6

Vera-Cruz, A. y G. Dutrnit (2005), Spillovers ro! "#Cs t$rou%$ &or'er !o(ility an) te*$nolo%i*al an) !ana%erial *apa(ilities o S"+s in "e,i*o-, .nnovation, "ana%e!ent, /oli*y an) /ra*ti*e, spe*ial issue, Vol 0 (2-1).

Spillovers ro! "#Cs t$rou%$ &or'er !o(ility an) te*$nolo%i*al an) !ana%erial *apa(ilities o S"+s in "e,i*o
Alexandre O. Vera-Cruz
Master and Doctorate in Economic and Management of Technological Change, Uni ersidad Aut!noma Metro"olitana-#ochimilco, eracruz$correo.xoc.uam.mx

%a&riela Dutr'nit
Master and Doctorate in Economic and Management of Technological Change, Uni ersidad Aut!noma Metro"olitana-#ochimilco, dutrenit$correo.xoc.uam.mx

ABSTRACT
At international le el, there is a consensus that the Multinational Cor"orations (M)Cs* can function as a channel of diffusion of +no,ledge and technolog-, and the- can contri&ute to accelerate the economical de elo"ment "rocesses in the countries ,here the- are esta&lished, &- means of technological s"illo er effects. The s"illo ers are &eneficial if the- are ca"tured &- the firms lin+ed to the M)Cs. .uman ca"ital s"illo ers are associated ,ith the continuous training of the em"lo-ees &- the M)Cs and the mo&ilit- of these em"lo-ees to,ard domestic firms. These s"illo ers, can contri&ute to the de elo"ment of technological and managerial ca"a&ilities of the local firms, ,hich in turn increase their a&sor"ti e ca"acit-, This "a"er ex"lores the s"illo ers from the M)Cs through ,or+er mo&ilit- to,ard small and mediumsized enter"rises (/MEs*, and discusses to ,hat extend the firms created &- former em"lo-ees of the M)Cs ha e larger technological and managerial ca"a&ilities than those ,hose o,ners did not ha e this "re ious ex"erience. This "a"er focuses on the case of the M)Cs that o"erate under the ma0uila regime in Mexico and on the machine sho"s industr-, a sector of /MEs that is a su""lier of these M)Cs. The source of information is a census carried out &et,een August and Octo&er 1221 to this sector in a Mexican localit-. A classification of the firms in terms of their technological and managerial ca"a&ilities is carried out &- means of t,o multi ariate statistical methods, the multi"le corres"ondence anal-sis and the hierarchical cluster anal-sis. After,ards, a com"arison of the ca"a&ilities of these firms in each cluster is carried out differentiating &et,een those firms ,hose o,ners ha e had "re ious ,or+ ex"erience in the ma0uila industr- from those that ha e not. The e idence sho,s an heterogeneous sector, grou"ed in 3 different clusters according to the technological and managerial ca"a&ilities of the firms. A "ositi e relationshi" ,as found &et,een the "re ious ex"erience of the /MEs4 o,ners at the ma0uilas, and &et,een the s"ecific 5o& "osition occu"ied &- the firms4 o,ners, and the technological and managerial ca"a&ilities of the firms. The o,ners that occu"ied managerial 5o& "ositions seem to ha e ac0uired technical and managerial s+ills that are re0uired for their ne, firms.

1. Introduction1
At international le el, there is a consensus that the multinational cor"orations (M)Cs* can function as a channel of diffusion of +no,ledge and technolog-, and the- can contri&ute to accelerate the economical de elo"ment "rocesses in the countries ,here the- ha e su&sidiaries, &- means of technological s"illo er effects. The technological s"illo ers are transfers of +no,ledge and s+ills (technical and organizational* from these M)Cs that result in an im"ro ement in the "erformance of "artner, su""lier or com"etitor firms, as ,ell as of the other agents the- interact ,ith. The- are considered to &e an economical externalit-, the- are not generated oluntaril- and ha e no cost for those "rofiting from them. The- are &eneficial if the- are ca"tured &- the domestic firms and institutions lin+ed to the M)Cs4 su&sidiaries.

7n Mexico, foreign direct in estment in the manufacturing industr- carried out &M)Cs under the ma0uila regime "la-s an im"ortant role. 1 The 8,122 "lants o"erating in 1221 contri&uted ,ith 9:.3; of the total ex"orts in the Mexican econom-, and ,ith <6.3; of their ex"orts gro,th &et,een 6==8 and 1221. The- generate 82; of the manufacturing em"lo-ment, and in addition each direct 5o& generates 8 indirect 5o&s. The e olution of the ma0uila industr- in Mexico ,as not limited to a gro,th in the num&er of esta&lishments and em"lo-ees, o er time, a large num&er of the ma0uilas ha e modified the nature of their "roducti e and technological acti ities to,ard more com"lex "roducts and acti ities of higher technological content. 8 7n addition, there ,as a gradual increase in the num&er of Mexican "ersonnel that occu"- technical and managerial "ositions, as ,ell as an accelerated gro,th and rene,al of the technical s+ills of the ,or+ers.

This "a"er is "art of a research "ro5ect >Technological learning and industrial u"grading. The generation of inno ation ca"a&ilities in the ma0uila industr- in Mexico?, CO@EABA@AC/OBUAM (Cro-ecto CO)ACDT nEm. 8<=9F-s*. Ge than+ Hos' @uis %il and Ha ier MartInez for com"uting assistance, and t,o anon-mous referees for their thoughtful and extensi e comments. 1 The ma0uila regime ,as esta&lished in Mexico in the mid-6=32s, and its "ur"ose ,as to attract foreign in estment, mainl- from the U/, to &e esta&lished in the &order of Mexico and the United /tates. This area ,as considered a free trade zone, and the assem&l- "lants ,ere named ma0uilas. 8 Carrillo and .ualde (6==F*, @ara (1222*, Dutr'nit and Vera-Cruz (1221*.

8 E en though most of the com"onents ha e &een "ro ided &- foreign su""liers located a&road, from the mid 6=:2s some foreign su""liers of different in"uts &egan to esta&lish facilities in Mexico, and a fe, domestic Mexican su""liers of indirect materials (machining, "ac+aging, "roduction related ser ices, etc.* ,ere de elo"ed. Most of these are small and medium-sized enter"rises (/MEs*. This is ho, local net,or+s &et,een ma0uilas and domestic firms &egan to de elo" in some localities.9< 7n s"ite of the fact that the ma0uila industr- has had a limited im"act in the de elo"ment of the local /MEs su""liers, its "resence in Mexico has generated some technological s"illo er effects. .uman ca"ital s"illo ers can &e o&ser ed, associated ,ith the continuous training of the em"lo-ees and the mo&ilit- of these em"lo-ees to,ard domestic firms, in "articular there are se eral cases of former em"lo-ees ,ho created their o,n firms.3 Other t-"es of technological s"illo ers can &e o&ser ed, such as some cases of &ac+,ard lin+ages ,ith local su""liers. There is gro,ing literature on technological s"illo ers. Three &odies of literature can &e identified. The first &od- focuses on the relationshi" &et,een foreign direct in estment, technological s"illo ers and "roducti it-J "ositi e results of an increase in the foreign direct in estment on the "roducti it- of domestic firms suggests the existence of intrasectorial s"illo ers.F A second &od- of literature assumes the existence of s"illo ers and focuses on the a&sor"ti e ca"acities of external +no,ledge &- the domestic firms. : A third &od- of literature focuses on intersectorial s"illo ers and anal-ses the conditions that stimulate the technological s"illo ers through lin+ages &et,een M)Cs and /MEs in de elo"ing countries. These lin+ages can facilitate the direct transfer of "roduction "rocesses, o"eration s-stems and managerial s+ills.= 7n these three &odies of literature, most of the ,or+s sho, that s"illo ers occur, &ut the- do not ex"lain the mechanisms of
9

Arias (1229*, Uri!stegui (1221*, /am"edro (1228*, Carrillo (1226* and Dutr'nit (1228* "ro ide e idence of these lin+ages. < 7n 0uantitati e terms, although the "ercentage of domestic in"uts in the total in"uts of the ma0uila industr- increased from 6.:; in 6==6 to 8.9; in 1221, this "ercentage is still rather insignificant. 3 Contreras and Kenne- (1221* and Contreras and .ualde (1229* anal-ze the 5o& tra5ectories of M)Cs4 managers and technicians, some of ,hich create their o,n firms. F Llomstrom and /5oholm, 6===J Ait+en and .arrison, 6===J Llomstrom and Ko++o, 6==: and 1228J %Mrg and /tro&l, 1226J %irma, %reena,a- and Ga+elin, 1226J Chung and Michel, 1221J Nomo Murillo, 1228. : %irma, 1221J %irma and %Mrg, 1221J @im, 1222J an den Losch, an Gi5+ and Vol&erda, 1228J Oahra and %eorge (1222*J Pue edo, 1228J Marin and Lell, 1228J %iuliani, 1228, te Velde, 1221J Dutr'nit and MartInez, 1229. = te Velde, 1221J Alten&urg, 1222J Nodriguez-Clare, 6==3J Lelder&os, Ca"annelli and Au+ao, 1226J U)CTAD, 1222a and 1222&J Al&alade5o, 1226J Che, and Deung, 1226.

9 +no,ledge transmission, and there is a limited anal-sis on the effect of these s"illo ers on the accumulation of technological and managerial ca"a&ilities of the local firms. Coming from a different "ers"ecti e, there is a ast amount of literature on learning and technological ca"a&ilit- accumulation of firms ,hich has ex"lored dee"l- the "rocess of accumulation of technological ca"a&ilities,62 &ut has not a""roached the issue of the effects of technological s"illo ers on these ca"a&ilities. The aim of this "a"er is to ex"lore the s"illo ers from the M)Cs through ,or+er mo&ilit- to,ards /MEs, and discuss to ,hat extend the firms created &- former em"lo-ees ha e larger technological and managerial ca"a&ilities than the firms ,hose o,ners did not ha e this "rior ex"erience. The M)Cs anal-zed o"erate under the ma0uila regime in Mexico. The central h-"othesis of this "a"er is that firms created &former em"lo-ees of the ma0uila industr- should ha e more technological and managerial ca"a&ilities than other firms ,ithout this characteristicJ the "re ious ex"erience allo,ed these o,ners to ac0uire technical and managerial +no,ledge, then ,hen the- lea e the ma0uilas and create their o,n firms the- can transfer +no,ledge into these firms, ,hich ,ould then contri&ute to de elo" technological and managerial ca"a&ilities. Thus, this "a"er focuses on discussing ho, one t-"e of human ca"ital s"illo er arose and ,hat its nature is, and on e aluating the technological and managerial ca"a&ilities of the /MEs, rather than 0uantif-ing the increases in "roducti it- and the im"ro ement in the le els of com"etiti eness of these local domestic firms. 7n doing so, this "a"er dra,s largel- on the literature on a&sor"ti e ca"acities and on the lin+ages &et,een M)Cs and /MEs, &ut introduces ideas coming from the literature on learning and technological ca"a&ilities accumulation. This ,or+ is &ased on em"irical e idence gathered in a Mexican localit- in the &order ,ith the United /tates, Ciudad Huarez, ,hich concentrates a""roximatel- :; of the "lants and 12; of the em"lo-ment of the ma0uila industr- in Mexico. 7t is focused on a sector of /MEs that is a su""lier of the ma0uilas, the machine sho" sector. The source of information is a census carried out &et,een August and Octo&er 1221 &- the authors
10

Katz, 6=:3 and 6=:FJ @all, 6=:F and 6==1J Lell and Ca itt, 6==<J Kim and )elson, 1222.

