RAltwATFR HARvFSTlt6 lt lt0lA Dissertation submitted to National Law School of India University Bangalore in partiaI fuIfiIIment of Postgraduate Diploma in Environment Law By Punam Kumari EnroIIment Number: EL/819/08
2 3 Acknowledgements I am deeply grateIul to Mr. Salahuddin Saiphy and Ms. Sushmita Sengupta Irom Center Ior Science and Environment, Delhi, Ior their valuable support in supervising this work and helping with the resource data. I would also like to thank Er. Ajit Seshadri Irom Vijay Vigyan Foundataion (VVF), Delhi Ior his guidance and valuable inputs especially on the real time problems associated with RWH. With the kindness and contributions oI the people who provided me with useIul inIormation at the time oI working on this thesis, I would not have been able to obtain the data used in this work. ThereIore, I would like to thank: Ms. Nemika Relhan & Mr. Swaroop Dutta, Lecturer , Delhi University Ior their assistance and guidance. I would also like to thank my Iamily and Iriends who supported me all through the course oI this work. 4 Abstract Urban centers in India are Iacing an ironical situation with regard to water today. On one hand there is acute water scarcity and on the other, the streets are oIten Ilooded during the monsoons, requiring managerial eIIiciency oI the Urban Local Bodies to use the surplus water oI the rainy season to overcome the deIiciency in other seasons. The shortage oI ground water is more pronounced due to urbanization and limited open areas available Ior recharge oI ground water. In some cities ground water extraction has reached very high levels and has brought problems like declining water table, Iailures oI wells/ tube wells and deterioration in ground water quality and quantity. Water is more than oIten been seen as a cause Ior social conIlicts, protests, demonstrations and road-blockades. In the given situation rainwater harvesting could prove to be a solution Ior overcoming this scenario. Depending on local environmental conditions, water harvesting may provide a supplementary supply, an alternative supply or the only Ieasible improved supply, especially in urban areas. The current centralized water supply paradigm seems unsustainable and extremely high on energy consumption. As an alternative paradigm Ior more sustainable water availability harvesting rainwater, storing it in tanks, and recharging groundwater may be put in place. On the civil society becoming more aware and sensitized regarding its potential, rainwater harvesting can perhaps be scaled up to neighborhood and micro-watershed levels. To meet these challenges, many states in India has made rooI top rain water harvesting (RWH) mandatory Ior all buildings having plot size more than 250 square meters in municipal areas and even provided incentives and rebates Ior promotion oI construction oI rain water harvesting Iacility. Despite the provision oI this incentive, compliance oI the orders is not satisIactory. This thesis work aims to study and evaluate the design and policy issues involved in implementation oI RWH in India and is structured to examine the RWH potential in India which is illustrated through successIul case studies oI Jamia Hamdard University and Tihar Jail and is Iurther emphasized by model calculations Ior large scale RWH implementation in South and Southwest Delhi. The importance placed on RWH by Indian Judiciary is illustrated through the studies oI recent Iavorable judgments involving RWH necessity in Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Restoration oI ancient Recharge structure in Tirupathi. 5 Table of Contents Acknowledgements Abstract List of Tables List of Figures 1. Introductions 10 1.1 Background 10 1.2 Aims and Objective 11 1.3 Thesis Structure 12 2. Rainwater Harvesting Literature Review 13 2.1 Science oI RWH 13 2.2 RWH Ior Domestic Purposes 15 2.3 Catchment Area 15 2.4 Conduits 17 2.5 Storage and Collection Systems 17 2.6 First RunoII Systems 18 2.7 Filters 20 2.8 Ground Water Storage 22 ArtiIicial Recharge Using Harvested Rainwater 2.9 Maintenance 29 2.10 Case Study 1 : Jamia Hamdard University`s RWH System 31 2.11 Case Study 2 : Tihar Jail`s RWH System 34 3. Design and Econometrics of RWH 36 3.1 Design Considerations 36 3.2 Design Criteria oI Recharge Structure 36 3.3 Typical Cost oI Installation oI RWH Structure in Urban environment 38 3.4 Agencies actively involved in RWH 40 3.5 Case oI Delhi : Model Calculation Ior RWH in South & southwest Delhi 40 3.6 Arguments against RWH 44 6 4. Policy Issues and Framework in India for RWH 47 4.1 Policy Framework Ior RWH in Urban Areas in India 47 4.2 RWH policy Implementation at Delhi 50 4.3 Field Survey and Findings 53 4.4 Impact Assesment 55 5. Recent Cases involving RWH 56 5.1 Case 1 : Kranti v/s Union oI India 56 5.2 Case2 : Intellectual Forum, Tirupathi v/s State oI A.P. 59 6. Conclusions and Recommendations 65 6.1 Conclusions 65 6.2 Recommendations 67 Bibliography 69 7 List of Tables Table 1 Characteristics oI RooI Type 16 Table 2 Sizing oI Rainwater pipe Ior RooI Drainage 17 Table 3 RunoII CoeIIicient Ior Various SurIaces 37 Table 4 Estimated typical cost oI Recharge Structure 39 Table 5 Policies / Legislation Ior RWH in India 48 - 50 8 List of Figures Figure 1 Conceptual Schematic oI Rainwater harvesting 14 Figure 2 Process diagram oI Domestic RWH 15 Figure 3 Charcoal Filter 21 Figure 4 Sand Filter 21 Figure 5 DEWAS Filter 21 Figure 6 Varun Filter 21 Figure 7 Recharge using Dugwells 23 Figure 8 Recharge using Tubewells 23 Figure 9 Settlements Tanks 24 Figure 10 Recharging oI Service Tubewells 25 Figure 11 Recharge Pit schematic 26 Figure 12 Section / Plan view oI Percolation Pit 27 Figure 13 Section view oI Recharge Trench 27 Figure 14 Section view oI ModiIied Injection Well 28 Figure 15 Conceptual Schematic oI RWH at Jamia Hamdard University 31 Figure 16 Water Level Trend at Jamia Hamdard University 33 Figure 17 Pre & Post Monsoon Water Quality data at Hamdard University 33 Figure 18 Conceptual Schematic oI RWH at Tihar Jail 34 Figure 19 Water Level Trend at Tihar Jail 35 Figure 20 Pre & Post Monsoon Water Quality data oI Tihar Jail 35 9 10 Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Background Water is essential to all liIe Iorms on earth - human, animal and vegetation. It is thereIore important that adequate supplies oI water be developed to sustain such liIe. Development oI water supplies should, however, be undertaken in such a way as to preserve the hydrological balance and the biological Iunctions oI our ecosystems. Consequently, the human endeavour in the development oI water sources must be within the capacity oI nature to replenish and to sustain. II this is not done, costly mistakes can occur with serious consequences. The application oI innovative technologies and the improvement oI indigenous ones should thereIore include management oI the water sources to ensure sustainability and to saIeguard the sources against pollution. As land pressure rises, cities are growing vertical and in countryside more Iorest areas are encroached and being used Ior agriculture. In India the small Iarmers depend on Monsoon where rainIall is Irom June to October and much oI the precious water is soon lost as surIace runoII. There is now increasing interest in the low cost alternative-generally reIerred to as 'Rain Water Harvesting' (RWH). Water harvesting is the activity oI direct collection oI rainwater, which can be stored Ior direct use or can be recharged into the groundwater. Water harvesting is the collection oI runoII Ior productive purposes. Rain is the Iirst Iorm oI water that we know in the hydrological cycle, hence is a primary source oI water Ior us. Rivers, lakes and groundwater are all secondary sources oI water. In present times, we depend entirely on such secondary sources oI water. Water harvesting is to understand the value oI rain, and to make optimum use oI rainwater at the place where it Ialls. Benefits of Rainwater Harvesting Environment Iriendly and easy approach Ior water requirements RWH is the ideal solution Ior all water requirements. Increase in ground water level. Mitigates the eIIects oI drought. Reduces the runoII, which other wise Ilood storm water drains. Reduces Ilooding oI roads and low-lying areas. 11 Reduced soil erosion. Improves the ground water quality. Low cost and easy to maintain. Reduces water and electricity bills. Who can harvest rainwater and where? People planning construction oI House, ModiIication oI house, existing house, etc. Irom rooItops Govt. Buildings, Institutions, Hospitals, Hotels, Shopping malls etc. Irom rooItops and open areas Farmlands, Public Parks, Playground, etc. Paved and unpaved areas oI a layout / city / town / village Need for Rainwater Harvesting As water is becoming scarce, it is the need oI the day to attain selI-suIIiciency to IulIil the water needs. As urban water supply system is under tremendous pressure Ior supplying water to ever increasing population. Groundwater is getting depleted and polluted. Soil erosion resulting Irom the unchecked runoII. Health hazards due to consumption oI polluted water. 1.2 Aims and Objectives This thesis aims to investigate the policy and design issues involved in Rain Water Harvesting in India and evaluate the overall perIormance oI RWH in Indian context. Particular attention will be given to the existing policy Iramework and their implementations concerning Rain water harvesting. The aims and objectives are thereIore to : Review the literature and determine the state oI the art with regards to contemporary RWH in India principally in relation to the existing policy Iramework in India. The perIormance oI RWH will be evaluated using Iew case studies oI implementation sites. A model Iramework is also prepared Ior evaluation oI economical and design perIormance oI RWH Ior Delhi. 12 The policy Iramework will be examined Ior perIormance and evaluation using the case study oI Delhi Irom the statistics provided by Delhi Jal Board and other statutory bodies. BrieI outline report on recent cases involving RWH will be presented Ior evaluation oI Environmental laws pertaining to RWH. The main objective behind this study is to evaluate overall perIormance oI RWH in Indian context and the measure which are taken by National and State policies to ensure sustainability oI RWH. 1.3 Thesis Structure The structure oI this thesis reIlects the stated aims and objectives and logically progresses through the steps required to meet them. The Iollowing subsections provide a brieI introduction oI each chapter ( excluding Chapter 1 ). Chapter 2 : Rainwater Harvesting Literature Review This chapter will brieIly cover the Science oI RWH, components, types and conIiguration and other technical aspects oI RWH. BrieI Report on the implementation oI RWH at Jamia Hamdard University and Tihar Jail will be presented to evaluate the perIormance oI RWH. Chapter 3 : Design & Econometrics of RWH - A model calculation will be presented in this chapter involving the design considerations and econometrics oI RWH system. A draIt calculation is perIormed Ior implementation oI RWH in South and South west Delhi which is the business centre oI Delhi and Iaces acute water shortages. Chapter 4 : Policy Issues and Framework for RWH in India - This chapter will present the policy Iramework adopted by various Indian states Ior implementation oI RWH. Policy implementation in Delhi will be evaluated Irom the statistics published by Delhi Jal Board, Central Ground Water Authority and other statutory bodies. Chapter 5 : Recent Cases involving RWH - This chapter will contain brieI report on the cases dealing with RWH. The cases chosen Ior study are ' Kranti v/s Union oI India and ' Intellectual Forums (Tirupathi) v/s State oI Andrapradesh and Others . Chapter : Conclusions & Recommendations - This chapter will be Iinal chapter and will present the conclusions and recommendations as conclusion oI this thesis. 13 Chapter 2 Rainwater Harvesting Literature Review Rainwater harvesting (RWH) reIers to collection oI rain Ior beneIicial uses beIore it drains away as run-oII. The concept oI RWH has a long history oI use in India. Collection and storage oI rainwater in earthen tanks Ior domestic and agricultural uses is very common in India since historical times. However aIter the implementation oI dam and irrigation projects the traditional knowledge and practice oI RWH has largely been abandoned in many parts oI India. Since the early 90s, there is a renewed interest in RWH projects. 2.1 Science of RWH In scientiIic terms, water harvesting reIers to collection and storage oI rainwater and also other activities aimed at harvesting surIace and groundwater, prevention oI losses through evaporation and seepage and all other hydrological studies and engineering inventions, aimed at conservation and eIIicient utilization oI the limited water endowment oI physiographic unit such as a watershed. Rain is a primary source oI water Ior all oI us. There are two main techniques oI rainwater harvesting : Storage oI rainwater on surIace Ior Iuture use. Recharge to groundwater. Directly collected rainwater can be stored Ior direct use or can be recharged into the groundwater. All the secondary sources oI water like rivers, lakes and groundwater are entirely dependent on rain as a primary source. The term "water harvesting" is understood to encompass a wide range oI concerns, including rainwater collection with both rooItop and surIace runoII catchment, rainwater storage in small tanks and large-scale artiIicial reservoirs, groundwater recharge, and also protection oI water sources against pollution. The objective oI water harvesting in India diIIers between urban and rural areas. In urban areas, emphasis is put on increasing groundwater recharge and managing storm water. On the other hand, in rural areas securing water is more crucial. There the aim is to provide water Ior drinking and Iarming, especially Ior liIe-saving irrigation, and to increase groundwater recharge. RooItop / 14 RunoII Rainwater Harvesting Ior ArtiIicial Recharge to Ground Water harvesting is the deliberate collection and storage oI rainwater that runs oII on natural or manmade catchment areas as shown in Iigure 1. Figure 1 : Conceptual Schematic Ior Rain Water Harvesting ( Source . RWH Presentation, Urban Space Consultants , Delhi ) Catchment includes rooItops, compounds, rocky surIace or hill slopes or artiIicially prepared impervious/ semi-pervious land surIace. The amount oI water harvested depends on the Irequency and intensity oI rainIall, catchment characteristics, water demands and how much runoII occurs and how quickly or how easy it is Ior the water to inIiltrate through the subsoil and percolate down to recharge the aquiIers. Moreover, in urban areas, adequate space Ior surIace storage is not available, water levels are deep enough to accommodate additional rainwater to recharge the aquiIers, rooItop and runoII rainwater harvesting is ideal solution to solve the water supply problems. Harvested rainwater can be stored in sub-surIace ground water reservoir by adopting artiIicial recharge techniques to meet the household needs through storage in tanks. The Main Objective oI such rainwater harvesting is to make water 15 available Ior Iuture use. Capturing and storing rainwater Ior use is particularly important in dry land, hilly, urban and coastal areas. In alluvial areas, energy saving Ior 1m rise in ground water level is around 0.40 kilo watt per hour. 2.2 RWH for Domestic Purposes Rainwater harvesting systems can roughly be broken down into Iour primary processes and three treatment processes as outlined in Iigure 2. Figure 2 : Process Diagram oI Domestic RWH System ( Source . Handbook for RWH Practitioners , T H Thomas & D B Martinson ) The catchment oI a water harvesting system is the surIace which directly receives the rainIall and provides water to the system. It can be a paved area like a terrace or courtyard oI a building, or an unpaved area like a lawn or open ground. A rooI made oI reinIorced cement concrete (RCC), galvanised iron or corrugated sheets can also be used Ior water harvesting. A conveyance system usually consists oI gutters or pipes that deliver rainwater Ialling on the rooItop to cisterns or other storage vessels. Both drainpipes and rooI surIaces should be constructed oI chemically inert materials such as wood, plastic, aluminum, or Iiberglass, in order to avoid adverse eIIects on water quality. The water ultimately is stored in a storage tank or cistern, which should also be constructed oI an inert material. ReinIorced concrete, Iiberglass, or stainless steel are suitable materials. Storage tanks may be constructed as part oI the building, or may be built as a separate unit located some distance away Irom the building. 