Week 6.

Eco-indicators 99
The LCA flow diagram of Eco-indicators 99 (This diagram and much of the following material is derived from Manual for Eco-indicators 99 by Mark Goedkoop, Suzanne Effting and Marcel Collignon, ,PR Consultants B.V.,Plotterweg 12, !21 BB, "mersfoort, (info#$re.nl%%.

Environmental effects of products

&ver' industrial activit' and $roduct damages the environment to a certain e(tent. Raw materials must )e e(tracted from the ground and trees cut* then truc+s, trains, shi$s and $lanes must trans$ort these materials to manufacturing locations and their $roducts has to )e $ac+aged and distri)uted. ,uring use, some of these $roducts ma' re-uire additional resources , such as electricit' or gasoline. .inall', the used $roducts must )e rec'cled or dis$osed. "s discussed earlier, in the /ife C'cle "ssessment of the sum total of the environmental im$acts of a $roduct, all the stages of its life must )e e(amined and -uantified. 0n conducting an /C", it is relativel' eas' to determine the contri)ution of a $articular stage of o$eration to a certain environmental $ro)lem, such as the greenhouse effect, acidification, eutro$hication, etc. " difficult' arises when one wants to add u$ the various im$acts and $roduce a single num)er that can )e com$ared to an alternative $rocess or $roduct. To do so meaningfull', one needs to use the $ro$er weighting factors, as discussed earlier. The second $ro)lem with carr'ing out /C" studies is that if one has to start from 1scratch2 ever' time, it is a ver' com$le( and time3consuming $rocess. &co3indicators 44 has attem$ted to overcome these $ro)lems )' a% $roviding a weighing method that allows summing u$ of individual im$acts, and )% develo$ing a li)rar' of &co3indicator values for the most common material and $rocesses used in industrial activities. 0t is e($ected that this data )ase will )ecome richer in the future as more $eo$le use this method and their e($erience is used to refine this s'stem of measuring environmental costs. The students in this course are also challenged to loo+ at the &co344 values criticall', -uestion those that do not seem to ma+e sense, use the s'stem in their 0& term $a$ers and, later, in their careers as &arth and environmental engineers. &co3indicators 44 are defined in such a wa' that the' fit together li+e )uilding )loc+s. &.g., there is an indicator for the $roduction of a +ilo of $ol'eth'lene, one for the in5ection molding of a +ilo of $ol'eth'lene and another for the incineration of one +ilo of used $ol'eth'lene. 0n the &co344 s'stem, the higher the num)er of the indicator, the greater is the environmental im$act. "fter all, it re$resents the environmental cost of a certain human activit'.

ses and limitations of Eco-indicators 99

,uring the design of a $roduct or $rocess, a large num)er of o$tions are e(amined and the )est o$tions identified. 0n the economic s'stem, these o$tions are 1weighed2 in terms of num)er of dollars $er unit of $roduction, unit of service, etc. Therefore, when all other factors are e-ual, the

lowest cost o$tion is $referred. 6imilarl', in the environmental s'stem, the availa)le o$tions are 1weighed2 in terms of their res$ective &co3indicator values. The lowest &co344 value signifies the )est o$tion from an environmental $ers$ective. 0t can )e seen that the &co3indicator s'stem of measurement $rovides a value s'stem for measuring environmental $erformance, much as the traditional cost3)enefit anal'sis has done over the centuries for the economic s'stems. 1Rome was not )uilt in one da'2 and it will ta+e a long time for $eo$le to $a' as much attention to the new s'stem as the' have learnt to do with the economic s'stem that offers immediate awards and $unishment (tr' to s+i$ $a'ing 'our rent to Colum)ia over two months%. The develo$ers of &co3indicators 44 stress that it is a tool intended for internal use )' $roducers and manufacturers and should not )e used to $rove to the $u)lic that one7s $roduct is )etter than the com$etition. 8et, when the $u)lic starts worr'ing and environmental value s'stems start to intersect and mother a)out the environment and choosing its $urchases accordingl', the economic &arth can ta+e a dee$ )reath of relief.

nits and dimensions of Eco-indicators

.rom the $ers$ective of $h'sics, the standard &co3indicator values are dimensionless, same as the units of currenc'. 0n the &co344 s'stem, the unit of measurement is called the &co3indicator Point, Pt, and is divided into 1999 milli$oints (mPt%. The main $ur$ose of having a unit of measurement is so as to )e a)le to com$are alternative o$tions for materials, $roducts and $rocesses ()' the wa', the same need led to the )eginning of the currenc' era%. "$$arentl', the si:e of the Pt unit was chosen )' &co344 to re$resent one thousandth of the 'earl' environmental load of an average citi:en in &uro$e. The +ilo$oint (1 +Pt;1999 $oints% was derived )' dividing the com$uted total environmental load in &uro$e )' the num)er of its inha)itants. 6o, if 'ou have a friend in .rance she im$oses a load of one +ilo$oint (+Pt% on the $lanet each 'ear, and so do 'ou, give or ta+e a few hundred Pts.