< in the machine sho" industr-, formed &- 6<: firms, called also machine sho"s. 66 A classification of the firms in terms of their technological and managerial ca"a&ilities ,ill &e carried out &- means of t,o multi ariate statistical methods, the multi"le corres"ondence anal-sis (MCA* and the hierarchical cluster anal-sis (.CA*. After,ards, a com"arison of the ca"a&ilities of the firms in each cluster ,ill &e carried out, differentiating &et,een those firms ,hose o,ners ha e had "re ious ,or+ ex"erience in the ma0uila industr- from those that ha e not. The content of this ,or+ is as follo,sQ /ection 1 discusses the literature on technological s"illo ers, a&sor"ti e ca"acities, lin+ages &et,een M)Cs and /MEs, and learning and technological ca"a&ilities, it also "resents the conce"tual frame,or+ used in this "a"erJ /ection 8 descri&es the research designs and methodsJ /ection 9 classifies the firms in terms of their technological and managerial ca"a&ilities and anal-ses the results, /ection < discusses the s"illo ers through ,or+er mo&ilit- and their relationshi" ,ith that classification, differentiating &et,een firms ,hose o,ners did or did not ha e "re ious ex"erience in the ma0uila industr-J finall- /ection 3 "resents the final reflections.

2. Spillovers and technological and managerial capabilities

The esta&lishment of the M)Cs in de elo"ing countries im"lies &oth a flo, of ca"ital into the countr-, and the transfer of intangi&le assets (such as e0ui"ment technolog-, tacit +no,ledge, managerial "ractices, organizational designs, managerial ision, and access to mar+ets*. Then, the "resence of the M)Cs is a factor that stimulates the existence of technological s"illo ers to,ards the domestic firms, "articularl- those lin+ed ,ith them, in the locations ,here the- are esta&lished. (Alten&urg, 1222* As referred to &efore, the technological s"illo ers are transfers of +no,ledge and s+ills (technical and organizational* from M)Cs that result in an im"ro ement in the "erformance of "artner, su""lier or com"etitor firms, as ,ell as of the other agents that interact ,ith them. The- are considered to &e an economical externalit-, the- are not generated
66

oluntaril- and ha e no cost for those "rofiting from them. .o,e er,

The methodolog- used to carr- out the census and the main results o&tained are "resented in Dutr'nit, Vera-Cruz and %il (1228* and Vera-Cruz, Dutr'nit and %il (1228*.

3 &enefiting from the s"illo ers is not automatic, the literature "oints out a num&er of conditions that ma+e it easier to &enefit from them, such asQ the industrial context as ,ell as that of "u&lic "olicies (LlomstrMm and Ko++o, 6==:*, a certain le el of human ca"ital ()oor&a+sh, Caloni and Doussef, 1226*, and a certain a&sor"ti e ca"acit- of the domestic firms (Kinoshita, 1226*. There are three recognized channels through ,hich s"illo ers from M)Cs occurQ (i* demonstration effects, i.e. domestic firms learn &- imitating the M)CsJ (ii* com"etition effects, i.e. domestic firms ha e to im"ro e their "erformance ,hen facing the com"etition from more "roducti e M)CsJ and (iii* ,or+er mo&ilit- (human ca"ital s"illo ers*, i.e ,or+ers trained in M)Cs4 su&sidiaries lea e these su&sidiaries and decide to 5oin domestic firms. (%Mrg and /tro&l, 1221J Alores, Aontoura and %uerra, 1222J %Mrg and %reena,a-, 1221, Ait+en and .arrison, 6===J LlomstrMm and Ko++o, 6==:J %irma and %reena,a-, 1222J Chung, 1226*. /ome authors identif- a fourth channelQ the lin+ages &et,een M)Cs4 su&sidiaries and domestic firms as clients or su""liers. (Alores, Aontoura and %uerra, 1222J Croenca, Aontoura and Cres"o, 1226J Che, and Deung, 1226J Kinoshita, 6==:* 7n relation to the human ca"ital s"illo ers, ,hich are anal-zed in this "a"er, it has &een documented that the M)Cs contri&ute to increase the human ca"ital stoc+ in a countror localit- &- im"ro ing the a&ilities of the ,or+ers at the su&sidiaries. T,o main mechanisms of human ca"ital s"illo er ha e &een identifiedQ (i* &- hiring ,or+ers that ,ere highl- trained &- the M)Cs to ,or+ at the domestic firmsJ and (ii* through the creation of firms &- the ,or+ers trained at the M)Cs. (LlomstrMm and Ko++o, 1228J Chung, Mitchell and Deung 1221J %Mrg and /tro&l, 1221* These ,or+ers are used to ,or+ing ,ith more ad anced e0ui"ment, managerial techni0ues and "roduction "rocesses, and ,ith higher 0ualit- re0uirements than those used in domestic firms. Although the- are not trained in all areas, &- ,or+ing in a more demanding en ironment the- de elo" certain s+ills, ideas, tacit +no,ledge and a&ilities. Ghen these ,or+ers lea e the M)Cs and 5oin domestic firms, the- are a&le to use the technical and managerial +no,ledge ac0uired. (Alten&urg, 1222J %Mrg and %reena,a-, 1221J Ait+en and .arrison, 6===*

F Aside from this shared understanding a&out the technological s"illo ers, three &odies of literature can &e identified. The first &od- anal-ses the effects that an increase in the foreign direct in estment has on the "roducti it- of domestic firmsJ "ositi e results on "roducti it- suggest the existence of "roducti it- s"illo ers. (Ait+en and .arrison, 6===J Llomstrom and Ko++o, 6==: and 1228J %Mrg and /tro&l, 1226J %irma, %reena,a- and Ga+elin, 1226J Chung, Mitchell and Deung, 1221J Nomo Murillo, 1228*. These ,or+s focus on intrasectorial s"illo ers, or in other ,ords, s"illo ers from foreign direct in estment in a s"ecific sector to,ard domestic firms in the same sector. Most of the ,or+s do not differentiate ,here the +no,ledge of the M)Cs is generated, ho,e er, recent ,or+s "oint out that some su&sidiaries locall- generate technological de elo"ments and transfer this +no,ledge to domestic firms. 7n this sense, the s"illo ers from foreign direct in estment rel- as much on the local accumulation of technological ca"a&ilities &- the su&sidiaries, as the- do on the international technologtransfer from the head0uarters. (Marin and Lell, 1228J Molero, 1228* A second &od- of literature assumes the existence of s"illo ers, and since &enefiting from them is not automatic, it focuses on the a&sor"ti e ca"acities of external +no,ledge &- the domestic firms. (%irma, 1221J %irma and %Mrg, 1221J @im, 1222J an den Losch, an Gi5+ and Vol&erda, 1228J Pue edo, 1228J Marin and Lell, 1228J %iuliani, 1228, te Velde, 1221J Dutr'nit and MartInez, 1229*. These ,or+s dra, on the definition of a&sor"ti e ca"acities &- Cohen and @e inthal (6==2*Q >the ca"acit- to identif-, assimilate and ex"loit external sources of +no,ledge?. This literature has anal-zed different determinants of the a&sor"ti e ca"acit-Q the NRD acti ities (@im, 1222J an den Losch, an Gi5+ and Vol&erda, 1228*, the training and learning of "ersonnel, the organizational characteristics, and the ca"ital em&odied technolog-. (Marin and Lell, 1228J %iuliani, 1228J Dutr'nit and MartInez, 1229*. A third &od- of literature focuses on intersectoral s"illo ers, and it anal-ses the conditions that stimulate the technological s"illo ers through lin+ages &et,een M)Cs and domestic firms, "articularl- /MEs, in de elo"ing countries. 61 (te Velde, 1221J Alten&urg, 1222J Nodriguez-Clare, 6==3J Lelder&os, Ca"annelli and Au+ao, 1226J
61

The intersectorial s"illo ers occur ,hen the domestic firms ha e some +ind of clientBsu""lier relationshi" ,ith the M)Cs. (Chung, et.al. 1221J Kinoshita, 1222J Chudno s+-, @!"ez and Nossi, 1228J Marin and Lell, 1228* The literature focuses on the su""lier relationshi", that is &ac+,ard lin+ages. (/marz-n+a, 1228J te Velde, 1221*.

: U)CTAD, 1222a and 1222&J Al&alade5o, 1226J Che, and Deung, 1226*. The direct contact &et,een domestic firms and M)Cs seems to &e an im"ortant factor for the transfer of technolog- (te Velde, 1221*, thus it can &e said that the M)Cs-/MEs lin+ages ,ould facilitate the direct transfer of "roduction "rocesses, o"eration s-stems and managerial s+ills. The intensit- of the M)Cs-/MEs lin+ages, together ,ith the a&ilit- of the host countries and their firms to ex"loit these lin+ages for domestic industrial de elo"ment, ar- &roadl-, de"ending on ho, three grou"s of factors articulateQ (i* the cor"orati e strateg- of the M)CsJ (ii* the existence of /MEs ,ith the "otential to reach the standards that the M)Cs demand from their su""liers, and (iii* the local context, together ,ith the existence and efficienc- of "u&lic "olicies to "romote &oth the lin+ages &et,een the M)Cs and the domestic firms, and the s"illo ers of +no,ledge from the first to the later. (Alten&urg, 1222*. 7n these three &odies of literature on technological s"illo ers, most of the ,or+s sho, that s"illo ers occur, &ut the- do not gi e a detailed ex"lanation of the channels or s"ecific mechanisms of +no,ledge transmission.68 7n addition, there is a limited anal-sis on the relationshi" &et,een the s"illo ers and the technological and managerial ca"a&ilities of the domestic firms, "articularl- at local le el. Coming from another "ers"ecti e, there is a gro,ing literature that focuses on the "rocess through ,hich firms in de elo"ing countries ac0uire technological ca"a&ilities. This literature studies the learning "rocesses in ol ed in the gradual &uild-u" of a minimum &asis of technological +no,ledge that ena&les them to carr- out inno ation acti ities. @earning is defined as a "rocess that in ol es re"etition and ex"erimentation, ,hich ena&les to carr- out tas+s in a &etter and faster ,a-, and to identif- ne, "roduction o""ortunities. 7t is the "rocess through ,hich firms create +no,ledge and ac0uire technological ca"a&ilities. These learning "rocesses ha e a gradual, cumulati e, s-stemic, localized and idios-ncratic character. (Katz, 6=:3 and 6=:FJ @all, 6=:F and 6==1J Lell and Ca itt, 6==<J Kim and )elson, 1222*
68

7n this direction, the ,or+ of %Mrg and /tro&l (1221* stands out. 7t studies the mo&ilit- of ,or+ers as a "ath for technological s"illo ers, s"eciall- the esta&lishment of firms &- former ,or+ers of the M)Cs. This ,or+ &elongs to the first &od- of literature, it measures the technological s"illo er through the relationshi" &et,een the total "roducti it- of the factors of the ne, firms, and the ex"erience and training of the o,ners at the M)Cs. A "ositi e relationshi" suggests the existence of technological s"illo ers.