2.3 Catchment Area Roof Catchment Systems : This is the most common type oI catchment and is usually the 16 rooI oI houses or buildings. The eIIective rooI area and the type oI rooI material inIluence the eIIiciency oI collection and the water quality. Galvanised corrugated iron sheets, corrugated plastic or tiles all make good catchment surIaces. However, rooIs made oI asbestos or painted with lead based paints should be avoided. RooIs should also be Iree Irom over-hanging trees to prevent entry oI bird and animal Iaeces as well as decomposing leaves. Properly and maintained rooIs are the best choice as a collection surIace, because their isolated location protects rainwater Irom pollution. Type Runoff Coefficient Remarks Galvanised Iron Sheets ~0.9 Excellent quality water. SurIace is smooth and high temperatures help to sterilise bacteria Tile (glazed) 0.6 0.9 Good quality water Irom glazed tiles. Unglazed tile can harbour mould Contamination can exist in tile joints Asbestos Sheets 0.8 0.9 New sheets give good quality water No evidence oI carcinogenic eIIects by ingestion Slightly porous so reduced run-oII coeIIicient and older rooIs harbour moulds and even moss Organic (Thatch, Palm) 0.2 Poor quality water (~200 FC/100 ml) Little Iirst-Ilush eIIect High turbidity due to dissolved organic material which cannot easily be Iiltered or settled out Table 1 : Characteristics oI RooI Type ( Source . Handbook for RWH Practitioners , T H Thomas & D B Martinson ) Ground Catchment Systems : These are normally employed where suitable rooI surIaces are not available. The advantage is that water can be collected Irom a larger area and is useIul in low rainIall regions. The disadvantage is runoII is easily contaminated and the underground tanks are less assessable Ior maintenance and cleaning. Ground catchments 17 systems are less suitable Ior collecting drinking water. Rock Catchment Systems : These are generally constructed Ior communal supplies in areas where un jointed massive rock outcrops provide suitable catchment surIaces. 2.4 Conduits Conduits are pipelines or drains that carry rainwater Irom the catchment or rooItop area to the harvesting system. Conduits can be oI any material like polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or galvanized iron (GI), materials that are commonly available. The Iollowing table gives an idea about the diameter oI pipe required Ior draining out rainwater based on rainIall intensity and rooI area: Average Rate of Rainfall in millimeter / hour Diameter of Pipe ( in millimeter ) 50 75 100 125 150 200 50 13.4 8.9 6.6 5.3 4.4 3.3 65 24.1 16.0 12.0 9.6 8.0 6.0 75 40.8 27.0 20.4 16.3 13.6 10.2 100 85.4 57.0 42.7 34.2 28.5 21.3 125 80.5 64.3 53.5 40.0 150 83.6 62.7 Table 2 : Sizing oI Rainwater pipe Ior RooI Drainage Source . National Building Code 2.5 Storage and Collection Systems The collection system reIers to the arrangement made Ior collecting and storing the rainIall with minimal quantitative loss. In general channel pipes draining the catchment and a storage structure constitute the collection system. Collection systems are installed in such a way that runoII is collected and drained by gravity. The storage structure can vary Irom a small jar/tank Ior household uses to a large masonry/cement concrete tank Ior community use to natural depressions/basins/dams Ior village use. The harvested rainwater is stored and used Ior domestic purposes, either directly or aIter preliminary treatment (such as screening). However, costs oI storage tanks oIten become a constraint Ior adopting this type oI usage. 18 Plastic storage tanks are generally too expensive Ior RWH, especially in rural areas. In some other developing countries, it has been reported that their cost is 2 or 3 times that oI brick or Ferro-cement tanks oI similar capacity. Another disadvantage posed by plastic tanks is that they have a low proportion oI their cost in the Iorm oI local labor, which may be an important Ieature oI subsidized RWH programs in rural areas. Ferro-cement tanks, Gl sheet tanks and properly lined brick masonry tanks are low-cost storage options. However Ierrro-cement and brick masonry tanks are not as water tight. GI sheets can rust and impart an undesirable taste to the stored water. The stored water can be stored cleanly Ior months or years in suitable RW tanks. Observations in India showed good quality even aIter 180 days oI storage, and in South AIrica even aIter 2 years. However, such long storage time will require good maintenance oI RWH systems such as regular cleaning oI RW tanks, rooI surIaces and water in storage kept in dark and sealed conditions. Collection gutters, down pipes and Iilters are oIten poorly made or not maintained, and thereIore constitute the main Iorm oI system Iailure. Despite the rooI being higher than the ground, dust and other debris can be blown onto it, especially iI the rooI is near to a roadway. Leaves can also Iall onto the rooI Irom nearby trees and Ilying and climbing animals can deIecate upon it. The quality oI water can be much improved iI this debris is kept out oI the system. To accomplish this Iilters and separators can be added to a rainwater harvesting system at the inlet, outlet or both. Filters simply remove the debris and allow all water to Ilow; separators remove the debris and wash it away in a portion oI the water. 2.6 First Runoff Systems The Iirst line oI deIence is a course leaI Iilter. The Iilter can be installed anywhere Irom the gutter to the entrance to the tank. The most popular positions are in the gutter, at the beginning oI the down pipe, in the down pipe, in the ground beIore the tank and at the entrance to the tank itselI. OI these, the tank entrance is by Iar the most common in very low cost systems. Whatever location is chosen Ior the Iilter, there are several criteria that should be met Ior good design: The Iilter should be easy to clean or largely selI-cleaning It should not block easily (iI at all) and blockages should be obvious and easy to rectiIy It should not provide an entrance Ior additional contamination 19 The cost should not be out oI proportion with the rest oI the system. Contaminants Irom a rooI are usually concentrated in the Iirst run oII Irom the rooI. AIter this runoII has passed and washed the rooI the water is considerably saIer. The amount to be removed varies and a number oI studies have had diIIering results. Despite this uncertainty, Iirst Ilush systems are a popular method oI improving the quality oI rooI runoII prior to storage, particularly in Asian countries. There are basically Iour methods oI separating the Iirst Ilush; Manual Fixed volume Fixed mass Flow rate The manual method is the simplest and widely recommended it does, however rely on the user both being home and prepared to go out into the rain to operate the device much reducing its useIulness. The fixed volume method, which relies on the water simply Iilling a chamber oI a set size (usually a length oI downpipe) until it overIlows, is the "automatic" method usually applied in low cost systems. The method can be used either with or without a Iloating ball seal which helps in reducing mixing between early dirty water and later clean water, however Michaeledes (1987) has Iound that this mixing is transient. They are also Iound with either automatic draining over a period oI time or require manual draining. Manual draining systems have little to recommend them as iI leIt to drain will not only Iail to work Ior the next storm, but can cause additional pollutants to be washed in to the tank Irom the Iirst Ilush device itselI. The fixed mass system has also been promoted. The devices, usually relying on a mass oI water to tip a bucket or seesaw tend to be unreliable and users inevitably disable the system. A newer Iirst Ilush concept is to use the changes in Ilow rate over the course oI a storm. Stormwater management designers have been using a flow rate model oI Iirst Ilush Ior some time to reduce the large land areas required Ior "volumetric" Iacilities. Australian Company has developed a system whereby Ilow rate is used Ior rooI runoII. The SaIeRain system balances the rate oI water intake into a suspended hollow ball against its leakage, raising its weight and stretching its suspension until it descends into a recess, blocking the opening and 20 allowing water into the tank. The system has the advantage oI being selI-cleaning and removes the need Ior any storage oI the Iirst Ilush water (and its subsequent drainage). 2.7 Filters Finer Iiltering can remove small sediment which would otherwise either be suspended in the water or settle to the bottom oI the tank leaving a sludge. The techniques are well known, employing gravel, sand or Iine screens but the needs oI rainwater harvesting systems are unique, as in a tropical downpour Ilow rates can be very high - with short-term peaks oI more than 1.5 lit/sec. This calls Ior either very large surIace areas or courser screens. A Iilter consisting oI a O300mm tube Iilled with 150mm sand on a bed oI 200mm oI pebbles has been used in Sri Lanka which copes with all but the very highest peak Ilows, however the Iilters were oIten bypassed or Iilled with courser material when user saw water overIlowing the Iilter during heavy downpours. Another problem oI Iine Iilters is cleaning. As all water passes through most designs oI Iine Iilter, particles become trapped in the Iilter requiring periodic cleaning. II this is not carried out, the Iilter will eventually block and simply overIlow which has resulted in Iilters being emptied oI media and abandoned. In developed countries selI-cleaning Iilters are available with a Iine mesh screen (typically 0.4mm). These screens use the Iirst Ilow oI water Irom a storm to Ilush the Iilter oI debris or have a continual washing action using about 10 oI the water. In VLC systems there is usually a signiIicant overIlow oI water and these types may be viable iI suitable Iilter mesh or cloth is available locally. The Iilter is used to remove suspended pollutants Irom rainwater collected over rooI. A Iilter unit is a chamber Iilled with Iiltering media such as Iibre, coarse sand and gravel layers to remove debris and dirt Irom water beIore it enters the storage tank or recharge structure. Charcoal can be added Ior additional Iiltration. Charcoal water filter (figure 3): A simple charcoal Iilter can be made in a drum or an earthen pot. The Iilter is made oI gravel, sand and charcoal, all oI which are easily available. Sand filters (figure 4): Sand Iilters have commonly available sand as Iilter media. Sand Iilters are easy and inexpensive to construct. These Iilters can be employed Ior treatment oI water to eIIectively remove turbidity (suspended particles like silt and clay), colour and micro organisms. In a simple sand Iilter that can be constructed domestically, the top layer 21 comprises coarse sand Iollowed by a 5-10 mm layer oI gravel Iollowed by another 5-25 cm layer oI gravel and boulders. Figure 3 : Charcoal Filter ( Source . CSE ) Figure 4 : Sand Filter ( Source . CSE ) Figure 5 : DEWAS Filter ( Source . CSE ) Figure 6 : Varun Filter ( Source . CSE ) Dewas filters (figure 5) : Most residents in Dewas, Madhya Pradesh, have wells in their houses. Formerly, all that those wells would do was extract groundwater. But then, the district administration oI Dewas initiated a groundwater recharge scheme. The rooItop water was collected and allowed to pass through a Iilter system called the Dewas Iillter, designed by Mohan Rao, district collector oI Dewas, and engineers oI the rural engineering services. The water thus Iiltered is put into the service tubewell. The Iilter consists oI a polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe 140-mm in diameter and 1.2m long. There are three chambers. The Iirst puriIication chamber has pebbles varying between 2-6 mm, the second chamber has slightly larger pebbles, between 6 and 12 mm and the third chamber has the largest - 12-20 mm pebbles. There is a mesh at the outIlow side through which clean water Ilows out aIter 22 passing through the three chambers. The cost oI this Iilter unit is Rs 600. Varun (figure 6): S Vishwanath, a Bangalore water-harvesting expert, has developed a rainwater Iilter "VARUN". According to him, Irom a decently clean rooI 'VARUN' can handle a 50-mm per hour intensity rainIall Irom a 50 square meter rooI area. This means the product is relatively standardised. For new house builders we thereIore can recommend the number oI downpipes they have to optimise on and the number oI Iilters they 'VARUN' is made Irom a 90-litre High-Density polyethylene (HDPE) drum. The lid is turned over and holes are punched in it. This is the Iirst sieve, which keeps out large leaves, twigs etc. Rainwater coming out oI the lid sieve then passes through three layers oI sponge and a 150- mm thick layer oI coarse sand. Presence oI sponge makes the cleaning process very easy. Remove the Iirst layer oI sponge and soak /clean it in a bucket oI water (which you then don't waste but use it Ior plants). The sand needs no cleaning at all. The basic cost oI the Iilter is about Rs 2250/- 2.8 Groundwater Storage - Artificial Recharge (AR) using Harvested Rainwater In tropical semi-arid country like India, one oI the main issues oI RWH relates to the seasonal nature oI rainIall. India has short but intense rainy season Iollowed by long dry season. Most oI the annual rainIall occurs in Iour monsoon months. This imposes