PAPER

Works on Paper
How to Care for Works of Art on Paper
Preface History of Papermaking Matting Framing Note on Restoration Enemies of Paper

Preface
NOTE: Visuals included in the original published guide are not provided in this document. Paper is taken for granted. Why not? It is cheap, available, and expendable. At the same time it is indispensable and yet poorly understood, and it is the need for understanding, with particular reference to works of art on paper, that is the subject of this booklet. The publication of this guide was prompted by two exhibitions held at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, in the spring of 1971: "The Art and Craft of Papermaking," organized by the Library of Congress, and "Conservation of Works of Art on Paper," organized by the Museum's Conservation Laboratory of the Department of Prints and Drawings. The material is based on our experience in dealing with the countless queries that have come into the Conservation Laboratory from private collectors, galleries, museums, libraries, historical societies, and even artists and framers concerning prints, drawings, watercolors, pastels, books, manuscripts, and documents. A basic explanation of the nature of paper and an enumeration of the fundamentals of preservation, including framing and matting, are brought together in a single convenient source of practical information. Perhaps a few readers will be encouraged to delve still further into the subject by consulting the works listed in the selected bibliography that follows the text.

It is no secret that the problems of displaying, framing, storing, transporting, and preserving works of art on paper are legion. Unless solutions are readily accessible, there is a danger that these graphic records of our historic and artistic heritage will not survive far into the future. It is important that the characteristics of such important records be understood. Everyone of us, inside or outside museums, and whether or not we are directly concerned with conservation, has a personal interest at stake in the little-understood subject of paper. For example, think for a moment of the pictures on your wall or those stored, unframed, in your attic with its intense summer heat, or, worse still, in your cellar with its warm-season dampness and its cold-season dryness. Think of the books on your shelves in full sunlight or over a heat register, their leather bindings suffering from dryness and lack of nourishment. Finally, look at irreplaceable letters, or other valuable manuscripts, the writing bleached into illegibility by strong light and the paper fragile from much folding and unfolding. Most people will recognize [p. 5] one or more of these conditions in their own home. This guide will have served its purpose if it enables a wider audience to recognize the make-up and characteristics of paper and to understand the qualities that ensure permanence and the care that is necessary for the longevity of even the best and most durable papers. We wish to express our gratitude to Mohawk Paper Mills, of Cohoes and Waterford, New York, for their technical advice on modern printing papers and for their financial assistance in the preparation of this booklet and installation of the Conservation Laboratory's exhibition "Conservation of Works of Art on Paper." For their encouragement, advice, and assistance in the preparation of this booklet we also thank Eleanor Sayre, Curator of the Department of Prints and Drawings, Diggory Venn, Special Assistant to the Director, Margaret Jupe, Assistant Editor, and the staff of the Department of Prints and Drawings. F. W. D R. L. P.

History of Papermaking
NOTE: Visuals included in the original published guide are not provided in this document. Paper is such a commonplace of twentieth-century life that one rarely pauses to reflect that the material that makes up today's newspapers, books, prints, certificates, cups, plates, napkins, and countless other objects for dignified or humble use had its origins nearly two thousand years ago. According to tradition, this amazingly versatile material, whose importance for civilization is scarcely less than that of the wheel, was discovered in A.D. 105 by an ingenious Chinese eunuch named Ts'ai Lun. Like so many great inventors, Ts'ai Lun seized on an idea that was simplicity itself. He sought a use for the scrap cuttings of the expensive woven cloth then used for writing. He beat the scraps until they were reduced to a mass of individual fibers, mixed the mass with water, and poured it onto a cloth or bamboo screen. The water drained away leaving behind a matted sheet of fibers--paper! The basic process of making paper by spreading a slurry of fibers onto a porous screen has remained unchanged in principle down to the present, in spite of the enormous changes in the mechanics of accomplishing this act. Ts'ai Lun's followers found that paper could also be made from bamboo, hemp, and mulberry bark. The Japanese, for example, who began making paper in the seventh century, relied primarily on mulberry bark. Even today, the Japanese "rice paper" sold in art supplies stores is made not of rice but of mulberry bark. Conquest and caravans brought paper and the secret of its manufacture to the West via Samarkand, Baghdad, Egypt, and Morocco, and by the twelfth or thirteenth century Spain and Italy had begun making paper. The process underwent a few minor changes during this long journey, since the Chinese materials were not available, and paper was in competition with parchment as a writing material. The early European papermakers macerated cotton and linen rags for fibers, and to keep the ink of the quill pen from feathering or bleeding out into the sheet they dipped the paper into a tub of warm gelatin [an extract from the hoofs, hides, and horns of animals', which gave the paper a harder surface. This process is known as sizing. The amount of sizing in paper depends upon its eventual use. Writing paper requires a hard surface and therefore a large amount of size. Printing paper requires less, and blotting paper almost none. [p. 7] Instead of using a bamboo screen, the Europeans fashioned their paper molds from metal wires stretched across a wooden frame, a simple device on which paper was made for all the books, drawings, and prints produced in Europe for many centuries. The skilled craftsman dipped his mold into a vat of fibers floating in
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water, lifted it, and by just the right series of to-and-fro motions gently formed the sheet of paper. The "vatman" was the key individual in the Papermaking business: the ability to make a uniform sheet not only once but time after time required long years of apprenticeship as well as physical endurance. After the vatman had formed each sheet, an assistant transferred it to a heavy felt, gradually building a pile of felts and paper sheets in alternation. This pile was then placed in a large press, which forced out excess water and consolidated the sheets of paper. After sizing the paper was sent to the drying loft and draped over long ropes to dry. Since so much skilled labor was involved in papermaking, it is not surprising that the manufacturer soon began to take special pride in "branding" his paper with his own watermark in the form of his name, insignia, or a special design. The watermark is produced by a thin wire pattern attached to the screen of the paper mold. Since this design projects above the surface of the mold, the paper is thinner wherever it has touched the wire. The translucent mark is visible when the paper is held up to the light. Gutenberg's invention of movable type in the fifteenth century firmly established the usefulness and necessity of paper. From then on the papermaker struggled to keep pace with demand and faced two ever present difficulties: the cost of labor and the scarcity of raw materials. Mechanical and chemical innovations helped to solve these difficulties but also posed new ones. Technology improved quantity at the expense of quality. The Hollander machine, named for the country in which it was invented, was one of the most important of these innovations--a seventeenth-century version, one might say, of the modern food blender. Metal blades cutting and churning at high speed in a large tub of rag cuttings mixed with water quickly reduced even the toughest of rags to a smooth, even pulp. The Hollander soon replaced the enormous stamping machines whose heavy, pounding hammers had previously been used for pulping the rages. The sorter fibers produced by the Hollander resulted in a weaker sheet of paper but produced fifty to a hundred times more pulp than the stampers. Another seventeenth-century innovation was the introduction of alum [aluminum sulphate], a chemical used to harden the gelatin size and to keep it from putrefying while in the tub. Alum soon became one of the standard papermaking materials, with unfortunate results for the strength [p. 8] and longevity of paper. It has been found that alum radically increases the acidity of paper. From the second half of the seventeenth century onward, use of this chemical severely diminished the strength and permanence of writing papers, and only in recent times has its destructiveness been fully recognized and corrected. The disastrous effects of chlorine, use of which began in 1774, were realized more immediately. It was employed as a bleach for stained or colored cloth, previously

deemed unusable for book and writing paper, and it caused entire stacks of paper to crumble into dust before they could even be used. The supply of rags never seemed to catch up with the demand for paper, which by the nineteenth century had become enormous. In the latter part of that century, an ingenious papermaker in Maine, I. Augustus Stanwood, conceived the idea of "importing mummies from Egypt for the sole purpose of stripping the dried bodies of their cloth wrappings and using the material for making paper." The woven wrappings and papyrus filling were transformed into a coarse brown wrapping paper, which was eventually used by grocers for wrapping vegetables, meats, and other foodstuffs! After the ragpickers and cutters in the mill developed cholera, probably as a result of their handling infected rags, this enterprising plan was brought to an end. The search for an economical substitute for rags long occupied papermakers. By 1800 as many as 135 substitutes had been suggested, including asbestos, thistles, potatoes, linden leaves, St. John's-wort, corn husks, cabbage stalks, and cattails. Eventually wood showed the greatest promise. Its potential as a papermaking substance had first been suggested in 1719 by the French scientist Ren Antoine Raumur, who had been impressed with the ability of wasps to make paper nests from wood. In 1800 Mathias Koops published in London a book of which a part was "printed on paper made from wood alone . . . without any intermixture of rags . . . ." Koops was ahead of his time and was unable to capitalize on his invention, but within a few decades practical methods were devised for grinding and pulping wood. The first groundwood pulp mill in the United States was founded near Stockbridge, Massachusetts, in 1867, and the very next year the first New York newspaper to use groundwood pulp was printed. Today newsprint and groundwood pulp are virtually synonymous. Anyone who has seen his old newspaper clippings disintegrate within a few years will not need to be convinced that groundwood pulp paper can be of poor quality. It is weak largely [p. 9] because its preparation produces extremely short fibers in clumps and retains a large amount of the binding material [lignin] that held the fibers together within the tree. This binding material breaks down easily into acidic components, which attack paper and cause it to deteriorate. The wonder is that, despite the use of all these destructive agents by the papermakers, any books or works of art on paper should have survived at all. Fortunately, these materials and methods were not used uniformly by all papermakers. While some mills turned to assembly production of magazines, newspapers, and inexpensive books, other mills were less "progressive" and stayed with traditional methods, continuing to produce high-quality papers for the artist and fine printer. It thus came about that there became available a great variety of papers with widely different qualities of permanence. Today it is possible for a
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contemporary artist like Robert Rauschenberg to obtain paper just as fine as that used by Audubon for his Birds of America [1827-1838]. At the same time, it is equally possible for the unwary artist to use paper that will scarcely outlast an ordinary newspaper. Similarly, the art collector may find that the mat he so admired has seriously stained the picture it was supposed to protect; or the librarian may find that many recently purchased books have become unusable. What is the lesson to be learned from these facts about paper? First, we must learn to be discriminating in our use of paper. The paper must be suited to its purpose: if performance is required, then the quality must be chosen accordingly. The traditional handmade papers of Europe and the Orient will answer the needs of special users, such as artists. For those who run today's high-speed printing presses, however, the critical technical requirements for uniform thickness and weight, special sizing, and large quantity rule out these traditional types of paper. But the papermaking industry has learned a great deal from the mistakes of the past and can now write a prescription for longevity that modern technology can administer. The ideal combination for permanence seems to be an acid-free and alum-free pulp made of the purest possible fibers--a condition that, ironically, was essentially fulfilled by the ancient papermaking methods, although by circumstance rather than design. The purest papermaking fibers available in quantity to the modern papermaker are pure new cotton and pure high-alpha cellulose. A paper made with these fibers and without acidic ingredients may be said to be highly permanent and durable, free from the causes of internal deterioration. To help control the external factors that effect permanence, some fine, acid-free text papers have been made with available alkali present, which acts [p. 10] as a buffer to neutralize any possible acid contamination from handling by the user or reader or from the atmosphere in which the paper is kept. Artificial aging tests carried out on paper made with pure high-alpha cellulose and alkaline additives have indicated an expected permanence in excess of three hundred years. Anyone concerned about the future of paper can now take heart, whether it is a matter of reading a favorite novel again in a few years time or of preserving a valuable picture for the next century. [p. 11]
[Dolloff, Francis W. and Roy L. Perkinson. How to Care for Works of Art on Paper. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Fourth Edition. 1985.]