This literature has focused on technological learning and the accumulation of technological +no,ledge, rather than on the interaction &et,een technological, organizational and managerial factors. Det, recent ,or+s suggest that some organizationalBmanagerial factors affect the creation of technological +no,ledge, such us the firm4s culture, the leadershi" and the management of +no,ledge (see Kim, 6==FJ Dutr'nit, 1222J Vera-Cruz, 1222 and 1229J Aigueiredo, 1226 and 1221*. .o,e er, this literature has "aid little attention to the technological s"illo ers of the M)Cs, and their relationshi" ,ith the technological ca"a&ilities of the firms. Dra,ing on &oth, the literature on technological s"illo ers and on learning and technological ca"a&ilit- accumulation, this "a"er focuses on ho, the technological s"illo ers arose and ,hat their nature is, in other ,ords it focuses on the "rocesses of s"illo ers rather than on measuring them. These s"illo ers are &eneficial if the- are ca"tured &- the domestic firms. The technological and managerial ca"a&ilities of the firms are im"ortant for de elo"ing a&sor"ti e ca"acities of external +no,ledge. Thus, this "a"er also ex"lores the technological and managerial ca"a&ilities of the /MEs that are su""liers of the M)Cs. /umming u", this "a"er anal-zes the human ca"ital s"illo ers of the ma0uila industrto,ard the /MEs through ,or+er mo&ilit-, "articularl- the case of former em"lo-ees that start a ne, &usiness. This "a"er ex"lores the relationshi" &et,een this human ca"ital s"illo er and the technological and managerial ca"a&ilities of the ne, created /MEs. 7t a""roaches the ca"a&ilities of the firms &- means of indicators of human resources, em&odied technolog-, characteristics of the firm4s o,ner, and other organizational features of the firm. The central h-"othesis of this "a"er is that firms created &- former em"lo-ees of the ma0uila industr- should ha e more technological and managerial ca"a&ilities than other firms ,ithout this characteristicJ the "re ious ex"erience at the ma0uilas allo, the o,ners to ac0uire technical and managerial +no,ledge, thus ,hen the- create their o,n firms this +no,ledge should flo, to,ard these firms and contri&ute to de elo" ca"a&ilities.

62

3. Research design and methods

This section "resents a descri"tion of the data&ase on ,hich this research is &ased on, the statistical methods used to anal-ze the information, and ho, the aria&les ,ere &uilt so as to &e a&le to a""l- these statistical methods.

3.1 Database
The data&ase for this research is &ased on a Machine /ho" Census 1221 carried out &the authors in Ciudad Huarez. This census is a trans ersal cut of the -ear 1226, although for some 0uestions it contains information of "re ious -ears. 7t is ,orth "ointing out that 1226 ,as a difficult -ear for the machine sho"s, &ecause in this -ear there ,as a contraction of the ma0uila industr- due to the deceleration of the American econom-. This caused firms to shut do,n, cut &ac+ on the num&er of em"lo-ees, and reduce ex"enses to that strictl- necessar- to maintain o"eration. 7n this sense, man- of the data o&tained corres"ond to the lo,est "oint of the economic c-cle. 7n the census, 6<: machine sho"s ,ere sur e-ed, of ,hich 699 ans,ered most of the 0uestions. This research is &ased on onl- 68< machine sho"s those that ans,ered all the 0uestions selected.69 The machine sho" sector in Ciudad Huarez is formed &- firms that are a&le to "roduce ,ith "recision le els &et,een 6 and 8, of fi e existing le els in the industr- at international le el. The machine sho"s ha e e0ui"ment ,ith different degrees of modernit- (manual, automatic or C)C*. The mar+et attended in 1226 ,as of a""roximatel- 82 million dollars. The machine sho"s are micro and small firms, 9<; of them ha e 3 em"lo-ees or less, and onl- 62; of the machine sho"s ha e &et,een 82 and F2 em"lo-ees. The largest machine sho" has 662 ,or+ers. The census contains information a&out the technological and managerial ca"a&ilities of the machine sho"s. Negarding the technological ca"a&ilities, ,e selected information on the "rofessional formation of em"lo-ees, their ex"erience ,ith different +inds of "roduction e0ui"ment, their training acti ities, the num&er and t-"e of "roduction
69

7nitiall-, 69 firms did not ans,er the 0uestionnaire and ,ere excluded, another = firms ,ere also excluded &ecause either the- started o"eration in 1221, the 0uestionnaire focused on the -ear 1226, or the- did not ans,er the 0uestions included in this anal-sis. These 18 firms are distri&uted along different machine sho" sizes, therefore this does not affect the results.

66 e0ui"ment, and on the 0ualit- certification "rocesses. Negarding the managerial ca"a&ilities, ,e selected information on the age of the machine sho"s, the "rofessional formation and "re ious ex"erience of the o,ners, the training courses ta+en &- the machine sho"s4 o,ners and the o,nershi" of a sales or "roduction site in El Caso (Texas*.

3.2 Methodology
This section descri&es the statistical methods used to e aluate the technological and managerial ca"a&ilities of the machine sho"s. 7t ,as used the multi"le corres"ondence anal-sis (MCA*6< and the hierarchical cluster anal-sis (.CA*.63 These multi ariate statistical methods ,ere selected &ecause the- allo, us to classif- the machine sho"s according to a gi en num&er of aria&les that reflect their characteristics. Testa (6==3* uses the same methodolog- to carr- out a taxonom- of the chemical sector of Venezuela, and "oints out that in the MCA, >the factorial axes or axes of inertia are the ectors that "oint in the direction of the ne, coordinate axes resultant of a""l-ing the MCA to the data&ase. The criteria for their construction, is to "ro ide the &est "ossi&le fitting, in the sense of re"roducing the existing relationshi"s of the original dataS The factorial coordinates are the alues o&tained &- "ro5ecting the original data, indi iduals and modalities of the aria&les, on a factorial axisS a factor is the set of factorial coordinates, of the indi iduals or the modalities?. 7n general terms, the factors resulting from the MCA are ne, aria&les, this "rocess allo,s a sim"ler anal-sis &reducing the num&er of aria&les. 7n this research, ,e use the MCA as an intermediate ste" to a""l- the .CA, mainl&ecause the MCA onl- gi es one im"ortant factor and, after all, the aim is classification. 7t is ,orth mentioning that a""l-ing the MCA is not a necessar- condition to carr- out the .CA, since this last one can &e used ,hen all the aria&les are 0uantitati e. /ince man- of the aria&les used in this research are 0ualitati e, and those that are 0uantitati e can easil- &e made 0ualitati e, it ,as decided to first a""l- the MCA ,ith

6< 63

Aor a detailed ex"lanation of the MCA see Escofier and Cages (6==2*. 7t ,as used the Gard method for the .CA. Aor a detailed ex"lanation of the com&ined use of these t,o statistical techni0ues see Testa (6==3*, Lenz'cri (6==1*.

61 0ualitati e aria&les, and then a""l- the .CA ,ith the factorial axes (,hich are

0uantitati e*. 7n order to a""roach the technological s"illo ers through ,or+er mo&ilit-, this "a"er differentiates &et,een those machine sho"s ,hose o,ners had "re ious ,or+ ex"erience on the ma0uila industr- from those ,ho did not, and ,ithin the first, according to the s"ecific 5o& "osition at the ma0uilas.

3.3 Construction of variables

Ta&le 6 descri&es the construction of the aria&les that measure the technological and managerial ca"a&ilities of the machine sho"s, and the "re ious ex"erience at the ma0uilas.
Table 1 Construction of variables
VARIABLES VALUE 0 units 3 unit 2 or !ore 0 years 3 to 1 years 6 years or !ore 0 en%ineers /resen*e o en%ineers (.#G) 3 en%ineer 2 or !ore 7rainin% o e!ployees (CA/) /er*enta%e o a)van*e in 2uality *erti i*ation (C+:) #one (0 *ourses) 8o& (3 *ourse) 9i%$ (2 or !ore *ourses) 0; <=0; =0 to 300; #one (0 *ourses) 7rainin% o t$e o&ner (C./) /ro essional or!ation o t$e o&ner (>/:) Site in +l /aso (?+/) @e%innin% o operations (.#?/) /revious e,perien*e at t$e 8o& (3 *ourse) 9i%$ (2 or !ore *ourses) #o pro essional )e%ree /ro essional )e%ree #o 4es 3AA6 an) (e ore 3AA5-2003 4es DESCRIPTOR +C#C0 +C#C3 +C#C2 A+5C#C0 A+5C#C3 A+5C#C2 .#G0 .#G3 .#G2 CA/0 CA/3 CA/2 C+:0 C+:3 C+:2 C./0 C./3 C./2 >/:0 >/:3 ?+/# ?+/S Ant3AA6 3AA5-2003 B+

Technological Capabilities

#u!(er o nu!eri* *ontrol e2uip!ent units (+C#C) 4ears o e,perien*e o t$e te*$ni*ians on nu!eri* *ontrol e2uip!ent (A+5C#C)

Managerial Capabilities

68
Spillovers thro gh !or"er #obilit$
!a2uilas (+) #o ?perator, 7e*$ni*ian or supervisor /ro)u*tion en%ineerin% #+ //"?7S //"./

Co( position at t$e !a2uilas (//") "ana%erial Do( positions //"G

Three t-"es of aria&les ,ere usedQ (i* the >-es? and >no? +ind, ,here >no? means the a&sence of the corres"onding characteristic, and >-es? means that the machine sho" does ha e the characteristicJ (ii* other aria&les are di ided into ran+s, ,here 2 re"resents the lo,est le el (in some cases the a&sence of the characteristic*, 6 a medium le el and 1 the highest le elJ and finall- (iii* the res"onses to some aria&les reflect different 0ualitati e alues.