serious constraints on the type oI storage. It is too costly to construct large local storage Iacilities with adequate capacities Ior water supply to last throughout the year. Additionally, protecting the quality oI harvested rainwater during periods oI long storage is diIIicult. In urban areas that already have substantial population covered by municipal water supply, there is little incentive Ior householders to install rainwater harvesting systems. This is due to the lack oI space Ior a storage Iacilities, the Iinancial outlay; and to avoid operating and maintaining RWH systems. A cost-eIIective way oI storing the harvested rainwater would be to replenish the groundwater by adopting artiIicial recharge (AR) methods. Groundwater recharge, in general, reIers to natural replenishment oI an aquiIer by percolation oI surIace run-oII, stream Ilows, or melting snow into the ground. AR is a process in which water is introduced into groundwater aquiIers by anthropogenic means. RWH and AR is a promising solution Ior 23 eIIectively increasing the utilization oI surIace run-oII, and augment the Ireshwater supplies in urban areas at low costs. AR by rainwater will also help to qualitatively improve contaminated groundwater aquiIers by reducing the concentration oI pollutants by dilution. Widespread adoption oI AR will alleviate the severely degraded groundwater aquiIers in many Indian towns and cities. Rainwater may be charged into the groundwater aquiIers through any suitable structures like dugwells, Borewells, recharge trenches and recharge pits. Various recharge structures are possible - some which promote the percolation oI water through soil strata at shallower depth (e.g., recharge trenches, permeable pavements) whereas others conduct water to greater depths Irom where it joins the groundwater (e.g. recharge wells). At many locations, existing structures like wells, pits and tanks can be modiIied as recharge structures, eliminating the need to construct any structures aIresh. Here are a Iew commonly used recharging methods: Recharging of Dugwells and abandoned Tubewells In alluvial and hard rock areas, there are thousands oI wells which have either gone dry or whose water levels have declined considerably. These can be recharged directly with rooItop run-oII. Figure 7 : Recharge using Dugwells (Source . Rainwater Harvesting Manual, CSE ) Figure 8 : Recharge using Tubewells (Source . Rainwater Harvesting Manual, CSE ) Rainwater that is collected on the rooItop oI the building is diverted by drainpipes to a settlement or Iiltration tank, Irom which it Ilows into the recharge well (borewell or dugwell) as shown in Iigure 7. II a tubewell is used Ior recharging, then the casing (outer pipe) should preIerably be a slotted or perIorated pipe so that more surIace area is available Ior the water to percolate as shown in Iigure 8. Developing a borewell would increase its recharging 24 capacity (developing is the process where water or air is Iorced into the well under pressure to loosen the soil strata surrounding the bore to make it more permeable). II a dugwell is used Ior recharge, the well lining should have openings (weep-holes) at regular intervals to allow seepage oI water through the sides. Dugwells should be covered to prevent mosquito breeding and entry oI leaves and debris. The bottom oI recharge wells should be desilted annually to maintain the intake capacity. Providing the Iollowing elements in the system can ensure the quality oI water entering the recharge wells: Filter mesh at entrance point oI rooItop drains Settlement chamber Filter bed Settlement tank (chamber) Settlement tanks are used to remove silt and other Iloating impurities Irom rainwater. A settlement tank is like an ordinary storage container having provisions Ior inIlow (bringing water Irom the catchment), outIlow (carrying water to the recharge well) and overIlow. A settlement tank can have an unpaved bottom surIace to allow standing water to percolate into the soil as shown in Iigure 9. In case oI excess rainIall, the rate oI recharge, especially oI borewells, may not match the rate oI rainIall. Figure 9 : Settlement Tanks ( Desilting Chamber) (Source . Rainwater Harvesting Manual, CSE ) In such situations, the desilting chamber holds the excess amount oI water till it is soaked up by the recharge structure. Thus, the settlement chamber acts like a buIIer in the system. 25 Any container, (masonry or concrete underground tanks, old unused tanks, pre-Iabricated PVC or Ierrocement tanks) with adequate capacity oI storage can be used as a settlement tank. Recharging of service tubewells. In this case the rooItop runoII is not directly led into the service tubewells, to avoid chances oI contamination oI groundwater. Instead rainwater is collected in a recharge well, which is a temporary storage tank (located near the service tubewell), with a borehole, which is shallower than the water table. Figure 10 : Recharging oI Service Tubewells (Source . Rooftop Rainwater Recharge, Arfun Bhattacharya & ONeil Rane) This borehole has to be provided with a casing pipe to prevent the caving in oI soil, iI the strata is loose. A Iilter chamber comprising oI sand, gravel and boulders is provided to arrest the impurities as shown in Iigure 10. 26 Recharge pits A recharge pit is 1.5m to 3m wide and 2m to 3m deep. The excavated pit is lined with a brick/stone wall with openings (weep-holes) at regular intervals. The top area oI the pit can be covered with a perIorated cover. Design procedure is the same as that oI a settlement tank ( reIer Iigure 11). Figure 11 : Recharge Pit Schematic (Source . Rooftop Rainwater Recharge, Arfun Bhattacharya & ONeil Rane) Soakaways / Percolation pit Percolation pits, one oI the easiest and most eIIective means oI harvesting rainwater, are generally not more than 60 x 60 x 60 cm pits, (designed on the basis oI expected runoII as described Ior settlement tanks), Iilled with pebbles or brick jelly and river sand, covered with perIorated concrete slabs wherever necessary. ReIer Iigure 12 below. 27 Figure 12 : Section / Plan View oI Percolation Pit (Source . Rainwater Harvesting Manual, CSE) Recharge trenches A recharge trench is a continuous trench excavated in the ground and reIilled with porous media like pebbles, boulders or broken bricks. A recharge trench can be 0.5 m to 1 m wide and 1 m to 1.5 m deep. The length oI the recharge trench is decided as per the amount oI runoII expected. The recharge trench should be periodically cleaned oI accumulated debris to maintain the intake capacity. In terms oI recharge rates, recharge trenches are relatively less eIIective since the soil strata at depth oI about 1.5 metres is generally less permeable. For recharging through recharge trenches, Iewer precautions have to be taken to maintain the quality oI the rainIall runoII. RunoII Irom both paved and unpaved catchment can be tapped. ReIer Iigure 13 Figure 13 : Section View oI Recharge Trench (Source . Rainwater Harvesting Manual, CSE) 28 Recharge troughs To collect the runoII Irom paved or unpaved areas draining out oI a compound, recharge troughs are commonly placed at the entrance oI a residential/institutional complex. These structures are similar to recharge trenches except Ior the Iact that the excavated portion is not Iilled with Iilter materials. In order to Iacilitate speedy recharge, boreholes are drilled at regular intervals in this trench. In design part, there is no need oI incorporating the inIluence oI Iilter materials. This structure is capable oI harvesting only a limited amount oI runoII because oI the limitation with regard to size. Modified injection well The injection techniques are used as an alternative to surIace spreading operations usually where a zone with low permeability, within the unsaturated zone, impedes the recharge to a designated aquiIer. A cased recharge well or bore is generally used to penetrate a zone with low permeability. The open or perIorated section at the base oI the well allows inIiltration into either the aquiIer or vadose zone. Figure 14 : Section View oI ModiIied Injection Well (Source . Rainwater Harvesting Manual, CSE) 29 Injection is either by gravity or under pressurized. Pressurized injection is where water is pumped into the recharge unit under pressure and is desired when more discharge is required than provided by a gravity Ied system. In this method water is not pumped into the aquiIer but allowed to percolate through a Iilter bed, which comprises sand and gravel. A modiIied injection well is generally a borehole, 500-mm diameter, which is drilled to the desired depth depending upon the geological conditions, preIerably 2 to 3 m below the water table in the area. Inside this hole a slotted casing pipe oI 200-mm diameter is inserted. The annular space between the borehole and the pipe is Iilled with gravel and developed with a compressor till it gives clear water. To stop the suspended solids Irom entering the recharge tubewell, a Iilter mechanism is provided at the top. ReIer Iigure 14 above. 2.9 Maintenance Rainwater harvesting systems require Iew skills and little supervision to operate. Major concerns are the prevention oI contamination oI the tank during construction and while it is being replenished during a rainIall. Contamination oI the water supply as a result oI contact with certain materials can be avoided by the use oI proper materials during construction oI the system. The main sources oI external contamination are pollution Irom the air, bird and animal droppings, and insects. Bacterial contamination may be minimized by keeping rooI surIaces and drains clean but cannot be completely eliminated. II the water is to be used Ior drinking purposes, Iiltration and chlorination or disinIection by other means (e.g., boiling) is necessary. The Iollowing maintenance guidelines should be considered in the operation oI rainwater harvesting systems: A procedure Ior eliminating the "Ioul Ilush" aIter a long dry spell deserves particular attention. The Iirst part oI each rainIall should be diverted Irom the storage tank since this is most likely to contain undesirable materials, which have accumulated on the rooI and other surIaces between rainIalls. Generally, water captured during the Iirst 10 minutes oI rainIall during an event oI average intensity is unIit Ior drinking purposes. The quantity oI water lost by diverting this runoII is usually about 14l/m2 oI catchment area. The storage tank should be checked and cleaned periodically. All tanks need cleaning; their designs should allow Ior this. Cleaning procedures consist oI thorough scrubbing oI 30 the inner walls and Iloors. Use oI a chlorine solution is recommended Ior cleaning, Iollowed by thorough rinsing. Care should be taken to keep rainIall collection surIaces covered, to reduce the likelihood oI Irogs, lizards, mosquitoes, and other pests using the cistern as a breeding ground. Residents may preIer to take care to prevent such problems rather than have to take corrective actions, such as treating or removing water, at a later time. Gutters and downpipes need to be periodically inspected and cleaned careIully. Periodic maintenance must also be carried out on any pumps used to liIt water to selected areas in the house or building. More oIten than not, maintenance is done only when equipment breaks down. Households must establish a maintenance routine that will be carried out by Iamily members. As has been noted, in some cases the rainwater is treated with chlorine tablets. However, in most places it is used without treatment. In such cases, residents are advised to boil the water beIore drinking. Where cistern users do not treat their water, the quality oI the water may be assured through the installation oI commercially available in-line charcoal Iilters or other water treatment devices. 31 2.10 CASE STUDY 1 1AMIA HAMDARD UNIVERSITY'S RAINWATER HARVESTING SYSTEM Figure 15 : Conceptual Schematic oI RWH at Jamia Hamdard University Source . www.rainwaterharvesting.org Notes .Got 1st rank in Institutional category for Chief Ministers Award for Rainwater Harvesting in 2007. Total rooItop and surIace area 3,15,380 sq m Average annual rainIall in Delhi 611 mm Total volume oI rainwater harvested 67444 m or 6,74,44,000 litres (35 per cent oI total rainwater harvesting potential) Water Supply Source beIore implementation oI RWH The daily water requirement oI approximately six lakh litres is extracted Irom six bore wells. The remaining requirement is met through private water tankers. RWH Implementation Since June 2001 Total Cost oI RWH The total cost Ior implementation oI recharge structures was Rs. 6.52 lakhs. 32 Brief Details of Rain Water Harvesting System 1. RooItop RWH RooItop RWH at the Library Building Rainwater Irom the library's rooItop is taken to a desilting chamber measuring 2m x 2m x 3m through a closed drain. A baIIle wall divides the desilting chamber into two compartments--settlement and Iiltering chambers. The rainwater Iirst enters the desilting chamber where the silt gets collected and then overIlows into the Iiltering chamber. The Iiltering chamber has pebbles, which Iurther Iilters the rainwater beIore diverting it into the recharge well. The recharge well measures 1.5m x 1.5m x 3m in size with a 30m deep recharge borewell measuring 100 mm in diameter. RooItop RWH at the Girls' Hostel Rainwater Irom the hostel terrace is diverted to a circular recharge well 2m in diameter and 3m deep through a closed channel. A desilting chamber is created by constructing a baIIle wall inside the recharge well. The rainwater Irom the terrace Ilows into the desilting chamber, where the silt gets deposited. The silt-Iree water overIlows into the recharge well. The recharge well encompasses a borewell which is 100mm in diameter and 30m deep. 2. SurIace RunoII RWH SurIace runoII RWH near Library Building SurIace runoII Irom the paved and unpaved areas surrounding the library is collected in two trenches located in the eastern part oI the campus (near Gates 5 and 6). The runoII collected near Gate 5 is diverted into a recharge well. Similarly, the runoII Irom the northern side oI the building is drained into an abandoned open dugwell near Gate 6. SurIace runoII RWH Irom Jahanpanah Reserve Forest The surIace runoII Irom the Jahanpanah reserve Iorest collects in a pond Irom where it Ilows through a storm water drain adjacent to the Scholars` House. This runoII water is channelised into a desilting chamber and then into a recharge well which measures 2m x 2m x 3m with the help oI a 1m high diversion wall. 3. SurIace RunoII RWH & RooItop RWH SurIace runoII & RooItop RWH at Hamdard Archives & Research Center The rooItop rainwater and the surIace runoII are collected in an open drain which runs adjacent to the building. This drain, measuring 450mm in width and 300mm in depth carries the rainwater into the desilting chamber. The silt-Iree water is diverted to a recharge well which has a borewell to recharge the groundwater. 