Cha pte r

O ne:

Po lit ic a l

Con ce pts

Co nc ep ts as t er m s or id e as , br ief l y def in e d. C o nc e p ti o ns as br o ad er i nt erp re ta t io ns or u n der s t an d i ngs of a c onc e pt . P ol i t ic s as t he ac ti v i t y b y wh i c h gr o ups reac h b i nd i n g c o l l ec t i v e d ec is i o ns thr o ug h a tt em pt in g to r ec o nc i l e d if f ere nc es am on g t h ei r m em bers . P ol i t ic s as th e p ur s u it of th e i nt er es ts of th e c om m unit y o r of gr ou ps wit h i n it . G o v ernm en t a s a n ins ti t ut i on f or m ak in g an d e nf orc in g c o l lec t i v e dec is i ons - t he au t hor i ta t i ve al l oc at i o n of v al u es . M ore nar ro wl y, th e to p p o li t ic a l t ier wi t h i n s uc h ins t it ut i o ns . G o v ern a nc e as t he a c ti v i t y, pr oc es s or qu a l it y of g o v er ni n g, a tas k i n wh ic h go v er nm ent m a y n o t p l a y a l e ad i n g r o le , as wi th r e gu l at i o n of th e in t er n e t. Mo re bro a d l y, we c a n s p e a k of i nt er n a ti o n al go v er n anc e b ut no t i nt er na t io n a l go v er nm ent . T he p o l it ic al s ys t em : a ll i nt er ac t i ons a nd org a n i za t io ns ( n o t j us t g o v er nm e nt) thr o ug h wh ic h c ol l ec t i v e d ec is io ns ar e reac h e d an d e nf or c e d. Ho b bes s c as e f or g o v er nm e nt : it of f ers s ec ur i t y ag a i ns t e ac h ot h er as we l l as f rom ex ter n a l at ta c k . A d va nt a g es of c om par is o n: le ar n in g ab o ut o th er g o v er nm e nts , im pr o v i ng o ur c l as s if ic a t io ns of po l i tic s , t es ti n g h yp o th es es a n d g i v in g s om e po te n ti a l f or pre d ic t i o n a nd c o n tr o l . G o v ernm en ts as l i be r a l d em oc r at ic or au t hor i tar i a n, i nc l u d in g c om pet it i v e au t hor i tar i a n ( h ybr id r eg im e). T ota l it ar i an s t at es tr e at e d as a f orm of au t hor i tar i a nis m . P o wer as th e c a p ac it y t o pr o duc e i nt en d ed ef f ec ts . L uk es s t hr e e f ac es : f irs t, wh o pr e v a ils wh e n pr ef er enc es c onf l ic t ? S ec on d, wh o c o ntr o ls wh e th er pref ere nc es ar e ex p r es s e d ? T h ir d, wh o s ha p es pr ef er enc es ? T he d if f ic ul t y of work i n g wi t h th e t hir d f ac e. A ut ho ri t y as t h e r i g h t to r u le , ex is t i n g wh e n s u b or di n at es ac k no wl e d ge t he ri gh t of s up er i or s to g i v e or der s . Ex er te d thr o ug h tr a di t io n , c h a r is m a or a s e t of ru les . A l e g it im at e s ys tem of g o v er nm ent as on e bas e d o n au t hor i t y; t h os e s ubj ec t to th e s ta te r ec o gn i ze its r i g ht t o m ak e c o ll ec ti v e dec is i ons . Le g it im ac y as t h e c onc e pt of a ut h or it y ap p l ie d to th e s ys tem of go v er nm en t as a wh o l e.

T he s t at e as a p o li t ic a l c om m uni t y f orm ed by a t err it or ia l l y - d ef i ne d po p u la t io n s u bj ec t t o o n e g o ve rnm en t. T he c a p ac i t y of t h e s t at e t o re g u la t e t he l eg i tim at e us e of f orc e wi t h i n its bo u nd ar i es . S o ver e i gn t y as th e hi g he s t f orm of au t hor i t y wi t h in th e s t at e , c om bi n in g i nt ern a l s o ver e i gn t y ( l a w - m ak in g po wer ) an d ex t er na l s o ver e i gn t y ( in t ern at i o na l rec o g n it i on of th e s o v ere i g n's j uris d ic t i o n). T he c it i ze n as a f u l l m em ber of a s ta te , pos s es s i ng r i gh ts an d du t ies . T he d is t i nc t i on b et we e n res id e nc e a nd c it i ze n s h i p , no t l e as t i n a n a g e of m igra ti o n. T he n at i o n as a pe op l e in h ab i t in g a def in e d t err i tor y s eek i n g p o l it ic a l ex pr es s i on of i ts s h ar ed i de n ti t y, us ua l l y thr o ug h a c l aim t o s t a te h oo d. Na t io ns as anc i e nt , prim or d ia l e nt i ti es vs . na t io ns as m o der n , s t at e - d e p en d en t lo ya l t i es th e l at t er to b e pr ef err ed . Na t io n al is m as t h e d o c tri n e t h at na t i ons are en t it l ed to s e lf - de t erm in at i on . Na t io n- s t a tes an d m u lt i na t io n al s t a tes . Id e ol o g y as a s ys t em of id e as of f er i ng an d pr o pa g at i ng a n ex p l ic it a c c o u nt of hum an na t ure , t he s t at e a nd s oc i e t y, a n d th e p os it i o n of t he i n d i v id u a l. T h e d ec a y of id e ol o g y. Lef t a n d r i gh t as op p os e d p os it i ons o n an i d eo l og ic a l d im ens i o n. T h e l ef t f av o urs e qu a l it y, h um an ri g hts an d ref orm . T he r i gh t s up p orts tr a d it i on , au t hor i t y a n d t h e n at i on . Co nt e nt of th es e c on t ai n ers v ar i e s o v er t im e.