Matting
NOTE: Visuals included in the original published guide are not provided in this document. A mat serves to protect a picture, whether framed or stored, and to enhance its aesthetic qualities. Since the mat is in close contact with the picture, the collector and framer should be particularly careful about the quality of the materials used in its manufacture. False economy leads many inexperienced framers to use woodpulp matting board, which is acidic and contains a high percentage of unrefined groundwood pulp that inevitably disintegrates. The picture absorbs some of the destructive chemicals and becomes stained. Mat board of this type is usually faced on both sides with a paper of better quality [even pure rag stock may be used] to make the discoloration less apparent. When an opening for the picture is cut, however, the inner core of inferior material is exposed, and the corrosive chemicals soon migrate into the picture. Pictures that have been kept in such a mat for just a few years begin to show a characteristic brown stain that corresponds with the inner edge of the mat opening [Figure 5]. The only safe matting board now available is "museum board," called all-rag matting board, which is composed not of actual rags but of high-grade cellulose obtained from cotton fibers. It is acid-free and most frequently manufactured in white and off-white, although it is now available in a few colors. It can be obtained in three thicknesses: 2-ply [1/32 in. approx.], 4-ply [1/16 in.], and 8-ply [1/8 in.]. The first is helpful where there is a lack of storage space, but it should be used only for pictures whose value is not particularly great. The 4-ply thickness is the one in most general use and provides an adequate depth to allow for minor buckling of the picture or the relief qualities of some woodcuts, as well as sufficient "breathing space" between the glass and the picture if it is framed. For pastels, collages, and especially large pictures like contemporary lithographs, the 8-ply thickness is recommended. One may substitute two sheets of 4-ply, which are somewhat easier to cut and are less expensive than the single sheet of 8-ply. Museum board is usually sold in quantities of twenty-five sheets measuring 30 [or 32] by 40 inches, but some of the larger art supplies stores sell smaller quantities to customers interested in cutting their own mats. Mats can also be improvised out of heavyweight, hot-pressed watercolor paper. [p. 25] The basic window mat [see Figure 6] consists simply of two pieces of mat board hinged together with a strip of gummed cloth tape. A well-proportioned mat should reflect the dimensions of the picture, and its lower margin should be slightly greater than the upper. If placed directly in the mathematical center of the mat, the picture
8

will appear to be just below center, so that a wider bottom margin is needed as compensation. A space of at least 1/8 inch should be allowed around all sides of the image or plate mark. This is particularly important for a print without margins, since, if too little tolerance is allowed, the edges of the print may be damaged when the mat is opened and closed. The only essential tools for cutting a mat opening are a straightedge made of tough material and a sharp knife, easily obtainable in most art supplies stores. Various devices ranging in price from about five to nearly three hundred dollars are supposed to make it possible for a beginner to cut a professional-looking opening. They perhaps have their place, but for simplicity and versatility the ordinary mat knife, combined with practice, is hard to improve upon. The difficulty most frequently encountered by those using a mat knife for the first time stems from the tendency to try to cut through the board in one stroke. This tires the arm quickly and makes control of the blade more difficult. Use a light, even pressure and concentrate on keeping the angle of the knife constant. At first, three or four strokes may be necessary to cut through a four-ply thickness, but after some practice only two will be needed, one to make an initial scoring and another, firmer cut to finish. The knife should be held at an angle so as to make a beveled edge around the opening, which is more pleasing visually than an abrupt ninetydegree cut. After the opening is made, the beveled edge itself will be almost knifesharp and should be lightly sanded to prevent possible damage to the picture. The sharpness of the outer edges of the mat should also be reduced by light sanding or by running the back of the knife along them, especially if the mat is to be kept unframed as part of a study collection. The mat is then more agreeable to handle and less likely to scratch or abrade the surface of another picture if accidently dragged across it. Hold the picture in position in the mat by attaching it to the backboard, not the front, with two hinges affixed to the upper edge of the reverse side of the picture [see Figures 7 and 8]. Never paste the corners of a picture directly to the backboard. Hinging allows the picture to hang freely in the mat and permits the paper to expand or contract without stress as the atmospheric conditions vary. If the picture is likely to be transferred from one mat to [p. 26] another, the picture can be hinged to a sheet of rag paper, which in turn is attached to the backboard. When attaching a picture to its mat never use pressure-sensitive tapes of any kind [masking tape, scotch tape, etc.], gummed brown wrapping tape, synthetic glues, or rubber cement. Use instead a good quality gummed paper or a Japanese paper applied with starch paste. Gummed paper may be cut in strips one-half inch in width, of whatever length is demanded by the size and weight of the picture to be supported. The strips are folded in half and applied first to the picture and then to the backboard. For especially large pictures [e.g., contemporary graphics] use short lengths of gummed
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cloth tape, which is stronger than paper. Gummed paper or cloth hinges are simple and quick to use, can be removed easily, and are less dangerous in the hands of an inexperienced worker than hinges that must be applied with paste. Hinges made of Japanese paper take more time and practice to apply. Select a Japanese paper whose weight matches the picture, and do not apply the paste too thickly or the picture will buckle around the hinge. After attaching the hinges, cover them with blotting paper held down by a light weight for a few hours until they are dry. The best adhesive for hinges is made from starch, preferably wheat or rice. In a two-quart double boiler put four and one-half cups of cold water and one cup of starch. Let it stand for a few minutes to allow the starch to become thoroughly wet. Cook over barely simmering water for twenty to twenty-five minutes, stirring frequently. When ready, it will be thick and opalescent and will be filled with minute air bubbles. At this point one teaspoon of a ten percent solution of thymol in alcohol may be stirred in; this will preserve the paste for weeks if kept covered. Cool by placing the top of the double boiler in a bath of cold water, stirring the paste frequently to prevent the formation of lumps. [For further details see Anne f. Clapp, Curatorial Care of Works of Art on Paper, Oberlin, 1974, and Roy Perkinson, Conserving Works of Art on Paper, Washington, D.C., 1977.] A hinge should not be wider than necessary for satisfactory adhesion. To keep a picture from slipping in the mat, the length of a hinge, measured along the upper edge of the picture, is more important than its width. It is sometimes said that the hinging paper should be weaker than the picture so that it would give way first if the picture were put under strain, but this requirement cannot be fulfilled in practice. Experience has shown that a picture is more likely to incur damage because of hinges that are too weak rather than too strong. Hinges must be able to withstand the shock of accidental rough handling or dropping of the mat or frame. [p. 29] Museum board is not now available in the same variety of colors and textures as the inferior wood-pulp types. A colored or decorated mat may be made either by covering the all-rag mat with a high-quality paper of the desired color and texture or by coloring the mat itself. If for some exceptional reason a wood-pulp mat already on the picture has to be saved [if it bears the artist's signature, for example], it can be placed on top of a mat made of all-rag board. Choosing the color and design of the mat can be either an enjoyable experience or one of utter frustration, depending on the individual. A good rule to follow for both the amateur and professional framer is that a picture should not have to compete for attention with its surroundings. This does not mean, however, that the basic colors in the picture should be repeated in the mat. The glowing brown tones of a bistre drawing, for example, lose their effect if surrounded with a mat of a tan or umber tone. A cool slate blue or olive gray provides a visual complement to the color of

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the drawing and enhances its appearance. Using complementary colors in this manner is often the key to presenting a picture with its full aesthetic effect. As a general rule, the off-white color of the all-rag matting board is sufficient for etchings and engravings. Simple, colored mats look well on watercolors, and mats more elaborately decorated with color, ruled lines, and perhaps a narrow strip of gold paper ["French mats"] are often effective on drawings. Bear in mind that the simplicity of a mat's appearance is the key to continued enjoyment of the picture. Several matted pictures can be stored conveniently in wooden drawers or solander boxes, which are the traditional container for matted pictures. This type of box opens out flat, forming a convenient temporary tray, and permits easy access to mats stored within. Large pictures and maps [up to approximately 30 by 40 inches] may be kept matted and in acid-free folders, but in the case of oversize posters and prints individual solutions have to be devised. [p. 30]
[Dolloff, Francis W. and Roy L. Perkinson. How to Care for Works of Art on Paper. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Fourth Edition. 1985.]

Framing
NOTE: Visuals included in the original published guide are not provided in this document. The exact style and color of a frame is a matter of personal taste, but the advice of a competent framer will be helpful, since there are a number of hazards. A picture can be damaged by placing it directly against a wooden back. Disfiguring stains often result from resins exuded by the wood itself. If several pieces of wood are used, the openings between them allow pollutants in the air to attack and discolor the picture [see Figure 3]. An enterprising individual in the late nineteenth century patented a variation on the wooden back that consisted of thin, narrow strips of wood laminated between two pieces of paper. He might have second thoughts about his invention now if he [p. 30] could see how many pictures it has disfigured. Even if there are no signs of staining, any picture with a wooden back should be opened to make sure it is properly protected with a piece of all-rag board. Never place a picture directly against the glass, since glass easily condenses moisture and may cause the growth of mold. There is also a chance that the surface of the picture will stick to the glass, resulting in serious damage. A mat creates a
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"breathing space" between the picture and the glass and allows the picture to move in response to changing atmospheric conditions [see Figure 9]. If a mat is not considered desirable, as is sometimes the case with modern prints, the same protection can be provided by a strip of mat board cut sufficiently narrow that it will be hidden beneath the rabbet [inner edge] of the frame. Or acrylic plastic may be used instead of glass, since it is a better thermal insulator and will not condense moisture as easily as glass. [p. 31] Acrylic plastic is unbreakable and is available with colorless additives that filter out ultraviolet rays. It is particularly suitable for a picture that has to be transported or subjected to handling that might break the glass. The disadvantages of acrylic plastic are that it scratches easily and has a tendency to collect dust because of its inherent static electricity, which also rules out its use on unfixed pastel or charcoal drawings or paintings with flaking or powdery pigments. To protect a picture from dust, dirt, and flying insects, seal the back of the frame with acid-free corrugated cardboard or styrofoam-filled board. Use nails to secure the board in place, not staples or glazier's points, which soon loosen and fall out. Especially fragile pastels or gouache paintings may be damaged by the shock of hammering the nails. The best method for these is to hold the back in place with metal or wooden braces secured with screws. Seal the gap between the backboard and the frame with gummed wrapping tape, which is permeable to atmospheric moisture and allows the frame to "breathe" and respond to changes in temperature and humidity. A completely airtight seal is neither possible nor desirable, since a significant drop in temperature would cause a dangerous buildup of humidity within the frame. It is better to control the conditions in the room where the picture hangs than to try to burden the frame with that responsibility. When cleaning a framed picture, never spray the cleaning solution directly onto the surface of the glass. The liquid may run down inside the frame and stain the mat or cause a dangerous elevation of the humidity inside the frame. Apply the cleaner to the cloth instead. Never allow the framer to cut or trim the margins of a picture. To do so may damage its aesthetic effect, destroy evidence of authenticity, and in general diminish its desirability and monetary value. The back of a frame occasionally bears a label that is pertinent to the provenance or authenticity of the picture. If such a label is a document in its own right, it should be treated accordingly and properly protected. If it can be removed from the frame, it may be preserved in an acid-free envelope attached to the rear of the frame, protected from dust by flexible plastic sheeting [Mylar]. Or the label could be hinged into the mat itself. If a picture is kept permanently framed, it is advisable to open and examine it periodically, about every ten years or so, to make sure that it is in good condition.
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Even if everything is satisfactory, the inner surface of the glass should be cleaned. It is surprising how much of a haze can develop on the inside of a picture glass within just a few years. Sometimes a "ghost" image of the picture appears on the glass, especially in the case of prints, apparently because of the [p. 32] transference of volatile components of the printing ink to the glass. Pictures should never be framed between two pieces of glass, whether with or without a mat. This method of framing increases the danger of mold growth, and if an object hits the glass, it is likely to pierce the picture and both pieces of glass, thus causing considerable damage. If both sides of a picture or document must be visible, acrylic plastic should be used instead of glass. Use of "nonglare glass" with a frosted appearance is not recommended. To function properly it must be placed directly against the picture, a practice that, as mentioned previously, should be avoided. If used with a mat, it tends to obscure the picture. Reflection on glass can be dealt with by appropriate placing of the picture in relation to the light or by using an optically coated nonreflective glass. Pictures can be hung from molding with hooks and nylon line, which is nearly invisible. The local hardware or sporting goods store can supply line of the proper strength to support the weight of the picture. Another method is to use copper wire painted to match the walls, as is done in some museums. If there is no molding, the usual combination of picture wire, screw eyes, and hooks nailed into the wall will suffice for lightweight frames. A piece of adhesive tape wrapped around the middle of the picture wire will help to keep the picture from tilting. Picture wire exerts tension on each side of the frame, however, and may break apart the corners of heavier frames. They are best hung without wire from two separate wall hooks through the screw eyes. This method does not strain the frame, keeps it level, and gives safer support. Hold the picture against the wall in the desired position [level it with the help of another person ], press firmly against the frame, and move it slightly to one side. The screw eyes will leave light marks on the wall, which will help in nailing the hooks. Gummed or self-adhesive hooks are useful as a temporary support for lightweight, expendable pictures, posters, and other decorations but are not safe for permanent hanging of framed pictures. To judge by the frequency with which buckling of a picture is mentioned, it is one of the chief causes of concern for the owner. It does not in itself constitute a danger, however, since it is perfectly natural for handmade paper to show some slight degree of movement. If a picture appears to be absolutely flat, it may even be an indication that it has been mounted down. Excessive buckling, however, may be caused merely by too much pressure on the edges of a picture by either the mat or frame and can usually be corrected by the framer. Localized cockling, or puckering,

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may be caused by the presence of old tape, patches, or glue on the back of a picture, in which case [p. 33] the picture should be brought to a restorer for advice. Under no condition should a picture be mounted down merely for the sake of removing a few waves or slight buckling, but, unfortunately, this is one of the most common practices today among less-experienced framers and ill-advised collectors. Even Rembrandts have fallen victim to being mounted down on cheap wood-pulp boards with carpenter's glue, photographer's heat-sealing tissue, and synthetic glues. Just as common is the gluing of watercolors onto brown kraft paper and pulling them tight as a drumhead across a wooden stretcher. This method of mounting should be avoided, because the wood resins and cheap paper will cause stains and the constant tension on the picture may weaken the fibers of the paper. In certain cases it may be necessary for the purpose of conservation to support a fragile or damaged picture by backing it with a handmade paper, but this operation should be done only by a competent restorer. Gluing pictures down indiscriminately is harmful, unnecessary, and diminishes the monetary and aesthetic value of a work of art. A picture that has been mounted down should be taken to a restorer for advice as to whether it can be removed from its backing. [p. 34]
[Dolloff, Francis W. and Roy L. Perkinson. How to Care for Works of Art on Paper. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Fourth Edition. 1985.]