33 Results & Conclusions Figure 16 (Above) & 17 ( Below ) : Water Level / Quality Data (Source . Center for Science and Environment, Delhi) Conclusions : BeIore installing the rainwater harvesting system water levels in Jamia Hamdard were declining at alarming rates. Most oI the tube wells that are the only source oI water supply in the 100-acre campus were going dry every year. The water level in May 2002 was 47.5m below ground level (bgl). AIter successIully implementing rainwater harvesting in the campus at diIIerent locations, the water level rose to 38.0m (bgl) in September 2002, aIter the monsoon. The water level in May 2003 was around 45.0 m (bgl). The water level in July 2003 stands at 39.0 m (bgl), representing a net rise oI 6m, or 19.68 Ieet. 34 2.11 CASE STUDY 2 TIHAR 1AIL`S RAINWATER HARVESTING SYSTEM Figure 18 : Conceptual Schematic oI RWH at Tihar Jail Source . www.rainwaterharvesting.org Total rooItop and surIace area For Ward 1 & Ward 13 4125 sq m Average annual rainIall in Delhi 611 mm Total volume oI rainwater harvested 1280 m or 12,80,000 litres (50.78 per cent oI total rainwater harvesting potential) Water Supply Source beIore implementation oI RWH Water supply in these wards is IulIilled by two borewells located inside the jail premises RWH Implementation Since November 2002 Total Cost oI RWH The total cost Ior implementation oI recharge structures was Rs. 0.2 lacs Brief Details of Rain Water Harvesting System RooItop rainwater and runoII Irom unpaved areas Ward 1 In Ward 1, the rooItop rainwater Irom the barracks and the surIace runoII Irom the unpaved area are collected in a low-lying area between the buildings. This water is collected by a collection chamber measuring 0.5m x 0.5m x 0.5m, which is covered by a perIorated RCC slab. The water collected in the chamber is diverted to recharge well measuring 1m x 1m x 2m with a recharge bore oI 150mm diameter and 10m deep. The recharge well is Iilled with layers oI 35 pebbles and coarse sand, which act as Iiltering media to improve the quality oI the water harvested. Ward 13 The rooItop rainwater Irom the buildings and the surIace runoII Irom the open areas are collected in a low-lying area located at southwest corner oI the ward. This water is collected in a collection chamber measuring 0.5m x 0.5m x 0.5m, which is covered by a perIorated RCC slab. The water collected in the chamber is diverted to a recharge well measuring 1m x 1m x 2m in size with a recharge bore oI 150mm diameter and 10m deep. The recharge well is Iilled with layers oI pebbles and coarse sand, which act as Iiltering media to improve the quality oI the water harvested. Results & Conclusions Figure 19 (Above) & 20 ( Below ) : Water Level / Quality Data (Source . Center for Science and Environment, Delhi) Conclusions : This project demonstrated that rainwater harvesting can help solve the problem oI water logging. Tihar Jail's barracks used to remain Ilooded Ior hours aIter every rainIall. The water level in the jail was 14m below ground level (bgl) in April 2003. Concerned with Ilooding in the barracks and with sharply declining water levels in the area, the Tihar Jail authorities decided adopt rainwater harvesting in Central Jail No. 4. 36 Chapter 3 Design and Econometrics of RWH 3.1 Design Considerations Three most important components, which need to be evaluated Ior designing the rainwater harvesting structure, are: Hydrogeology oI the area including nature and extent oI aquiIer, soil cover, topography, depth to water levels and chemical quality oI ground water. Area contributing Ior runoII i.e. how much area and land use pattern, whether industrial, residential or green belts and general built up pattern oI the area. Hydro-meteorological characters like rainIall duration, general pattern and intensity oI rainIall. 3.2 Design Criteria of Recharge Structures Recharge structures should be designed based on availability oI space, availability oI runoII, depth to water table & litho logy oI the area. Assessment of Runoff : The runoII should be assessed accurately Ior designing the recharge structure and may be assessed by Iollowing Iormula. Runoff (Catchment Area) X (Runoff Coefficient) X (Rainfall) Runoff Coefficients : RunoII coeIIicient plays an important role in assessing the runoII availability and it depends upon catchment characteristics. It is the Iactor that accounts Ior the Iact that not all rainIall Ialling on a catchment can be collected. Some rainIall will be lost Irom the catchment by evaporation and retention on the surIace itselI. General values are tabulated below which may be utilised Ior assessing the runoII availability. 37 Type of catchment Runoff coefficient RooI Catchments Tiles 0.8 - 0.9 Corrugated Metal Sheets 0.7 - 0.9 Ground surIace coverings Concrete 0.6 - 0.8 Brick Pavement 0.5 0.6 Untreated ground catchments Soil on slopes less than 10 percent 0.0 - 0.3 Rocky natural catchments 0.2 0.5 Green area 0.05 - 0.10 Table 3 : RunoII CoeIIicient Ior various surIaces (Source. Pacey, Arnold and Cullis, Adrian 1989, Rainwater Harvesting. The collection of rainfall and runoff in rural areas) The total amount oI water that is received in the Iorm oI rainIall over an area is called the rainwater endowment oI that area. Out oI this, the amount that can be eIIectively harvested is called the Rainwater harvesting potential. Rainwater Harvesting Potential Rainfall (mm) X Collection efficiency Quality of Stored Water : Rainwater collected Irom rooItops is Iree oI mineral pollutants like Iluoride and calcium salts that are generally Iound in groundwater. But, it is likely that to be contaminated with these types oI pollutants: Air Pollutants SurIace contamination (e.g., silt, dust) Such contaminations can be prevented to a large extent by Ilushing oII the Iirst rainIall. A grill at the terrace outlet Ior rainwater can arrest leaves, plastic bags and paper pieces carried by water. Other contamination can be removed by sedimentation and Iiltration. DisinIectants can remove biological contamination. Cost Analysis 38 Cost oI a Rainwater harvesting system designed as an integrated component oI a new construction project is generally low. Designing a system onto an existing building is costlier because many oI the shared costs (rooI and gutters) can be designed to optimise system. In general, maximising storage capacity and minimising water use through conservation and reuse are important rules to keep in mind. With careIul planning and design, the cost oI a rainwater system can be reduced considerably. Success Parameters: Level oI Water Table: Increase in the level oI groundwater is an obvious and visible parameter Ior success oI rainwater harvesting systems. Quality oI Water: Rainwater is available as the purest Iorm oI natural water. The very process oI dilution that occurs as rainwater mixes with the groundwater leads to an improvement in the quality oI groundwater. Decrease in Salinity, Fluoride concentration, Aitrate concentration, Bacteriological and Heavy Metal concentration are taken into consideration to assess the groundwater quality beIore and aIter rainwater harvesting: 3.3 Typical Cost of Installation of RWH Structures in Urban Environment A typical RooI top Rainwater Harvesting System comprises oI RooI catchment Gutters Down pipes Rain water/Storm water drains Filter chamber Ground water recharge structures like pit, trench, tubewell or combination oI above structures. Cost of Recharge Structures : The cost oI each recharge structure varies Irom place to place. The approximate cost oI the Iollowing structures is as under: 39 S/ No. Recharge Structure Approximate cost (Rs.) 1. Recharge pit 2,500 5,000 2. Recharge Trench 5,000 10,000 3. Recharge through hand pump 1,500 2,500 4. Recharge through dug well 5,000 8,000 5. Recharge well 50,000 80,000 6. Recharge shaIt 60,000 85,000 7. Lateral ShaIt with Bore well ShaIt per m. 2,000 3,000 Bore well 25,000 35,000 Table 4 :Estimated Typical cost oI Recharge structure ( Source . www.cgwaindia.com) Estimated average cost of installing a Water Harvesting System for: 1. An individual house oI average area oI 300-500 m2, the average cost will be around Rs. 20,000 - 25,000. A recharge well will be constructed near the existing bore well. The rooI water through PVC pipe will be diverted to recharge well. 2. An apartment building, the cost will be less since the many people will share the cost. More over in apartments there are separate storm water drains, which join the MCD drains in the main road. Here along with recharge well, recharge trench and percolation pits can be constructed. The cost will be around 60 to 70 thousand. 3. A colony, the cost will be much less. For example, in Panchsheel Park colony, around 36 recharge wells were installed at the cost oI 8 lakh, which is around Rs 500-600 per house. In many colonies in Delhi, storm water drains are present but it is diIIicult to isolate them Irom sewage drains because there has been violation oI the drainage master plan. Also, these drains are not properly maintained. Hence, care needs to be taken while using storm water Ior water harvesting. RooItop harvesting is preIerred because the silt load is less. In storm water drain the silt load is high and generally the municipality does not maintain the storm drains properly. 4. An institution with campus, the cost was around 4 lakhs. Here two recharge wells and three trenches cum percolation pits were constructed. Average annual maintenance cost would be around Rs 200-300 Ior two labourers once in a year to remove the pebbles and replace the sand Irom trenches. 40 3.4 Agencies actively involved in Rainwater Harvesting Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) : Established in 1954, the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), a National apex organisation, Iunctions under the Ministry oI Water Resources. The Central Ground Water Board has been entrusted with the responsibilities to carry out scientiIic research, surveys, exploration, monitoring oI development, management and regulation oI country's vast ground water resources Ior irrigation, drinking, domestic and industrial needs. The Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA) was set up in 1997 under sub-section (3) oI Section 3 oI the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (Act oI 1986) and has been given the mandate Ior the "Regulation and Control oI Ground Water Development and Management" in the country. Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) : The Centre Ior Science and Environment is a public interest research and advocacy organisation, which promotes environmentally sound and equitable development strategies. CSE has been involved in raising awareness about the need oI community based water management Ior a number oI years. A water crisis that has come about because rain, as a source oI water has been ignored. As a technological solution CSE is thereIore promoting the concept oI community and household based water harvesting as this decentralised technology can be adopted by all concerned and also promote a participatory paradigm oI water management. 3.5 The Case of Delhi : Model calculation for RWH in South & Southwest Delhi The National Capital Region (NCR) oI Delhi is Iacing a water crisis and is even likely to Iace a water Iamine. Rapid urbanization coupled with population explosion is attributed as the major cause. The situation becomes grimmer during dry seasons and large numbers oI residents have to depend on groundwater to augment the municipal water supply. In South and Southwest districts oI Delhi, the situation is explosive and water levels are declining at alarming rates. The Central Ground Water Authority has notiIied South and Southwest districts oI Delhi in August 2000 Ior regulation oI ground water development. Proper water management strategy is the need oI the hour. A number oI measures are also being promoted to arrest the Ialling groundwater levels. One oI the Ioremost and essential measure is rainwater harvesting Iollowed by artiIicial recharge oI groundwater. Delhi has a 41 population oI roughly 14 million. Against the present requirement oI about 3,324 million litres per day (MLD), the installed capacity is only 2,634 MLD.5 There has been a widespread drop in the groundwater table in Delhi, especially in the south and south western localities oI Delhi. Lack oI regulation related to private and individual extraction oI groundwater aggravates this situation. Delhi has an annual average rainIall oI 611.8 mm. Due to poor recharge and heavy extraction oI groundwater, groundwater levels in Delhi have declined by as much as 8 metres in the past decade. Hydrogeology of Delhi and Surrounding Areas : The groundwater availability in NCR, Delhi is controlled by the hydro geological situation characterized by occurrence oI alluvial Iormation and quartzite hard rocks. The Iollowing distinct Physiographic Units and Ground Water Potential. The Four physiographic units that inIluence and control the groundwater occurrence and movement are: Alluvial plain on eastern and western sides oI the ridge (low to moderate yield prospects 25-30 m3/hr.) Yamuna Ilood plain deposits (large yield prospects 50-100 m3/hr.) Isolated and nearly closed Chattarpur alluvial basin (low yield prospects 10-15 m3/hr.) NNE-SSW trending Quartzitic Ridge (limited yield prospects 5-10 m3/hr.) Depth to Water Levels : The periodic monitoring oI groundwater levels indicates deeper water levels in the range oI 20 to 45 m below ground level (bgl) in southern parts oI Delhi extending Irom Rajokri in the west to Kalkaji-Okhla industrial area including Chattarpur basin in the south. In the central part oI southwest district, water levels are in the range oI 12 to 16 m bgl. Shallow water levels within 5 m bgl are mainly in the Ilood plains oI Yamuna Ialling in east and northeast districts. Most areas oI north, central, New Delhi and northwest districts are having water levels in-between 5 to 10m bgl. Physiographic units Iurther inIluence the groundwater occurrence. Decline in Water Levels : A comparison oI water levels Irom 1960 to 2001 shows that water levels in major part oI Delhi are steadily declining because oI over-exploitation. During 1960, the groundwater level was by and large within 4 to 5 meters and even in some parts water logged conditions existed. During 1960-2001, water levels have declined by 2- 6 m. in most part oI the alluvial areas. Decline oI 8-20 m. has been recorded in south-west district and in 42 south district the decline has been 8-30 m. Areas registering signiIicant decline Iall mainly in south and south-west districts and have been identiIied as priority areas Ior taking up artiIicial recharge to groundwater by rooI top rain water harvesting. Ground Water Quality : Chemical quality oI groundwater in NCR Delhi varies with depth and space. In alluvial Iormations, the quality oI groundwater deteriorates with depth, which is variable in diIIerent areas. Brackish groundwater mainly exists at shallow depths in northwest, west and southwest districts with minor patches in north and central districts. Groundwater is Iresh at all depths in the areas around the ridge in the central, New Delhi, south and southwest districts. In the areas west oI the