!escription of the standard Eco-indicators 99

6tandard &co3indicator 44 values are availa)le for< "aterials# The indicators are e($ressed $er +ilogram of material $roduction processes (treatment and $rocessing of various materials%< &($ressed $er $h'sical unit that is a$$ro$riate to the $articular $rocess (e.g., s-uare meters of rolled sheet or +ilo of e(truded $lastic%. Transport processes< &($ressed mostl' $er ton3+m (- metric ton31999 +g% Energ% generation $rocesses. =nits are given for electricit' and heat. &ec%cling or disposal $rocesses. These are e($ressed $er +ilo of material and are su)divided into t'$es of material and waste $rocessing methods. "verage &uro$ean figures are used for this calculation. " $articular definition was used for the terms 1material2 and 1$rocess2 when determining the indicators. The definitions used are e($lained )riefl' )elow. a' "aterials >aterials range from the $rimar' resources of the &arth (ores and their concentrates, coal?oil?gas, forest and agricultural $roducts%, to refined (cement and other industrial minerals, metals, refined coal?oil?gas, lum)er, $ul$, $rocessed food%, and manufactured (chemicals, metal tu)e?sheet?wire, $etrochemicals, $a$er, wood% $roducts. 0n determining the indicator for the $roduction of materials all the $rocesses are included from the e(traction of the raw materials u$ to and including the last $roduction stage, resulting in )ul+ material. Trans$ort $rocesses along this route are also included u$ to the final $rocess in the $roduction chain. @hich $rocess that is, can )e derived from the e($lanation in the &co3indicator list. .or $lastic, for e(am$le, all the $rocesses are included from e(traction of the oil u$ to and including the $roduction of the granules* for sheet steel

all the $rocesses are included from e(traction of the ore and co+e u$ to and including the rolling $rocess. The $roduction of ca$ital goods (machines, )uildings and such li+e% is not included. (' $roduction processes The &co3indicators for treatment $rocesses relate to the emissions from the $rocess itself and emissions from the energ' generation $rocesses that are necessar'. &missions during the manufacture of ca$ital goods, li+e machines and dies, are not included on the grounds that over the life of a $lant (29'earsA% the' are distri)uted over a large num)er of $roduction units and, therefore. "re negligi)le. Bowever, this ma' not )e the case in com$aring $rocess o$tions, e.g. com)ustion or landfilling of solid wastes where $lant e-ui$ment and land3use are ver' im$ortant. c'Transport processes Trans$ort $rocesses include the im$act of emissions caused )' the e(traction and $roduction of fuel used in trains, shi$s and $lanes and )' the conversion of fuel to mechanical energ' during trans$ort. &nvironmental im$acts are e($ressed $er one metric ton(1999 +g% of goods trans$orted over a distance of 1 +m (1 ton3+m%. Transport (% road< .or trans$ort of materials )' road, where the ca$acit' of a truc+ ma' )e limited not )' weight )ut )' the volume of low3densit' materials, the environmental im$act ma' also )e e($ressed $er cu)ic meter (m % trans$orted $er +ilometer (m 3+m%. Ca$ital goods, li+e the $roduction of truc+s and road or rail infrastructure, and the handling of cargo $lanes on air$orts, are included as the' are not negligi)le. &ail transport< The im$acts for rail trans$ort are )ased on the average &uro$ean ratio of diesel to electric traction and average load level of a car.. Air transport (cargo $lanes%< " loading efficienc' for &uro$ean average conditions is assumed and account is ta+en of a $ossi)le em$t'3return 5ourne'. Energ%# The energ' indicators refer to the e(traction and $roduction of fuels and to energ' conversion and electricit' generation. The &uro$ean industr' average efficienc' is used and account is ta+en of the mi( of various fuels used in &uro$e to generate electricit'. "lso, &co3indicators have )een determined for high3voltage electricit' that is used in industrial $rocesses and for low3voltage electricit', used in residential, commercial, and light industr' a$$lications. This accounts for line transmission losses. 0n addition to &uro$e3average indicators, &i344 also $rovides s$ecific indicators for a num)er of countries. The large differences )etween countries are e($lained )' the vintage and efficienc' of different technologies used to $roduce electricit'. Cne of the 0& term $a$ers in this class will deal with determining e-uivalent indices for the =.6. industr'. d' &ec%cling or disposal of used materials 0n the recent $ast, the onl' concern a)out used materials and $roducts was where to dis$ose them so the' could not )e seen or smelled. There was little consideration as to their $ro$erties, value or effects on the environment. &ven toda', well meaning $eo$le who trul' want to $rotect the environment can )e $assionate a)out what should )e done with what the' consider to )e a generic material, called wastes. 0ndustrial ecologists, such as the &i344 develo$ers and facult' in this school, are tr'ing to shed some scientific light on this difficult su)5ect. @astes, and in $articular what is called munici$al solid wastes (>6@%, consist of all $hases and $racticall' all materials that e(ist on this $lanet. Ta+ing such materials and )ur'ing them in a common 1grave2, as is $resentl' done for most >6@, is an insult to the &arth and also to human intelligence. 8et, in the =.6. it is encouraged )' federal legislation. Cf course, the first thing to consider in $rocess?$roduct design is how to minimi:e the materials?energ' to )e used in $roduction and mar+eting?distri)ution of a $roduct ($ac+aging, etc.%. Bowever, 'ou cannot ma+e an omelet without having egg shells to dis$ose of. .or as long as $eo$le want to )e fed, clothed, housed, and entertained, there will )e used materials to dis$ose of. "unicipal )olid Wastes