4. Evaluation of the technological and managerial capabilities of the machine shops

This section anal-ses the results o&tained through the multi"le corres"ondence anal-sis (MCA* and the hierarchical cluster anal-sis (.CA*, resulting in six clusters defined &the technological and managerial ca"a&ilities. These ca"a&ilities are necessar- to &enefit from the technological s"illo ers. 7f the /MEs ac0uire more inno ati e technological and managerial ca"a&ilities, the- ,ill &e a&le to esta&lish relationshi"s of colla&oration and not onl- of de"endence ,ith the ma0uilas, the- ,ill ha e more ca"acit- to a&sor& technical +no,ledge, and the- ,ill &e a&le to e ol e to,ard su""l-ing technologicallmore com"lex "roducts and de elo"ing acti ities of higher added alue, li+e design. The MCA sho,ed one factorial axis ,ith a clear inter"retation, ,hich accounts for 16.<=9; of the aria&ilit- of the total amount of the modalities of the considered aria&les. A second factor adds ne, characteristics and accounts for another 62.FF=; of the aria&ilit-. The other factors did not sho, an- interesting associations ,ith the

69 aria&les. Ta&le 1 sho,s the eigen- alues and the ariance of the first six factors, and the accumulated ariance.
Table 2 Results of the MC Eigen val e 0.1E0 0.3=0 0.3E1 0.31A 0.312 0.335 % variance 23.5A6 30.00A A.00E =.12= 0.A6= E.==6 % acc # late& variance 23.5A6 12.102 62.36= 50.60E 5=.626 E5.10=

'( ') '* '+ ', '-

The num&er of factorial axes used de"ends on ho, each axis can &e inter"reted. The first factorial axis (A6* is defined mainl- &- < aria&les of technological ca"a&ilities, 8 of ,hich sho, a strong association (EC)C, AEPC)C and 7)%*, and the other 1 ,ith less association (CAC and CEN*. 7t is also defined &- 1 aria&les of managerial ca"a&ilities, one ,ith a strong association (C7C*, and another one ,ith ,ea+ association (OEC*. %ra"h 6 sho,s ho, the aria&les are associated ,ith the factorial axis 6. Ge can o&ser e a clear o""osition &et,een the extreme alues of each aria&le, for exam"le, &et,een EC)2 and EC)1, AEPC)C2 and AEPC)C1, 7)%2 and 7)%1, and C7C2 and C7C1. This means that this first factor differentiates &et,een the machine sho"s ,ith these characteristics and the machine sho"s ,ithout them.
Graph 1 Factorial axis 1

6<

A6 is the main factorial axisJ the significance here is that a set of machine sho"s that ha e man- engineers (7)%1* also ha e a lot of e0ui"ment (EC)C1*, the ,or+ers ha e &road ex"erience on numeric control (AEPC)C1*, their o,ners ha e ta+en courses to com"lement their formation (C7C2*, and the- ha e a site in El Caso, Texas (OEC/*. The factorial axis 1 (A1* adds a clear o""osition &et,een the t,o modalities of the "rofessional formation of the o,ner (ACN*, thus differentiating &et,een those machine sho"s ,hose o,ners ha e a "rofessional degree (ACN 3* and those ,hose o,ners are onl- technicians (ACN0*. 7t also differentiates &et,een those machine sho"s that ha e onl- one engineer (7)%3* and those that do not ha e an- at all (7)% 0*. This association reflects that, in the case of man- /MEs, the o,ner is the onl- "erson ,ith a "rofessional degree, and in the machine sho" industr- this is mostl- an engineering degree. %ra"h 1 sho,s ho, these aria&les are associated. The "resence of engineers, "articularl- in this sector, is an im"ortant resource, as it contri&utes to a higher formalization of the "rocesses and thus to the documentation of tacit +no,ledge. 7t also generates local +no,ledge and de elo"s learning ca"a&ilities to &enefit from the lin+ages ,ith clients and institutions. 7f there is onl- one engineer "er machine sho", and if he is the o,ner, he cannot focus onl- mainl- on technical

63 acti ities and must carr- out &oth technical and managerial functions, ,hich ,ea+en the technological ca"a&ilities of the machine sho"s.
Graph 2 Factorial axis 2

/umming u", the MCA sho,s the existence of a grou" of machine sho"s ,ith s+illed and trained human resources, modern e0ui"ment, and "rofessional o,ners that are a,are of the need of ha ing continuous training on managerial issues. To classif- the machine sho"s according to their technological and managerial ca"a&ilities, ,e carried out a .CA. 7n this research ,e decided to use onl- the A6 and A1 factorial axes to carr- out the .CA, since these are the axes ,ith a satisfactorinter"retation. The total ariance ex"lained &- these t,o factors is 81.8F8;, ,hich is a good result that allo,s a clear differentiation of the machine sho"s. %ra"h 8 sho,s the 68< o&ser ations distri&uted in the A6 and A1 factorial axes, and grou"ed into the six clusters, this last grou"ing resulted from the .CA. 7n general, firms located on the right side of A6 ha e higher ca"a&ilities, and firms located on the u""er side of A1 are &etter regarding the formation of the o,ner, that is, the o,ner has a "rofessional formation (ACN 3*. 7n most cases these firms onl- ha e one engineer (7)%3*, ,ho is actuall- the o,ner. Airms on the right side of the factor 6 ha e

6F the highest ca"acities, the- also ha e the characteristic of formation of the o,ner (ACN3*, &ut the influence of factor 1 decreases as ,e mo e to the right.
Graph 3 Clusters plot (Axes F1 an F2!

As ,e relate the factors, ,e can o&ser e that the lo,er-left 0uadrant of gra"h 8 is related ,ith the lo,est alues of all the aria&les, then the firms located in this 0uadrant ha e the least technological and managerial ca"a&ilities. The u""er-left 0uadrant is also related ,ith lo, ca"a&ilities, although the firms higher u" in this 0uadrant ha e a characteristic that distinguishes them, the- ha e at least one engineer (7)% 3*. 7n the to" right 0uadrant the characteristic is ha ing high ca"a&ilities, and "articularl- ha ing o,ners ,ith a "rofessional degree (ACN3*. The lo,er-right 0uadrant is also characterized for ha ing high ca"a&ilities, ,hat stands out is that a good num&er of firms are located on the right side of the 0uadrant, ,hich reflects that the- ha e larger ca"a&ilities than the firms located on the left side of the 0uadrant, ,hich ha e lo, alues in 7)% and ACN.

6: 7t ,as decided to +ee" onl- six different clusters, as each of them re"resents s"ecific characteristics that let us identif- clearl- ,hich as"ects of the technological and managerial ca"a&ilities differ &et,een the machine sho"s.6F The 3 clusters are defined in the follo,ing ,a-Q 6. "l tra itional machine sho"s ,ith er- lo, ca"a&ilities 1. #e$ tra itional machine sho"s ,ith lo, ca"a&ilities 8. %i&hl' e(uippe machine sho"s 9. )*er&ent machine sho"s ,ith "otential <. Mature machine sho"s ,ith high technological ca"a&ilities and dee"l- s+illed o,ners 3. Consoli ate machine sho"s ,ith high technological and managerial ca"a&ilities Ta&le 8 &elo, sums u" the aria&les that descri&e the machine sho" sector in Ciudad Huarez and characterize the 3 clusters identified. Airstl-, ,e can o&ser e an heterogeneit- regarding the technological and managerial ca"a&ilities of the machine sho"s in Ciudad Huarez. This heterogeneit- can &e seen through the relati e im"ortance of the aria&les anal-zed.
Table 3 Su**ari+es the variables of the technolo&ical an *ana&erial capabilities per cluster
CLUSTERS Variables (. Ol& tra&itional #achine shops 16 V+:4 8?B V+:4 8?B V+:4 8?B 8?B V+:4 8?B V+:4 8?B V+:4 8?B V+:4 8?B "+D.G" ). /e! tra&itional #achine shops 3= 8?B 8?B 8?B 8?B 8?B 8?B "+D.G" V+:4 8?B 8?B *. 0ighl$ e1 ippe& #achine shops 23 9.G9 9.G9 8?B "+D.G" "+D.G" "+D.G" V+:4 8?B "+D.G" 9.G9 +. E#ergent #achine shops !ith potential 26 "+D.G" 8?B "+D.G" 8?B "+D.G" 8?B 9.G9 8?B 8?B ,. Mat re #achine shops 3E "+D.G" 9.G9 9.G9 "+D.G" 8?B 9.G9 9.G9 "+D.G" 9.G9 -. Consoli&ate& #achine shops 22 9.G9 9.G9 9.G9 9.G9 9.G9 9.G9 9.G9 9.G9 9.G9

F "a*$ine s$ops EC/C AE2C/C I/3 CAP CER CIP 'PR OEP I/OP

/ourceQ Ta&le A.6 of Annex )oteQ The alues ,ere calculated according to the sector4s a erage.6:
6F 6:

Although ,e tried ,ith < or 9 clusters, di iding them into six clusters ga e the &est results. Aor exam"le, in the sector as a ,hole, CEN has the follo,ing distri&utionQ CEN 0Q :6.<;, CEN3Q 69.6;, CEN2Q 9.9;J thus if a cluster has a &etter distri&ution than the a erage (higher alues for CEN 3 and CEN2*, this cluster has a high alueJ if a cluster has a similar distri&ution of the sector, it has a medium alueJ and if a cluster has a ,orst distri&ution, it has a lo, alueJ if all the firms of a cluster are

6=

A first loo+ at the results sho,s that Cluster 3 stands out for ha ing high alues in most of its aria&les. Cluster < o&tained high alues in a good num&er of aria&les, &ut its main characteristic is that all the o,ners ha e a "rofessional degree. Cluster 9 has medium and lo, alues of the aria&les, &ut the main characteristic is that it is conformed &- ne, machine sho"s, ,hose o,ners ha e a "rofessional degree, mostl- in engineeringJ as a result all the machine sho"s ha e one engineer. Cluster 8 has medium technological and managerial ca"a&ilities, and has t,o distincti e characteristicsQ the machine sho"s are highl- e0ui""ed and their o,ners ha e no "rofessional degree. Cluster 1 has lo, alues in almost all aria&les, and Cluster 6 has the lo,est le el of technological and managerial ca"a&ilities. A more detailed descri"tion of the clusters characteristics is discussed &elo,. Cluster 1, "l tra itional *achine shops $ith ver' lo$ capabilities Cluster 6 re"resents 1<.1 ; of the machine sho"s (the largest cluster* and it is located in the lo,er-left 0uadrant, thus it is the cluster ,ith the lo,est technological and managerial ca"a&ilities. )one of the o,ners has a "rofessional degree (ACN 0*, and these machine sho"s do not ha e other engineers ,ithin their "ersonnel (7)% 0*, thus theha e lo, s+illed human resources in either technical or managerial as"ects. The- do not ha e an- numeric control e0ui"ment (EC)0*, in fact all their e0ui"ment is manual. This cluster is conformed &- the most traditional machine sho"s, man- of ,hich are old. The- "roduce ,ith the lo,est "recision le el of the sector. Their client list includes ma0uilas &ut also neigh&ors that re0uire er- sim"le machining ,or+s. Aor this reason their "roductsBser ices mix is 0uite di ersified. Cluster 2 #e$ tra itional *achine shops $ith lo$ capabilities Cluster 1 re"resents 68.8; of the total machine sho"s of the sector, and is located in the lo,er "art of the u""er-left 0uadrant, ,hich means lo, alues in most aria&les. 7n general the machine sho"s that integrate this cluster ha e lo, technological and managerial ca"a&ilities. .o,e er, this cluster has a medium le el in the aria&le of "rofessional formation of the o,ners (ACN*, &ecause a set of machine sho"s ha e o,ners ,ith a "rofessional degree. Most of these machine sho"s are 0uite ne, as the,ere created in the last decade.
concentrated in the CEN0, then this cluster has a er- lo, alue in that aria&le.