ridge, in general, the thickness oI Iresh water aquiIers decreases towards northwest. In the Ilood plains oI Yamuna, Iresh water aquiIers exist down to 30-45 m. In other parts oI NCT, Delhi areas Ialling under central, New Delhi, east and north-east districts ground water is Iresh and potable at shallow depths except in a Iew pockets around Nizamuddin and Connaught Place where ground water is marginally brackish to saline. Model Calculation for RWH in South and Southwest Delhi : Though the government is supplying 148 lpcd (litres per capita per day), the demand and supply gap in these two districts is high because oI being posh and economically developed nature. To meet this demand supply gap there has been an explosion oI tubewells in this area leading to rapid depletion oI groundwater table. Any man-made scheme or Iacility that adds water to an aquiIer system may be considered to be an artiIicial recharge to groundwater. ArtiIicial recharge to groundwater in south and southwest Delhi needs to be given top priority so as to make the groundwater resources sustainable and improve the quality, which is deteriorating because oI over-exploitation. The thickness oI unsaturated zones (potential unsaturated aquiIer system Ior recharge) in these areas varies Irom 12-50 m. The success rate oI Water Harvesting Systems in south Delhi is high compared to other parts oI Delhi due to deeper water levels. The intake capacity oI the recharge well is good. Where as in Yamuna Ilood plain and in north Delhi where the water level is very shallow, the intake capacity is low. Water harvesting structures work eIIectively when the water is more than 15 m below ground level. Hence, south Delhi is ideal Ior water harvesting. Recharge Irom high intensity rainIall is not a rapid process, but occurs through stagnant pools that are leIt in low lying areas aIter signiIicant amount oI surIace 43 runoII Irom surrounding areas and Iarm lands. Thus, rainIall recharge being depression Iocussed, certain parts oI groundwater recharge zones may never receive direct inIiltration to the water table. Hence, there is a need to conserve this large amount oI water which can be utilised Ior artiIicial recharge oI groundwater. The annual precipitation over NCT oI Delhi in volumetric terms comes out to be 910 MCM (Million Cubic Metres). The amount oI runoII generated out oI this is about 193 MCM. Thus, it is essential to conserve each and every drop oI water Ialling on the territory so as to solve the problem oI water supply through augmentation oI groundwater resources in suitable areas oI the territory. Total aerial extent oI South & Southwest Delhi 670 km2 Total population 40.07 Lac (Census 2001) Yield Potential oI Iracture zones 100-200 lpd Groundwater level varies Irom 5m-50m bgl Rate oI decline oI groundwater level 1-4m per annum Source. Rainwater Harvesting. A necessity in south and southwest districts of NCT, Delhi, Central Ground Water Board, Ministry of Water Resources, GOI Annual natural recharge oI groundwater is (Area X Annual RainIall) (670,000,000 m2 X 0.6 m) 402,000,000 m3 ------------- ( 1 ) Rainwater Recharge potential 10 oI (1) 40,200,000 m3 or 40,200 million litres per year ( 1 m3 1000 litres) Total water recharged naturally 40,200 Million Litres per Year Assuming that 65 oI the total area is occupied by constructed buildings, then the Total RooItop area 435,500,000 m2 ( 65 oI 670 km2) Taking RunoII coeIIicient as 0.85, total rainwater harvested is (Area X Annual RainIall X RunoII coeIIicient Ior rooItop) 435,500,000 X 0.6 X 0.85 222,105,000 m3 or 222,105 million litres / year The recharge is roughly 5.525 times more than the consumption No. oI Buildings with 2 average Bedroom Hall Kitchen which can be constructed in the Harvested area : II these are the speciIications oI an average 2-BHK: 44 One Bedroom (12 It X 14 It) X 2 336 It2 Kitchen (10 It X 6 It) 60 It2 Living Room (20 It X 14 It) 280 It2 Total Ior one Ilat 676 It2 Total area Ior two Ilats 1,352 It2 Staircase 80 It2 Total area per level 1,432 It2 Total built-up area oI a building Approx. 1,500 It2 135 m2 Total number oI buildings oI 135 m2 that can be built in an area oI 435,500,000 m2 3,225,926 Hence, cost oI installing RooItop WHS Ior 3,225,926 buildings at Rs 70,000 per building would be Rs. 225,814,820,000 3.6 Arguments Against Rainwater Harvesting Despite the growing awareness about the beneIits oI water harvesting, there is another school oI thought that argues that rooI water harvesting systems (RWHS) are not alternative to public systems in urban and rural areas oI regions receiving low rainIall. It says that very little empirical work has been done to assess the impact oI rooI water harvesting on urban and rural water supply situation. Two important Iactors seem to be missed out. First, there is signiIicant variation in rainIall in many arid and semi-arid regions and it can pose serious limitations on the amount oI water that could be captured. Second: the rooI area per capita that is available Ior capturing rainwater is quite limited and this again could pose a constraint on the amount oI water that can be captured. ThereIore, the estimates currently available over-emphasise the scope oI this technique. Further, there has been no systematic inquiry into the technical Ieasibility oI storing water captured Irom rooItop in the urban areas. The hydrological opportunities Ior rooI water harvesting would vary signiIicantly Irom year to year, as well as Irom location to location, and variation likely to be more in low rainIall areas. 45 The physical Ieasibility oI RWHS in urban and rural areas is oI great importance. To analyse this, M Dinesh Kumar studied the city oI Ahmedabad, which Ialls within the semi-arid tropic oI India. He showed that there could be major variations in the volume oI water that could be stored across diIIerent housing stocks. In case oI large individual bungalows (600 sq. m rooI area), it can vary Irom 72 m3 to 21 m3. Assuming the per capita requirement Ior the upper class Iamily as 500 litres per day, the water stored would be suIIicient to meet the domestic water requirement Ior 5 months in a good year to one and a halI months in a bad year. For a small bungalow (200 sq. m rooI area), the amount oI water that could be stored varies Irom 24 m3 in a good year to 7 m3 in a bad year. Assuming the per capita water requirement to be 300 litres per day, the stored water would be suIIicient to meet the requirements Ior 80 days in a good year to 23 days in a bad year. In the case oI a 3-storeyed middle-income housing stock, the volume varies Irom a maximum oI 7.5 m3 to a minimum oI 2.7 m3. For the lower income groups (320 sq. m rooI area), it can vary Irom 4 m3 to 1.2 m3. Assuming the per capita water requirement oI the middle income group as 200 litres per day, stored water would be suIIicient to meet the requirements Ior 5 weeks in a good year to 2 weeks in a bad year. Similarly Ior the lower income group, assuming a per capita water requirement oI 150 litres per day, the stored water would be suIIicient Ior just Iour weeks in a good year to just one week in a bad year. In the case oI multi-storeyed apartments Ior the high-income groups, the volume oI water per capita varies Irom a maximum oI 5.3 m3 to a minimum oI 1.5 m3. Similarly Ior the middle-income groups it can vary Irom 2.4 m3 to 0.70 m3. Taking the per capita water requirement Ior the high income group as 200 litres per day, the stored water would be suIIicient to meet the requirements Ior less than 4 weeks in a good year and one week in a bad year. Taking the water requirement oI middle-income groups as 150 litres per day, the stored water would be suIIicient to meet the requirements Ior 16 days in a good year to 5 days in a bad year. RWHS require underground storage tanks. For an apartment with rooI area oI 320 sq. m, the maximum volume oI water that can be stored is 416 m3 to 112 m3 Ior rainIalls oI magnitude 1200 mm and 350 mm respectively. The capacity oI existing storage tanks in a typical 10- storeyed apartment will be 30-40 m3. Most urban housing stocks do not provide the kind oI land area required Ior building such large tanks, which is necessary Ior storing the water Ior lean seasons. 46 The actual size oI a new storage tank would depend on the time duration between two large rain spells, given the magnitude oI rainIall. II there is good number oI non-rainy days between two large wet spells, the capacity requirement would come down, provided water Irom the new storage tank is used up during this period. For this, two things are required. First: when rainwater is available, the public system will have to cut down its supplies, which means that both the systems have to be synchronised. Second: rainwater stored in the new tank will have to be liIted and put in the old storage tanks as and when it gets empty space. This would pose complex management problem in case oI large housing stocks with several users under one rooI. The analysis shows that rooI water harvesting is beneIicial Ior those who are living in bungalows and Ilat systems, provided the available per capita rooI area is quite signiIicant, that is more than 6 sq. m. Hence, rooI water harvesting systems are best suited to higher and middle-income groups. As such, it is not a substitute Ior urban public water utilities. RWHS is only one among many strategies Ior countering the growing urban water crisis. 47 Chapter 4 Policy Issues and Framework for RWH in India 4.1 Policy framework for rainwater harvesting in urban areas of India Managing Ireshwater scarcity constitutes to be one oI the biggest responsibilities oI governance everywhere in the world, and thus, local management oI this resource is an indispensable component. Many countries have national water laws. In India, however there are no national laws as such, though there is a national water policy. The National Water policy 2002 is a cogent and comprehensive document and Iorms a basis that could be converted into a law. In India, under the constitutional set up, water is a state subject. In urban areas its governance rests with urban local bodies in their areas oI jurisdiction as per the 74th constitutional amendment The need Ior a policy Iramework Ior water harvesting systems arises mainly because the prevailing policy statements do not touch extensively upon the issue. There is a clear need to evolve a decentralized legal regime with regard to water, which empowers people and makes them real managers oI resources. For promoting urban water harvesting, a policy should include a mix oI incentives and penalties. Measures that need to be undertaken include: - Rainwater harvesting / recharge oI ground water system should be an essential town planning requirement and a pre-requisite Ior permission Ior the development oI new colonies. Provision oI rainwater and harvesting structures in all building plans should be mandatory Ior issuing oI building permission. Appropriate rebates on property /Iiscal incentives should be granted Ior eIIective implementation oI rainwater harvesting systems. A number oI state governments have made rainwater harvesting compulsory Ior new buildings according to their plot sizes in various Indian cities. Some oI the measures adopted in diIIerent states/ cities are highlighted in table 5. 48 Sl. No. State/UT Status of Action Initiated for Rain Water Harvesting (RWH) / Roof Top Rain Water Harvesting (RTRWH) 1. Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Water, Land and Tree Act, 2002` stipulates mandatory provision to construct rainwater harvesting structures at new and existing constructions Ior all residential, commercial and other premises and open space having area oI not less than 200 sq.mt. in the stipulated period, Iailing which the authority may get such Rain Water Harvesting (RWH) structures constructed and recover the cost incurred along with the penalty as may be prescribed. 2. Daman & Diu Daman Municipal Building Model Bye-laws and Zoning Regulation, 2002 have provision Ior construction oI sump well Ior recharge oI ground water. Instructions has been issued to local PWD Ior construction oI RTRWH structures. Local bodies such as Municipality & District Panchayats has already initiated action in this regard. 3. NCR. Delhi ModiIied Building Bye-laws, 1983 to incorporate mandatory provision oI rooI top RWH in new building on plots oI 100 sq.mt or above. through storage oI rain water runoII to recharge underground aquiIer in NCR, Delhi exist. To encourage rain water harvesting by Resident WelIare Associations/Group Housing Societies, the Govt. oI NCR Delhi has launched a scheme Ior Iinancial assistance in the Bhagidari concept, where 50 oI the total cost oI the project subject to a maximum oI Rs. 50,000/- is being given to the RWAs as a grant iI they adopt rain water harvesting. 4. Goa PWD, Goa has been asked to take up RWH structure Ior Government buildings. The PWD, Goa is studying various designs oI rooI top RWH Ior taking up other existing/new coming up large Government buildings. 5. Gujarat Metropolitan Areas have notiIied rules under which no new building plan is approved without corresponding rainwater harvesting structure. The D/o Roads & Buildings have been directed to ensure that all major Govt. constructions including educational institutions had adequate rainwater harvesting Iacilities. The Urban Development and Urban Housing Department has issued necessary orders Gujarat Town Planning Act, 1976 to incorporate the rules Ior RWH. 6. Haryana Haryana Municipal Building Bye-laws 1982 has been amended to incorporate the provision oI compulsory RooI Top RWH. 7. Kerala RooI top RWH has become mandatory as per Kerala Municipality Building (Amendment) Rules, 2004 Ior all new buildings. 8. Himachal Pradesh Installation oI RWH system has been made mandatory Ior all buildings to be constructed in urban areas oI the State and no building plan without RWH system can be approved including schools, all Government buildings and rest houses. Construction oI RWH system has also been made mandatory Ior all Schools, Govt. buildings and Rest Houses, upcoming industries, bus stands etc. The State has adopted a RWH policy to mandate this in all new construction. Bangalore City Corporation has already incorporated mandatory RWH in Building Bye-laws. Other ULB`s are being 49 9. Karnataka encouraged to do so. Action to amend building bye-laws in major cities having population oI more than 20 lakh to make RWH mandatory has been initiated. Rural Development & Panchayati Raj Department has issued orders Ior implementation oI rooI top RWH in all Government buildings and also in rural schools. State has also extended help to the individual people also to the tune oI 20 rebate on tax payment Ior 5 years duration. 10. Madhaya Pradesh The State Govt. vide Gazette notiIication dated 26.8.2006, has made rooI top RWH mandatory Ior all types oI buildings having plot size oI more than 140 sq.mt. Govt. has also announced 6 rebate in property tax to individuals Ior the year in which the individual will go Ior installation oI rooI top RWH structures. 