Note on Restoration
NOTE: Visuals included in the original published guide are not provided in this document. Restoration is a palliative for the abuse to which paper is subjected, abuse--as the preceding discussion has shown--that can take many forms. The restorer is the doctor. He knows the composition and textures of papers, old and new. He is familiar with the technical basis of applying pigments or ink to paper, and he understands and respects works of art on paper. If a picture or book is found to be damaged in any of the ways that have been described here, it should be taken to a restorer for examination. He will report on its condition and will suggest possible means of treatment. He will also be able to offer advice on how to prevent further deterioration. He may find that washing, deacidification, and sizing are sufficient remedies. If the paper is brittle or has been weakened by corrosive inks, he may recommend reinforcing it with a thin paper. He can often successfully remove water stains and foxing, so that a picture may
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again be viewed with pleasure. Restoration has its limitations, but a competent restorer knows them well and will take care to inform the owner of both the limits and risks involved. The following "case history" of a restoration incorporates most of the problems with paper that have been mentioned in this guide. The restored picture, Christ on the Cross [Netherlandish, 1450-1460], possibly the largest early Flemish woodcut. It was printed in a light brown ink on two sheets of paper that were joined together in the middle of the picture. It was colored by hand and then mounted on a rough panel of unplaned pine 1/4 inch thick. he over-all size of the print is 33 inches by 32 inches. When brought in for restoration the picture was badly decayed after five hundred years of exposure to atmospheric changes, gases, candle spatterings, dirt, and dust. All these factors contributed to the oxidation, changing, and obscuring of some of the colors as well as to the general decay of the paper on which the woodcut was printed and of the wooden back on which the print was mounted. It had been attacked by silverfish [Lepisma saccharina], and its entire surface was drilled with holes by woodworms. The worms had [p. 35] eaten so much of the wooden panel and frame that it was hardly more than a shell. The silverfish had eaten from the edge inward, all around, and even into the picture itself. Paper and wood expand and contract at different rates in response to varying atmospheric conditions, and extremes of temperature and humidity had caused the paper to blister or pull away from the panel in many places. These places were very brittle and would have crumbled with even a slight pressure. When the panel had cracked the paper had cracked with it. A white deposit on the surface appeared to be the remains of a protective coating, such as varnish, applied many years ago. At first examination it was thought that the best that could be done was to remove the dirt and possibly some of the white deposits. This was attempted by careful application of alcohol on cotton swabs rolled over the surface. The picture did clean up slightly and look brighter. But there was still the matter of conservation to be considered. Spraying it with a protective coating would make its removal from the panel difficult, if such an attempt were made. It was left in the laboratory for three months while we gathered courage and ideas for a different approach. One day, after experimenting with moisture on a corner, it was found that the agglutinant would soften readily enough and the paper separate from the panel. The plan of action was laid out. It was thought that the best material on which to mount the print was a paper as near to the original as possible, and a craftsman of handmade paper in New York was consulted. He used some heirloom linen to make all-rag paper, with deckled edges. Two pieces from the largest mold, 23 by 18 1/2 inches, were joined, as was the original, to make a single sheet. A sample of the fifteenth-century paper had been sent to the craftsman to match for color and texture.
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The picture was then photographed in black and white and in color. A scale drawing was made on a heavy board, with the help of a colored slide thrown on a screen. This was done so that, after removal from the panel, the pieces could be returned to their proper position. It was necessary to remove the entire picture from the panel before mounting it on the linen rag paper, because repeated moistening would have varied the amount of stain removed and reproduced a very uneven look when dried. An outline drawing was made on the linen all-rag paper that was to be the final backing for the picture. Since this handmade paper was fairly soft, it was dipped in sizing made from vellum and while still damp brushed over with mounting-paste made from triple-milled wheat flour. The operation of removing the picture from the wooden panel was then started. First the panel was placed on a tilted table. Warm water was flowed [p. 38] over the fade of the print and left for five minutes. The very delicate work of removing the pieces of paper from the panel to the scale drawing was undertaken. We began with the upper left corner and worked across the top to the right and down to the center where the two pieces were joined together horizontally. This top section came off in about five large pieces. The bottom, which was in a worse state of deterioration, was much more difficult and came off in many, many pieces. The center portion of the Apostle John's robe was in particularly poor condition. St. John's raised right hand was completely eaten away by silverfish. It does not show in the beforerestoration photograph because the printed outlines of the fingers were furrowed through to the wooden back. After the pieces had been removed, they were found to be covered on the back with a thick mucilaginous substance that had been the mountant, and even small splinters from the pine panel were sometimes embedded in it. Each piece, therefore, had to be cleaned before it could be remounted. In the process of cleaning, the pieces were floated in water and placed on a blotter. The slight pressure used in cleaning the back actually caused some of the surface dirt and stain to come off on the blotter. A certain latitude in manipulation is allowed with old watercolor, because over a number of years of softening and hardening, of expanding and contracting with atmospheric changes, the pigment becomes fixed with the size and cellulose of the paper, so that warm water is not likely to move it. When the pieces were completely removed from the wooden panel and cleaned, they were mounted one by one to the already prepared linen paper, which was to be the permanent back. With the heavy absorption of water the old paper had expanded, and even with the help of the outline drawing, a great deal of judgment was needed in arranging the pieces. Here the scale drawing proved its value. The entire procedure of removing the woodcut from the wooden panel to mounting it to a new back took two people eight hours. After a week of drying under a stack of blotter, changed several times, the reassembled woodcut was finally put for five minutes under infrared lamps, to assure complete drying. In a few places, where the original paper was missing, touches of color were added to pull the design together.
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After this, the picture was sprayed with a plastic [poly-vinyl-copolymer] to protect the colors and seal the paper. The restoration and treatment with plastic should prevent further decay and discoloration. The restoration of this woodcut illustrates that even pictures that are on the brink of total disintegration can sometimes be rescued and preserved by the restorer. But it should also be a reminder that much of the damage that [p. 39] occurs to pictures can be avoided by observing the preventive measures outlined in this guide. If in providing the reader with this set of commonsense rules for preservation the authors enable him to prolong the life of at least one of his treasured pictures or books, their goal will be achieved. [p. 40]
[Dolloff, Francis W. and Roy L. Perkinson. How to Care for Works of Art on Paper. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Fourth Edition. 1985.]

The Enemies of Paper

NOTE: Visuals included in the original published guide are not provided in this document. Paper is fragile. Although it can last for centuries if properly made and cared for, it is highly susceptible to damage by environmental conditions, by insect pests, and by man. But dangers may also come from within, for paper may begin with flaws. INHERENT FAULTS Even the finest handmade papers are sometimes disfigured by stray pieces of wood or rusty metal, marks from the ropes in the drying loft, or buckling caused by hasty drying and curling. Much more serious defects can result from the various technical "improvements" mentioned earlier. Machines were devised for preparing pulp composed of shorter and shorter fibers, which made a weaker sheet of paper. Chemicals used to make a whiter sheet from a larger range of raw materials were so harsh that strength was further reduced. Incomplete washing and the addition of still other chemicals, particularly alum, left dangerous residues that, like an invisible time bomb, ensured eventual destruction. Of course, there are now many types of paper that are by nature short-lived, that are born to die. The newspaper or paperback book, for example, will not be in readable condition for more than a couple of decades, perhaps less. But then, should they
17

be? On the other hand, many book publishers and libraries have awakened to the fact that, because so little attention has been paid to the built-in dangers to paper, the majority of books printed in the first half of this century--books that should last-will probably be unusable by the year 2000. This alarming situation has impelled modern technology to answer the question of what constitutes paper permanence, so that one can at least choose whether the paper to be used will last long enough to suit the purpose. Thus, the present situation differs from that in the fifteenth century in that permanence in paper is now a matter of choice rather than of circumstance. Use of a permanent paper is half the battle of preservation. If publishers want their product to last, they should select paper with the appropriate specifications. Artists should seek out the many fine all-rag papers available if they want their work to outlive them. Art collectors should take care to see [p. 13] that only all-rag mats and acid-free papers are used in framing their pictures [see "Matting and Framing"]. Archivists, librarians, and curators should familiarize themselves with the acid-free papers and storage materials existing today.

Handling - Most damage to paper caused by man could be avoided with just a little extra care and common sense. The standard rules of handling are as follows: 1. Use clean hands to handle books and pictures. 2. When lifting matted or unmatted pictures, use two hands to keep from bending, creasing, or tearing them. 3. Unmatted pictures should never be stacked directly on top of each other but should be separated by a smooth, nonacid cover tissue. 4. For optimum protection valuable pictures should be matted rather than left loose. Less valuable pictures or documents can be kept in acid-free folders or envelopes. 5. Be careful not to touch or drag anything [the corner of another mat, for example] across the surface of a picture. Mezzotints, pastel drawings, and silkscreen prints are particularly vulnerable to surface damage. 6. Never use pressure-sensitive tapes [Scotch tape, masking tape, etc.], gummed brown wrapping tape, rubber cement, synthetic glues, or heat-sealing mounting tissue on any picture that is to be preserved. 7. Pictures glued down on old boards should be handled with as much care as any unmounted, brittle picture. The backing gives a false sense of strength, which may put one off guard.

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8. Matted pictures should be protected with cover tissue when not in use. For temporary display or protection, the entire mat can be wrapped in flexible plastic sheeting [Mylar] and secured with tape on the back, but because of its inherent static electricity, this material should never be used on pictures with fragile pigment, such as pastels or charcoal drawings. 9. Open a mat by the outer edge, not by inserting a finger through the window and lifting the inner edge. 10. Pictures in mats or folders can be stored in drawers or slander boxes. [p. 14] 11. To carry, mail, or ship loose pictures, pack them flat between stout boards, not in a roll.

ENVIRONMENT Humidity - The chief danger of excessive humidity is the growth of mold. Since mold cannot grow unless the humidity exceeds seventy percent, preventive measures must include keeping the humidity below that amount. Air conditioning or dehumidifying machines are the answer in most climates and damp buildings. For airtight containers and exhibition cases silica gel, a dehumidifying agent, may be helpful [see Nathan Stolow, "The Micro-climate: A Localized Solution," Museum News, 56, no. 2, 1977]. When hanging or storing pictures beware of dampness on outside walls in stone houses and in basements and cellars. Houses closed up for an extended length of time may become excessively humid and should be aired periodically and checked for signs of dampness or musty odors. To illustrate the damaging effects of poor ventilation we mention a colored woodcut recently brought into the Conservation Laboratory that had mold growing not only inside its frame but also all over the outside. It had hung in a summer home that had been closed during the winter. And as a further example, two fine eighteenth-century engravings were treated for mold growth that had resulted from five years' storage in a warehouse without adequate circulation of air. Mold growth in paper often shows up as dull rusty patches that discolor the sheet. This is called "foxing" and may be caused by the chemical action of mold on metallic salts often present in paper [Figure 1]. Mold feeds on sizing and paper fibers and thereby weakens the sheet. It grows easily on pastels, which contain good nutrients for mold in their binding media. Foxing is the usual result of prolonged, high atmospheric humidity, but if water itself seeps into the picture or book, rampant proliferation of mold may completely envelop the object. First-aid
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treatment is to remove the object to a dry environment. Open the frame or spread out the pages so that air can circulate freely to the infested areas. Expose to direct sunlight for about one hour to kill the mold or, preferably, place in a closed container with some crystals of thymol, a fungicide, for two or three days. Small sachets or dishes of thymol crystals placed in bookcases or storage containers can help to prevent mold. Librarians and art collectors may also want to construct a thymol cabinet designed specifically for treating mold. It [p. 15] should have a metal floor on which the thymol crystals are placed and several racks or shelves on which pictures and books can be spread out to allow the thymol fumes to permeate the paper. The metal floor is gently warmed from below by lowwattage [forty-watt] bulbs, which are turned on every day or two for about an hour to make the thymol crystals volatilize more effectively. The placement and power of the bulbs should be adjusted so that the metal floor never feels hot. If evaporation occurs too quickly, the thymol vapors may saturate the air in the cabinet, recondense as small oily droplets, and form spots on the pictures. Since thymol softens oil paint, the inside of the cabinet should be left unpainted. For the same reason pictures painted in oils should never be treated with thymol. Since thymol is volatile, it offers no permanent protection against recurrence of mold if an object is returned to a humid environment. For example, the surface of a pastel painting recently brought into the Conservation Laboratory was covered with mold. A note on the back of the frame indicated that the pastel had been treated for mold fifteen years earlier, and the owner revealed that after treatment it had been put back in the very same place as before, on the damp outer wall in an old stone house; thus it had contracted another bad case of mold. In summary, the rules for guarding against mold are as follows: 1. Keep the humidity below seventy percent; about fifty percent is ideal. 2. Do not store pictures or books in damp cellars or basements. 3. Avoid hanging pictures on the outside walls of a house, especially if they feel cold or damp. 4. Never frame pictures directly against the glass [see "Matting" and "Framing". To do so invites damage by mold growth or condensation of moisture. 5. Clean bookshelves, frames, and storage areas regularly, as dust contains a large amount of airborne mold spores. 6. Good circulation of air reduces chances of mold growth. Circulation of air behind a frame is improved by attaching small pieces of cork or wood to the lower two corners to keep the frame away from the wall.
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7. Never store pictures or books directly on the floor. Raise them on supports to allow circulation of air. 8. Avoid leaving books and pictures in a closed room or house for extended periods of time without providing some means of circulation or dehumidification. [p. 16] 9. Fumigate infested books, pictures [except oil paintings], storage containers, and bookcases with thymol fumes to kill mold, and be sure to correct the conditions that originally caused the mold growth.