Cha pte r T w o: T he Sta te T he em erg enc e of t h e m od er n s t a te in E uro p e f rom th e m ed ie v a l g o ver n anc e pro v i d ed b y t he C h ur c h, m o narc h y a nd th e n o b i li t y. T h e s t i m ulus pro v i d ed b y m ili ta r y i nn o v at i on a n d th e R ef orm at io n to t h is proc es s . T h e i de a of s o ver e i gn t y, an d its tam i ng thr o ug h c on tr ac t an d c ons e nt , as th e t he o ret ic a l c ou n ter p art to t h es e d e v e lo pm en ts . T he ex p a ns io n of th e W es tern s t at e i n th e n i n et ee n th a nd t we nt i et h c e nt ur i es un t i l a b ou t 1 9 75 : c e ntr a l i za t i on , s ta n dar d i za t i on , m o no p o l y of f orc e, m obi l i za t io n of s oc i e t y, d if f e re nt i at i o n of s ta te f r om s oc ie t y, e x pa ns i on of p ub l ic f unc t i o ns a n d gro wt h in t he s t at e s bu d ge t a nd em pl o ym e nt . T he res tr uc t ur i ng of t he W es tern s ta t e, f ol l o wi ng t he o i l c r is e s of t he 1 9 70s a nd

th e ir t hre a t t o e v e r gr o wi n g p u b lic ex p e nd i tu re . T he s ti m ulus pr o v i d ed b y c ons er v at i v e l e ad er s , Re a ga n an d T hatc he r. Bu t ex pa n s i on of r e g u la t io n m eans r es tr uc t ur i n g s h o u ld be d is t i ng u is h e d f r om r et r e at . P ub l ic s pe n d in g a s a s har e of G DP r em ai ns h ig h a nd i n s om e l i ber a l d em oc rac ies gro ws s t i l l. T he ex pa ns i on of s ec ur it y and s ur ve i l l anc e b y go v er nm ents af t er 9/ 1 1. T he br o a de n in g of th e s ec uri t y l an ds c ap e t o c o ver , f or ex am pl e, tr ans na t io n a l c r im e a n d c i v i l em er ge nc i es . Fi na nc i a l c r is es c a ll f or t h p u bl ic res p o ns e. T h e n ot i o n of h um an s ec ur it y. T he d i vers i t y of s t a te s : m os t s t at es ar e s m all (p o pu l at i on les s th a n 10 m il l i on) , wi t h m an y is l a nd m ic r os t at es . D i v ers it y of i nc om e: d e v e lo p ed /d e v e lo p i ng d is t i nc t i on n o l o n ger ad e qu a te . W e us e O E CD s f ou r - f o ld d is t i nc t i on : h i gh i nc om e, u p pe r m id d l e, l o wer m id d le an d l o w i nc om e. Mos t s t a tes ar e pos t - c o lo n ia l . T he f our wa v es of d ec o lo n i za t i on : in La t in Am eric a i n th e n in e t ee n th c e nt ur y; in E uro p e a nd t h e M i d d le Eas t af t er t he f irs t war ; i n Af r ic a , As i a a nd t he Car i b be a n af t er t h e s e c on d wor l d war; i n th e f orm er S o vi e t U n io n af t er t h e c o ll a ps e of c o m m unis m . T he c har ac ter is t ic p os t - c o l on i a l p at t er n : s of t bu t a ut ho ri t ar i a n s ta t es or c om pet i t i ve au t hor i tar i a n h yb r i d s wi th l im it e d pe n etr at i o n thr o ug h s o c i et y. G o v ern a nc e be yo n d t h e s t at e. H o w i nt erg o v er nm ent a l or g an i za t i o ns in tru d e on t he s t at e : t h e s eg m ente d s ta t e. T h e E uro p ea n Un i on : a un i qu e b le n d of i nt erg o v er nm ent a l a nd tr ans n at i on a l e lem en ts .