11. Maharasthra Maharashtra Government is promoting RTRWH under the 'Shivkalin Pani Sthawan Yojana. It provides that all houses should have provision Ior rainwater harvesting without which house construction plan should not be approved. Bombay Municipal Corporation and Pimpri - Chinchwad Municipal Corporation have made RWH mandatory by enacting building bye-laws. 12. Meghalaya The State Government is considering to constitute State RWH Authority. 13. Nagaland The State Government has already made provision Ior rooI top rainwater compulsory Ior all new Government buildings. 14. Pondicherry Approvals are issued to new constructions subject to the provision oI RWH in building designs. PWD, Pondicherry has started constructing rooI top RWH structures in the Government buildings since 2002. The UT Administration has made rules Ior installation oI RWH system in all the new constructions. 15. Rajasthan RooI Top RWH has been made mandatory in State owned buildings oI plot size more than 300 Sq.mt. with eIIect Irom 03.01.2006. For violation oI building bye-laws, punitive measures, viz. disconnection oI water supply, has also been made. The Govt. has made provision oI compulsory installation oI rainwater harvest system in all newly and existing construction building and Govt. oIIices vide order dated 31.05.2000 and 12.12.2005. The State Government is also considering to modiIy Municipal Corporation Act making provisions oI RWH. 16. Tamilnadu Vide Ordinance No. 4 oI 2003 dated July, 2003 laws relating to Municipal Corporations and Municipalities in the State have been amended making it mandatory Ior all the existing and new buildings to provide RWH Iacilities. The State has launched implementation oI RWH scheme on massive scale in Government buildings, private houses/ Institutions and commercial buildings in urban & rural areas. The State Government has achieved cent percent coverage in rooI top RWH. 17. Uttarpradesh Mandatory rules has been Iramed Ior compulsory installation oI RWH system in all the new housing schemes/plots/buildings oI all uses, group housing schemes with provisions oI separate network oI pipes Ior combined RWH/Recharging system. RooI top RWH have been made mandatory Ior plots oI 100-200 sq. mt. In Govt. 50 Buildings (both new as well as old), installation oI RWH structures has been made mandatory. 18. West Bengal Vide Rule 171 oI the West Bengal Municipal (Building) Rules, 2007, installation oI RWH system has been made mandatory. 19. Arunachal Pradesh Building Bye-laws are being Iramed keeping provision Ior RWH as mandatory in Government Buildings. 20. Punjab Building Bye-laws amended to make RWH System mandatory in all buildings oI above 200 sq. yds.. The Punjab Urban development Authority (PUDA) is in the process oI amending the PUDA (Building) Rules 1996 Ior making this system mandatory. Municipal Corporation oI Ludhiana and Jalandhar have Iramed Bye- laws to make RWH mandatory in new buildings. 21. Jharkhand The State Government has initiated action Ior construction oI RTRWH structures in Government/Public buildings in a phased manner. A promotional scheme has also been started Ior awareness oI protection oI ground water and artiIicial recharge by grant oI Rs. 25000/- Ior construction oI artiIicial recharge structures. Ranchi Regional Development Authority (Jharkhand) has made Building Bye-laws Ior RWH. 22. Uttarakhand The Govt. oI Uttarakhand (Awas evam Shahari Vikas) has made rules Ior compulsory installation oI RWH system and directed to adopt rules in building Bye-laws vide order dated 15.11.2003. Accordingly, all the Development Authorities had made partial amendments in the prevalent House Building and Development Bye-laws/Regulations. 23. Tripura As per Rule-110 oI the Tripura Building Rules, 2004, water harvesting through starting oI rain water run oII is mandatory in all new buildings having plinth area more than 300 sq. mt. Ior all types oI uses and in group housing oI any size. 24. Bihar 'The Bihar Ground Water (Regulation and Control oI Development and Management) Act, 2006 has been enacted which provides mandatory provision oI RTRWH structures in the building plan in an area oI 1000 sq. mt. or more. Table 5 : Policies / Legislation Ior RWH in India ( Source : www.rainwaterharvesting.org ) 4.2 RWH Policy Implementation at Delhi Delhi Govt. initiated a Iinancial assistance scheme in December 2002 Ior implementing Rainwater Harvesting in South and South West Delhi. Accordingly, this scheme, grant in-aid was to be given by Delhi Jal Board to registered Resident WelIare Associations (RWAs)/Cooperative Group Housing Societies (CGHS) oI South and South West District oI Delhi only. Later on in August, 2004, this scheme was extended to entire Delhi except Ior Iew places in North West, West and North East Distt. Also this scheme oI Iinancial assistance has been made applicable to recognized private / Govt. Schools, Hospitals, Charitable 51 Institutions and NGO Buildings etc. Ior adopting Rainwater Harvesting (RWH). Under the scheme oI Rainwater Harvesting, Iinancial assistance is provided to the RWAs/CGHS/Institutions etc. to the extent oI 50 oI total cost oI the Rainwater Harvesting structures or Rs.50,000/- which ever is less. Individuals are not eligible to avail Iinancial assistance Ior adopting RWH structures. Procedure to Avail Financial Assistance under the Scheme: At the initial stage, the place where the RWH structure has to be constructed and the area to be covered under the scheme are identiIied and also ear marked in the plan oI the locality. AIter this, the design oI RWH structure is got approved Irom the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB). To execute the work oI RWH structure, most competitive estimates are obtained Irom agencies who are involved in this Iield. Detailed estimates oI the work to be executed are submitted by the concerned RWAs/CGHS etc. directly to the Executive Engineer (RWH), DJB or through the Area Zonal Engineer along with the relevant documents. AIter completion oI the work oI RWH structure as per design approved by the CGWB, the concerned RWAs/CGHS etc. apply to the Delhi Jal Board to get Iinancial assistance. The Iinancial assistance is provided only aIter the completion oI the RWH structure as per approved design and to the satisIaction oI the Committee. Further, beIore getting the Iinancial assistance, the RWAs/CGHS etc. have to enter into an agreement with the state government that the proper maintenance oI the RWH structure would be ensured by them at all time. Physical and Financial Performance: Under the scheme oI Rainwater Harvesting, the physical achievement since the inception oI the scheme is as under: Year No. oI applications received No. oI applications accepted / approved No. oI Rainwater Harvesting structures completed where subsidy has been provided 2002-03 13 12 5 2003-04 44 29 20 2004-05 93 70 51 2005-06 52 17 14 Total 202 128 90 Source . Office of Executive Engineer (RWH), Delhi Jal Board 52 It was revealed Irom the discussion with the Executive Engineer (RWH) that the main reason Ior rejection oI applications were unregistered society / unapproved design / non-entitled area Ior construction oI RWH structure / plot oI land Ior the proposed structure belonging to individual etc. Out oI 128 requests accepted / approved Ior adopting Rainwater Harvesting, the subsidy (Iinancial assistance) has been given to 90 RWAs/CGHS whose structures were completed as per approved design oI Central Ground Water Board. The subsidy has not been released to remaining 38 cases due to incomplete construction oI the RWH or construction oI the structures were not as per the approved design oI CGWB or DJB`s team suggested some modiIication in the structure as per approved design by CGWB. During diIIerent years oI implementation oI the scheme, the Iinancial achievement under the same is as under:- Year Fund released by Delhi Govt. to DJB (in Lacs) Expenditure incurred by DJB (in Lacs) 2002-03 19.0 9.68 (Financial Assistance Promotion) 2003-04 42.00 4.50 (Financial Assistance) 2004-05 22.50 27.15 (Financial Assistance) 2005-06 11.25 11.14 (Financial Assistance Promotion) Total 94.75 52.47 Source . Office of Executive Engineer (RWH), Delhi Jal Board The main component oI the expenditure under the scheme is Iinancial assistance (subsidy) provided to RWAs/CGHSs etc. where RWH structures were constructed as per approved design oI CGWB. For the promotion oI the scheme, it was inIormed by the Executive Engineer (RWH) that during the year 2002-03 when the scheme was launched, expenditure was also incurred Ior publicity/ promotion oI the scheme by distributing literatures / pamphlets etc. During 2005-06, the expenditure was also made Ior the preparation oI the Re- charge Models and display oI the same in workshops on Rainwater Harvesting Ior the promotion oI the scheme. For the 90 RWH structures completed during 2002-03 to 2005-06, Rs. 43.17 lac has been released as subsidy / Iinancial assistance to the concerned RWAs / CGHS / Institute etc. and the remaining amount oI Rs.9.30 lac have been spent Ior promotional activities. 53 4.3 Field Survey & Findings ( Reconstructed from the reports submitted by Planning Department and through direct interviews with field surveyors and residents ) For the purpose oI the study, 10 RWH structures out oI 90 completed structures (Ior which subsidy / Iinancial assistance have been released to the concerned RWAs/CGHS) were selected which were visited by the Iield staII oI the Planning Deptt. Out oI 10 RWH structures visited by the Iield staII, 5 are in South West, 2 in South, 2 in West and 1 in North East region oI Delhi covering the area where the scheme is in operation in Delhi. Out oI these 10 RWH structures, 8 structures are in the premises oI RWAs/ CGHS and 2 are in the Institutions. Findings of the Survey: Based on the Iield visit made by the Field StaII oI the Planning Department and the inIormation gathered Irom them and Irom the oIIice bearer (i.e. interviewee) oI the RWAs/CGHS/Institutions etc. concerned with the above 10 sampled RWH structures, the summary oI the Iindings are as under : Out oI the 10 places / localities visited, 6 are having two recharge pits each, 2 are having three recharge pits each and remaining 2 are having single recharge pit each Ior rainwater harvesting. At 6 locations, interviewees inIormed that the availability oI water is adequate whereas 4 reported that the availability oI water is inadequate. At all the 10 locations, tube wells also exist in the premises oI the society. In case oI 6 RWH structures, approval Ior adoption oI the RWH work was provided by the DJB within 15 days to 2 months oI the requests received Irom the interested agencies, whereas, in case oI 4 RWH structures the societies adopted RWH with their selI initiatives and hence, no Iormal prior approval was taken by them Irom the DJB Ior adopting the work on rainwater harvesting. The Delhi Jal Board team visited the localities where RWH structures have been constructed to check whether the construction oI the same was as per the approved design by CGWB, beIore releasing the Iinancial assistance. In case oI 4 RWH structures, Iinancial assistance was provided to the concerned RWAs/CGHS within 3 months aIter inIorming the Delhi Jal Board regarding completion oI the RWH structure along with relevant documents, whereas, in case oI 3 RWH 54 structures, the time taken Ior providing Iinancial assistance was in between 4 to 8 months. For the remaining 3 cases, the time taken to provide Iinancial assistance was more than 8 months. The oIIice bearers oI 5 out oI 10 RWAs/CGHS expressed their satisIaction regarding assistance provided by DJB and CGWB Ior the construction oI RWH structures. In case oI 3 RWH structures, the oIIice bearers inIormed that the quality oI assistance was not up to the mark and they desired that site visit by DJB and CGWB representatives should be made compulsory to give all technical assistance beIore starting construction so that the entire work may be executed accordingly and any modiIication/alteration aIter the completion oI the construction work may be avoided. Maintenance: As per the clause oI agreement entered between the Society (relating to the RWH structure) and the DJB, the maintenance oI RWH system is to be made in every six month beIore the on-set oI monsoon and aIter the monsoon is over, to ensure that there is no clogging oI Iilter media and also slots oI bore pipe. All the 10 interviewees inIormed that every year DJB sends a letter to remind them to do the maintenance oI RWH structure. As regards maintenance, the most oI the interviewees inIormed that they do the maintenance every year. AIter opening the cover oI the recharge pits oI the 10 sampled structures, it was observed that in some cases, heap oI soil was present in the recharge pits and due to this the boulders, gravels etc. were not visible there which may result in clogging oI Iilter media and slots oI bore pipe. This implies that the proper awareness at societies level is required to maintain the RWH system in every six month beIore the on-set oI the monsoon and aIter monsoon is over. Cost oI maintenance: Four out oI ten interviewees inIormed that they generally get maintenance oI the RWH structure done with the help oI manpower available with the Societies maintenance staII and hence no separate cost oI maintenance was indicated by them. However, 3 interviewees have intimated that the cost oI one time maintenance comes in between Rs.600/- to Rs.2500/- per annum whereas other three inIormed that the maintenance cost comes in the range oI Rs.3000/- to Rs.7500/- per annum. AIter the commissioning oI the RWH system, the DJB team had visited six locations and the CGWB team had inspected three locations, out oI the 10 sampled RWH structures. 55 4.4 Impact Assessment All the 10 respondents interviewed expressed that ground water level has not depleted Iurther in their locality aIter adoption oI RWH system, because, they did not have to Iurther deepen their tube wells in their localities. According to them, the public oI the locality is getting beneIited due to recharging oI the ground water which is being tapped by them Ior watering plants, cleaning purposes etc. It was also inIormed by most oI them that RWH scheme has created awareness among the public Ior avoiding wastage oI water and also Ior adoption oI conservation oI water. All the 10 interviewees have opined that the scheme should be promoted. 