English Grammar

Adjectives
An adjective is a word like clever, beautiful, green, hungry, brave, which is used when we describe people, things, events etc. Adjectives are used in connection with nouns and pronouns. He wore a red shirt. We need some square tables. Each hand has five fingers. You are naughty. She is a beautiful girl. He is an honest bo . !his is a wooden chair. She wore a gold necklace. "t was an earthen pot. Sugar is sweet.

Position of adjectives
#ost ad$ectives can go in two main positions in a sentence% a& before a noun 'attributive position& (ur new principal is an old lad . He is a clever bo .

b& after be, seem, look and other copular verbs 'predicative position& " am glad to meet ou. You don)t look happy to see me. !he milk turned sour. She felt bad.

Adverbs

Adverbs are words like tomorrow, dail , badl , once and too. !he tell us more about other words, especiall verbs. !he child smiled sweetly. '!he adverb sweetl modifies the verb smiled.& She walked slowly. '!he adverb slowl modifies the verb walked.& He talked politely. '!he adverb politel modifies the verb talked.&

Sometimes adverbs modif adjectives. "t was a very important *uestion. '!he adverb ver modifies the ad$ective important.& You are so sweet. '!he adverb so modifies the ad$ective sweet.&

Adverbs can also modif other adverbs. He walked very slowly. '!he adverb ver modifies the adverb slowl .& She sang extremely well. '!he adverb e+tremel modifies the adverb well.&

Articles
!he articles a/an 'the indefinite article& and the 'the definite article& belong to a group of words called determiners. !he normall go at the beginning of noun phrases. Alice is a financial advisor. She is working for an insurance compan . " have been to the doctor. ,an " talk to the manager-

What are articles used for?

Articles are used to show whether we are talking about things that are known both to the speaker and to the listener, or that are not known to them both. Articles can also show whether we are talking about things in general or particular things.

Points to be noted
A singular countable noun normall has an article or other determiner 'm , this, her, some etc.& with it. We can sa a dog, my dog, that dog or every dog, but not $ust dog. " saw a child in the store. !he have a house in the cit . ,an " use your car? He is my friend. Who is that boy in the red shirt-

.lural and uncountable nouns can be used with or without an article or other determiner. Children usuall rush about. il! is rich in nutrients. "s there any mil! in the bottle"ater is precious. #ime is mone .

Au+iliar /erbs
An auxiliary verb is one which helps other verbs to make tenses, passive forms etc. !here are two groups 0 primar au+iliaries and modal au+iliaries.

Primary auxiliaries
$e% do% have and their various forms are called primary auxiliaries. $e is used with other verbs to make progressive and passive verbs forms. " am writing. He was punished for l ing.

&o is used to make *uestions, negatives and emphatic forms of non0au+iliar verbs. &o ou know where 1ohn lives" don't !now. &o sit down.

(ave is used to make perfect verbs forms. " have completed m work. She has acted in a film. !he had forgotten to send the letter.

.rimar au+iliaries merel help to e+press statements of fact. She is writing. " am working. You have done wrong. He did not come in time. !he have arrived.

2ote that be% do and have can also function as principal verbs. !he are called au+iliaries onl when the help other verbs to form their tenses and moods. You were wrong. '.rincipal verb& You have done wrong. 'Au+iliar verb& She is a good singer. '.rincipal verb& She is singing. 'Au+iliar verb&

Au+iliar /erbs
An auxiliary verb is one which helps other verbs to make tenses, passive forms etc. !here are two groups 0 primar au+iliaries and modal au+iliaries.

Modal auxiliaries
!he verbs will% would% shall% should% can% could% may% might% must% ought% dare and need are usuall called modal au+iliaries. !he are used with other verbs to e+press actions, events or situations that e+ist onl as conceptions of the mind 0 permissions, possibilities, certaint , abilit , wishes, obligations etc. !he ma also e+press simple futurit . " can swim. She will come. " must go now. Should " call themShe might come.

odal auxiliaries have three common characteristics. ). !he are never used alone. A principal verb is either present or implied. " can fly an aeroplane. He should behave. Will ou go- Yes, " will *go+.

,. #odal au+iliaries have no -s in the third person singular. " can swim. She can swim. './# She cans 3& " may pass. He may pass. !he may pass.

