controls and engages all traction components including all-wheel drive, rear and front differential locks when necessary. Compared to manually operated devices, ADM has the advantage of an automatic engagement and, compared to semiautomatically operated devices as disk or visco couplings, the advantage of transferring 100% of torque. 6. Future Developments

Off-road vehicles need to have special capabilities in order to pass rough terrain. In the past these unique features could only be achieved by special developments. The improved capabilities of standard mass produced vehicles of modern design now comes very close to the requirements of off-road vehicles. A cost effective solution would be to adapt those mass produced vehicles by improving key components. Our society nowadays cares for the environment, energy conservation and the total price tag. So therefore the improvement of fuel consumption and reduction of undesirable emissions will have high priority. Because future developments will have to consider costs as well, there will be a tendency to use components, which are used in commercial vehicles as well. The computer will speed up the development of new concepts and products. The prediction of missions will be extended and improved. These methods will reduce the time to market. References (in alphabetic order): [1] Ia.S. Ageikin Off-the-Road Mobility of Automobiles Ia.S. Ageikin Off-the-Road Wheeled and Combined Traction Devices M.G. Bekker Introduction to Terrain-Vehicle Systems Bosch AUTOMOTIVE HANDBOOK H. Heisler Vehicle and Engine Technology G.H. Hohl Ride Comfort of Off-Road Vehicles 8th International ISTVS Conference 1984 Cambridge, UK G.H. Hohl, M. Schrck The Automatic Drive-Train Management System (ADM) Description and Test Results 7th European ISTVS Conference 1997 Ferrara, Italy I. Schmid Interaction of Vehicle and Terrain 6th European ISTVS Conference 1994 Vienna, Austria J.Y. Wong Terramechanics and Off-Road Vehicles J.Y. Wong Theory of Ground Vehicles N. Yong Vehicle Traction Mechanics

[2]

[3] [4] [5] [6]

[7]

[8]

In the coming years the use of electronics, interaction between components in combination with external information will increase. Then the drive line can be controlled automatically in order to adjust engine, transmission and tire pressure, engage e.g. all wheel drive, differential locks etc. to adapt to the varying soil conditions. Of course, the computer in the terrain vehicles could easily be connected to external networks. Computers will be extensively used to develop and simulate advanced models for vehicle and terrain interaction. 8

[9] [10] [11]