56 Chapter 5 Recent Cases Involving RWH 5.1 Case 1 : Kranti v/s Union of India IN THE SUPREME COURT OF INDIA Decided On: 16.05.2007 Kranti v. Union of India (UOI) and Ors. 1UDGMENT : Altamas Kabir, 1. Brief Case Note Case dealing with the problems being Iaced by the tsunami aIIected populace oI the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Amongst other things, the court ordered the local administration to take immediate steps to arrange Ior rain water harvesting and construct cemented tanks to capture rain water. In addition, it ordered that immediate steps be taken to clean out existing wells which had been polluted during the Tsunami and to recharge them in order to provide Ior the drinking water needs oI the inhabitants. Background The Special Leave Petition Iiled against the judgment and order passed by the Division Bench oI the Circuit Bench oI the Calcutta High Court at Port Blair on 16th January, 2006, in Writ Petition No. 205 oI 2005 recounts the various problems that were being Iaced by the Islanders in the wake oI the Tsunami which hit the Andaman and Nicobar Islands on 26th December, 2004, and the disaster leIt in its aItermath and the steps that could be taken to mitigate their suIIerings. The magnitude oI the problem created by the Tsunami, is diIIicult to imagine and its eIIects continue to subsist and haunt the islanders even today. Summary of case presented by Appellants Appearing in support oI the appeal, Mr. Colin Gonsalves urged that on account oI the Tsunami which hit the islands, extensive damage had been caused to the shelters and livelihood oI the islanders and in particular those inhabiting the Nicobar group oI islands. According to him, some oI the major problems included scarcity oI potable drinking water, lack oI medical Iacilities Ior treatment oI diseases which had broken out aIter the 57 Tsunami, lack oI Iood and shelter and destruction oI the means oI livelihood oI the inhabitants oI the islands whose main occupation was Iishing and agriculture. Mr.Gonsalves urged that there was no dearth oI Iunds Ior carrying out the work oI rehabilitation, but the same were not being utilized in a proper manner. He pointed out that the next acute problem was housing and that the design oI the shelters which were to be provided by way oI rehabilitation was entirely unsuitable Ior the islands where the salinity in the atmosphere was extremely high. He urged that there was suIIicient timber available Ior construction oI traditional shelters suitable Ior the islands by the islanders themselves on account oI the large number oI trees which had been uprooted during the Tsunami. Furthermore, the cost oI labour which would otherwise be paid to contractors, would be available to the islanders themselves. He also urged that the maintenance oI the structures proposed to be constructed would be extremely high and would be beyond the capacity oI those Ior whom they were meant, making the entire scheme an exercise in Iutility. Mr. Gonsalves then reIerred to the destruction oI agricultural lands by intrusion oI saline water which had made it impossible Ior cultivation. To cure the salinity and make those lands which could be reclaimed suitable once again Ior cultivation would take between six to ten years. According to Mr. Gonsalves, about 10,000 hectares oI agricultural land which was used Ior paddy cultivation lies submerged under sea water even till today. Out oI this amount oI land, it appears that about 4500 hectares are not reclaimable Ior paddy cultivation. He also brought attention to other problems like Iishermen having diIIiculty with Iibre glass boats, absence oI lady doctor, availability oI cooking gas etc. Summary of Respondent`s defence Appearing on behalI oI the Lt. Governor oI the Islands and the Local Administration, Mr. T.S. Doabia submitted that steps had been taken by the Administration on war Iooting to provide relieI to those who had been devastated by the Tsunami. He urged that having regard to the geographical placing oI the Islands the process oI rehabilitation have taken considerable time, but the Administration did not lack a sense oI urgency in rehabilitating the Tsunami-aIIected Iamilies. Mr. Doabia submitted that there were certain things which were beyond the control oI the authorities, such as the placing oI more doctors and a Lady Doctor at Campbell Bay, but earnest eIIorts were being made to address the problem. Regarding the nature oI houses being provided Ior rehabilitation, Mr. Doabia submitted that the design had been approved by experts, both local and central, belonging to the Public Works Department 58 and also the representatives oI the islanders. On the question oI supply oI drinking water, Mr. Doabia pointed out that in the islands there were only a Iew rivers which could not be relied upon Ior supply oI Iresh water. On the other hand, the people oI the islands depended mainly on wells and ground water harvesting. According to him the local administration had undertaken a programme to clean out and recharge the wells which had been aIIected by the Tsunami. However, the local administration was willing to abide by any instructions that may be given in this regard to make potable drinking water available to the Tsunami-aIIected Iamilies. The other issues were also addressed on similar lines by the respondents. Brief Summary of the 1udgement : The Local Administration under the guidance oI the Lt. Governor shall take immediate steps to arrange Ior rain water harvesting and construction oI cemented tanks Ior capturing rain water during the monsoons Ior later use by the inhabitants oI the diIIerent islands. In addition, immediate steps should also be taken to clean out the existing wells which had been polluted by the Tsunami and to recharge the same, so that the monsoonal rains can be Iully utilized. II necessary, Iresh wells may also be dug to augment the existing supply oI water. The dry rations being supplied to the Tsunami aIIected Iamilies be continued till the month oI October 2007 or until the appeal is Iinally disposed oI, whichever is earlier. Rethinking should be undertaken with regard to the design oI the shelters to be provided to the victims oI the Tsunami upon considering the climatic conditions. In respect oI persons whose agricultural lands remain submerged with sea water and are yet to receive compensation, the Local Administration may consider providing a job Ior one member oI the Iamily in keeping with the assurances given earlier. Remarks : The highlight oI this case is that Rainwater Harvesting has been considered as a sustainable and viable solution Ior improving the potable drinking water supply on the island. Also the H`ble Court (Appeals) has directed the local administration to clean and maintain the existing wells Ior RWH. With the limited Iresh water bodies RWH is the only alternative on the islands to secure drinking water supply. 59 5.2 Case 2 : Intellectuals Forum, Tirupathi v/s. State of A.P. IN THE SUPREME COURT OF INDIA Decided On: 23.02.2006 Intellectuals Forum, Tirupathi v/s State of A.P. and Ors. Hon'ble 1udges: Ruma Pal and AR. Lakshmanan, JJ. 1UDGMENT AR. Lakshmanan, 1. Brief Case Note Case concerning the preservation and restoration oI status quo ante oI two tanks which were being sought to be converted to meet the requirements oI shelter. In view oI the Iact that the condition oI these tanks was irreparable no order could be given by the court preserve them but order was given Ior stoppage oI Iurther construction in the area. Background The present matter raises two kinds oI questions. Firstly, at a jurisprudential level, it Ialls on this court to lay down the law regarding the use oI public lands or natural resources, which have a direct link to the environment oI a particular area, by the Government. Secondly, this court should decide, on the Iacts oI the present case, the order to be passed with respect to two tanks in the Tirupathi area - Peruru, and Avilala. . The above appeals were Iiled by a registered society called, the Intellectuals Forum, against the respondents herein. The contesting parties are the State oI Andhra Pradesh represented by its ChieI Secretary, Tirupathi Urban Development Authority represented by its Vice-Chairman and the A.P. Housing Board represented by its Vice-Chairman and Housing Commissioner. The present case relates to the preservation oI and restoration oI status quo ante oI two tanks, historical in nature being in existence since the time oI Srikrishnadevaraya, 1500 A.D. The tanks are called `Avilala Tank' and `Peruru Tank' which are situated in suburbs oI Tirupathi Town which is a world renowned popular pilgrim centre having every day in-Ilow oI tourists between one to two lakhs. 60 Summary of case presented by Appellants According to the appellant, the cry oI socially spirited citizens calling Ior judicial remedy was not considered in the right perspective by the Division Bench oI the High Court oI Andhra Pradesh despite there being over-whelming evidence oI the tanks being in existence and were being put to use not only Ior irrigation purpose but also as lakes which were Iurthering percolation to improve the ground water table, thus serving the needs oI the people in and around these tanks. It was submitted that the High Court has given precedence to the economic growth by completely ignoring the importance and primacy attached to the protection oI environment and protection oI valuable and most cherished Iresh water resources. The Government without considering the well planned development oI Tirupathi town alienated the Tank bed lands in Iavour oI some governmental agencies Ior valuable consideration. It was Iurther submitted that since Tirupathi is in the draught prone region called Rayala Seema, there is always shortage oI water and the District machinery is constantly put on alert Ior devising schemes Ior the purpose oI improving the existing water resources. An Engineering Team which is assigned such a task had visited in and around the Ioot- hills oI Tirupathi and Tirumala Ior the purpose oI identiIying sources oI Iresh water and suggestions to be given Ior their improvement. Team oI Engineers suggested that improvement oI Ieeder channels (Vagus) Ior Peruru tank and Avilala tank would improve the percolation oI all the surrounding areas and that there is enough potential Ior the tanks to get enough water iI the Ieeder channels are improved. It was also submitted by representation that the Commissioner oI Land Revenue to retain Peruru tank and Avilala tank, since retention oI water in the said tanks would improve the water table which is already very low in the surrounding wells and also to the east oI the tanks beIore oI gradients. In the meantime, the Government passed G.O. Ms. No. 181 - Revenue dated 15.3.1991 alienating an extent oI 150 acres oI land which belongs to the tank bed area oI Peruru tank to Tirumala Tirupathi Devasthanam (In short, TTD). The members oI the appellant's Iorum as also the various other socially spirited citizens have written letters to various authorities oI the Government requesting the said authorities including the ChieI Minister not to alienate the tank bed areas oI both the tanks Ior housing or Ior any other activity except Ior the purpose Ior which it is meant. However, the Government issued G.O. Ms. No. 84 - Revenue dated 28.1.1994 authorizing the District Collector, Chittoor to alienate 90 acres oI land belonging to Avilala 61 tank bed area to A.P. Housing Board. This Government order Iurther directed that the TUDA should provide a Master plan Ior the entire area oI 170 acres so as to ensure integrated development oI Avilala tank area. Summary of Respondent`s defence Mr. Anoop G. Chaudhary, learned senior counsel appearing Ior the State oI Andhra Pradesh drew attention to National Remote Sensing Agency, Department oI Space, report titled "Land use Land cover monitoring in TUDA area with special reIerence to Avilala tank and environs Tirupathi, Andhra Pradesh" has conducted detailed study with the help oI satellite imageries on Avilala tank over a period oI time. In its report, it is stated that the tank in earlier days i.e. earlier to 1970 was drained mostly by natural springs located in the head oI the region oI the catchment. Over a period oI time, the spring got dried up due to various geological Iactors with no source oI surIace Ilow. Also the small streams which were draining to the tank were disturbed and occupied, with the result the tank remained dry with part oI it covered with scrub since 1976 onwards. It is also stated in the report that as per the satellite image oI February, 2001 there are about 232 tanks identiIied in TUDA area. Most oI the tanks are located along the Ioot hills oI Tirumala hills and plains oI Swarnamukhi river. Kalyani reservoir is the major one in the area. Considering the location as well as distribution about 20 tanks are identiIied Ior conservation and Iuture development to meet the urban water requirement. However, other existing tanks may also be Ienced and preserved to meet the Iuture requirement. According to Mr. Chaudhary, there is nothing illegal in issuing in G.Os. It is not violating anybody's Iundamental rights. An extent oI 180 acres oI land was tank bed land oI Avilala tank. This tank was an abandoned tank ever since 1984 as the channel source oI this tank was closed due to construction oI Kalyani dam and because oI lack oI water this tank was no longer used Ior storage oI water. As it was an abandoned tank and was no longer in existence and the land became plain and considering the matter and report oI the District Collector, the Government issued orders in G.O. Ms. No. 691 - Revenue Department dated 10.7.1989 Ior alienating an extent oI 90 acres oI land to A.P. Housing Board Ior the purpose oI rental Housing scheme Ior Government employees on payment oI Rs. 1 lakh per acre by the Housing Board and beIore this land was alienated a notice was published in the village calling Ior objections by the Revenue authorities and no objections were received in 62 pursuance oI the said notice. The Ayacutdars have also consented Ior the alienation oI the land. ThereaIter, aIter obtaining the opinion oI the concerned Executive Engineer oI the Irrigation Department and the report oI the District Collector, the above Government Order was issued. Concluding his arguments, he submitted that there is ample material on record showing that these tanks were abandoned long back and they were no longer serving as water storage tanks more particularly, as their supply channels have been dried up. Brief Summary of the 1udgement The H`ble judge observed that the set oI Iacts in the present case relates to the preservation oI and restoration oI status quo ante oI two tanks, historical in nature being in existence since the time oI Srikrishnadevaraya, The Great, 1500 A.D., where the cry oI socially spirited citizens calling Ior judicial remedy was not considered in the right perspective by the Division bench oI the High Court oI Andhra Pradesh despite there being overwhelming evidence oI the tanks being in existence and were being put to use not only Ior irrigation purpose but also as lakes which were Iurthering percolation to improve the ground water table, thus serving the needs oI the people in and around these tanks. The Division Bench oI the High Court, in the impugned order, has given precedence to the economic growth by completely ignoring the importance and primacy attached to the protection oI environment and protection oI valuable and most cherished Iresh water resources. Taking into account all these principles oI law, and aIter considering the competing claims oI environment and the need Ior housing, this Court holds the Iollowing as per the Iacts oI this case. On the Iacts oI the present case, it