Light - Of all the external forces that can affect paper, light--perhaps because it is so much a part of our everyday experience--is often the most ignored and misunderstood. In times past, prints and drawings were traditionally kept in books or albums as illustrations to texts and shown now and again in the parlor to gatherings of family or friends on Sundays or special occasions, much in the way albums of snapshots are shared today. Life styles have changed, and today the print or drawing is made to serve as a decoration on the walls of a house, office, or gallery, a function that often exceeds its original purpose. Furthermore, the growing interest in art has not only spread ownership of prints and drawings, but has also augmented the number of exhibitions and hence the accessibility of these works of art. The net result is a drastic increase during the last several decades in the danger of damage resulting from overexposure to light. Collectors, rightly concerned with this hazard, often ask conservators whether fading can be stopped by keeping watercolors, drawings, or colored book bindings in subdued light. Unfortunately, and to their surprise, the answer is "no." It must be remembered that all light fades works of art on paper; less light means only less fading. Pigments used by the papermaker to tint his product or by the artist to create his image do not automatically stop fading when the light drops below a certain level [see Figure 2]. And fading is not reversible. Placing a work of art on paper in darkness merely halts the process and does nothing to promote recovery or rejuvenation. How much light should be used for viewing works of art on paper? What minimum amount of light does the human eye need to perceive all colors in their proper relationships? The answer is one of degree. Anyone who takes a walk by moonlight can verify that when light is at an extremely low level the eye loses all ability to perceive colors and can only distinguish tonal, or black and white, values. Therefore, one can only conclude that there must be sufficient light for good viewing, but any excess, which will hasten fading, must be avoided at all costs. An optimum amount of light is five footcandles, which corresponds roughly to the
21

output of one 150-watt reading lamp at a distance of three or four feet. In other words, use the same amount of light for viewing works of art on paper as is required for casual reading. [p. 17] Bear in mind that the human eye is a poor judge of light quantity because it adapts so easily to major changes in intensity. The eye needs mechanical assistance to make an objective determination of light quantity. This can be accomplished with some of the older photographic light meters, such as the Weston, which are calibrated in footcandles. Follow this procedure. Take a sheet of white blotting paper or other similar unglazed white paper, at least one square foot in size. Put the paper in the position that the picture is to occupy and, following the manufacturers directions for using the meter, make a grading of the light reflected from the sheet of paper. The proper amount of light is now determined [See "Materials and Services" for two other types of meters that measure footcandles directly.] The next step is to guard against unnecessary exposure. Museums and historical societies control exposure by various means. It is their practice for example, to keep delicate watercolors and documents with fading ink in storage for viewing only by appointment. They display them in rooms lit artificially only during welldefined hours. They install them in cases protected with fabric coverings, which the visitor himself can remove and replace. In the nineteenth century, some Victorian frames for watercolors were equipped with a small curtain, resembling a window shade, that would roll up inside the molding when raised to view the picture. Most large museums rotate selections from their holdings so that an object is never left on view for more than a few months at a time, a practice which even the modest collector might well emulate. Simply changing the position of the pictures in your house once every year or so will not only diminish the possibility of their fading but will also place them in a new perspective that will enhance enjoyment of them. The established collector might even consider the possibility of storing a certain percentage of his collection on a rotating basis. Avoid hanging pictures or placing bookshelves or glass-fronted bookcases on a wall directly opposite windows, since the light is likely to be greater there than anywhere else in the room. Translucent curtains or louvered blinds can be used to moderate or redirect the bright light of day. Pictures should, of course, never be hung in direct sunlight. Even reflected [p. 19] or indirect daylight, however, carries a danger in addition to intensity, for it is a source of ultraviolet light, which, though invisible, is even more destructive than visible light. Ultraviolet rays accelerate fading and even cause deterioration of the paper itself. Watercolors, prints, drawings, and books should therefore never be exposed directly to these damaging rays. Fluorescent lights are a potent source of ultraviolet light and should always be covered with cylindrical plastic sleeves that

22

filter out the dangerous radiation. Alternatively, ultraviolet-filtering acrylic plastic may be substituted for glass in a picture frame [see "Matting" and "Framing"].

Heat- Do not expose pictures and books to heat, since high temperatures accelerate the deterioration of paper. Do not hang pictures over a radiator, heating register or air duct. The enticing spot above the fireplace is doubly bad as a place to hang pictures, first, because of heat, and, second, because soot and gummy residues produced by the fire adhere to the glass and obscure the picture.

Air Pollution - Urban areas are antipaper. The city dweller should realize that a polluted atmosphere is one of the dangers that threaten the longevity of paper and the permanence of works of art on paper. The most harmful contaminant in the atmosphere is sulphur dioxide, a gas produced by combustion of fossil fuels like coal and oil; it is a major constituent of smog. Sulphur dioxide attacks paper and causes discoloration, embrittlement, and eventual disintegration of the paper fibers. It is absorbed by the paper and converted into sulphuric acid, a particularly strong acid that does not evaporate and leave the paper even after it has been removed from contact with the gas. Severe brown stains caused by this destructive pollutant are often seen on framed pictures that have been partly or entirely exposed to the air by lack of adequate backing [see Figure 3]. Sulphur dioxide also robs leather bookbindings of their strength and pliability and can eventually reduce them to mere powder. At the turn of the last century library holdings were severely damaged by the high concentration of sulphur dioxide produced by the use of illuminating gas. Certain artist's pigments can also be affected adversely. Ultramarine blue, for example, which is often used in watercolor painting, can be completely destroyed long before the paper itself has been even moderately discolored. [p. 20] White lead, encountered more often in oil paintings but sometimes used as a highliht or as body color in wash drawings or watercolors, reacts with sulphur dioxide to form lead sulphide and darkens to a dirty gray or sooty black, thereby destroying the tonal range of the picture. Air pollution seems to be an inescapable hazard of urban life. The only sure defense, short of removing the paper to the relatively unconataminated air of the suburbs or the country, is to install air conditioning. The restorer can help to minimize the effects of pollution by washing or deacidifying paper that has been exposed too long to city pollutants. Protectin of framed pictures with all-rag board, front and back, plus a backing large enough to cover the entire mat will help to minimize danger from a polluted atmosphere. The new technology is also introducing into paper manufacture alkaline chemicals which aid in neutralizng the
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damaging effects of pollutants. Acidic substances which attack and destroy leather bookbindings can be neutralized by applying a solution of potassium lactate. [For directions on applying this solution see Carolyn Horton, Cleaning and Preserving Bindings and Related Materials, 2nd ed. rev., Chicago, 1969.]

Insects - The most common insects that threaten paper are silverfish, termites, cockroaches, and woodworms. SIlverfish are silvery, or pearl gray, insects with three tail-like appendages; they are often discovered when books, papers, or frames on the floor are picked up or suddenly moved. They prefer warm, damp places, shun the light, and move so quickly that detection is difficult, so that they may cause considerable damage before they are noticed. A serious threat to books, they are equally damaging to works of art on paper. They will eat their way through pictures to get at flour paste and glue sizing but also enjoy bleached wood-pulp paper [see Figure 4]. A picture about 16 by 20 inches in size was brought into this laboratory for treatment; its surface had been almost entirely devoured by silverfish, so that scarcely a trace remained of the original image. Although termites and woodworms are commonly thought of as enemies of wood alone, they will devour virtually anything made of cellulose, including paper. Their winding, branching tunnels can cause considerable structural damage to book covers, frames, and pictures that have been mounted on wooden panels [see "A Note on Restoration"]. Cockroaches inhabit dark, warm, damp places, and usually come out during the night. They cause damage to parchment, leather, paper, fabrics, and any glues or painting media containing sugar. Infestation by these insects [p. 22] is best prevented by regular cleaning and by inspection of the dark spaces behind and beneath books, cases, boxes, and picture frames. Particular attention should be paid to areas such as basements and attics, where traffic is minimal, and which tend to be damp or dark. Use of aerosol or powdered insecticides is necessary if signs of these insects are present. [For further information see Philip R. Ward, Getting the Bugs Out, Victoria, B.C., 1976.]
[Dolloff, Francis W. and Roy L. Perkinson. How to Care for Works of Art on Paper. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Fourth Edition. 1985.]

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Paper - Glossary of Terms

Acidity The state of a substance that contains acid. Paper becomes acidic from the ingredients used in its manufacture, from the environment or both. Acid Free Paper A paper which has no free acid, or a pH of at least 6.5. The use of a synthetic sizing material allows the paper to be manufactured with a neutral or alkaline pH. Acid Sized Paper Paper manufactured under acid conditions having no surface buffering capacity. Alum An astringent crystalline substance used in rosin sizing to hold paper fibers together and responsible for introducing acid into the paper. Archival A term describing the use and collection of government or corporate documents. Agencies that govern large archives, like the Library of Congress, set standards for their curation, called "archival standards." Bast Fibers Refers to a group of fibers commonly used in Japanese papermaking, including flax, gampi, hemp, jute, kozo and mitsumata. Buffering A process that gradually neutralizes a papers acidity by adding an alkaline substance, like calcium carbonate, at the pulp stage. Buffering helps reduce the acidity of paper over time. Buffered Paper Paper made in an acid environment and then buffered on the surface to obtain a required pH. Cold Pressed Mildly textured surfaces produced by pressing the paper through unheated rollers. Generally considered to be a surface between rough and hot pressed. 25

Deckle 1) Wood frame resting on or hinged to the edges of the mould that defines the edges of the sheet in handmade papermaking. 2) Strap or board on the wet end of a paper machine that determines the width of the paper web.

Deckle Edge Natural, fuzzy edges of handmade papers, simulated in mould-made and machine-made papers by a jet stream of water while the paper is still wet. Handmade papers have 4 deckle edges, while mould-made and machine-made papers usually have two. Durability The degree to which paper retains its original qualities with use. Esparto A grass from North Africa which makes a soft, ink receptive sheet. [Basingwerk contains esparato.] Fibers The slender, thread-like cellulose structures that cohere to form a sheet of paper. Filler Generic term to describe the nonoxidizing clays or minerals added to the pulp at the beater stage to improve paper density. Finishing Term used to describe the cutting, sorting, trimming and packing of paper. Gampi A blast fiber from the gampi tree used in Japanese papermaking to yield a translucent, strong sheet. Gm/m2 The metric measure of weight for artists papers. It compares the weights [in gram s] of different papers, each occupying one square meter of space, irrespective of individual sheet dimensions. Another way of comparing paper weights is pounds per ream. A 140 lb. paper indicates that a ream [500 sheets] of that particular paper weights 140 lbs.

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Grain Direction Direction in which the fibers of machine-made paper lie due to the motion of the machine;. When machine-made paper is moistened, the fibers swell more across their width than along their length, so the paper tends to expand at right angles to the machine direction. Handmade and mouldmade papers have indistinguishable grain directions. Handmade Paper A sheet of paper, made individually by hand using a mould and deckle. High Alpha A nearly pure form of wood pulp which has the same potential longevity in paper as cotton, linen or other natural fiber. Hot Pressed Smooth, glazed surfaces produced by pressing the paper through hot rollers after formation of the sheet. Kozo The most common fiber used in Japanese papermaking, it comes from the mulberry tree. This is a long, tough fiber that produces strong absorbent sheets. Laid Paper Paper with a prominent pattern of ribbed lines in the finished sheet. It is accomplished in handmade paper using a screen-like mould of closely set parallel horizontal wires, crossed at right angles by vertical wires spaced somewhat further apart. The same effect is achieved in machine-made paper with the use of a "dandy roll," positioned at the top of the wire in the wet end of the paper machine. Linters A general term for preprocessed pulp, cotton or wood, purchased in sheet form. Cotton linters are fibers left on the seed after the long fibers have been removed for textile use. They are too short to be spun into cloth but can be cooked and made into paper. Stiffer and more brittle than long-fibered cotton, linters produce a low-shrinkage pulp good for paper casting. They cannot produce a paper with the strength of cotton rag. Wood linters are called hardwoood or softwood depending on grade. Machine-made Paper A sheet of paper produced on a rapidly moving machine called the Fourdrinier, which forms, dries, sizes and smooths the sheet. Uniformity of size and surface texture marks the machinemade sheet.