12

Cluster 3 %i&hl' e(uippe *achine shops Cluster 9 re"resents 6<.3; of the total and is located around the factor 6, in the lo,erleft and lo,er-right 0uadrants. This fact means that there is some degree of heterogeneit-, and it has machine sho"s ,ith lo,, medium and high alues of the aria&les that re eal &oth the technological and managerial ca"a&ilities. This cluster has a distri&ution of res"onses in the aria&les that is similar to the sector4s a erage. 7t has lo, s+illed human resources, as can &e seen in the alue for the o,ners4 formation, ,hich re eals that the- are not "rofessionals (ACN 2*, and in the a&sence of engineers (7)%2*. 7n contrast, the distincti e characteristic of this cluster is that it is er- ,ell e0ui""ed (good alues for EC)C*, and e en though the machine sho"s tend to ha e no engineers, their ,or+ers ha e ex"erience on C)C e0ui"ment (high alues for AEPC)C*. 7n addition, the cluster has a high "ro"ortion of mature machine sho"s, ,hich ha e o ercome the ris+ of the first -ear and are 0uite esta&lished in the mar+et.

Cluster - )*er&ent *achine shops $ith potential Cluster 9 accounts for 6F.:; of the total num&er of machine sho"s in the sector, it occu"ies the u""er "arts of the u""er-left and u""er-right 0uadrants. The machine sho"s in the u""er-left 0uadrant ha e lo, alues in technological and managerial ca"a&ilities, ,hereas the machine sho"s in the u""er-right 0uadrant ha e medium and high alues. The main characteristic of this cluster is that all the machine sho"s ha e one engineer (7)%3* and the o,ner has a "rofessional degree (ACN3*, &eing that one engineer in most of the cases. Thus all the machine sho"s ha e 0ualified o,ners. This cluster also has the characteristic that :F.<; of the machine sho"s are ne,. The com&ination of the age of the machine sho"s and the "rofessional degree of their o,ners suggest that the- ha e "otential to e ol e in the future to,ard de elo"ing more ca"a&ilities, that is ,h- this cluster ,as named emergent machine sho"s ,ith "otential.

16 Cluster ., Mature *achine shops $ith hi&h technolo&ical capabilities an eepl' s/ille o$ners Cluster < accounts for 66.= ; of the total num&er of machine sho"s, and it is located in the u""er-right 0uadrant, ,hich gi es this cluster interesting characteristics. 7t has medium alues for the C)C e0ui"ment, the training of the ,or+ers and the o,nershi" of an office in El Caso (EC)C, CAC, OEC*, 6= and high alues in the ,or+ers4 ex"erience on C)C e0ui"ment, the "resence of engineers and the courses ta+en &- the o,ners (AEPC)C, 7)%, C7C*, due to its "osition in the A6. 7t also has a high alue in the "rofessional formation of the o,ner (ACN*, due to its "osition in the A1. Cluster < and Cluster 3 are the onl- ones doing ,ell in the aria&le related to the courses ta+en &the o,ners (C7C*, ,hich means that their o,ners understand the need for ha ing continuous training in managerial tools to run more successfull- their machine sho"s. .o,e er, the machine sho"s of this cluster ha e lo, le els in the aria&le (CEN*, ,hich suggests that the- ha e neglected the im"ortance of the 0ualit- certification "rocess. /e eral machine sho"s of this cluster ha e more than 62 -ears and ha e settled do,n in the mar+et. /umming u", Cluster < is characterized for ha ing high technological ca"a&ilities and 0uite s+illed o,ners. Cluster 0, Consoli ate *achine shops $ith hi&h technolo&ical an *ana&erial capabilities Cluster 3 re"resents 63.8; of the total machine sho"s of the sector, and is located mainl- on the extreme right of the lo,er-right 0uadrant. As descri&ed a&o e, the right "art of the A6 is associated ,ith high alues, and in the case of Cluster 3 this corres"onds to high alues in all the aria&les. 7t has the highest technological and managerial ca"a&ilities of the machine sho"s industr- in Ciudad HuTrez. This cluster ,as the onl- one ,ith high alues for the 0ualit- certification "rocess (CEN* and the "ossession of an office in El Caso (OEC*. This is &ecause more than half of the machine sho"s ha e the 7/O=222 certificate or are in the "rocess of o&taining it, and half "ossess an office in this &ordering locall- of the United /tates. These t,o characteristics, 5oined ,ith a high le el in ta+ing managerial courses &- the o,ners (C7C*, re eal the ision of their o,ners in terms of ha ing more ro&ust and more com"etiti el- aggressi e
6=

The aria&le of training of the ,or+ers (CAC* sho,s im"ortant differences &et,een the clusters. OnlCluster 3 "resented a high alue, ,hile Clusters 9 and < had a medium alue, ,hich suggests that manmachine sho"s did not offer technical training to their "ersonnel in 1226. This result is similar to that o&ser ed &- Che, and Deung (1226* for the case of the machine sho"s sector in /inga"ore, ,here onl9<; of the machine sho"s offered a formal training to their em"lo-ees. %i en the financial restrictions faced &- the /MEs, these machine sho"s do not tend to offer much formal training and their ,or+ers recei e mainl- on 5o& training.

11 machine sho"s in a demanding mar+et. 7n addition, most of the machine sho"s ha e a large ex"erience in the mar+et, and ha e had time to learn and im"ro e se eral of their acti ities. .a ing se eral engineers, the machine sho"s of this cluster are also a,are of the need of im"ro ing the s+ills of the ,or+ers &- means of training acti ities.

5. Spillovers through wor er mobilit!" previous e#perience of the owners at the ma$uilas and the S%Es& technological and managerial capabilities
This section anal-zes the relationshi" &et,een the technological and managerial ca"a&ilities of the machine sho"s and the human ca"ital s"illo ers through ,or+er mo&ilit-, "articularl- through the creation of ne, machine sho"s. This "a"er a""roaches these s"illo ers &- means of t,o that the- occu"ied. As discussed &efore, one im"ortant ia for human ca"ital s"illo ers to occur is through training em"lo-ees, ,ho later on lea e the M)Cs and create their o,n machine sho". F1.3; of the o,ners of the machine sho"s in Ciudad HuTrez ,or+ed at the ma0uila industr-, and 39; of them for more than 3 -ears. At a certain "oint, the- identified a &usiness o""ortunit-, left the ma0uilas and esta&lished their o,n machine sho". At first the- had a Uclosed ca"ti e mar+et4, &ecause the orders ,ere highl- tied to existing lin+ages ,ith the ma0uilas ,here the- used to ,or+. 12 .o,e er, as the num&er of machine sho"s gre, ,ith ne, entrants and the com"etition increased, the de elo"ment of technological and managerial ca"a&ilities &ecame an im"ortant issue for the sur i al of these machine sho"s. These o,ners ,ere ex"osed to modern administrati e models, e0ui"ment, and "roduction "rocesses, and learned s+ills to ,or+ ,ith international standards, ,hich should ha e an im"act on the technological and managerial ca"a&ilities of the machine sho"s created &- them. The high "ercentage of o,ners ,ith "re ious ex"erience re eals a strong relationshi" &et,een the existence of the ma0uilas and the creation and de elo"ment of the machine sho"s sector in this localit-. aria&les that descri&e the "re ious ex"erience of the machine sho"s4 o,ners at the ma0uilas and the s"ecific 5o& "osition

@ara, Arellano and %arcIa (1229* anal-zes the characteristics of the lin+ages &et,een the machine sho"s and the ma0uilas.
12

18 Ta&le 9 de"icts the alues of the aria&les that descri&e the technological and

managerial ca"a&ilities of the machine sho"s grou"ed according to the o,ners4 "re ious ex"erience at the ma0uilas (E*.
Table - Technolo&ical an *ana&erial capabilities of the *achine shops accor in& to the previous experience at the *a(uilas
Variables 9 Machine shops EC/C AE2C/C I/3 CAP CER CIP 'PR OEP I/OP E4perience o5 the o!ner at the #a1 ila /o e4perience 6/E7 10 8?B 8?B "+D.G" 8?B 8?B 8?B "+D.G" "+D.G" 8?B 8ith e4perience 68E7 A= 9.G9 9.G9 9.G9 9.G9 "+D.G" 9.G9 "+D.G" "+D.G" 9.G9

/ourceQ Ta&le A.1 of Annex. )oteQ The alues are calculated according to the sector4s a erage.

This ta&le sho,s that the machine sho"s ,ith "re ious ex"erience at the ma0uilas (GE* ha e higher alues than those machine sho"s ,hose o,ners did not ha e ex"erience ()E*, in almost all the aria&les. This result reinforces the idea that the de elo"ment of technological and managerial ca"a&ilities in firms has a "ositi e relationshi" ,ith the "re ious la&or ex"erience of the o,ner at the ma0uila. The machine sho"s ,hose o,ners did not ha e "re ious ex"erience at the ma0uila ()E* had lo, alues in most of the aria&les, &ut the- had medium alues in the "resence of engineers (7)%* and the "rofessional formation of the o,ner (ACN*. This result corres"onds to the fact that in the context of an im"ortant increase in the demand of the sector, a num&er of ne, firms ,ere created &- engineers ,ithout "re ious ex"erience at the ma0uila. 7n order to carr- out a more rigorous anal-sis of the im"act of the "re ious ex"erience of the o,ner at the ma0uila on the technological and managerial ca"a&ilities of the firms, the s"ecific 5o& "osition of the o,ner ,as anal-zed.