seems that the respondents intend to build residential blocks oI Ilat Ior High and Middle income Iamilies, institutions as well as inIrastructure Ior the TTDS. II the proposed constructions are not carried on, it seems unlikely that anyone will be leIt homeless or without their basic need Ior shelter. ThereIore, one Ieels that the right to shelter does not seem to be so pressing under the present circumstances so as to outweigh all environmental considerations. Another plea repeatedly taken by the respondents correspond to the money already spent on developing the land. However, the decision oI this case cannot be based solely upon the investments committed by any party. Since, otherwise, it would seem that once any 63 party makes certain investment in a project, it would be a Iait accompli and this Court will not have any option but to deem it legal. ThereIore, under the present circumstances, the Court should do the most it can to saIeguard the two tanks in question. However, due to the persistent developmental activities over a long time, much oI the natural resources oI the lakes has been lost, and considered irreparable. This, though regrettable, is beyond the power oI this court to rectiIy. One particular Ieature oI this case was the competing nature oI claims by both the parties on the present state oI the two tanks and the Ieasibility oI their revival. We thought that it would be best, thereIore, iI we place reliance on the Iindings oI the expert committee appointed by us which has considered the Iactual situation and the Ieasibility oI revival oI the two tanks. Thus in pursuance oI a study oI that committee, this Court passes the Iollowing orders. The appeals are disposed oI with the Iollowing directions: No Iurther constructions to be made. The supply channel oI Bodeddula Vanka needs to be cleared and revitalized. A small check dam at Malapali to be removed to ensure the Iree Ilow and supply to the tank. Percolation tank to be constructed and artiIicial recharge to be done to ensure the revival oI the tank, keeping in mind its advantage at being situated at the Ioot hills. The area allotted by Mandal Revenue OIIice Ior construction oI the tank to be increased to a minimum oI 50 acres. Percolation tank with suIIicient number oI recharge shaIts to be developed to recharge the unsaturated horizons up to 20 m. The design oI the shaIts etc. to be prepared in consultation with the CGWB. The proposed percolation tank to be suitably located along the bund keeping in view the inlets, irrigation sluices and surplus water. Feasibility and cost estimation Ior the revival oI the old Ieeder channel Ior Swarnamukhi River should be carried and a report to be submitted to the Court. Each house already constructed by the TTD must provide Ior rooI top rain water harvesting. Abstraction Irom ground water to be completely banned. No borewell/ tubewell Ior any purpose to be allowed in the area. 64 Piezometers to be set up at selected locations, in consultation with the CGWB to observe the impact oI rain water harvesting in the area on ground water regime. Remarks This particular case Ieatures many highlights and the most prominent oI them is the judicial intervention in Iavour oI Environmental protection than Economic progress. Though the judgement agrees that the said tanks are not in proper condition to be used as percolation pits to improve the water table in the region but has given clear direction in restoration oI the structures rather than constructing housing colonies. This judgement takes precedence Irom number oI earlier environmental cases namely Enviro-Legal Action v. Union of India, where their Lordships said, ' While economic development should not be allowed to take place at the cost of ecology or by causing widespread environmental destruction and violation; at the same time the necessity to preserve ecology and environment should not hamper economic and other developments. Both development and environment should go hand in hand, in other words, there should not be development at the cost of environment and vice versa, but there should be development while taking due care and ensuring the protection of the environment. The court Iurther scrutinized the principle oI "Inter-Generational Equity" has also been adopted while determining cases involving environmental issues. This Court in the case oI A.P. Pollution Control Board v. Prof. M.J. Aayudu and Ors. held, '1he principle of inter- generational equity is of recent origin. 1he 1972 Stockholm Declaration refers to it in principles 1 and 2. In this context, the environment is viewed more as a resource basis for the survival of the present and future generations. Principle 1 - Man has the fundamental right to freedom, equality and adequate conditions of life, in an environment of quality that permits a life of dignity and well-being, and he bears a solemn responsibility to protect and improve the environment for the present and future generations.... Principle 2 - 1he natural resources of the earth, including the air, water, lands, flora and fauna and especially representative samples of natural ecosystems, must be safeguarded for the benefit of the present and future generations through careful planning or management, as appropriate. 65 Chapter 6 Conclusions and Recommendations 6.1 Conclusion Historians have described India as a hydraulic` civilisation. Even when the British came to India about 250 years ago, there were a number oI urban settlements built on riverbanks (Patna, Varanasi and Allahabad); and others built around tanks and lakes (Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Bhopal). Tens oI thousands oI water structures oI diverse technologies existed all over the country, with diverse management systems to ensure equitable and sustainable water supply to all. Structures built to trap and manage rainwater were speciIic to the terrain and meteorological conditions. Technologies were usually simple, and harnessed local materials and labour. Over time, rainwater harvesting structures were woven into the region`s cultural and religious milieu as has been shown in Intellectual Forum v/s State oI AP case study in chapter 5 and the historical importance oI the two tanks in Tirupathi may have been instrumental in securing the courts judgement in the community`s Iavour. The history oI water harvesting in India goes way back to Vedic times. Archeological excavations oI the Indus Valley civilisation at Dholavira, dating back to 3000 B.C, in the Great Rann oI Kutch, showed a sophisticated system Ior harvesting rainwater. This is the earliest example Iound anywhere in the world. This arid region had little rainIall, no perennial sources oI water and the groundwater was brackish. The excavations showed stone bunds built across two streams to divert monsoon runoII through a network oI drains into several large reservoirs built in the city. Several storm water drains also collected rainwater. Though India is well endowed in terms oI rainIall, (annual average rainIall oI 1160mm), this rainIall comes in just over 100 hours in the year which has been illustrated Ior Delhi in Chapter 3. Ancient India had learnt to plan Ior the remaining 8660 hours without any rain. In the hill and mountain regions, people diverted spring water into channels or dykes (kuls,guls, kuhals) to bring water Ior irrigation. In the arid central highlands and the western parts oI the country, people dammed water Irom small catchments to moisten the soil and increase groundwater (khadins, fohads, chaukas, pats). In the south they built a series oI tanks to divert water Irom rivers (eris, keres). In the Iloodplains a system oI canals and 66 reservoirs diverted surplus Ilood waters to be used later. In Madhya Pradesh, Ior instance, the invading Mughal rulers built a qanat in Burhanpur, to tap the groundwater aquiIer. The potential oI water harvesting is enormous as has been demonstrated in the two case studies oI Jamia Hamdard University and Tihar jail in Chapter 2 and the model calculation Ior South and South West Delhi in Chapter 3. Dr. P.R. Pisharoty, eminent physical scientist in India, estimated that water captured in just 3 oI the total land area oI India would yield nearly 900 km3 oI water even at collection eIIiciencies oI 50-60. Given the Iact that the National Water Commission has estimated the total water demand oI India in 2025 to be 1093 km3, you can understand the importance oI capturing and using rainwater. It means that theoretically rainwater harvesting alone can IulIil almost the entire water demand oI India even by 2025. The art and science oI catching water where it Ialls is an ancient wisdom, but one which is dying. This traditional wisdom oI catching and using rainwater was widespread across Asia and AIrica, the most water-stressed regions today. This wisdom, iI revived and reinIorced with modern science and technological inputs, can help in meeting modern water needs. Governments across the world are Iollowing models oI water development that Iocus on harnessing surIace and groundwater that require huge investments in Iinancial and technological resources. Today, research shows that much oI these investments are, in Iact, very ineIIicient or even counter productive. According to a UNEP report, in the top Iive irrigating countries oI the world (India, China, USA, Pakistan and USSR) , almost 24 oI the total land under irrigation was damaged due to salinization and over irrigation in the 1980s. Water withdrawals Irom rivers and underground reserves have grown by 2.5 to 3 percent annually since 1940. It is expected to grow by 10-12 every 10 years till 2025. For instance, Libya, uses 7 times more water annually Ior irrigation than it receives in rainIall by pumping "Iossil" water Irom deep beneath the Sahara desert. India is using groundwater at twice the recharge rate, causing some water tables to Iall by between 1 and 3 meters a year. In this scenario, harvesting rainwater makes eminent sense. For instance, in India, although there is a total precipitation oI 4000 km3 annually, it loses almost 1700 km3 as evaporation, soil moisture etc, which can be captured and utilised. More importantly, the value oI water harvesting lies in the Iact that it need not be the responsibility oI the governments, and it can be executed by communities using simple technologies and resources, available locally. 67 Traditional wisdom realised that every last man or woman not only has water needs, but can also contribute to the management oI this resource. Water harvesting is a cooperative enterprise -- it serves to bring communities together. This thesis can be concluded with the statement that ' RWH is deIinitely one oI the key strategies Ior addressing the water crisis situation in India, particularly the arid locations in India. Also, Indian states have adopted proactive policies and intensive based strategies Ior promoting RWH implementation. As seen Irom the examination oI two recent cases, it can be concluded that Judiciary in India is very much keen on promotion and implementation oI RWH and saIeguard oI Environmental Protection Laws are very prominent in the agenda. 6.2 Recommendations It is no denying that sustaining and recharging the groundwater along with judicious use oI the limited Iresh water resources is the need oI the hour. II suIIicient measures are not taken up immediately, we will Iace a crisis which will be detrimental to the very survival oI mankind. EIIicient management oI water resources and education about judicious utilisation oI water resources along with measures oI harnessing, recharging and maintaining the quality oI water and water bodies has to be taken up on war Iooting. Keeping in view the requirement oI water conservation in India, it is necessary to promote the scheme oI Rain Water Harvesting in a big way through various electronic/mass media measures. RWH should not only encompass rooItop rainwater harvesting but also storm water harvesting systems. Storm water harvesting is yet to be acknowledged as a better alternative over rooItop water harvesting. One oI the major hurdles in storm water harvesting is the poor state oI storm water drain systems in India. A planned approach is hence needed in order to Iully utilise the potential oI rainwater to adequately meet our water requirements. Hence, an equal and positive thrust is needed in developing and encouraging both the types oI water harvesting systems. We have to catch water in every possible way and every possible place it Ialls. Presently, the adoption oI rain water harvesting by various societies/institutions etc are very limited. The objective oI ground water recharging will be served in a better way iI all the institutions (school, colleges, universities, academic institutions, hospitals etc), 68 oIIice complexes, societies (Govt./Private) etc. which are covering large areas and having the scope oI better rain water harvesting, adopt rain water harvesting. Also, it is more cost eIIective to install RWH Ior societies / communities than individual houses. Though it has been made mandatory to adopt rain water harvesting structures Ior the new buildings having area above 100 Sq. Mtrs, but it is practically not being implemented. In order to make this provision eIIective, the concerned building sanction plan authorities in India should be made responsible Ior implementing the scheme by making compulsory a RWH structure in such premises while sanctioning the building plan and also monitoring the implementation oI the same by the concerned agency. EIIectiveness oI the scheme should be monitored by the competent authorities Irom time to time to achieve its desired goal. Simultaneously, the it should provide technical guidance Ior its proper maintenance wherever necessary. BeIore getting subsidy under the scheme oI Rain Water Harvesting, the concerned RWAs/CGHS/institution has to enter into an agreement with the government to ensure proper maintenance oI the RWH structure aIter its commissioning. It is evident that proper maintenance is not being made resulting the deIeat the very purpose oI the scheme. It is suggested that iI proper maintenance oI the RWH structure is not being made by the concerned RWAs/CGHS etc., a penalty may be imposed by competent authority or the concerned water supply agency. RWH should also include water conservation practices alongside water harvesting in its promotion and implementation. Also, there should be emphasis on making the RWH implementation sites selI reliant so that government can cu down on the expenses oI building and maintaining central water supplies. This will also ensure optimum usage oI water considered the heavy losses incurred in water transportation owing to leaks and pilIerages. Waste water treatment also should be emphasized in water harvesting programs to conserve our precious Iresh water resources. Current waste water treatment methods and Iacilities are neither economically nor ecologically viable. 69 Bibliography Case (1981). UN ConIerence on new and renewable sources oI energy. National paper India, Nairobi. 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