@ith regard to >6@, the higher densit' materials (metals, glass, and ceramics% do not decom$ose nor )urn and are the easiest to se$arate $h'sicall' and rec'cle. Bowever, if their sorting is done manuall', a large fraction still ends u$ in landfills. Dlass and ceramics are inert materials )ut metals in landfills continue to o(idi:e for centuries after a landfill closes. >anual sorting of $a$ers and $lastics can result in some rec'cling of these materials while the rest goes to landfills. Pa$er and $lastics are rec'cled to some e(tent )ut, in most =.6. communities, nearl' two thirds end u$ in landfills. The' range from Edifficult to im$ossi)leE to decom$ose so the' lie in a landfill for decades or centuries. Their gradual decom$osition results in a reduction of volume so that the cover and walls of a closed landfill ma' su)side with time resulting in ru$ture of mechanical )arriers (liners, etc.% and see$age of corrosive solutions into the groundwater or ad5acent surface waters. "lso, an' organic material such as $a$ers (cellulose% and food?$lant wastes that is )uried in a landfill continues to decom$ose anaero)icall' (i.e., in the a)sence of o('gen% with time and $roduce methane gas which is a greenhouse gas (DBD% that is a)out 29 times more $otent than car)on dio(ide. ,uring the active life of a landfill, some of this gas ma' )e collected and used* after the landfill closure, an' methane gas generated is emitted to the atmos$here. Bowever, this $a$er?$lastics com$osite material has a Eheating valueE that is nearl' the same as some =.6. coals. Therefore, it can )e used as an alternative fuel to fossil fuels for generating electricit'. 0n fact, it is used as such in @aste3to3&nerg' $lants in enlightened communities in the =.6. and man' other develo$ed countries. Fearl' 1GH of the =.6. >6@ is $rocessed to recover energ'. The remaining class of materials are food and $lant wastes. This is what is called the EwetE stream of >6@. This material cannot )e rec'cled and if com)usted has a ver' low heating value. Bowever, the 1wet2 stream decom$oses easil' aero)icall' (i.e., in the $resence of o('gen% to $roduce a com$ost $roduct that can )e used as a soil conditioner% or anaero)icall', in a )ioreactor, to $roduce methane gas and a com$ost $roduct.

sing the Eco-indicators 99 in evaluating waste disposal routes

@hen using the &co344 indicators to evaluate waste $rocessing and dis$osal o$tions, careful consideration must )e given to their $ro$erties and to the waste $rocessing method that is the most a$$ro$riate. @iith regard to $roducts that consist mainl' of $a$er or glass, it is reasona)le to assume that a large fraction of households will remove these materials from the waste stream and dis$ose of them into se$arate rec'cla)le streams. .or e(am$le, the F8C Bureau of Rec'cling (,e$artment of 6anitation% has )een a)le to rec'cle over 29H of the total >6@ stream, in the form of $a$er, glass, and $lastics. Bowever, $roducts that consist of mi(ed materials cannot )e sorted to se$arate streams manuall'. "s noted a)ove, such materials need to )e su)5ected to $h'sical $rocessing?sorting )' mechanical methods and then rec'cled, or com)usted to $roduce energ', or in the last resort landfilled. The &i344 method has calculated scenarios for the rec'cling, com)ustion, or landfill dis$osal of $roducts< I *ousehold waste. 0n an average household, a num)er of materials such as glass, $a$er and com$osta)le waste are collected and rec'cled se$aratel' once the decision has )een ta+en to dis$ose of a $roduct. The rest is $ut in the dust)in and is thus routed to the munici$al waste collection s'stem. The household waste scenario is )ased on the waste handling in an average household in &uro$e. I "unicipal waste. The munici$al waste scenario, is modeled after the average $rocessing of waste in &uro$e. 0t is assumed in this that a certain $ro$ortion is landfilled and the rest is com)usted. The environmental im$act of trans$ort of wastes is also included. + Com(ustion. This scenario assumes that com)ustion is carried out in an average 6wiss @aste3to3 &nerg' $lant e-ui$$ed with an average ('ear 2999% gas cleaning s'stem.. " $ro$ortion of the steel and aluminum is also reclaimed and rec'cled from the incinerator slag. 0n addition, energ' is generated and su$$lied to the grid as electricit'. The 6wiss $erformance of @T& $lants does not re$resent the average for &uro$e )ut it is e($ected that this will change graduall' in the coming 'ears.