19 Ta&le < "resents the alues of the aria&les of the technological and managerial

ca"a&ilities of the firms in the sector, classified according to the 5o& "osition at the ma0uilas (CCM*.16 Among the firms ,hose o,ners had "re ious ex"erience (GE*, ,e ex"ected those ,hose o,ners occu"ied managerial 5o& "ositions (CCM%* to ha e more ca"a&ilities than those ,hose o,ners occu"ied "ositions in "roduction engineering (CCM7C*, at the same time ,e ex"ected these last ones to ha e more ca"a&ilities than those ,hose o,ners occu"ied "ositions that re0uired less res"onsi&ilit- and technical a&ilities li+e o"erator, technician or su"er isor (CCMOT/*.
Table . Technolo&ical an *ana&erial capabilities accor in& to the 1ob position of the o$ner at the *a(uilas
Variables 9 Machine Shops % o5 the sector EC/C AE2C/C I/3 CAP CER CIP 'PR OEP I/OP /E 10 20.6; 8?B 8?B "+D.G" 8?B 8?B 8?B "+D.G" "+D.G" 8?B 8E PPMOTS 56 60; "+D.G" "+D.G" 8?B "+D.G" "+D.G" 8?B 8?B 8?B "+D.G" PPMIP 26 30.=; "+D.G" 9.G9 9.G9 9.G9 "+D.G" 9.G9 9.G9 "+D.G" "+D.G" PPM3 20 36.=; 9.G9 9.G9 9.G9 "+D.G" 9.G9 9.G9 9.G9 9.G9 "+D.G"

/ourceQ Ta&le A.8 of Annex. )oteQ The alues are calculated according to the sectorVs a erage.

A first loo+ at the ta&le sho,s that e en though more than F2; of the o,ners had "re ious ex"erience, and thus the- should ha e ac0uired technical s+ills at the ma0uila industr-, onl- 69.:; occu"ied managerial "ositions. The fact that most of the o,ners ,ith "re ious ex"erience did not occu"- managerial 5o& "ositions could limit their +no,ledge of the &asic administrati e and managerial "rocedures, ,hich is also necessar- for the o"eration of the machine sho"s and for im"ro ing their a&sor"ti e ca"acit- to &enefit from the technological s"illo ers of the ma0uila industr-.

16

An attem"t ,as made to relate the aria&le CCM ,ith the aria&les of technological and managerial ca"a&ilities at the le el of each cluster, ho,e er, gi en the size of the sam"le, in some cases the distri&ution of o&ser ation ,as er- small and the results ,ere not significant.

1< The CCMOT/ machine sho"s "resented lo, and medium alues. An im"ortant

characteristic is that the medium alues corres"ond mainl- to the aria&les related ,ith the technological ca"a&ilities (EC)C, AEPC)C, CAC, CEN*, ,hile the lo, alues corres"ond to the managerial ca"a&ilities (C7C, ACN, OEC*. This suggests that the ex"erience of o"erators, technicians and su"er isors is more associated ,ith the ac0uisition of technical +no,ledge than ,ith the ac0uisition of managerial +no,ledge. The CCM7C ha e high and medium alues in the aria&les of technological and

managerial ca"a&ilities, and in general the- ha e higher alues than the CCM OT/. The grou" of CCM% firms had high alues in most aria&les, ,hich sho,s that ha ing occu"ied managerial "ositions generates conditions for de elo"ing the highest technological and managerial ca"a&ilities of the sector. Ta&le 3 "resents the distri&ution of the firms of the clusters corres"onding to the 5o& "osition at the ma0uilas (CCM*. A first element ,orth "ointing out is that e er- cluster has firms ,hose o,ners did not ha e "re ious ex"erience ()E* and some ,hose o,ners did ha e "re ious ex"erience (GE*, and ,ithin these, ,ith different 5o& "ositions at the ma0uila (CCM*. .o,e er, there is a high concentration of )E firms in cluster 6 (a third of the o,ners ,ithout ex"erience are found in this cluster*, ,hich is characterized for ha ing lo, alues in most of the aria&les. This suggests that the lac+ of "re ious ex"erience at the ma0uila contri&utes to ex"lain the lo, technological and managerial ca"a&ilities of the firms in Cluster 6. 7n contrast, 63.1; of the )E firms are in Cluster 3, ,hich has the highest ca"a&ilities of the sector, then some )E firms ha e sho,n concern in de elo"ing their technological and managerial ca"a&ilities. This in turn suggests that ha ing ,or+ed at the ma0uila is an element that fa ors the de elo"ment of technological and managerial ca"a&ilities of the machine sho"s, &ut is not a sufficient condition to 5ustif- the le el reached. More than F2; of the CCMOT/ firms are located in the three clusters ,ith less ca"a&ilities (Clusters 6, 1 and 8*, in fact a third of them are located in Cluster 6 alone, this suggests that ha ing ,or+ed as o"erators, technicians or su"er isors at the ma0uila, although "ro iding them ,ith a la&or ex"erience that )E machine sho"s lac+ of, did not ena&le them to ac0uire +no,ledge that generates conditions for de elo"ing high technological and managerial ca"a&ilities in their firms.

13

Table 0 2istribution of the *achine shops3 o$ners accor in& to their 1ob position per cluster
CLUSTERS (. Ol& tra&itional #achine shops !ith ver$ lo! capabilities ). /e! tra&itional #achine shops !ith lo! capabilities *. 0ighl$ e1 ippe& #achine shops +. E#ergent #achine shops !ith potential ,. Mat re #achine shops !ith high technological capabilities an& &eepl$ s"ille& o!ners -. Consoli&ate& #achine shops !ith high technological an& #anagerial capabilities Total /E PPMOTS 15.3; =.3; 30.=; 23.E; =.3; 3E.2; 300.0; 10.0; 36.=; 20.6; A.1; 33.3; 0.6; 300.0; 8E PPMIP 0.0; 3E.0; 20.=; 2A.2; 32.5; 20.=; 300.0; PPM3 5.0; 35.0; 5.0; 20.0; 20.0; 15.0; 300.0;

The ,or+ sho"s ,hose o,ner ,or+ed in "roduction engineering at the ma0uila (CCM 7C* ha e more "resence in the clusters ,ith higher technological and managerial ca"a&ilities. On one hand, 1=.1; of these firms are in Cluster 9, ,hich stands out &ecause all of its firms ha e an engineer and the o,ner has a "rofessional degree. .o,e er, in s"ite of ha ing a s+illed o,ner, these firms ha e not -et de elo"ed other technological and managerial ca"a&ilities. On the other hand, a third of these ,or+ sho"s &elong to Clusters < and 3, ,hich ha e higher ca"a&ilities. Then, in these firms, the ex"erience in "roduction engineering com&ined itself ,ith other factors that made it "ossi&le to a""l- the +no,ledge ac0uired at the ma0uila. 8<; of the ,or+ sho"s ,hose o,ner ,as a manager at the ma0uila (CCM %* are located in Cluster 3, and o er <2; in clusters < and 3. 7t follo,s that, ha ing had a managerial "osition seems to allo, the o,ner to generate &etter a&ilities, ,hich in turn contri&utes to de elo"ing higher technological and managerial ca"a&ilities in his firm. 7n "articular, these o,ners are a,are of the im"ortance of continuous managerial training (C7C*, and the need to ta+e a more aggressi e attitude to,ard the mar+et, &- o"ening a sales office in El Caso (OEC*. The results "resented suggest that, in general, the "re ious ex"erience of the o,ners at the ma0uila is associated ,ith higher technological and managerial ca"a&ilities of the firms. Moreo er, among the GE ,or+ sho"s, differences can &e o&ser ed according to

1F the 5o& "osition at the ma0uilas. .a ing occu"ied managerial "ositions seems to generate +no,ledge that under certain conditions ma- result in higher technological and managerial ca"a&ilities at the firms created. Also, the CCM% ,or+ sho"s ha e de elo"ed more technological and managerial ca"a&ilities than the CCM7C, and, at the same time, the CCM7C ,or+ sho"s ha e de elo"ed more ca"a&ilities than the CCMOT/.

'. (inal reflections

Although the go ernment, the domestic machine sho"s, and the training institutions &elie e that no technological s"illo ers of the ma0uila industr- ha e occurred in Mexico, and that the onl- contri&ution of the M)Cs to,ards national de elo"ment has &een the creation of 5o&s and ex"orts, the e idence "resented in this "a"er suggests that the machine sho"s sector of Ciudad HuTrez has &enefited from some technological s"illo ers of the ma0uila industr-. This "a"er has ex"lored the s"illo ers of the M)Cs through ,or+er mo&ilit- to,ard /MEs, and the extend to ,hich the machine sho"s created &- former em"lo-ees of the ma0uilas ha e larger technological and managerial ca"a&ilities than the firms ,hose o,ners did not ha e this "rior ex"erience. The anal-sis sho,ed the existence of su&stantial differences in the ca"a&ilities of the machine sho"s. Lased on the technological and managerial ca"a&ilities, six clusters ,ere identified, from traditional machine sho"s ,ith er- lo, ca"a&ilities to consolidated firms ,ith high technological and managerial ca"a&ilities. The central h-"othesis of this "a"er ,as that firms created &- former em"lo-ees of the ma0uila industr- should ha e more technological and managerial ca"a&ilities than other firms ,ithout this characteristicJ the "re ious ex"erience allo,s these o,ners to ac0uire technical and managerial +no,ledge, then ,hen the- lea e the ma0uilas and create their o,n firms the- can transfer the +no,ledge into their firms, ,hich ,ould then contri&ute to de elo" technological and managerial ca"a&ilities. Airst, the e idence sho,s that there is a difference &et,een the technological and managerial ca"a&ilities of the GE and the )E ,or+ sho"s. The GE firms ha e in

1: general more technological and managerial ca"a&ilities than the )E firms. Thus, the de elo"ment of technological and managerial ca"a&ilities has a "ositi e relationshi" ,ith the "re ious la&or ex"erience of the o,ner at the ma0uilas. /econd, at a more detailed le el, the e idence suggests that there is a relationshi" &et,een the s"ecific 5o& "osition occu"ied &- the machine sho"s4 o,ners at the ma0uilas and the le el of technological and managerial ca"a&ilities de elo"ed &- their firms. The o,ners ,ho &esides their technical 5o&s also occu"ied managerial "ositions, seem to ha e ac0uired &etter technological and managerial a&ilities, ,hich someho, contri&uted to their firms o&taining the highest technological and managerial ca"a&ilities of the sector. 7n fact, 8<; of the ,or+ sho"s ,hose o,ner ,as a manager at the ma0uila (CCM%* are located in Cluster 3, and o er <2; in Clusters < and 3, those ,ith the highest technological and managerial ca"a&ilities. 7n "articular, these o,ners are a,are of the im"ortance of ha ing trained human resources, es"eciall- engineers, modern e0ui"ment and a continuous managerial training, and of the need to ta+e a more aggressi e attitude to,ard the mar+et, &- o"ening a sales office in El Caso. 7n contrast, the ex"erience of the o,ners ,ho ,or+ed as o"erators, technicians or su"er isors is associated ,ith the ac0uisition of technical rather than managerial +no,ledge, ,hich contri&utes to generate the minimum technological and managerial ca"a&ilities to remain in the mar+et, &ut ma+es it difficult for the firms to de elo" those technological and managerial ca"a&ilities re0uired to ensure their long term sur i al and gro,th. Third, there are firms ,ith and ,ithout "re ious ex"erience at the ma0uilas in all of the clusters, and, among those ,ith ex"erience, the o,ners occu"ied different 5o& "ositions. This suggests that ha ing ,or+ed at the ma0uila, and ha ing occu"ied "ositions that re0uire more res"onsi&ilit-, is a factor that fa ors the de elo"ment of technological and managerial ca"a&ilities &- the machine sho"s, &ut is not a sufficient condition to 5ustifthe le el reached. The characteristics of the /MEs, such as the machine sho"s, suggest that the +no,ledge ac0uired at the M)Cs &- the o,ners ,ill not necessaril- &e transferred to these firms, &ecause, as "ointed out in the literature, learning and +no,ledge are localized. Thus, it is necessar- to consider other factors that ma- affect this "rocess of +no,ledge transfer, such asQ the cor"orati e strateg- of the M)Cs for esta&lishing relationshi"s, the access to financial resources, the o,ner4s leadershi" s+ills, the firm4s size, and the s"ecific "rocesses and "roducts it s"ecializes in.