Mo d er n r epr es e nt a ti v e d em oc rac y: i nd ir ec t r a th er t h an d irec t d em oc rac y. Com pa t ib i l it y wi t h l arg e s ta tes a nd m ark et ec o nom i es . Sc hum pe t er s vi e w of rep res e nt at i v e d em o c rac y as m er e l y e lec t in g a g o ver nm en t t o r eac h dec is i ons . L ib er a l dem oc r ac y: f ea tu res inc l ud e c ons t it ut i o na l l im its o n go v er nm ent , en tr enc h ed r i gh ts of i nd i v i du a l c i t i z e ns an d a r o le f or ex p er t i s e. R eas o ns f or i ts em erg enc e. T h e US A as a n ex am p le . T he im pac t of m oder ni za t i o n on dem oc r ac y. I n p art i c u lar , th e s tr o ng c orr el a ti o n b et we e n af f l ue nc e a nd dem oc r ac y. Li ps et s r eas o ns f or t he l i nk . In d ia as an ex c e pt i o n. T hree wa v es of d em oc rat i za t i o n: th e f irs t wa v e, e. g. UK , U S A. T he s ec on d wa v e, e. g. I nd i a, J a p an . T h e t h ir d wa v e, e .g . S pa i n, P or tu g al . T h e e ntr e nc h e d p os it i o n of p ar ti es i n t h e s ec o n d a nd t h ir d wa v es . Dem oc ra t i za t io n : l ib er a l i za t io n, tra ns it i o n, c o ns ol i d at i on an d d ee p en i n g. S pa i n as an ex am pl e. T he p os s i b i l it y of c ons o l id a ti o n wi t h ou t de e pe n i ng .

Cha pte r Fou r: Au tho r ita r ian R ul e

Cha pte r T hr ee: D e mo cr a c y A d em oc ra tic wor l d: f or th e f ir s t tim e i n h is t or y, m os t p eo p l e no w live in dem oc r ac i es . Dem oc rac y c ha l l e ng e d b y ex p er t is e or gu ar d ia ns h ip . T h e r i s e of r e g ul a tor y au t hor i t y ( e .g . c e ntr a l b a nk s ) a nd th e dec l i n in g s c o p e of e l e c te d a ut h or it y. Dir ec t d em oc r ac y as th e de n i al of a n y s ep ar at i o n b e t wee n s ta te a n d s oc i et y. A nc i e nt A th e ns as t h e pr im e ex am pl e, c rea t in g a n u nr es o l v ab l e c o nf l ic t wi th th e c on t em por a r y r e al i t ies of rep res e nt at i on . P ar t ic i pa tor y d em oc r ac y of t h e 19 6 0s .

Ma n y l a rg e s t at es b y p o p ul a ti o n s t i l l ru le d b y a ut h or it ar ia n m ea ns , i nc l u d in g Ch i na , Ir an , V i et n am . Co ntr o l of o i l. Ch ar ac t er is t ic s of a u th or it ar ia n r ul e : l ac k of a s uc c es s i o n p roc e d ur e, l im it ed i ns t it u ti o na l i za t i o n, p o l it ic a l v u ln er ab i l it y of l ea d ers , c orr u pt i on , ec o n om ic s ta g na t io n. Re l i a nc e on th e m il i tar y, pa tr on a ge a n d t h e m ed ia t o m ai nt a i n t h e ru li n g e l it e. P ers o n a l des p ots b as ed o n t he le a der s ret i nu e . Als o k n o wn as s u l ta n is m . Em erg es i n a f e w s m all , ag ric u lt ur a l pos t- c ol o n ia l c o u nt ri es . Ex am pl es i nc l u de T ruj i l l o in th e Dom i nic a n Re p ub l ic a nd D u v a l ier i n H ai t i. Pr im ari l y a Co l d W ar ph en om en on . Mo n arc hi es a nd t h e r u l in g f am il i es in t he G u lf S t at es . B as is i n t rad i t io n a l au th or it y an d p at ro n ag e. S e lec t i on of m onarc h b y c l an c ou nc i l, no t pr im og en i tu re , en h anc es c om pe te nc e. S ur v i v ed t he Ar ab Sp ri n g b ut n ot wi th o ut c h a l le n ge . P ol i t ic a l pa rt i es as t he r u l in g f orc e in c om m unis t s t at e s . Un e q u a l l ed pe n etr at i o n of s oc i et y. G o v er ne d a b ou t on e i n t hr e e of t h e wo rl ds p o pu l at i o n a t th e ir p eak . Ec on om i c p l an n i ng as a de a d- en d o nc e i nd us tr i al i za t i o n ac hi e v e d. Co nt i n ue d ec o nom ic g ro wt h s us t ai ns Ch i na a n d V ie tn am as pur e l y nom i na l c om m unis t s ta t es , f u e l l ed in p art b y