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Mitsumata A bast fiber used in Japanese papermaking that yields a soft, absorbent and lustrous quality. Mould The main tool for hand-papermaking, it is a flat screen that filters an even layer of fibers through it to form the sheet. In western papermaking, it is accompanied with a wooden frame called a deckle. Mouldmade Paper A sheet of paper that simulates a handmade sheet in look, but is made by a slowly rotating machine called a cylinder-mould. The machine was introduced in England in 1895. Permanence The degree to which paper resists deterioration over time. pH A measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water solution and substance, denoting acid or alkaline. A papers pH is measured on a scale from one to fourteen. Seven is neutral. Numbers higher than seven are alkaline and numbers lower than seven are acidic. Papers with a pH of 6.5 to 7.5 are generally considered neutral. Plate Finish A smooth surface found on paper that has been run under a calender machine one or more times. Ply A single web of paper, used by itself or laminated onto one or more additional webs as it is run through the paper machine. Pulp A general term describing the beaten, wet mixture of stock used in making paper, whether its contents are wood, cotton or other fibers. Also called pulp furnishes. Rags Processed clippings of new cotton remnants from the garment industry for use in high quality papers. Rag Paper Paper made from fibers of non-wood origin, including actual cotton rags, cotton linters, cotton or linen pulp. Rag papers contain from 25-100% cotton fiber pulp. 28

Rice Paper A common misnomer applied to lightweight Oriental papers. Rice alone cannot produce a sheet of paper. Rice-straw is only occasionally mixed with other fibers in papermaking. The name may be derived from the rice size once used in Japanese papermaking. Rough Heavily textured surfaces produced by minimal pressing after sheet formation. Size Material, such as rosin, glue, gelatin, starch, modified cellulose, etc. added to the stock at the pulp stage, or applied to the surface of the paper when dry, to provide resistance to liquid penetration. Sulfite A term for pulp made from wood. Depending on how it is processed for papermaking, it can either be acidic or neutral pH. Surface-Sized A term applied to a paper whose surface has been treated with a sizing material after the sheet is dry or semi-dry. Tub-Size A term applied to a paper that has been surface treated and/or impregnated with a sizing material in a tube-size press or by hand. Vellum Finish A slightly rough or " toothy" surface on a sheet of paper. Waterleaf A paper with little or no sizing, like blotter, making it very absorbent. If dampening is desired, this paper can be sprayed with an atomizer. Watermark Design applied to the surface of the paper mould which causes less pulp to be distributed in that area and results in the transfer of the design to the finished sheet. Web The continuous ribbon of paper, in its full width, during any stage of its progress though the paper machine.

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Wet Strength The strength of a sheet of paper after it is saturated with water. Wove Paper Paper with a uniform unlined surface and smooth finish, generally made on a European style mould with a woven wire surface. Most papers produced are of this type. [The above from DANIEL SMITH CATELOG OF ARTISTS' MATERIALS, Reference catelog 1991-92, Seattle, WA.]

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Paper
Paper used by artists, whether for drawing, watercolors, or other techniques, should not become brittle, must accept paint well, should be strong enough to resist erasure or scrubbing with a brush, and should discolor as little as possible as it ages. Paper is made of pulp that is mostly cellulose. The cellulose is usually derived from various vegetable fibers, chiefly cotton and linen, or from wood pulp. If manufacturers use wood pulp, they must separate the cellulose from other undesirable lignin components in the wood by cooking and chemical processing. If this is not done, the lignin causes the paper to darken. Cotton or linen pulp requires less refining and usually yields a stronger paper. Manufacturers treat most papers, with the exception of filter papers and blotting papers, with a sizing material to make the paper less absorbent. Early paper makers dipped the hand-made sheets in gelatin sizing, adding small amounts of alum (potassium aluminum sulfate) as a hardener. However, in the nineteenth century, manufacturers using newly developed paper-making machinery employed a different sizing process, involving rosin and larger quantities of alum. The additional alum caused the formation of destructive acid in these machine-made papers. Since the mid-twentieth century, some sizing methods and materials have been developed that do not contribute to the paper's acidity. The acidity of the paper is an important indicator of its potential longevity. Paper with a high acid content will age badly, darkening and becoming brittle with time. To be acceptably neutral or acid free, artists' paper should have a pH reading between 6 and 8. This requires that the cellulose pulp be neutral and that the sizing be free of ingredients that cause acidity. Although papers made of high percentages of linen or cotton fiber are preferred for painting and drawing, some special papers with low acid content have been made from other sources, including chemically processed wood pulp as well as synthetics. Common wood-pulp papers darken and become brittle with age. Newsprint paper, a very cheap wood-pulp paper, turns yellowish brown and breaks up very quickly; in spite of this it is used very often by students as drawing paper. The student-grade white drawing papers are only slightly more expensive than newsprint, but they are an improvement on it in respect to permanence.

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Paper should be stored away from heat and humidity, and it should be protected from dirt and air-born acid pollution by being kept in a cabinet. Paper may be torn or damaged more easily than wood, metal, or fabric, but when there is concern for the fragility of a drawing or watercolor on paper, it can be glazed, matted, and backed with a rigid material, such as a heavy acid-free backing board, and thus protected against puncture or accident . . . . Properly prepared and protected, it will last as long as other permanent supports.
[Kay, Reed. Painter's Guide to Studio Methods and Materials. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1983.]

Papers
All artists' paper should be made of pure linen or linen and cotton rags, free from wood pulp, chemical agents, and resin fillers. The best watercolor papers are handmade by European firms of ancient descent. Wood-pulp paper, which is paper in its most common form, becomes brittle and brownish with age, as evidenced by newspaper [p. 148] and newsprint pads. But age-deterioration is not produced by the wood pulp per se; it is the chemicals, particularly acids, that are the cause; witness the Oriental papers which are of wood or vegetable fiber origin. Modern wood-pulp papers are made that are sufficiently permanent for art, book, and many other uses; the paper should be certified as being free from stand acid effects. The chemists designate neutral paper as pH 6.5 to pH 7, at which reading a paper will be permanent. Conservators now frequently save decrepit works on paper by a process of de-acidification. But most artists are still limited to 100 percent pure rag paper. Perhaps in the near future standards will be adopted so that the consumer can identify good, permanent paper, other than that of 100 percent rag content. This would be an important improvement, especially in the case of such items as sketchbooks, which for the past 135 years or so have been made of nonpermanent wood-pulp paper that embrittles and turns brown within a few years--under one's own eyes, one might say. For the present, 100 percent rag paper is the artists' only option for sketchbook paper that will remain in good condition over the years. The standard method of painting on the thinner grades of watercolor [most widely used] is to stretch the paper on a drawing board by first wetting it in a tub of water, then blotting off the surplus water and adhering it to the board with the regular brown gummed-paper tape that is sold for sealing parcels. A strip of this tape along each edge will hold the paper securely; as it dries it stretches perfectly flat and will
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take wetting by watercolor paints and washes without the resultant curling, buckling, and wrinkling that a loose sheet would display. Gummed tape is an improvement introduced about the 1920s; before that, white paste was used, applied about 1/2 inch in all around the edges; the gummed strips are simply more convenient. Some experience with any particular kind of paper will indicate how wet it should be; the stretching of a paper soaked too heavily may tear it at the corners, and if insufficiently wet it may wrinkle. Most watercolor paper is sold in the "imperial" size, the sheets measuring about 22 by 30 inches. High-grade watercolor paper is also sold in blocks [pads], but not in very large sizes. Watercolor paper is priced according to its weight, which is indicated by pound numbers that refer to the weight of a ream [500 sheets]. The lightest is called 72 pound, the next lightweight kind is 140 pound, [p. 149] twice as heavy and twice as expensive. The very heavy papers designated 300 to 400 pound are really superb; they do not require stretching [they could almost be called cardboard; it is possible to paint on the paper holding it in one's lap]. They withstand much more drastic treatment than the lightweight varieties do; scraping and other manipulations that would ruin these can be done on 140-pound paper. Their prices are high, but a professional painter can consider this a normal expense if only an occasional watercolor is sold. Most of the best watercolor paper is imported from Europe; few mass-produced American papers approach their quality. In recent years, however, individual craftsmen have set up facilities to produce handmade paper in small-scale limited production. The texture of watercolor paper varies a little with each maker; the most popular finishes in creative painting are the coarser ones, known as rough [R], or not-pressed [NP], and the least coarse as hot-pressed [HP]. The smoother kinds are co d-pressed [CP] and are occasionally used in techniques other than normal watercolor, but their principal use is for pen drawing and other techniques. [pp. 148-150]
[Mayer, Ralph. The Painter's Craft. An Introduction to Artist's Methods and Materials. Revised and updated by Steven Sheehan, Director of the Ralph Mayer Center, Yale University School of Art. New York: Penquin Group. 1948. 1991.]

Paper as Support and Ground

Both fabrics and stretchers are relatively expensive. The tasks of stretching and restretching consume considerable time. Young artists therefore often do not begin to paint on canvas until the last years of their training. Since hardboard is by no means inexpensive, in spite of the fact that one can paint on both sides, many
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beginners are tempted to resort to painting on cardboard, a practice that has often been condemned in this book and elsewhere, yet one that seems to die hard in our academies. The author, as a member of a generation suffering from lack of materials after World War I, has had to search for a substitute for canvas. In those days hardboard was not yet invented, and the fabrics woven from paper were useless. An obvious and even less expensive solution was paper, not as a ground for painting but as a support for a ground consisting of several layers. As with many emergency solutions, this substitute proved so useful that many painters never completely abandoned it. Inexpensive, strong wrapping paper is moistened with a synthetic sponge and glued with ordinary hide glue to crude, homemade stretchers. Dextrin would [p. 346] also serve in an emergency. The ground is applied as on canvas. As students we would simply use roofing battens joined with lap-joints. Sizes larger than six feet were reinforced with two crossbars, for we often primed large pieces obtained from rolls and cut them to size as required. The pieces were pinned to a firm support for painting, but occasionally we stretched the paper onto reusable stretchers and painted on to it directly. If one of these sketches was later required for an exhibition of students' work or was to be sold, it was mounted on plywood. Nowadays one would use Masonite for this purpose. For years I have used carefully primed paper on my journeys and have found it infinitely preferable to the heavy cardboard supports that once were common. However, wrapping paper of inferior quality tears very easily when wet. One should endeavor to find paper of a better quality, preferably one that is available in rolls. Types of ground for painting on paper with oil or varnished tempera will be described below. Priming of paper has certainly become much easier since the introduction of synthetic dispersions. Purchasers never rate oil paintings very highly when they have been painted "merely on paper." A mention of famous precedents [Holbein, Rubens, Van Dyck] rarely dispels these misgivings, which are entirely unjustified. Paper very effectively prevents cracks originating in old wooden supports from penetrating to the paint layer. Ready-to-use oil painting paper has been commercially available for nearly 100 years. Its surface is coated with a material resembling an oil ground and embossed with an imitation canvas texture. Apart from the unpleasant, fake appearance of its surface, this type of paper will become brittle in time and is unsuitable for artists. The word is derived from papyros, a material used in ancient Egypt. The pale pith of the thick-stemmed paper reed, which grows up to ten feet tall in the marshes of Africa and Asia Minor, was cut into strips, interwoven, pressed, and dried into a material similar to paper. It was used not only for writing but also for painting. Nowadays we paint and draw on paper made from chemically treated wood fibers,
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flax, hemp, cotton, and even finely ground and bleached straw. The resultant pulp is charged with binding material, pressed into layers of varying thickness, and eventually rolled and dried. Paper made entirely from wood pulp has little tear strength, rapidly turns yellow on exposure to light, and is used only for unimportant sketches. Rag papers are considerably better but also far more expensive. Some modern types of American cellulose pulp of quite good quality are made into ragcontent papers mixed with rag pulp, so that the good qualities of one material compensate for the drawbacks of the other. Doerner recommended only pure linen rag papers for drawing and painting, and many painters still prefer handmade papers, yet the latter have been quite adequately replaced by modern machine-made papers, which even have overcome some of the disadvantages of the former. Paper is the conventional support for watercolors and will be discussed form that point of view in the appropriate chapter. If paper is to be painted on without prior preparation, the pulp should have been sized, the surface should be able to withstand rubbing without becoming rough, and it should not swell unduly. It depends on the artist's preference whether he favors a smooth, relatively nonabsorbent paper that has been hot-rolled or a softer, absorbent paper with a rougher surface. Colored papers are obtained by adding pigments. These are [p. 347] used mainly for drawings, pastels, and gouache paintng. All paper yellows when exposed to sunlight, although high-quality paper is less subject to this effect. Some modern paper is made to appear white by additions of brighteners. Since these tend to reduce the brilliance of warm watercolor shades, artists do not benefit from this kind off "improvement." [pp. 346-348]
[Wehlte, Kurt. The Materials and Techniques of Painting. Translated by Ursus Dix. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. 1975.]