1=

Aourth, this "a"er confirms that the technological ca"a&ilities are im"ortant for &enefiting from the human ca"ital s"illo ers, ho,e er, it stresses the im"ortance of the managerial ca"a&ilities. 7n "articular, this ,or+ "oints out the role "la-ed &- the o,ner in the de elo"ment of technological and managerial ca"a&ilities &- the machine sho"s. The results o&tained in this "a"er confirm and discuss some of the conclusions of %Mrg and /tro&l (1221*4s ,or+ a&out the s"illo ers through ,or+er mo&ilit-. Airstl-, the authors assert that the ex"erience of the o,ners at a M)Cs has a "ositi e effect on their firms, "articularl- this effect &ring a&out an increase in the firms4 "roducti it-. 7n this "a"er such "re ious ex"erience is also "ositi e and is reflected on the de elo"ment of technological and managerial ca"a&ilities of the firms. /econdl-, as o""osed to %Mrg and /tro&l (1221*, our ,or+ sho,s a higher de elo"ment of ca"a&ilities in those firms ,hose o,ners occu"ied "ositions of higher ran+ at the ma0uila, ,hile in their ,or+ the aria&le of formal training did not sho, differentiated effects. This is "ro&a&l- &ecause our aria&le on the 5o& "osition of the o,ner ca"tures a magnitude of learning that is more significant than the formal training. Thirdl-, these authors sho, that the s"illo ers occurred in firms of the same sector, the- argue that the reason for this is the s"ecificitof the +no,ledge in each sector. 7n contrast, gi en that the lin+ages &et,een the machine sho"s and the ma0uilas are through a client-su""lier relationshi", this ,or+ anal-zes intersectorial s"illo ers. The +no,ledge ac0uired at the ma0uila is related ,ith the machining of "recision "ieces, ,hich ma+es it useful for esta&lishing machine sho"s. This ,or+ also stresses the im"ortance of managerial +no,ledge s"illo ers, ,hich are less sector s"ecific. The s"illo ers o&ser ed ha e emerged in a context of "olicies of attraction of the ma0uila industr- to generate em"lo-ment and ex"orts, rather than from its use to foment the local, regional and national technological and economical de elo"ment. This anal-sis suggests that to maximize the &enefits o&tained &- the "resence of the ma0uila industr-, "u&lic "olicies oriented to generating conditions for the local /MEs su""liers to strengthen their managerial and technological ca"a&ilities, and im"ro e their a&sor"ti e ca"acit-, should &e designed and im"lemented.

82 Although this ,or+ did sho, that technological s"illo ers from the M)Cs to,ard the /MEs machine sho"s in Ciudad Huarez ha e occurred, such s"illo ers ha e &een limited. This can &e concluded from the fact that the machine sho"s control onl- a small "art of their "otential mar+et. Of an o erall demand of machining "ieces im"orted &the ma0uilas at Ciudad HuTrez, estimated to &e o er UW6,222 million dollars, the machine sho"s &arel- su""l- some U/W82 million dollars. 7n this sense, it is necessarto strengthen the sector as a ,hole and stimulate the consolidation of the mar+et. This re0uires "olicies at t,o different le elsQ (i* "olicies oriented to increase the "urchase of locall- "roduced com"onents &- the ma0uilas, and (ii* "olicies oriented to increase the su""l- ca"acit- of the /MEs &oth in olume and "roduct 0ualit-. %i en the differences o&ser ed &et,een the clusters, it is not "ossi&le to refer to the sector of /MEs as a ,hole in order to o&tain "olic- recommendations, on the contrar-, it is necessar- to identif- the firms according to the cluster the- &elong to and the le el of technological and managerial ca"a&ilities the- ha e de elo"ed. 7n general, the machine sho"s in most of the clusters seem to lac+ the a&ilit- to sol e technical "ro&lems and manage the &usiness, ,hich in turn ma+es it difficult for them to &ecome consolidated. Then, in order to remain in the mar+et and &ecome com"etiti e, the- ha e to enroll in learning "rocesses at different le els to create and ex"and their o,n technological ca"a&ilities. The learning "rocesses are not sim"le and the- re0uire s"ecific t-"es of in estment.11 Ghile this achie ement of technological ca"a&ilities and com"etiti e strength remains fundamentall- a tas+ for the indi idual firms, it is im"ortant to im"lement "u&lic inter entions oriented to su""ort and stimulate learning and in estment of these local firms. %i en the im"ortance of the technical and managerial s+ills of the /MEs4 o,ners for &enefiting from the s"illo ers through ,or+er mo&ilit-, incenti e schemes ,ith indi idual ma0uilas should &e negotiated ,ith the idea that it is im"ortant for the countr- to maximize not onl- the em"lo-ment of the M)Cs &ut also the training of their ,or+ers. 7n this "a"er, the s"illo ers through ,or+er mo&ilit- ,ere anal-zed &- means of the o,ners ,ho create machine sho"s, ho,e er these s"illo ers are &eing under alued
11

Lell (6=:9*.

86 &ecause there are also technicians and o"erati es of these /MEs ,ho ,ere also trained at the ma0uila. Thus, a com"lete anal-sis of the s"illo ers through ,or+er mo&ilit- in the machine sho"s sector should not onl- include the o,ners of these firms &ut also the ,or+ers. The ,or+ de elo"ed o"ens a num&er of lines of researchQ (i* anal-ze other technological s"illo ers of the M)CsJ (ii* identif- the conditions that determine the differences in the le els of technological and managerial ca"a&ilities of the /MEs, (iii* identif- those minimum technological and managerial ca"a&ilities necessar- to &enefit from these s"illo ersJ (i * this ,or+ concentrated on the anal-sis of the machine sho"s sector &ased on information "ro ided &- the machine sho"s onl-, it is necessar- to ex"lore the nature of the interaction "rocess &et,een the ma0uila and the machine sho"s from the "oint of ie, of the ma0uilas, ,hich ,ill offer a much stronger &ase for understanding the limitations and o""ortunities for "olic- ma+ers to increase s"illo ersJ and ( * anal-ze the characteristics of the local "roducti e s-stem and the role of the institutions for strengthening the technological and managerial ca"a&ilities of the /MEs.

81 A##)4 Ta&le A.6. Distri&ution of res"onses for the technological and managerial aria&les "er cluster
(. Ol& tra&itional #achine shops 300.0; .0; .0; ==.2; 5.A; 16 300.0; .0; .0; 0E.5; 33.=; 33.=; A0.3; 2.A; .0; A3.2; 5.A; 2.A; 300.0; .0; 300.0; .0; 55.A; 66.3; ). /e! tra&itional #achine shops 3= EE.0; 11.1; .0; 55.E; 3E.0; 20.=; 55.E; 22.2; 22.2; E3.3; 22.2; 3E.0; ==.A; 5.E; 5.E; =1.1; 3E.0; .0; E3.3; 1=.A; 300.0; .0; =1.1; 3E.0; CLUSTERS +. *. 0ighl$ E#ergent e1 ippe& #achine #achine shops !ith shops potential 23 60.E; 6.=; 60.E; 21.=; 6.=; 03.6; =5.0; .0; 36.1; 60.E; 3A.0; 11.1; 0E.2; 3A.0; 6.=; 52.6; 2=.E; 3A.0; A5.2; 6.=; =5.0; 36.1; 60.E; 52.6; 26 E2.5; 11.1; 6.2; E2.5; 20.=; 3E.0; .0; 300.0; .0; EE.0; =.1; 25.0; =0.5; 6.2; =.1; 00.=; 20.=; =.1; =.1; A3.0; A5.=; 6.2; =0.5; 32.5; -. Consoli&ate& #achine shops 22 A.3; A.3; =3.=; 6.5; A.3; =E.6; .0; 6.5; A5.5; A.3; 13.=; 5A.3; 65.5; 65.5; A.3; A.3; 3=.2; 02.0; 31.E; =E.6; 50.0; 50.0; 20.1; 02.0;

Variables

,. Mat re #achine shops 3E 50.0; 3=.=; 13.1; 25.0; E.1; E=.=; .0; 5E.1; 61.=; 61.=; 13.1; 25.0; =0.5; 32.5; .0; 50.0; 25.0; 25.0; .0; 300.0; =0.5; 32.5; 50.0; 50.0;

TOTAL 315 E0.0; 36.=; 25.2; 6=.3; 30.6; 63.5; 65.A; 2=.3; 25.A; 51.1; 3A.1; 20.6; =3.5; 36.3; 6.6; E2.2; 30.=; 20.0; 53.A; 6=.3; =0.6; 32.E; 5=.5; 63.5;

+C#C0 +C#C3 +C#C2 A+5C#C0 A+5C#C3 F o ir!s .#G0 .#G3 .#G2 CA/0 CA/3 CA/2 C+:0 C+:3 C+:2 C./0 C./3 C./2 >/:0 >/:3 ?+/# ?+/S 3AA5-200 ant3AA6