Com)ustion of wastes generates electricit' and thus decreases the amount of coal or oil that need to )e mined for that $ur$ose. I Landfill disposal. /andfill dis$osal is also )ased on modern 6wiss landfills ('ear 2999% e-ui$$ed with good water )arriers and leachate $urification s'stems, so that relativel' few harmful su)stances can esca$e to groundwater sources. I &ec%cling. Rec'cling $rocesses have a certain environmental im$act, li+e all other industrial activities, )ut the' also result in the $roduction of useful $roducts. These $roducts decrease the amount of minerals or forest $roducts that need to )e used and therefore re$resent an environmental gain. The &i344 ta)ulation $resents )oth the environmental load as the environmental gain. Bowever, these two items can differ considera)l' from case to case, de$ending on the $urit' of the in$ut materials, -ualit' of the out$ut materials, and other factors s$ecific to each case. Therefore, &i344 suggests that their waste indicators re$resent a rather ideal and thus o$timistic situation. 0n some of the term $a$ers in this course we will attem$t to refine these num)ers for =.6. conditions. &i34J waste data have )een determined for most im$ortant $lastics, metals and $ac+aging materials. The' do not include $rocesses for treating construction materials and chemicals. Construction (other than wood and $lastics that can )e com)usted% can )e reused for road or foundation )uilding, in $lace of stone aggregate in concrete, or as landfill cover. Chemicall' inert materials, such as construction de)ris (e(ce$ting wood% and )ottom ash from @T& $lants, have no other environmental im$act than that the' occu$' an area in a landfill. &i344 $rovides a general figure $er landfill volume used. This value is valid under the assum$tion that the ultimate height of the landfill is 19 meters. .or shallower landfills, this figure is $ro$ortionall' higher (e.g. dou)le the 193m figure for a J3m landfill%. The dis$osal of chemicals $resent a more com$le( situation and &i344 does not $rovide an' values e(ce$t for the dis$osal of refrigerants. ,egative figures for waste processing @hen the waste $rocessing results in a useful )'3$roduct that can )e rec'cled or reused, the reclaimed materials and energ' values re$resent an environmental $rofit. Therefore the net value of a dis$osal $rocess can )e a negative num)er. .or e(am$le the environmental im$act of $rocessing of 1 +g of scra$ iron is e-ual to the im$act of the scra$ smelting $rocess minus the im$act of the $rocess that $roduces the same amount of iron from iron ore.

Eco-indicator 99 flows eet of options for disposing Municipal Solid !astes "MS!#$ %ption of separation of wet and dry strea&s at source and of co&posting t e wet strea& are not s own$ ' better ter& for (ncineration is !aste-to-Energy "!)E# or Co&bustion and Energy Generation "CEG#$

-nventor% of the processes

The standard &co3indicators 44 have )een )ased on the energ' data)ase develo$ed )' &6=3 &TB in KLrich M&6= 144GN. "lso, data from the 6imaPro /C" software tool (see www.$re.nl we) address% have )een used. 0n the inventor' of such data it is ver' im$ortant to use a consistent methodolog' concerning items li+e< 6'stem )oundaries (what is to )e included in anal'sis%. "llocation (how to deal with industrial $rocesses that $roduce more than one out$ut%. Regional as$ects (0e344 uses ,utch, 6wiss or average &uro$ean data%. Deneral data -ualit' issues. " )rief descri$tion of such these issues follows. "lso, &co344 recommends that that users of their methodolog' do not mi( their data)ase with indicators that have )een develo$ed )' other methodologies.

ncertainties
Two t'$es of uncertainties are noted in the methodolog' that is used to calculate the indicators< =ncertainties a)out the correctness of the models used. ,ata uncertainties. The first t'$e includes value choices li+e the choice of the time $eriod of to )e used in the damage model, or whether to include a $articular effect when there is not as 'et sufficient scientific $roof of its environmental im$act . The data uncertainties refer to difficulties in measuring or $redicting effects. This t'$e of uncertainties is relativel' eas' to deal with and can )e e($ressed as a range, or a standard deviation from the re$orted value. ncertainties a(out the correctness of the model These uncertainties are ver' difficult to e($ress -uantitativel'. 0n de)ates a)out the seriousness of environmental effects o$inions are usuall' ver' diverse, even when the evidence is overwhelming (e.g. the glo)al warming effect%. This is due to differences in economic interest, +nowledge level, or fundamental differences in attitude (e.g. anthro$ocentric vs )iocentric views of the &arth%. 6ome $eo$le would argue that long3term effects are ver' im$ortant, while others )elieve that in the long3term new wa's will )e found to solve the environmental $ro)lems of future generations. 6uch differing $ers$ectives are also $resent in the economic s'stem. .or e(am$le, man' $eo$le )elieve that the mone' the' earn is due onl' to their hard wor+ and not at all to the societ' in which the' have thrived* therefore, there can )e no societal claim to a fraction of their income in the form of ta(es. The develo$ers of &co3indicator 44 were also confronted with model choices that are de$endent on such different $ers$ectives. To sim$lif' matters, the' used three 1archet'$al2 $ers$ectives that are re$resentative of the $rinci$al $ers$ectives in $u)lic with res$ect to the environmental s'stem< The three .archet%pes/ in Eco-indicators 99 T%pe Bierarchist (0% Time perspective Balance )etween short and long term short term A(ilit% to manage Pro$er $olic' can avoid man' $ro)lems Technolog' can avoid man' &e0uired level of evidence 0nclusion is )ased on consensus 0nclude onl' $roven effects