0. #odal au+iliaries do not have infinitives 'to ma , to shall etc.& or participles 'ma ing, shalling, shalled etc.&. You cannot sa to shall, to must or to ma .

,on$unctions
Conjunctions are words that $oin other words or clauses together. God made the countr and man made the town. He was poor but he was honest. She must weep or she will die. 1ohn and #ar got married.

Conjunctions not onl $oin clauses together4 the also show how the meanings of the two clauses are related. " decided to consult a doctor because " was not feeling well. 'cause& He is slow but he is sure. 'contrast& Ann wrote the letters and .eter posted them. 'addition& Either take it or leave it. 'alternative& He is ver wealth , yet ver unhapp . 'contrast& You can have tea or coffee.

A con$unction and its clause can sometimes stand alone. !his happens, for e+ample, in answers. When are ou going to start- "hen 1 am ready. Wh are ou cr ing- $ecause 2ohn beat me.

Afterthoughts ma also begin with con$unctions. (k, " did it. 5 $ut 1 didn't mean it.

Writers and speakers ma also separate clauses for emphasis.

Phrase conjunctions
Some con$unctions are made up of two or more words. He looks as if he were on the brink of a breakdown. "t looks as though it is going to rain. As soon as " finish this book, " will start another. We started earl so that we might not miss the show.

Relative pronouns as conjunctions

3elative pronouns 'who, which and that& $oin clauses like con$unctions. " saw a beggar who was deaf and dumb.

"n the above sentence who stands for the beggar 5 hence it is a pronoun. "t also connects the two sentences I saw a beggar and He was deaf and dumb 5 hence it is a con$unction. A relative pronoun is the sub$ect or ob$ect of the verb that comes after it. So we do not need another sub$ect or ob$ect. !rust no man who does not love his countr . './# !rust no man who he does not 3&

!he snake which we could not kill crept into a hole. './# !he snake which we could not kill it crept 3&

6egrees of ,omparison
7iled in English Grammar English ad$ectives and adverbs commonl distinguish three degrees% the positive 'the basic form&, the comparative 'e+pressing a higher degree than is present in something else& and the superlative 'e+pressing a ma+imal degree&.

omparative and superlative adjectives! formation

!he comparative is formed with -er or more4 the superlative is formed with -est or most. (ne s llable ad$ectives like big and fast tend to prefer -er and -est. 8arger ones like beautiful and carefull take more and most. 1ohn is tall. 1ohn is taller than .eter. 1ohn is the tallest man " know. Susie drives carefully. Susie drives more carefully than Alice. Susie drives the most carefully of an bod in .aris.

6eterminers
&eterminers are words like a% my% this% those% each% either% some% few% all and both. !he come at the beginning of noun phrases, but the are not ad$ectives. a new book every week some rice enough trouble my mother English grammar recognises two main groups of determiners 5 Group A and Group 9.

"roup # determiners
Articles, demonstratives and possessives are often called 5roup A determiners. !he help to identif things. Articles 0 a, an, the 6emonstratives 0 this, that, these, those .ossessives 0 m , our, our, their, her, his, its, one:s, whose !wo Group A determiners cannot be put together. We can sa my car% this car or the car% but not the my car% this my car or my this car. "f we have to put two Group A determiners together, we use the structure a/this 6 noun 6 of mine/yours. this car of mine a friend of yours

"roup $ %eterminers
#ost of them indicate something about *uantit . E+amples are% some, an , no each, ever , either, neither much, man , more, most a little, less, least a few, fewer, fewest all, both, half what, whatever, which, whichever one, two, three etc.

We can put two Group 9 determiners together, if the combination makes sense. We meet every few days. Have ou got any more rice?

"roup $ & "roup #

Group 9 determiners can be used directl before nouns without of.

Have the got any children? ost people love children.

9ut if we want to put a Group 9 determiner before a noun with a Group A determiner, we have to use of. ,ompare% some children some of the children neither method neither of these methods most plants most of the plants

Points to be noted
We can leave out of after all% both and half when the are followed b nouns. all m friends /3 all of m friends both 'of& m parents half 'of& her income

9ut note that we cannot leave out of when all% both and half are followed b pronouns. all of us '2(! all us& both of them '2(! both them&

.o and every are not used before of4 instead we use none and every one. no children none of the children ever child ever one of the children

"roup # & "roup $

,ertain Group 9 determiners can be used after Group A determiners. !he are% man , most, least, little and few. a little time his many ideas a few *uestions the most mone

,ommon prepositions% usage "t is difficult to learn to use prepositions correctl in a foreign language. #ost English prepositions have several different functions. At the same time different prepositions can have ver similar uses. Here are some of the most common prepositions in English. E+ample sentences and e+planations are given to illustrate the usage of each preposition.