Paper - For Acrylics

The acrylic polymer tempera paints can be used on both rigid and flexible supports. The strong adhesive quality of these paints and the pliability of the dried films they form make it possible to use them on paper, linen and cotton textiles, Masonite Presdwood, wood panels, cardboards, and indoor masonry and plaster surfaces. The support material should be prepared with an acrylic emulsion priming by the method described on page 110. This acrylic priming, sold as acrylic gesso, serves to reduce the absorbency of the support material and provides an even surface on which the colors can be easily manipulated. If the acrylic priming is used, no preliminary sizing is needed on textiles, paper, wood, or Masonite panels. On rigid supports such as Masonite or wood panels, the traditional glue gesso described on
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page 115 in the book can be used as a ground [p. 194] for acrylic painting. However, using the acrylic priming would seem a sounder practice since all layers in the picture would then contain the same binder. Although the acrylic polymer paints will adhere to surfaces that have been painted with oil colors or oil primings, there is always the risk that an oilier section of the surface may be sufficiently slick to prevent the acrylic colors from forming a good bond with it. Therefore it is safest to avoid using acrylic tempera over oil paint surfaces. If such an oil primed surface must be used, the surface should be as matte as possible and should be thoroughly roughened with sandpaper to provide as much tooth and absorbency as possible. Linen and cotton canvas, prepared with an acrylic emulsion priming, is now sold in art supply shops. Such commercially preprimed canvas offers an appropriate surface for acrylic painting to the artist who does not wish to be involved in the preparation of the support material. [pp. 194-195]
[Kay, Reed. Painter's Guide to Studio Methods and Materials. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1983.]

Paper - For Fingerpainting

Around the outer edge of the room [the teacher] can have one of the children place a layer of clean newspapers, and on top of this the sheets of fingerpainting paper on which to work . . . . If fingerpaint paper is not available or is too expensive for the classroom budget, fingerpaintings can be done on almost any type of paper, but preferably one with a smooth, nonporous surface. Magazine covers, butcher paper, and shelf paper are all good for this activity. Shelf paper is perhaps the most satisfactory.
[Mattil, Edward L., Chairman, Dept. of Art, North Texas State University. Meaning in Crafts. Third Edition, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1971.]

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Paper - For Gouache

Grounds for gouache may be the same as for watercolor. However, although watercolor is almost always painted on a bright white ground, gouache has been very often used on a toned ground. Linen rag paper, gessoed panels, rag cardboards, and the like are most often used for gouache painting. Most of the gouache painting at the turn of the century was executed on toned supports such as cardboards of a middle gray or brown tint. These tones come through the loose strokes of gouache with a lively silvery effect and often serve throughout the picture to create harmonious middle tonalities. Toulouse-Lautrec's gouaches, such as the one reproduced here [not included here] , demonstrate the expressive potential of this method.
[Kay, Reed. Painter's Guide to Studio Methods and Materials. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1983.]

Paper - For Casein

Like the other traditional water-thinned paints, casein colors should be used on rigid supports, such as panels of wood, Presdwood, or rag cardboard, or on flexible supports, such as rag paper or linen, that have been mounted on a rigid backing. If the paint is used in thin layers, unmounted heavy paper will be satisfactory, but heavier paint films will crack on a flexible support. The mounted paper or cardboard requires no ground. Glue gesso or casein gesso is used as a ground on the other supports. In an emergency zinc white, ground in casein for use as a color will serve instead of the usual gesso ground to coat a surface. No imprimatura is necessary to reduce the absorbency of the gesso. If a toned ground is desired, it can be obtained by a wash of casein color applied to the finished ground.
[Kay, Reed. Painter's Guide to Studio Methods and Materials. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1983.]

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Oil Painting on Paper

Oil paintings, especially those of small size, are sometimes attempted on paper or paper that has received some sort of coating to render its surface less absorbent or more adaptable to the medium. Paper is a completely unsuitable material for oil paint from almost any viewpoint--it lacks structural strength and stability, it is alien and inappropriate to the oil medium, and the resulting works are usually very fragile. Almost every oil painting on paper that subsequently becomes of value has had to receive extensive restoring treatment. But pure rag paper or wood-fiber paper certified to be neutral [ pH 6.5 to 8.5], mounted on 4-ply rag board [some dealers call it museum board], would seem to have an excellent chance for survival. [p. 117]
[Mayer, Ralph. The Painter's Craft. An Introduction to Artist's Methods and Materials. Revised and updated by Steven Sheehan, Director of the Ralph Mayer Center, Yale University School of Art. New York: Penquin Group. 1948. 1991.]

Paper - For Pastels

The support for pastels may be paper, cardboard, Presdwood, or mounted canvas. Papers and cardboard should be made of rag fiber. They may be used without a ground priming if their surface is sufficiently rough or toothy to accept and hold the pastel particles. Special pastel papers exist which are usually made by coating their surface with an adhesive over which pumice or some other material is sprinkled to provide additional tooth. Such grounds may be made by painting a mounted paper or cardboard with casein solution (made according to recipe A - See Casein--4 onces by weight of casein to 1 quart water). While still wet, the surface is sprinkled evenly with fine pumice powder. When the casein has dried well, the excess pumice is dusted off. Starch solution is sometimes recommended for this sort of ground in place of the casein. In this case 2 and 1/4 ounces (av.) of pure rice starch are dissolved in 1 pint of hot water. This is stirred till cool, making a smooth paste which is brushed thinly and evenly over the support and then sprinkled with pumice powder. However, a casein ground is less vulnerable to mold, being less hygroscopic.

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When tinted papers or cardboards are used, with the intention of allowing their tone to play a part in the final color scheme of the picture, it is important that the color of the paper be lightfast and not some cheap commercial ink that will fade in a short time. Artists can use watercolor, qouache, or various tempera paints to tint their papers or cardboards before working on them with pastel.
[Kay, Reed. Painter's Guide to Studio Methods and Materials. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1983.]

Paper - For Watercolor

The most common support for watercolor is paper. However, watercolor has been used on silk and other thin fabrics, gessoed surfaces, parchments, and ivory. Usually no ground is required for paper, ivory, or parchment. The surface should be free of grease or oily material; it may be wiped down with a dilute solution of ammonia water in order to remove any oily deposit that might prevent the watercolor from penetrating. Papers should be made of linen rag or cotton fiber. Cheaper substitutes made of wood pulp do not behave as well. Naturally since watercolor is a glazing technique, any darkening of the paper will lower the tone of the painting. The paper must be well sized by the maker, or it will be too absorbent to work upon with ease. Papers are sold by the sheet, priced according to the weight of a ream. Weights commonly range from 70 pounds to 300 pounds. Most papers are produced in three surfaces: hot pressed (smooth), cold pressed (medium), or rough. Some of the best-known brands are Fabriano papers from Italy, Arches papers made in France, Whatman and Royal Water Color Society (R.W.S.) papers from England. A watermark, showing the manufacturers name, is visible when the paper is held to the light. Papers that are not of extremely heavy weight will wrinkle and pucker when they are painted upon with watercolors. Most painters prefer to stretch the paper to prevent this. First, the paper is moistened liberally with clear water, either by soaking it a few minutes in a tub or by wetting both sides with a sponge. It stretches after it has been wet, and when it has had a few minutes to expand, it is spread out on a drawing board. Its edges are then taped down by means of gummed brownpaper tape of the sort that is used on packages. As the paper dries, it becomes smooth and tight as a drum. If the paper is wet too long so that it stretches too much, it may tear when it contracts as it dries. The correct amount of moisture varies with the weight of the different papers. With experience the artist learns how much time a particular paper needs for soaking and expanding before it is finally fastened down to dry. Some artists use special stretching frames, which are made
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for this purpose. They consist of two frames, one of which fits snugly inside the other. The wet paper is clamped between them while it dries tight, no glue or tape being required. For rapid work which does not require precise handling, blocks of watercolor paper may be satisfactory. These usually consist of two dozen sheets of paper, held together at the edges by glue and light fiber. Such paper requires no stretching or backing board, but it will buckle more than stretched paper will if the painter works over it a long time.
[Kay, Reed. Painter's Guide to Studio Methods and Materials. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1983.]

Paper, Vellum, Parchment, and Ivory

I N D E X : Linen - Cotton - Japanese paper [prepared from the bast-fibres of the paper-mulberry] - Manuscripts written on felted vegetable fibre - The two first paper-mills in France - Analyses of Drawing-Papers - Water - Size - Ash - Fibre Paper-making - Paper Testing - To size paper - The roughness or smoothness of the surface of the paper, or cardboard - Deteriorate in strength and tint - Oil or fat in paper - Drawing-papers - Vellum - Parchment - Ivory - Tinted and coarse coloured papers for water-colour work - 'Sugar' paper - Mill-board As paper is used as the painting-ground for the vast majority of works executed in water-colours, and as this method of painting offers but slight protection to the pigments employed against hostile influences, it becomes of the greatest importance to ascertain that no unnecessary elements of danger are introduced in the paper itself. We will now proceed to consider briefly the sources and constituents of drawing-paper. Linen from the common flax [Linum usitatissimum] , and in the form of white rags, should be the basis of the pulp used in the making of sound drawing-paper. In actual practice the cheaper and weaker fibre of cotton [seed-hairs of Gossypium sp.] has almost entirely displaced flax, although during recent years a successful attempt has been made in England to produce a high grade of hand-made drawingpaper almost wholly composed of linen. Other vegetable fibres might, no doubt, be employed for this purpose. Thus, Japanese paper, prepared from the bast-fibres of the paper-mulberry [Broussonetia papyrifera] , were it made less absorbent by the introduction of a sufficiency of size, would probably become an efficient, strong,
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and durable substitute for linen-paper; but at present linen-papers, cotton-papers, and papers made from a mixture [p. 7] of these fibres, are the only kinds with which water-colourists are practically concerned. During his explorations of Chinese Turkestan, Sir Aurel Stein recovered many examples of early manuscripts written on felted vegetable fibre, that is, paper. In the British Museum are two scraps of such paper, with Chinese writing, which must be dated somewhere between the years A.D. 25 and 220. They are the most ancient specimens of paper known to exist in the world. But the manufacture of linen-paper in Europe has not at present been traced back farther than the second half of the twelfth century. Mr. W. H. James Weale, formerly Keepr of the Art Library in the Victoria and Albert Museum, informed me that the two first paper-mills in France were set going near Ambert, in the valley of the Valeyre, by men who, during their captivity in the Holy Land, were forced to work at the manufacture of paper at Damascus. One of these French mills was called 'Damascus,' the other 'Ascalon.' This was previous to the year 1189. To Mr. Weale I am also indebted for an opportunity of examining two early specimens, obtained from the 'Registre des Revenus de l'vch du Puy.' As one of the sheets contains contemporary entries of the year 1273--the other entries belonging to 1289--these papers are, at least, as early as the years named. Both papers present the creamy hue, the translucency, and the gloss of vellum. One hundred square inches of the earlier specimen weigh 127 grains; of the later, 163. Both are heavily sized with paste made from wheaten starch. The use of starch for sizing paper has been revived as of recent years, but animal size or jelly is still extensively employed. Some paper is, indeed, made from felted linen pulp alone without size; but it is blotting or filter paper, and is quite unfitted for [p. 8] water-colour work, for when a wash of pigment is passed over it, the colouring matter and the water partially separate, while the outline of the brushstroke is not preserved. Before entering further into the question of what are the essential and what the accidental and unnecessary constituents of paper, I give the summarized results of six analyses, which show the percentage proportions found in good samples:
ANALYSES OF DRAWING-PAPERS Paper Hodgkinson, 1869 English, 1876 Dutch, 1876 Whatman, `1885 Arnold, 1894 'O.W.,' 1897 Water 6.8 10.9 11.0 7.4 7.4 8.7 Size 4.6 6.1 4.8 6.3 7.6 5.5 Ash 1.1 1.1 0.9 1.1 1.5 1.7 Fibre 87.5 81.9 83.3 85.2 83.5 84.1