0ndividualist (0%

&galitarian (&%

long term

$ro)lems Pro)lems can lead to catastro$h'

0nclude all $ossi)le effects

The &i344 1"rchet'$es2 were ta+en from the Cultural Theor' framewor+ (Thom$son 1449 and Bofstetter 144!%, and are fre-uentl' used in social science. This theor' does not im$l' that there are 5ust three t'$es of $eo$le* the three archet'$es are conce$tual models that most $eo$le use to some degree in their dail' life (e.g. an egalitarian in $u)lic life ma' ver' well )e a hierarchist at home%. The &co3indicator 44 methodolog' $resented here is )ased on the Bierarchist (B% t'$e that is considered )' &co344 to )e the default $ers$ective . Bowever, the full &co344 /C" software $rovides data for the other two t'$es so that /C" modelers can assess the influence of the other two t'$es on the result of the /C". !ata uncertainties &(am$les of data uncertainties are< uncertaint' in the e($ected num)er of cancer cases when a grou$ of $eo$le are e($osed to a certain su)stance* uncertaint' of the concentration of a certain contaminant in the sediments of a har)or* uncertaint' of the im$act of this contaminant on the various ecos'stems in the har)or. The &co344 1>ethodolog' Re$ort2 descri)es the data uncertainties for nearl' all re$orted human health effects and for most ecos'stem effects.. Bowever, the degree of uncertaint' in the acidification, eutro$hication and resources data is not availa)le as 'et. 0n considering uncertainties, it is im$ortant to distinguish )etween the a)solute and relative uncertainties. The latter denotes uncertainties in the differences (etween indicators. The relative uncertaint' is ver' im$ortant when the /C" is a$$lied in com$arisons of material or design o$tions* than+full', the relative uncertaint' is usuall' smaller than the a)solute uncertaint'. This is )ecause these uncertainties are correlated (e.g. in com$aring material " to material B% and tend to com$ensate each other. .or e(am$le, let us assume that $roduct design " uses 1 +g of $ol'eth'lene and design B 1.2 +g* if the source of $ol'eth'lene is the same for the two cases, although there ma' )e some uncertaint' in the a)solute value of the environmental im$act of $ol'eth'lene, it is safe to assume that its use in design B will have an im$act that is 29H higher than in design ". Cn the other hand, if $roduct design B uses wood rather than $ol'eth'lene, the uncertainties can )e ver' significant, as the $rocesses and the most im$ortant emissions and resources are ver' different. " flaw in the damage model for e(traction of oils to $roduce $ol'eth'lene is not com$ensated )' a similar flaw in the $roduction $rocess of wood. 6imilarl', a flaw in the model for land3use ($roduction forest% is not com$ensated )' the flaw in the model for a refiner', as the amount of land used $er +g of oil is low. "ccordingl', &co344 recommends that when entirel' different materials or $rocesses are used, one must allow for a large error margin )efore choosing a $articular o$tion. "s a ver' $rovisional and general measure, &i344 recommends the following guidelines in /C" com$arisons< a% ,etermine the most im$ortant $rocesses ($rocesses with the highest im$act contri)utions% )% ,etermine if these $rocesses are e($ected to have similar or dissimilar raw materials, o$erating conditions, and emissions. c% 0f the dominant $rocesses are considered to )e -uite similar, the difference )etween the &co3 indicator scores should )e greater than 19 to J9H (u$ to the discretion of the /C" anal'st% in order to warrant selection of the lower im$act o$tion. d% 0f the dominant $rocesses are considered to )e dissimilar or entirel' different, the &co3 indicator scores should differ )' more than 199H )efore a relia)le conclusion can )e drawn.

)teps to follow in using the Eco-indicators s%stem for LCA

&sta)lish the $ur$ose of the &co3indicator calculation. ,efine where the life c'cle )egins and ends.

&($ress materials, energ' and $rocesses -uantitativel' .ill in the &co3indicator form ,raw conclusions from the information on the form. &cco344 recommends that a 1rough2 calculation is carried out first. This ensures that 'ou do not waste too much time with details. Step 1: Establish the purpose of the Eco-indicator calculation I ,escri)e the $roduct or $roduct com$onent that will )e anal':ed. I ,ecide whether this is an anal'sis of a s$ecific $roduct is or a com$arison amongst several $roducts. I ,efine the level of re-uired accurac' of the anal'sis. "s an e(am$le of how a com$arison can )e sim$lified, if the same $rocess is involved in $roduct " and $roduct B, it need not )e included in the anal'sis. Step 2: Define the life cycle I ,raw u$ a schematic overview of the $roduct7s life c'cle, including feed materials, $roduction, use, and waste $rocessing. "s an e(am$le, the sim$lified life c'cle of a coffee machine for domestic use is shown )elow in the form of a $rocess flow sheet.