0ing forms
When 7ing forms are used like nouns, the are often called gerunds. 8mo!ing is in$urious to health. " like shooting.

"rammar notes
2ote that a gerund is used like a noun. 9ut when there is a noun which has a similar meaning to an 7ing form, the noun is preferred. We are waiting for his arrival. './# We are waiting for his arriving.&

'orms of the gerund

2ote the structure of present, perfect, passive and negative -ing forms. " like shooting. 'present& He does not like being seen in her compan . 'passive& She loves being loo!ed at. 'passive& He was charged with having committed arson. 'perfect& He complained of having been tortured b the police. 'perfect passive& .ot !nowing what to do, she went home. 'negative&

A gerund can be the sub$ect, ob$ect, ob$ect of a preposition or complement of a verb. 9lying makes me sick. 'sub$ect& #respassing is prohibited. 'sub$ect& We don)t allow smo!ing in our house. 'ob$ect& # favourite activit is reading. 'complement& (ur mistake was trusting him. 'complement& " don:t believe in buying wine as an investment. 'ob$ect of a preposition&

"erund with its own object

A gerund can have its own ob$ect. ,ompare% 8mo!ing is in$urious to health. 8mo!ing cigarettes is in$urious to health. '!he noun cigarette is the ob$ect of the gerund smoking.& " love reading. " love reading novels. '2ovels is the ob$ect of reading& :illing foxes is a horrible pastime. " love driving a fast car.

9ut note that when an -ing form is used with an article, it cannot usuall have a direct ob$ect. "nstead, we can use an of7structure. #he !illing of foxes is a horrible pastime. '2(! !he killing fo+es 3& #he smo!ing of cigarettes is in$urious to health. '2(! !he smoking cigarettes 3&

#he climbing of mountains is a good sport. './# !he climbing mountains 3&

(bject pronouns before )ing forms

6eterminers and possessives are often used with -ing forms. !he insisted on my resigning the post. 6oes my smo!ing anno ou" don)t mind your coming late. " hate all this useless arguing. !here is no hope of his arriving on time. She was angr at 2ohn's trying to lie to her.

"n an informal st le, it is more common to use ob$ect pronouns 'like 1ohn, me, him, ou& instead of possessives ' our, his, m , 1ohn:s& with -ing forms. !he insisted on me resigning the post. She was angr at 2ohn trying to lie to her.

(b$ect forms are also preferred when the gerund is in the passive form or when the noun denotes a lifeless thing. We were shocked at President :ennedy being assassinated. '2(! ;enned :s 3& !here is no danger of the roof crashing. '2(! roof:s& !here is no hope of the fog lifting for another hour. '2(! fog:s&

Some verbs 'e.g. see, hear, watch, feel& are normall followed b object 6 7ing form. " saw him running out of the room. '2(! " saw his 3&

It as a preparatory subject
When the sub$ect is a phrase that includes a gerund, ;it; is often used as a preparator sub$ect to begin the sentence. 1t is nice tal!ing to ou. '< !alking to ou is nice.&

!he structure is particularl common with any/no good% any/no use% worth etc. 1t is no good our trying to deceive us. '<Your tr ing to deceive us is no good.& 1s it an good m tal!ing to him1t is no use trying to convince them. 1t is no fun being shot. 1s it worth complaining about his conduct1t is no use waiting. 1s it worth tal!ing to him-

Sub$ect complements
Some clauses consist of a sub$ect, the verb be and an e+pression that either modifies the sub$ect or denotes something identical to the sub$ect. 1ane is a $ournalist. !he children were ver e+cited. Susie is in the shower.

!he e+pression that modifies the sub$ect in clauses like these is often called a subject complement. Sub$ect complements can also follow other copular verbs like become% seem and loo!. Alice became a doctor. She looks depressed.