88

Ta&le A.1. Distri&ution of res"onses for the technological and managerial aria&les according to the "re ious ex"erience of the o,ner at the ma0uila
E4perience o5 the o!ner at the #a1 ila Variables F o ir!s +C#C0 +C#C3 +C#C2 A+5C#C0 A+5C#C3 A+5C#C2 .#G0 .#G3 .#G2 CA/0 CA/3 CA/2 C+:0 C+:3 C+:2 C./0 C./3 C./2 >/:0 >/:3 ?+/# ?+/S 3AA5-200 ant3AA6 /o e4perience 6/E7 10 00.1; 31.5; 3E.2; 5A.5; 3E.2; 26.1; 6=.E; 2A.0; 23.E; 5A.5; 23.E; 3=.A; =E.5; =.3; 5.6; 01.0; 30.=; 3E.2; 6=.E; 53.6; =1.=; 3E.2; E2.2; 10.=; 8ith e4perience 68E7 A= 5E.3; 35.1; 2=.E; 61.A; =.2; 6=.0; 66.A; 20.E; 20.E; 53.0; 3=.6; 10.E; 0A.E; 3E.1; 6.3; 5=.2; 20.6; 23.6; 51.3; 6E.A; ==.=; 33.2; 50.3; 62.A; TOTAL 315 E0.0; 36.=; 25.2; 6=.3; 30.6; 63.5; 65.A; 2=.3; 25.A; 51.1; 3A.1; 20.6; =3.5; 36.3; 6.6; E2.2; 30.=; 20.0; 53.A; 6=.3; =0.6; 32.E; 5=.5; 63.5;

89 Ta&le A.8. Distri&ution of res"onses for the technological and managerial aria&les according to the 5o& "osition of the o,ner at the ma0uila
8E /E F o ir!s +C#C0 +C#C3 +C#C2 A+5C#C0 A+5C#C3 A+5C#C2 .#G0 .#G3 .#G2 CA/0 CA/3 CA/2 C+:0 C+:3 C+:2 C./0 C./3 C./2 >/:0 >/:3 ?+/# ?+/S 3AA5-200 ant3AA6 10 00.1; 31.5; 3E.2; 5A.5; 3E.2; 26.1; 6=.E; 2A.0; 23.E; 5A.5; 23.E; 3=.A; =E.5; =.3; 5.6; 01.0; 30.=; 3E.2; 6=.E; 53.6; =1.=; 3E.2; E2.2; 10.=; PPMOTS 56 50.6; 20.6; 22.2; 6=.3; 31.0; 1=.A; EE.0; 36.=; 3=.5; 51.0; 20.6; 25.A; =1.1; 33.3; 5.E; 00.6; 3=.5; 33.3; 05.A; 26.3; A2.E; 0.6; 55.E; 66.6; PPMIP 26 E2.5; 32.5; 25.0; 10.5; 6.2; 5=.1; 20.=; 50.0; 2A.2; 63.0; =.1; 50.0; 0A.2; 20.=; .0; 63.0; 11.1; 25.0; 2A.2; 00.=; =0.5; 32.5; 5=.1; 63.0; PPM3 20 65.0; 5.0; 50.0; 60.0; .0; E0.0; 35.0; 15.0; 50.0; 55.0; 25.0; 20.0; 00.0; 25.0; 5.0; 65.0; 30.0; 65.0; 20.0; =0.0; =0.0; 20.0; E0.0; 60.0; TOTAL 315 E0.0; 36.=; 25.2; 6=.3; 30.6; 63.5; 65.A; 2=.3; 25.A; 51.1; 3A.1; 20.6; =3.5; 36.3; 6.6; E2.2; 30.=; 20.0; 53.A; 6=.3; =0.6; 32.E; 5=.5; 63.5;

8< References
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Katz, H., (ed.* (6=:F*, Technology Generation in ,atin American $anu8acturing Industries, @ondonQ Macmillan. Kim, @. (6==F*, 6rom Imitation to Innovation. The +ynamics o8 5orea;s Technological ,earning, Loston, Mass.Q .ar ard Lusiness /chool Cress. Kim, @. and )elson, N. (eds*, Technology, ,earning and Innovation( the '!perience o8 the Asian <I's, Cam&ridgeQ Cam&ridge Uni ersit- Cress. Kinoshita, D. (6==:*, >Technolog- /"illo ers through Aoreign Direct 7n estment?, %EN%E E7, Decem&er. Kinoshita, D. (1226*, >NRD and Technolog- /"illo ers ia AD7Q 7nno ation and A&sor"ti e Ca"acit-?, Gor+ing Ca"er 89=a, Uni ersit- of Michigan Lusiness /chool. @all, /. (6=:F*, ,earning to Industriali0e( The Ac"uisition o8 Technological Capability by India, @ondon, Macmillan Cress. @all, /. (6==1*, YTechnological Ca"a&ilities and 7ndustrializationY, World +evelopment, Vol. 12 (1*, ". 63<-6:3. @ara N. A. (1222* >El nacimiento de las ma0uiladoras de tercera generaci!nQ El caso Del"hi-HuTrez?, Comercio Exterior, Vol.<2 (=*, ".FF6-F=. @ara, A., H. Arellano and A. %arcIa (1229*, >Co-e oluci!n tecnol!gica entre ma0uiladoras de auto"artes - talleres de ma0uinado?, in @ara, A. (ed*, Co4evoluci n ma"uiladoras, instituciones y regiones( =na nueva interpretaci n , MexicoQ UAM-AD7ATMiguel Angel CorrEa (forthcoming*. @im, K. (1222*, >The Man- Aaces of A&sor"ti e Ca"acit-, /"illo ers of Co""er 7nterconnect Technolog- for /emiconductor Chi"s?, )ational Uni ersit- of /inga"ore, /e"tem&er 1:. Marin, A. and M. Lell (1228*,?Technolog- s"illo ers from foreign direct in estment (AD7*Q an ex"loration of the acti e role of M)C su&sidiaries in the case of Argentina in the 6==2s?, "a"er to &e "resented at the Gor+sho"Q Understanding AD7-Assisted Economic De elo"ment, T7K centre, Uni ersit- of Oslo, )or,a- 11-1< Ma-. Molero, H. (1228*, YThe role of foreign firms in the generation of technological s"illo er. An a""lication to manufacturing /"anish firmsY, "a"er "resented in the conference Ghat ,e +no, a&out inno ationX, Uni ersit- of /ussex, 68-6< )o em&er. )oor&a+sh, A., A.Caloni and A.Doussef (1226*, Y.uman Ca"ital and AD7 Alo,s into De elo"ing CountriesQ )e, Em"irical E idenceY, Gorld De elo"ment, )o.1=, ". 6<=8-362. Croenca, 7., M.C. Aontoura and ). Cres"o (1226*, >Croducti it- /"illo ers from Multinacional Cor"orations in the Cortuguese caseQ E idence from a short time "eriod "anel data?, /"onsored &- Aundacao "ara a Ciencia e a TecnologiaBMCT under ACTBCOCT7B/AN.BLDB3961B1226. Pue edo, C. (1228*, >Ca"acidad de a&sorci!n, o"ortunidad tecnol!gica - esfuerzo inno adorQ un estudio em"Irico de sus relaciones en las em"resas manufactureras es"a\olas?, Uni ersidad Colit'cnica de Madrid, Croceedings of the #777 Congreso de la Asociaci!n CientIfica de EconomIa - Direcci!n de la Em"resa (ACEDE*, Direcci!n de em"resas - creaci!n de alor en un nue o entorno econ!mico institucional - cultural, /alamanca 16-18 /e"tem&er. Nodriguez-Clare, A. (6==3*, >Multinationals, @in+ages, and Economic De elo"ment?, The American Economic Ne ie,, Vol. :3 (69*, ". :<1-F8. Nomo Murillo, D. (1228*, >Derramas tecnol!gicas de la in ersi!n extran5era en la industria mexicana?, Comercio Exterior, Vol. <8 (8*, ". 182-98. /am"edro, H.@. (1228*, A"rendiza5e - Acumulaci!n de Ca"acidades Tecnol!gicas en la 7MEQ Thomson-Multimedia de M'xico, M"hil Thesis, MaestrIa en EconomIa - %esti!n del Cam&io Tecnol!gico, , Uni ersidad Aut!noma Metro"olitana-#ochimilco, Mexico. /marz-n+a, L. K. (1228*. >Determinants of /"illo ers from Aoreign Direct 7n estment through Lac+,ard @in+ages?, Gorld Lan+. Te Velde, D.G. (1221*, >%o ernment Colicies for 7n,ard Aoreign Direct 7n estment in De elo"ing CountriesQ 7m"lications for .uman Ca"ital Aormation and 7ncome 7ne0ualit-?, OECD De elo"ment Centre, Technical Ca"er )o. 6=8.

8:
Testa, C. (6==3*, >Conducta tecnol!gica - taxonomIa de la industria 0uImica enezolanaQ una mirada estadIstica?, en Cirela, A. et al (6==3*, Conducta em"resarial - Cultura Tecnol!gica. Em"resas - Centros de 7n estigaci!n en Venezuela, CaracasQ Ediciones CE)DE/. U)CTAD (1222*, >Ex"ert Meeting on the relationshi"s &et,een /MEs and T)Cs to ensure the com"etiti eness of /MEs, The relationshi"s &et,een /MEs and T)Cs to ensure the com"etiti eness of /MEs?, %ene a, 1F-1= )o em&er. U)CTAD (1222*, T)C-/ME @in+ages for De elo"mentQ 7ssues ] Ex"eriences ]Lest Cractices, Croceedings of the /"ecial Nound Ta&le on T)Cs, /MEs and De elo"ment, U)CTAD, Ae&ruar- 1222, Lang+o+. U)CTAD (1226*, Gorld 7n estment Ne"ort 1226Q Cromoting @in+ages, )e, Dor+ and %ene a, U). Uri!stegui, A. (1221*, Del ensam&le de com"onentes al "roducto finalQ el caso de Chili"s M'xico, M"hil Thesis, MaestrIa en EconomIa - %esti!n del Cam&io Tecnol!gico, Uni ersidad Aut!noma Metro"olitana-#ochimilco, Mexico. Van den Losch, A.A.H., N. an Gi5+ and ..G. Vol&erda (1228* >A&sor"ti e Ca"acit-Q Antecedents, Models and Outcomes?, EN7M Ne"ort /eries Nesearch in Management, EN/1228-28<-/TN. Vera-Cruz, A., Dutr'nit, %. and H. @. %il (1228*, >Derramas de la ma0uila ca"acidades tecnol!gicas - em"resariales de las C-mes "ro eedoras?, "a"er "resented in the conference A@TEC 1228, M'xico, 11-19 Octo&er. Vera-Cruz, A.O. (1222*, Ma5or Changes in the Economic and Colic- Context, Airms4 Culture and Technological Leha iourQ The Case of t,o Mexican Lre,eries, D"hil Thesis, /CNU, Uni ersit- of /ussex. Vera-Cruz, A.O. (1229*, Cultura, a"rendiza5e - com"ortamiento tecnol!gico. El caso de las cer eceras mexicanas, Mexico Cit-Q UAM-AD7AT-Miguel Angel CorrEa.