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Water. It should be noted that the percentages of water shown in these analyses vary considerably be reason of variations in the humidity, temperature, and pressure of the atmosphere to which the different papers had been exposed just before the analyses were made. There are, however, slight permanent peculiarities in samples made from different fibres or sized in different ways; in consequence the moisture-absorbing and moisture-retaining properties of different papers are not precisely identical under identical atmospheric conditions. This hygroscopic moisture does, indeed, vary inversely with the temperature, and directly with the amount of water-vapour in the air; it is increased also by an increased barometric pressure. There is no doubt that if it could be wholly excluded, the larger number of changes which occur in the pigments of a water-colour drawing would be prevented. It is most injuriously active when a framed drawing is exposed to considerable [p. 9] ranges of temperature. Under these conditions the moisture of the paper is first partly turned into vapour, then condensed on the glass, and, lastly, is re-absorbed by the paper, and, for a time, specially by the pigments lying on its surface. This temporary condensation of an excess of moisture upon the coloured surface does much injury before hygroscopic equilibrium is once more reestablished. Much less harm would accrue were the vaporized water allowed to escape. Size. The size must be considered next. It may be applied to the pulp or to the sheet, and may consist of gelatine with a little alum, or colophony or rosin dissolved in soda-lye, followed by treatment with alum or alum-cake. Sometimes starch is used along with alum or alum-cake. From good drawing-papers, which are sized in the sheet with animal size, the greater part of the size may be extracted by means of boiling distilled water, the solution being usually neutral or faintly acid, sometimes faintly alkaline, to test-papers. Gelatine and starch, to the extent of about 5 per cent. of the weight of the paper, are the safest sizing materials. Ash. The ash or mineral water in paper may be derived from three sources, namely, traces of the original mineral substances taken up by the flax plant from the soil, and still remaining associated with the felted pulp; the mineral matters, such as soda and alum, introduced with the size; and, lastly, the mineral compounds used to whiten, to weight, or to finish the paper, or in bleaching the fibre and as 'antichlors.' In common and adulterated papers the ash greatly exceeds 1 per cent., twelve parts per hundred of paper being no unusual proportion. This 'filling' may contain or consist of the following substances: kaolin or china-clay, silicate of lime or 'pearlhardening,' chalk or [p. 10] whitening, lead-white, baryta white or 'white dressing,' artificial gypsum or 'satin-dressing,' and a mixture of aluminum hydrate with magnesium carbonate or with calcium carbonate, known as 'satin-finish' or 'satinwhite.' Other substances which increase the amount of ash left when a paper is burnt are blue colouring matters, introduced to counteract the natural yellow tint of
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the pulp. These include artificial ultramarine, smalt or cobalt blue, and Prussian blue. Fibre. What is put down as fibre in the analyses of paper previously cited, is a substance, or group of substances, to which the name of cellulose is given by chemists. Cellulose consists of the three elements--carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; it is, when pure, entirely combustible, leaving no ash. The source of this cellulose is by no means without influence on the durability, strength, and working quality of drawing paper. The fibres of linen and of cotton present distinct differences of form and resistance to strain. When working on a paper with a knife so as to develop high lights, the water-colour painter soon discovers the weakness and fluffiness of abraded cotton, while the clear-cut surfaces of linen are equally obvious. Even in washing and in taking out lights from a drawing by sponging and rubbing, the superiority of linen paper to cotton-paper is very marked; in fact, papers into which a high proportion of the latter fibre enters will not stand much worrying. The other fibrous materials commonly forming the basis of ordinary papers are, on one score or another, less desirable than cotton. Nearly all of them require, in order to fit them for paper-making, a very drastic treatment, which is liable to leave behind it traces of injurious chemicals, or to yield altered material of lessened strength and permanence. [p. 11] Wood-pulp, esparto, and straw-pulp belong to this category.

Paper-making. The technology of paper-making cannot be discussed here, but a few references to the chemicals employed in the process of manufacture may be usefully given at this point. Amongst these chemical substances, one or more of which will have been introduced into the fibrous basis of the paper or into the size may be named: caustic soda and caustic lime; chloride of lime, magnesium hypochlorite, moist chlorine gas, and sulphuric acid; alum, aluminium chloride, and aluminium sulphate; sodium sulphite; gelatin. Of course, it is possible to cleanse and bleach the higher class of rags without having recourse to any chemical treatment, but the 'souring' with sulphuric aid and the employment of some soda or sodium carbonate to remove grease are usual; while there is always a salt of aluminium present in the size. Indeed, in the best and purest drawing-papers, the alum, or its equivalent, is the one ingredient upon which the chemist interested in paintng will look with suspicion. But the subject of the presence of chemicals, injurious or innocuous, in the finished product of the paper-mill may be relegated to the following paragraphs. Paper-testing. The simplest test of the suitability of any sample of drawing-paper for water-colour work consists in applying to its surface uniform and weak washes of a chosen set of sensitive pigments. A sound standard paper is taken for comparison; this may be 'Whatman,' but it should be first swelled in cold distilled
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water for five minutes, and then hung up to dry. In applying this test, a strip of the sample to be tested and one of the standard paper should be laid side by side, and then the several colour washes, made with distilled water, carried [p. 12] across both strips by means of a broad brush. The pigments used may be French ultramarine, chrome yellow, and carmine. Unless they are employed in very dilute admixture, the changes produced by alum and other chemical will not be perceptible. There should be no bleaching of the ultramarine or the carmine, or any blueing of the latter, and no dulling of the chrome, even after the lapse of a week from the date of the experiment. Washes of tincture of azolitmin from litmus, tincture of dahlia flowers, and tincture of methyl-orange may be similarly applied to paper-strips; in this case it will probably be found that the two former tests will show an acid reaction, and the methyl-orange a basic or alkaline reaction. This seemingly strange result has been found to arise form the presence of a derivative of the alum in the size, namely, an aluminium sulphate which is acid to some tests and basic to others. This point has been established by the experiments [Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry (1892), pp. 212, 213, 216.] of Messrs. Cross and Bevan, Mr. C. Beadle, and Drs. P. N. Evans and Quirin Wirtz, who have proved that all the drawing-papers of well-known makers which they have examined contained no free sulphuric acid. Of course, the question remains, 'How far if at all, is the basic aluminium sulphate in drawing-paper injurious to sensitive pigments?' This inquiry can, I think, be answered by applying the colour-tests already described, not only to the suspected papers themselves, but also to extracts from them made with cold distilled water and also with hot. Other useful tests are the following: 1. Burn 100 grains of paper to a white ash; not more than 1.5 grains of incombustible residue should be found. 2. Extract 100 grains of paper repeatedly with boiling [p. 13] distilled water. The united watery extracts, evaporated to dryness, should not amount to 8 grains. 3. If straw or esparto fibre be present in a paper, it will become red when immersed in a boiling 1 per cent. solution of aniline sulphate.

Attempts have been made to size paper with casein dissolved in ammonia, and also with 'viscose,' a modified cellulose made out of the substance of the paper itself by means of water, caustic soda, and carbon disulphide. At present, however, gelatinsizing holds its own. The necessity of introducing alum, or an equivalent of some other aluminium salt, into this size is its chief drawback, although an animal product of the group to which gelatin belongs, being prone to decomposition and to the attacks of microscopic organisms, itself constitutes a source of danger. Alum is used not merely as an antiseptic, but because it exerts a peculiar liquefying effect
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upon the size. A little alum solution added to gelatin solution increases its stiffness, but further additions up to an easily ascertained point make the solution more mobile. It is absolutely necessary to keep the alum percentage low; I found in a batch of one-well-known make of drawing-paper that exactly twice as much alum had been employed as was necessary. My remonstrance with the manufacturers had its due effect. The roughness or smoothness of the surface of the paper, or cardboard, is not without influence on the permanence of water-colours. The pigments become less intimately associated with the smooth surface of a hot-pressed paper than with a comparatively rough natural surface. The rough surface is, however, liable to wider and more rapid fluctuations in the amount of hygroscopic moisture. Some apparently sound papers deteriorate in strength and tint on being kept. Such changes may occur even when [p. 14] pure linen rages have been used for the pulp; they may be generally traced to the disintegrating action on the fibre of the chemical bleaching agents employed. The development of rust-posts, when not due to the mount or backing of a drawing, arises from the presence of small particles of metallic iron from the machinery having become embedded in the pulp. These particles appear grey, brown, or black; they may be detected by placing a drop of oxalic acid solution on the unsuspected spot, allowing it to dry, and then moistening the place with a drop of a freshly-prepared solution of tannin. If the particle be iron an ink stain will be produced. However, some dark spots consist of blackened grease, or of tar, or of the paper-fungus [Myxotrichum chartarum]. Naturally, there is a small quantity of 'oil' or 'fat' in paper; it varies from 3 to 5 parts in a thousand. The difficulty experienced in immediately wetting a surface of paper, caused by the presence of this trace of oil, may be overcome by first washing the surface with distilled water to which a drop or two of caustic ammonia has been added. A solution of the natural mixture of alkaline organic salts, known as oxgall, effects the same purpose. The use of borax had better be avoided. It is always advisable to wet the whole surface of the paper before beginning a water-colour drawing. Thus any abrasions or defects of the surface will become apparent. As drawing-papers are sized in the sheet they occasionally show a peculiar defect arising from the irregular distribution of the size. In such cases, when the surface is scraped off, an absorbent layer of imperfectly sized pulp is revealed beneath . When such paper is used for water-colour painting the sinking-in and running of the pigments produce disastrous results; but it is easy to guard against [p. 15] accidents of this sort by previously scraping and colouring a corner of the sheet to be used. The peculiarities generally owing to the too prolonged and low drying of the sheets of paper after they have been removed from the warm sizing-bath and pressed. The solution of size is brought to the surfaces from the interior of the sheet, and remains there. Moreover, in very slow drying, the size is apt to decompose with loss of its glutinous character and, possibly, the formation of
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mildew. A good drawing-paper will indeed have rather more size at the surface than in the interior, this result being secured by a rate of drying which is neither too rapid nor too slow. Let us add that the strength of paper when completely wetted and in the presence of free water, is very low. If, however, it has been gelatin-sized and afterwards sprayed with a 40 per cent. solution of formalin to coagulate the gelatin it becomes appreciably stronger. As to vellum, parchment, and ivory, little need be said. All three contain the characteristic ingredient ossein, an insoluble nitrogenous organic substance, which by long boiling with water is converted into gelatin: a solution of gelatin constitutes ordinary size. Water-colour paints placed upon any of these materials sink either very slightly, or not at all into their substance--a very few, such as aureolin, strontia-yellow, and madder carmine, stain the superficial layer. The old method of preparing vellum for the reception of water-colours consisted in rubbing the surface with very finely-ground bone-ash, or with pulverized sandarac. Pumice-stone or cuttle-fish, reduced to a minutely divided state by pounding, grinding, and sifting, may be used for this purpose; the infusorial earth known as polishing silica, or kieselguhr, may also be employed. [p. 16] Ivory which as become yellowish through age and seclusion from light may be safely bleached by contact with an ethereal solution of hydrogen peroxide. The treatment is best carried out on a wide-mouthed stoppered bottle, care being taken to immerse the sheets of ivory wholly in the liquid, and not to allow them to touch each other. Much care is necessary in selecting tinted and coarse coloured papers for watercolour work. The tints of the former are often obtained by the introduction of fugitive pigments into the pulp; the latter are often made of inferior and mixed fibres, and sometimes contain lead-white and other injurious fillings. [Turner' paper, for example, owes its grey-blue tint to the presence of indigo, while 'Varley' paper contains about 20 per cent. of 'mechanical' wood pulp, a material which steadily darkens into brown after but a short exposure to light. 'Sugar' paper, whatever its hue, should be avoided. Mill-board is often made of wood-pulp, oakum and straw-pulp: its surface is primed for oil-painting in the same was as canvas. [pp. 7-17]
[Church, Sir Arthur H., K.C.V.O., F.R.S., M.A., D.Sc., F.S.A., Sometime Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Academy of Arts in London. 4th Edition Revised and Enlarged. London: Seeley, Service & Co., Ltd., 1915. pp. 7-17]

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Papier Coll
[French: 'pasted paper'] A variety of collage in which pieces of decorative paper are incorporated into a picture or, stuck on a ground such as canvas, themselves constitute the picture. The technique was invented by Braque in 1913 when he used in a still life pieces of wallpaper simulating wood graining, and was almost immediately adopted by Picasso. Matisse was perhaps the greatest exponent of the technique.
[Chilvers, Ian, Harold Osborne, and Dennis Farr, eds. Oxford Dictionary Of Art. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.]

Papier Mch
PAPIER-MCH. An art material made of paper strips soaked in a binder of starch or flour paste; it dries into a firm, hard substance. Papier-Mch is widely used in the production of decorative objects and sculptures of great lightness, delicacy, and strength. [Harris, William H., and Judith S. Levey, eds. The New Columbia
Encyclopedia. New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1975.]

C O N S I D E R: Kinds of foundations - molded or carved/structural Armatures Soaking Stretching Layering Folding Wadding Coiling Attaching Constructing Planes Strings Drawing Printing Impressions Collage Painting Apron, Gloves, Work Space, Waste, Controlled Drying, Storage
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[The following is From: Edward L. Mattil, Chairman, Dept. of Art, North Texas State University. Meaning in Crafts. Third Edition, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1971.] I N D E X - Papier-Mch - Materials - Colored paper, cotton, burlap - Wallpaper paste - Paper Coils & Wire - Simple Bulky Figures - Stand-ups - Coathangers Bottle or Milk Container Standups - Miniatures - Stovepipe wire - Balloons & Papier-Mch - Giant-Sized Papier-Mch figures PAPIER-MCH. 3rd grade & up - No limitations in size large or small - can last a couple of weeks outdoors if shellacked - In many instances, Papier-Mch may be the material that most easily solves the problem when one of the regular units of work might be made more meaningful through a special project, such as the development of a model, the making of a relief map, or the building of a diorama. Materials: Large quatities of newspapers [Sheet to cover workspace and 1/2 dozen half sheets to each child] Pan for Flour or wallpaper paste Water 3 lengths of 12" wire Several 8" to 10" lengths of string 6 (ca.) lengths of pkging tape Water-based paint

Papier-Mch has a very limited tradition as an art medium. Examples of PapierMch seldom survive for long because of its temporary and perishable nature. It is common in the orient, where it is used for small objects such as toys; in Mexico, where it is used for large processional and holiday figures as well as toys; and in the United States, where it is used a gread deal in creating objects for decorating store windows.