)implified process diagram of the life c%cle of a coffee machine 1Eco-99' Step 3: Quantify materials and processes I ,etermine the most im$ortant functional unit . I Ouantif' all relevant $rocesses from the $rocess tree. I >a+e assum$tions for an' missing data. 6ince all details of a $roduct life c'cle ma' not )e +nown, it ma' )e necessar' to ma+e reasona)le estimates of the missing elements or assume them to )e negligi)le* generall', it is )etter to err on an estimate, and im$rove on it later when )etter information )ecomes availa)le than to ignore something that ma' later )e found to have overriding im$ortance. Examples of functional unit The $ur$ose of the coffee machine is to ma+e coffee and +ee$ it hot. The following are therefore chosen for the functional unit< all the $roducts and $rocesses needed for the $rovision of coffee for a household for a certain $eriod. " certain $eriod then has to )e s$ecified (e.g., five 'ears% and the average coffee consum$tion $er household estimated (e.g., ca$acit' of J cu$s of coffee twice

a da' and +ee$ing it hot for half an hour after )rewing%. The num)er of filters ( GJ9% and the energ' consum$tion can then )e calculated on the )asis of this assum$tion. Two o$tions ma' )e considered, a hot $late under the coffee $ot or a thermall' insulated $ot. "s another e(am$le, in com$aring landfilling to com$osting of solid wastes, the functional unit would )e one ton of material to )e treated. 0n com$aring sources of energ', the functional unit would )e 1 Poule or 1 +@h. Step 4: Fillin the Eco-!! form I The $rocesses and amounts of materials involved are noted on the form. I The a$$ro$riate &co3indicator values are o)tained from the &30 lists and are entered on the form. I The num)er of Points are calculated )' multi$l'ing the amounts )' the indicator values and the $roducts are summed u$ to 'ield the resultant &co344 value. &i344 has develo$ed a sim$le form to )e used in this t'$e of /C" anal'sis. @hen an indicator for a $articular material or $rocess is not availa)le, the following ste$s are suggested )' &i344< I Consider whether the missing indicator would ma+e a significant contri)ution to the total environmental im$act of the $roduct?$rocess under anal'sis. 0t is generall' )etter to tr' to estimate than to omit a certain com$onent of the life c'cle. I 6u)stitute a +nown indicator for the un+nown one. .or e(am$le, if 'ou e(amine the 0e344 ta)les of indicators, 'ou will see that indicator values for $lastics are close to each other. Cn this )asis, 'ou ma' )e a)le to estimate the &co3indicator value for a 1missing2 $lastic that is within this range. I "s+ an /C" s$ecialist to calculate a new indicator value or consult one of the software $ac+ages that have )een develo$ed for this $ur$ose. Step ": #nterpretation of results of analysis "suggested by Eco-99# I .ormulate $reliminar' conclusions on )asis of results of anal'sis. I &(amine the effect of changes in assum$tions and in uncertaint' elements on results (sensitivit' anal'sis%. I "mend conclusions on )asis of sensitivit' anal'sis. I Review initial goals of life c'cle anal'sis and determine whether the' have )een met or what more need to )e done. 0n drafting 'our conclusions on the )asis of the results o)tained, discuss which $rocesses and $hases in the life c'cle were found to )e the most im$ortant and which alternative had the lowest score. "lso, discuss fran+l' the assum$tions 'ou have made and the effect that uncertainties in the data ma' have had on the results o)tained and the conclusions reached. 0f 'ou feel that a definite conclusion cannot )e reached with the information at hand, state so clearl', it is useful to +now what we do not +now. " general word of advice< The more radical a result of an anal'sis ma' seem to )e, with relation to $revalent thin+ing in the scientific?technical communit', the more 'ou need to ensure that 'ou have ta+en all factors into consideration and that the 1facts2 'ou have used are chec+ed and rechec+ed.

E2amples of application
E2ample 3. )imple anal%sis of a coffee machine " design team is designing a new coffee machine for domestic use, ta+ing into full consideration the associated environmental as$ects. The' start )' an anal'sis of the current model. Step 1: Establish the purpose of the Eco-indicator calculation The $ur$ose of the calculation is to esta)lish $riorities, i.e., 1where can the designer )est start to achieve the greatest $ossi)le environmental im$rovementQ2 Therefore, the $ur$ose is not to com$are two coffee machines. Rough calculations and sim$lifications are $ermissi)le at this stage. Step 2: Define the life cycle

The 1$rocess diagram2 of a coffee machine was shown earlier. 0t is a sim$lified model of a coffee machine (e.g. it does not include the ca)le that connects it to a wall $lug% which shows onl' the $ol'st'rene housing, the glass coffee $ot, the steel hot $late and an aluminum riser tu)e. The white )loc+s in the figure )elow are not included in the anal'sis. The consum$tion of coffee and water have )een omitted )ecause the' are common to all coffee machines. "lso, the $ac+aging materials are not under stud' at this stage.