c orr up t io n. F e w n on - c om m unis t c as es of par t y ru l e: Si n g ap or e i s o n e. In a r u li n g pr es id e nc y, t h e of f ic e, n ot j us t t he oc c u pa n t, is t he d om in a nt f orc e. Rar e; U zb ek is t a n as a n ex am pl e. M il i ta r y go v er nm ent a s a c om m on f orm of r u le i n p os t - c o l o ni a l c o u ntr i es , 1 96 0s 80s . S u per p o wer s u pp or t as a f ac t or enc o ur ag i ng c o u ps . T he l im ite d im pac t of m an y s uc h g o v er n m ents . T h e re tr ea t of th e ge n er a ls b ut t he d if f ic u l t le g ac y f or m an y p os t - m i l it ar y r eg im es . Ru l e b y r e l ig i o us l ea d er s as a r ar e f o rm of a ut h or it ar i an r u l e. Ir an as a c ons er v at i v e, c on tes t e d th e oc r ac y. Com pe t it i v e au th or i ta r i an r e g im es as a h ybr i d. E l ec t i ons as f r ee r at h er t h an f a ir . Fe w l im its o n pr es i d e nt s a ut hor i t y af ter e lec t io n. Ru l e of l a w l im it ed in s ens i t i ve are as . T he pr es i de nt as f at h er - f i gu re , em bod yi n g an d pr ot ec ti n g th e n at i on i n a da n ge ro us wo r ld . No t j us t tr a ns i t io n a l.

l im ite d a p pl ic a bi l i t y t o un d ers t a nd i ng v ar ia t io ns b et we e n c o un tr ies . T he i nt erp re t i ve (c o ns tr uc ti v is t) ap pr o ac h : s e ek s t o un d ers t a nd r at h er th a n ex p l ai n p o li t ic a l ac t i on b y gr as pi n g its m ean i n g f or t he a c tor . T h e ap pr oac h reg ar ds c onc e pts s u c h a s c l as s an d s t a te as s oc i al l y c ons tr uc t ed r a th er th a n as ex is t i ng in a r ea l wor ld .

Cha pte r Fiv e: T h eo re t ic al Ap p ro ac he s

T heor e tic a l a ppr o ac h es as wa ys of un d ers t a nd i n g t ha t s tr uc tu r e th e qu es ti o ns we as k a nd c ons tr a i n t he ans we rs we c an o b ta i n . T he i ns ti t ut i on a l a p pr oac h : f oc us o n t he org a n i za t io ns of g o ve r nm ent . Em ph as is on r o les or pos i ti o n s , n ot i nd i v i du a ls . Ins t it ut i ons c r ea t e i nt er es ts a n d a h ous e v i e w. T h ei r c ap ac it y f or l on g - term , c red i b l e c om m itm ents . T he ap pr o ac h c an be s t at ic a nd c a n i gn or e t h e s oc i a l c on t ex t : wh o b e n ef i ts f r om the i ns t it u ti o na l s e t - up ? T he be h a v io ur a l ap pr oac h : t h e r oo t is m an, n ot i ns ti t ut i ons . F oc us on i nd i v i du a ls a n d th e ir a tt it u des , es p ec i a l l y am ong the pu b l i c . Se ar c h f or ge n er al i za t i o ns , t es t e d ag a i ns t qu a nt i ta t i ve d at a . Us ef ul f i nd i n gs (i nc l u d in g c om par at i v e) bu t a po l it ic a l an d s t at ic . T he s tr uc tur a l ap pr o a c h: em ph as i zes t h e obj ec t i v e r el a ti o ns h i p s be t we en s oc ia l ac t ors i nc lu d i ng s oc i al c las s es . T h e s ta te as t h e d r i v er o f p o l it ic al c h an g e. Str uc tur e as un d e r l yi ng s oc ia l f orc es , op er at i n g at a d e ep er le v e l t h an i ns t it u ti o ns or in d i v id ua ls . I ts m eth o d is c om par at i v e h is t or y. T he ra t io n al c h o ic e a ppr o ac h: s eek s to ex p l a in a nd pr ed ic t p o l it ic a l o utc om es as th e pro d uc t of s tr at e gic i n ter ac ti o n be t we en i n di v i d ua ls p ur s u i n g t he ir o wn go a ls . As if a p p lic a t i on t o l ar g er u n i ts e. g. p art i es . A u n i v er s a l m od e l wi t h