(bject complement
An object complement is a phrase which follows a direct ob$ect and either modifies that ob$ect or denotes something identical to it. She called me a liar. !he made her a star. " consider hang0gliding dangerous.

omplements of verbs* nouns and adjectives

Words and e+pressions which complete the meaning of a verb, noun or ad$ective are also called complements. " am fond of children. 'of children is the complement of the ad$ective fond.& " am sorr to tell you this. 'to tell you this is the complement of the ad$ective sorr .& 8et us get a bottle of wine. 'of wine is the complement of the noun bottle.& She wants to find a new job. 'to find a new job is the complement of the verb wants.&

"t is important to know what kinds of complements can come after a particular word. 7or e+ample, interested can be followed b in < 7ing or b an infinitive4 want can be followed b an infinitive, but suggest cannot4 on the other hand suggest can be followed b a that7clause% but want cannot. " am interested in learning to fl . " want to ta!e a long holida . !he doctor suggested ta!ing a long holida . !he doctor suggested that 1 should ta!e a long holiday.

,opular verbs
We use a special kind of verb to $oin two parts of a sentence and to e+press either that the two parts denote the same thing or that the first has the propert denoted b the second. !hese verbs are called copulas or copular verbs. ,ommon copular verbs are% be, seem, look, turn, become, appear, sound, smell, taste, feel and get. Alice is m girlfriend. '!he sentence asserts that Alice and m girlfriend are the same person.& Alice is 9ritish. '!he sentence asserts the *ualit of =9ritishness: to Alice.& She seems happ . She became famous. "t is getting late. !he stew smells good.

#djectives after copular verbs

,opular verbs are followed b ad$ectives, not adverbs. ,ompare% She spoke intelligently. 'Spoke is an ordinar verb. "t is modified b the adverb intelligentl .& She loo!s intelligent. '"ntelligent is an ad$ective in predicative position. "t tells ou about the person herself 5 rather like sa ing She is intelligent. 8ook is a copular verb.&

2ote that some copular verbs are also used with other meanings as ordinar non0copular verbs. !he are then used with adverbs, not ad$ectives. E+amples are% appear, look, taste and feel.

Countable and =ncountable nouns

Countable nouns are the names of separate ob$ects, people, ideas etc which can be counted. !he have plurals. E+amples are% dog, tree, girl, book, occasion and link We can use numbers and the article a/an with countable nouns. a dog two books three girls

+ncountable nouns
=ncountable or mass nouns are the names of materials, li*uids, abstract *ualities, collections and other things which we do not see as separate ob$ects. #ost uncountable nouns are singular with no plurals. E+amples are% wheat, sand, weather, water, wool, milk We cannot use numbers with uncountable nouns. !he are also not normall used with the article a>an. Here is a list of common words which are usuall uncountable in English. ,orresponding countable e+pressions are given in brackets. accommodation 'countable 0 a place to live& advice 'a piece of advice& baggage 'a piece of baggage4 a bag, a case& bread 'a piece of bread4 a loaf4 a roll& chess 'a game of chess& chewing gum 'a piece of chewing gum& e*uipment 'a piece of e*uipment4 a tool& furniture 'a piece>article of furniture& grass 'a blade of grass& information 'a piece of information& knowledge 'a fact& lightning 'a flash of lightning& luck 'a bit>stroke of luck& luggage 'a piece of luggage4 a bag& mone 'a note4 a coin4 a sum& news 'a piece of news& poetr 'a poem& thunder 'a clap of thunder& travel 'a $ourne >trip& work 'a $ob4 a piece of work&

Countable or uncountable
Sometimes it is not eas to see whether a noun is countable or uncountable. 7or instance, travel is normall uncountable, while journey is countable. "t is impossible to give complete details. !he following rules, however, should help.

Illnesses
!he names of illnesses are usuall uncountable in English. E+amples are% chickenpo+, measles, cancer, diabetes, flu etc. "f ou have had chic!enpox% ou can:t get it again.

9ut note that the words for some minor ailments are uncountable. E+amples are% a cold, a headache " have a bad headache.

Mixed uses
#an nouns have both countable and uncountable uses, sometimes with a difference of meaning. Words for materials are usuall uncountable. 9ut note that the same word is often used as countable noun to refer to something made of the material. Have ou got some typing paper? 'uncountable& " want a paper. 'countable& Have ou got any coffee? ,ould " have two coffees? '< two cups of coffee&

#an abstract nouns are uncountable when used in a general sense. !he same noun can be countable in a particular sense. She hasn:t got enough experience for the $ob. 'uncountable& "t was a strange experience. 'countable& !ake our own time. 'uncountable& Have a good time. 'countable&

Plural uncountable nouns

Some uncountable nouns are plural. !he have no singular forms with the same meaning, and cannot be used with numbers. E+amples are% trousers, $eans, p $amas, pants, scissors, spectacles, glasses, arms, goods, customs, groceries, clothes and thanks Have ou bought the groceries? any than!s for our help.