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Papier-Mch is paper that has been softened to a pulpy state by moisture and to which paste, sizing, or resin has been added to give it unusual strength and hardness when dry. Although it may seem to be only a quick, inexpensive, temporary, or substitute material, it does have a quality and integrity of its own. It is probably one of the most versatile and useful media for school use. Its only limitations are the limits of its users' imaginations.... For successful experiences in papier-mache, the teacher needs only quantities of discarded newspapers, a flour or wallpaper paste, and some bits of string or wire. Many finished Papier-Mchprojects are painted with ordinary water-based paints, but highly successful finishes come from covering the Papier-Mch with colored paper, cotton, burlap, or any other suitable material that can create an interesting surface texture..... Suppose a class of about 30 fifth-graders decide to make a farm--each child interested in making one animal-- small animals about 8" long and 5" to 8' high. The newspapers have been carefully cut in half so that the sheets are about 12" x 16". A large container is filled with paste prepared from wallpaper paste flour, which one makes by placing water in a bucket, slowly sifting wallpaper flour into it, and stirring vigorously. By adding the powder to the water, it is very easy to get the paste the proper, smooth consistency. Wallpaper paste can also be purchased from any hardware or school supply store. Also ready are about three 12" lengths of wire for each child. If the teacher is in a rural community, he will find many youngsters who can supply bailing wire, or newsboys who can provide good quantities of wire from their bundles. It is not difficult to get boys to prepare all the wire. In addition, there should be a pan at each desk to contain a small quantitiy of wallpaper paste, several short lengths of string about 8" to 10" long, and if possible, about six pieces of gummed tape of the type used for wrapping bundles. Then each teacher gives each child a sheet of newspaper with which to cover his desk, while one child distributes half sheets of newspaper, providing each pupil with about a half dozen sheets. Another child passes the sticky paper, another the string and the wire, and the class is ready to begin. The teacher begins with the instructions, and the children follow along step by step. Because of the diversity of interests and abilities within every class, the teacher should begin with a basic idea, from which each child can depart as he sees fit. As in most crafts, it is essential that the teacher provide the children with a sound foundation on which to build. For example, he might ask each of the children to follow along as he describes the process of preparing the framework for an animal.

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PAPER COILS AND WIRE 1. First, each child places a piece of wire across the width of several sheets of newspaper and makes a tight roll, wrapping tape around the ends so that they do not become unrolled. 2. This process is repeated until all three coils are complete. 3. Now two of the coils are bent double to form legs, which, because of the wire inside, will retain their shape. One pair of legs is slipped over the third coil and fastened in place with bits of string, tape, or a small piece of wire. When this is firm, the second set of legs is placed. Here the child makes the decision. If it is going to be a long, slender animal, like a dachshund, the legs are placed far apart; if it is to be tall and delicate, like a fawn, the legs are placed close together. 4. After both sets of legs are firmly attached to the third coil, the child must decide whether the animal will have a long or short neck, a bulky or light frame, whether it will be seated or standing, and so on. Because of the wire inside of the coil, the children can modify the positions and shapes considerably at this time. 5. They are then encouraged to go on forming additional coils for long necks or heads or wadding up paper and tying it on to give a full, round body. Some children may even decide that one set of legs might better be wings and may wish to remove one set and reverse its position. Now the process is in the hands of the children, and the tacaher can only encourage them individually by urging each child to experiment, to seek unique ways of solving problems. Occasionally he may see an opportunity for individual instruction. Gifted children will see a multitude of possiblities and will develop their animals in ways that the teacher never dramed of, whereas slower children may find it difficult to think much beyond the basic structure and may gain their creative satisfaction from painting or decorating this simple form.

6. When the children have developed the forms as fully as possible by adding wads, coils, or small pieces, they cover the entire figure carefullly with strips of newspaper that have been dipped into the wallpaper paste. Several complete coatings are essential for a good, strong figure. The paste adds consierable strength and gives a hard surface on which to paint. Some teachers like to add a final coat of torn paper toweling for a better painting surface. Although this may be desirable, it is certainly not necessary. 7. After the figures have been allowed to dry for a number of days, they are painted. The teacher should encourage the children to be experimental in their
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selection of colors and should not limit them to realistic interpretations. When the teacher is free in his approach, the feeling is contagious, and the children soon learn to work freely and experimentally. 8. While the figures are drying, the teacher should encourage the children to bring in scrap materials that they think might be useful in adding a final touch of decoration to their Papier-Mch figures. This search for new uses for old materials is just another part of the teacher's daily job in developing the sensitivity of each child to the world about him. Inventiveness and imaginative thinking are basic to the value of craft teaching.

SIMPLE, BULKY FIGURES It is seldom possible to do successful Papier-Mch work below the third grade. With the smallest children, the first experiences in Papier-Mch should be limited to simple, bulky figures, such as birds, ducks, rabbits, mice, and the like. Small children might begin by stuffing small paper bags with wads of newspapers to form the main body of the animal. And then to make additional small wads of newspaper for the head. They can fasten this head to the first body section by taking long stripes of newspaper about an inch wide, dipping them into wallpaper paste, and fastening them across the head and down along the body. This process is repeated until sufficient strips have been used to set the head firmly in place. Children can create additional appendages from folded paper, if they are to be wings or tails, or from other small wads, if tey are to be legs or ears or a nose. They can attach each of the additional appendages by using the long srips of newspaper dipped in paste.

STAND-UPS Materials: 2 metal coathangers [opened with hook at end to attach to board] Piece of scrap wood at least 8" wide and 1" thick Some newspapers Good pair of wire cuters or lineman's pliers Some small metal staples of the type used to attach wire fencing to wooden posts (ca. 1/2" in length). Upper elementary and junior high school grade children enjoy making stand-up Papier-Mch figures. For this the teacher sould have each child bring two metal
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coathangers, a piece of scrap wood at least 8" wide and 1" thick, and some newspapers. Most teachers will make this an assignment for several children to insure that all the materials will be present on the day of the project. The teacher needs a good pair of wire cutters or lineman's pliers, which might be borrowed from the school shop or, if they are not available there, may be brought in by a child. He will need some small metal staples of the type used to attach wire fencing to wooden posts; these should be about 1/2" in length and can be acquired in any hardware store. 1. The coathangers should be cut in advance by several of the stronger boys. It is impossible to press a wire cutter completely through a coathanger, but it is necessary only to score it with the wire cutters, then bend it, and it will break. These coathangers are then opened up to their fullest length--about 2 feet - 2 1/2 feet. At one end of each wire the boys can bend a small circular shape that will serve as a foot and provide a good means for stapling the figure to the board. 2. Each child is given two pieces of wire to staple to the board. At this point he must decide whether the figure may be one that is to stand on one foot, crouch, or kneel. The children fasten the wires the distance apart that they think the feet should be. 3. Then make two coils by rolling newspaper. These coils will be as long as the coat hangers. They are slipped down over the wires and slid down to the feet. They can be temporarily joined about where the waist of the figure will be, and the uper parts of the coils can be bent around to form the arms. At this point we have a headless figure with two arms and two legs. 4. Now the child should be encouraged to manipulate, to change, to try to achieve action or to develop a pose compatible with the type of figure that he intends to make. It may be necessary to loosen one of the feet or to change its position. The flexibility of the project at this time lends itself to a great deal of imaginative thinking. 5. At this point the child may make a small third coil, tape a snowball-sized wad to the end of it, slip this coil between the shoulders of the first two coils, and fasten it permanently into place to form the neck and head. 6. After this the procedure is the same as with all other Papier-Mch. Large wads are added where the figure needs to be bulky, details are added and built up, and finally the entire figure is covered with strips of paper dipped in paste. This project invariabley creates a number of new problems, particularly that of dressing the figures. The teacher will be surprised by the great variety of interesting

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solutions to dressing these figures that the children will come up with, and the variety of scrap materials that the children can discover and put to new use. Such a project can be very successfully correlated with certain social studies or language units in the elementary school. The figures can make most unusual centerpieces or table decorations for parties or banquets, or can provide fine window displays for many seasonal events.

BOTTLE OR MILK CONTAINER STAND-UPS Materials: Quart vinegar bottle, plastic bottle, or quart-sized waxed paper milk container sand wire etc.

An effective smaller stand-up can be made without having to be concerned with improvising a base. Papier-Mch can be used to cover either a bottle, such as a quart vinegar bottle, a plastic bottle, or a quart-sized waxed paper milk container. A little sand poured into the container adds stability to the finished figures. Using paper strips that have been dipped in paste, the student covers the entire container, then slowly builds up the piece by adding Papier-Mch in the form of small pulp bits, strips, or paper rolls with wire inserts for arms, with several thicknesses of flat paper pasted together to form ears, wings, and clothing. The methods of PapierMch are interchangeable, and all can be used on any one piece. The important thing is to use whatever method will give the desired outcome.

MINIATURES Materials: 1 yard (ca.) of stovepipe wire In many of our schools, lack of space, espcially storage space, is a matter of great concern. In such instances, the teacher may wish to use Papier-Mch but keep the projects as small as possible. Many teachers think large size is synonymous with worth or creativity. This is not the case, of course. To do small Papier-Mch animals, the teacher might provide each child with about a yard of stovepipe wire, a
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soft, annealed iron wire available in any hardware store. Its flexibility makes it effective for use by children. 1. The wire is used for an armature or framework within the Papier-Mch. It is best if one builds the entire armature from a single piece of wire, to prevent parts from falling off or slipping out of place. The long piece of wire is bent in half and at the bend is grasped between the thumb and forefinger and twisted for several inches, though as little as possible. This portion will serve as the head and neck parts of the figure. 2. The remaining two wires are separated, and about 5" along the wire from the last twist, one of the pieces is again bent double and twisted in the same way as the head-neck portion. This forms one of the forelegs or arms. 3. The process is repeated on the other strand of wire, so that both limbs are of the same length. 4. The child wraps the two strands together to form what will be the body section, and at this point decides whether it is going to be a long or short body. 5. After these strands have been twisted for 3" - 4", the strands are again separated, and going out 4" - 5" from the last twist, one strand is folded and twisted to form one of the back legs; using the second strand, the child completes the last leg. 6. There will be short tsrands left on each side, which the child twists together to form a tail. 7, By bending these sets of legs together, the child should form a wire sculpture that can stand firmly. Children will want to manipulate these, create types of animals or figures--some sitting, some standing, some running--until they are satisfied with a position. 8. Then they can place Papier-Mch strips directly over the wire, and build up the figure. These should be neat, compact little Papier-Mchs, but should be in every way as well and creatively produced as any of the larger types.

BALLOONS AND PAPIER-MCH Materials: Variously shaped inexpensive balloons Sometimes, for variety, the teacher may want the children to make hollow, or "piggy bank," Papier-Mch animals. Variously shaped inexpensive balloons, one for each child, will provide the basis for interesting figures. Children inflate the balloons and very carefully cover them with three or four layers of Papier-Mch to
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form the main figure, and add additional body parts as needed, such as a wad for a head, small wads for legs, or coils for long necks or legs. These Papier-Mch figures are developed like the others and when dry are very, very light, but exceedingly strong. Some teachers actually do cut a slot in the back of these so that thr children may use them as banks. This procedure can be used to develop such things as Papier-Mch globes or planets and will be further described below.

GIANT-SIZED PAPIER-MCH FIGURES Materials: Table or box Chicken wire or poultry mesh Tin snips or wire cutters. Gloves Large pieces of newpaper Bucket of paste Shellack (If placed outdoors)

Some occasions demand an unusually large Papier-Mch. This may be the result of group thinking; children may decide they want a large Santa Claus and reindeer, or a Mexican burro, or perhaps a prehistoric animal. There are absolutely no limitations on the size of a Papier-Mch figures, as anyone who has ever seen the large floats in a big parade will testify. This can be worked out through the use of cmmittees or small groups of individuals working during their free time 1. Normally, to do a large one in a classroom requires construction of the basic framework using a table or box, modeling the basic shape over it with chicken wire or poultry mesh. This wire screening is very easy to manipulate and can be cut with tin snips or wire cutters. Considerable care must be exercised because of the sharp prongs that remain after the wire has been cut. However, this should not deter the teacher from using wire, for if the children doing the modeling wear gloves, there is little danger. 2. Once the basic shape has been developed and covered with the chicken wire, children can cover the entire form with large pieces of newspaper dipped in paste. If these large figures are made well enough and coated heavily with shellac or varnish after they are completed and perfectly dry, they should be sufficiently waterproof to be placed outdoors for short periods of time, perhaps a week or two.
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For example, a large Santa or snowman that may have decorated th classroom for several weeks before Chirstmas could be shellacked and placed in the schoolyard during the holidays. It is unimportant if it deteriorates during this period, for its purpose will probably have been fulfilled.
[Edward L. Mattil, Chairman, Dept. of Art, North Texas State University. Meaning in Crafts. Third Edition, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1971.]

Pinprick Pictures
Pictures made by pricking holes into paper to produce a lace-like effect. They may derive from the practice of pricking the outlines of a cartoon in order to transfer it to the painting ground. Most examples appear to be English, of the 18th and early 19th cents., when the practice was a fashionable hobby for ladies (the spiked wheel that was commonly used to draw lines was a dressmakers' tool for tracing patterns on cloth).
[Chilvers, Ian, Harold Osborne, and Dennis Farr, eds. Oxford Dictionary Of Art. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.]

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