Si&plified process diagra& of t e life cycle of a coffee &ac ine s owing a&ounts of &aterials and energy used in t e do&inant "s aded# process steps "(-e 99# Step 3: Quantify materials and processes The amounts of materials and energ' used in the life c'cle of the coffee machine can )e derived from the design s$ecifications or, for an e(isting machine, )' disassem)ling and weighing the com$onents. "n assum$tion of the fre-uenc' of use is needed for the re-uired amount of electricit' and the num)er of filters. 0n this e(am$le, it is assumed that the machine is used twice a da' for five 'ears at half ca$acit' (J cu$s%. 0t is further assumed that the coffee is +e$t hot for half an hour after it is read'. Fe(t, it is easil' calculated that GJ9 filters will )e needed with a total weight of R. +ilograms. "s a first a$$ro(imation, the consum$tion of electricit' is determined )' multi$l'ing the time ta+en to )rew the coffee )' the rated $ower of the machine (the Cuisinart of 'our instructor is rated at 1999 +@%. .or a non3insulated coffee $ot, the energ' consum$tion for +ee$ing the coffee hot can )e estimated )' measuring the current3time relationshi$ of an e(isting machine. Consumer )ehavior at the dis$osal stage will de$end on the rec'cling s'stem at a $articular geogra$hic area. 0n this case it is not reasona)le to assume that the machine will )e dismantled and dis$osed of se$aratel' in different metal?$lastic collection s'stems )' the consumer. 0t is therefore assumed that the machine will )e $ut in the F8C 1)lac+2 )ag and $rocessed as munici$al waste. The glass $ot ma' )e dis$osed in the F8C rec'cling 1)lue2 )ag. .or this reason it is not necessar' to include a se$arate glass rec'cling stage in the calculation (see the sam$le form%. 0n F8C, the R. +g of $a$er filters will end u$ in the )lac+ )ag and go to a landfill. 0n communities that collect the 1wet2 stream se$aratel', the coffee filters will end u$ in the com$osting $lant., along with other organic waste. Step 4: Fill in the form The form can now )e filled in for each $hase in the life c'cle and the relevant &co3indicator values can )e recorded. Be careful with the units of measurement of each -uantit', a$$les should not )e added to oranges. The score is then calculated for each $rocess and recorded in the 1result2 column.

"s mentioned earlier, the &co3indicator 44 list ma' not include as 'et all of the re-uired $rocesses and assum$tions need to )e made for the missing data. 0n this e(am$le, this involves a num)er of treatment $rocesses and waste $rocesses. The following assum$tions are necessar'< I The indicator values for stam$ing and forming of steel are low. Therefore, the $rocessing of the metal in the coffee machine can )e disregarded. I There are no data for the glass forming of the coffee $ot. Bowever, an estimate of the amount of energ' can )e made (in this case S >P% )ased on the melting $oint, the s$ecific heat and an assumed thermal efficienc' of a glass furnace (of course, for more accurate value of energ' usage 'ou can search the glassma+ing industr' literature%. I There is no indicator value for the com$osting com$onent of the dis$osal $rocess. Two a$$ro(imations are $ossi)le< 3 0gnore the $ossi)ilit' of com$osting and assume that all the $a$er ends u$ in the munici$al waste $rocessing s'stem. 3 "ssume that com$osting has a negligi)le im$act and can thus )e omitted. 0n this e(am$le it was assumed that all the $a$er ends u$ in the munici$al waste $rocessing s'stem.

E2ample of Ei-99 form with data for various processes in life c%cle of coffee machine

Step ": #nterpretation of the results The results on the form show that the use $hase has the greatest im$act. The num)er of $oints is man' times higher than the totals for the $roduction and waste $hases. Therefore the design team for a new machine should assign highest $riorit' to lower energ' consum$tion. Reducing $a$er consum$tion )' using a re3usa)le metal screen is a clear second $riorit'. @ith regard to materials use, the highest $riorit' is redesign of the $ol'st'rene housing. $erification The effect of assum$tions made in this case is negligi)le, a$art from the assum$tion regarding use (and the service life%. The measured electricit' consum$tion is reasona)l' relia)le, )ut the assum$tion that coffee will )e made twice a da' for five 'ears and +e$t hot for half an hour is not

)ased on an' concrete data. Bowever, the results show that even if the machine is used onl' once a wee+, the conclusion that energ' consum$tion is $redominant will not )e affected. The indicator values relating to the assum$tion for the dis$osal of aluminum and $a$er do not give rise to an' other conclusions. &ven with accurate waste figures, the contri)ution of the waste $hase will remain onl' a fraction of the indicator for the use $hase. #mpro%ements Cn the )asis of the a)ove evaluation, the design team ma' consider develo$ing a coffee machine with a thermos 5ug instead of a hot $late. 0n addition, the coffee machine could )e fitted with a $ermanent filter in $lace of one3time use $a$er filters. These design alternatives can, of course, )e calculated in the same wa' with the &co3indicators 44.

Si&plified process diagra& of t e life cycle of a coffee &ac ine wit size of eac block representing t e respecti*e en*iron&ental i&pact "Ecco-99#
+o&e e,ercise- ) e instructor.s Cuisinart coffee &aker was found to brew fi*e cups of coffee in / &inutes fro& a cold start (t t en s uts off auto&atically$ (t is e0uipped wit a t er&os 1ug t at doubles t e a&ount of plastic &aterial used to &ake t e coffee &aker discussed abo*e$ 'lso, it uses a &etallic screen filter instead of paper filters2 it take s one liter of water to was t is screen after use$ (f bot &ac ines are used once a day for a period of fi*e years, calculate t eir respecti*e Eco-indicator *alues o*er t at period$

E2ample 4. Anal%sis of a comple2 product .or $roducts that consist of several com$onents, the &i344 form can )e filled for each com$onent or 1su)3assem)l'2. 0n the same wa' as is done for engineering drawings (structural, electrical circuits, etc.%. The &i34J form is used for each su)3assem)l' and the total scores of all su)3assem)lies are carried over to the main form which can also include the 1use2 $hase of the life c'cle of the $roduct. The following figure illustrates the a$$lication of this method in the evaluation of a refrigerator.

Su&&ing up t e results of t e analysis of t e sub-asse&blies of a refrigerator The ta(les shown (elow show the $oint evaluation of various materials and processes 1Ecoindicators 99'

&eferences to Eco-indicators 99 "ethodolog%

Cam$)ell 144!N Cam$)ell, C.P.* " Duide to ,etermining the @orld7s &ndowement and ,e$letion of Cil, >arch 1, 144!, Petroland Consultants. see also www.hu))ert$ea+.com? cam$)ell? guide.htm MCha$man 14! N Cha$man, P...* Ro)erts, .. (14! %< >etal Resources and &nerg'. Butterworths >onogra$hs in >aterials M&6= 144GN .risch+necht R. (final editor%, =. Bollens, 6. Bosshart, >. Ciot, /. Ciseri, D. ,o+a, R. Bischier, ". >artin (&TB KLrich%, R. ,ones, =. Dantner (P60 Villigen%, 144G. 3koin*entare *on Energiesyste&en, Grundlagen f4r den 5kologisc en 6ergleic *on Energiesyste&en und den Einbezug *on Energiesyste&en in 3kobilanzen f4r die Sc wei:, rd &dition, Dru$$e &nergie 3 6toffe 3 =mwelt, &TB KLrich, 6e+tion Dan:heitliche 6'stemanal'sen, P60 Villigen MDoed+oo$ 144J31N Doed+oo$ >.P.* ,e &co3indicator 4J, eindra$$ort* FCB ra$$ort 4J1S, 5uli 144J, 06BF 493R21 93RR3S. MDoed+oo$ 144J32N Doed+oo$ >.P.* ,emmers, >.* Collignon, >.* ,e &co3indicator 4J Bandleiding voor ontwer$ers, eindra$$ort* FCB ra$$ort 4J19, 5uli 144J, 06BF 493R21 93R!32. MDoed+oo$ 1444N Doed+oo$, >.P.* 6$riensma, R.6.* The &co3indicator 44, >ethodolog' re$ort, " damage oriented /C0" >ethod* VRC> Re$ort 3333333, ,en Baag, 1444 MBei5ungs 1442N Bei5ungs R. (final editor% et al* >ilieugerichte levensc'clusanal'ses van $roducten, handleiding en achtergronden, FCB ra$$ort 42J en 42JS* /eiden* 1442* 0n o$dracht van het Fationaal Cnder:oe+$rogramma Berge)rui+ van afvalstoffen (FCB%, in samenwer+ing met C>/, TFC en BTD. MBofstetter 144!N Bofstetter, P. (144!%< Pers$ectives in /ife C'cle 0m$act "ssessment* " 6tructured "$$roach to Com)ine >odels of the Technos$here, &cos$here and Values$here. , Uluwers "cademic Pu)lishers, 144!, 0nfo< www.w+a$.nl?)oo+.htm?9R42 3! RR3V. MUWllner 1444N UWllner, T.* /ife3C'cle 0m$act "ssessment for /and =se. &ffect "ssessment Ta+ing the "ttri)ute Biodiversit' into "ccount., su)mitted for the Pournal of Cleaner Production. "$ril 1444 M>ettier 1444N >ettier T. < ,er Vergleich von 6chut:guetern 3 "usgewaehlte Resultate einer Panel3 Befragung, in< Bofstetter P., >ettier T., Tiet5e C. (eds.%, "nsaet:e :um Vergleich von =mweltschaeden, Fach)ear)eitung des 4. ,is+ussionsforums Ce+o)ilan:en vom S. ,e:em)er 144!, &TB Kuerich%. M>Lller3@en+ 144!N >Lller3@en+, R. (144!31%< ,e$letion of ")iotic Resources @eighted on the Base of EVirtualE 0m$acts of /ower Drade ,e$osits in .uture. 0@X ,is+ussions)eitrag Fr. JR, =niversitYt 6t. Dallen, >arch 144!, 06BF 349GJ923JR39 MThom$son 1449N Thom$son >,, &llis R., @ildavs+' ".* Cultural Theor', @estview Print Boulder 1449