(ther plural uncountable nouns include the e+pressions the 9ritish, the 6utch, the English, the 7rench, the "rish, the Spanish and the Welsh.

"f ,lauses
1f clauses are usuall used to talk about uncertain events and situations. !he often refer to a condition 0 something which must happen first, so that something else can happen. 1f you love me% " will love ou. 1f you study well% ou will pass the e+am. 1f you marry me% " will make ou m *ueen. 1f you don;t hurry up% ou will be late.

,lauses of this kind are often called conditional clauses. !here are four main t pes of conditional clauses in English. !he are% ?. A. B. C. @ero conditional ! pe ? conditional ! pe A conditional ! pe B conditional

Position of an if clause
An if7clause can come at the beginning or end of a sentence. When an if7clause begins a sentence, we use a comma to separate it from the rest of the sentence.

Compare>
" will phone ou if 1 have time. 1f 1 have time% " will phone ou.

,eaving out If
"n a formal or literar st le if can be dropped and an au+iliar verb put before the sub$ect. !his is common with had% should and were. "ere " ou " would accept the offer. '< "f " were ou " would accept the offer.& (ad he not received her help he wouldn)t have become a millionaire. '< "f he had not received...&

"nfinitives 1nfinitives are forms like *to+ write and *to+ read. "nfinitives are generall used with the marker to. 2ote that this to is not a preposition4 after the preposition to we use -ing forms.
" would like to meet the manager. "s there an thing to eat? !he main thing is to stay calm.

-egative forms
2egative "nfinitives are normall formed b putting not before the infinitive. " decided to invite them. 'affirmative& " decided not to invite them. 'negative & You were sill not to have loc!ed the car. '2(! You were sill to not have locked the car.&

.articiples A participle is a word which is partl a verb and partl an ad$ective. English has two participles% the present participle and the past participle.
7orms like running% singing% wal!ing and wor!ing are called present participles. 7orms like wor!ed% bro!en% gone% written and wal!ed are called past participles.

=ses #o form verb forms

Participles are used with the au+iliar verbs be and have to make progressive, perfect and passive verb forms. She was crying. 'present progressive& " have written a novel. 'present perfect& We have been waiting for ages. 'present perfect progressive& !he were having dinner when we called. 'past progressive& He had left before " called. 'past perfect& !he were forced to give up their claim. 'passive& "t was bro!en in the storm. 'passive&

As adjectives
.articiples can be used as ad$ectives before nouns, or after be and other copular verbs. A rolling stone gathers no moss. $ar!ing dogs seldom bite. A burnt child dreads fire. He looked tired. !he village appeared deserted. !he children were excited.

2ot all participles can be used as ad$ectives before nouns 5 for e+ample, we can sa a lost dog% but not a found dog. "t is not possible to give clear rules.

As adverbs
Sometimes participles are used like adverbs. She came running into the room. He ran screaming out of the room.

Clauses
.articiples can combine with other words into clause0like structures. &riven by rain% the took shelter under a tree. 8tric!en with grief% she threw herself on the bod . !he thief admitted having stolen the money. &eceived by his friends% he lost all hope.

.ouns
.ouns are most often the names of people, places or things. .ersonal names 'e.g. 1ohn and Alice& and place0names 'e.g. #umbai and ,hennai& are called proper nouns4 the are usuall used without articles. .ouns can be divided into several sub classes%

.roper noun 'e.g. "ndia, "tal , Alice& ,ommon noun 'e.g. bo , girl, child, man, tree& ,ollective noun 'e.g. class, $ur , arm , team& Abstract noun 'e.g. truth, beaut , honest , sleep&

Proper noun
A noun denoting a particular person, place or thing is called a proper noun. .roper nouns are normall written with initial capital letters, and most proper nouns do not take an article. E+amples% Alice, "ndia, 1ohn, S dne , #t Everest. 2awaharlal .ehru was the first .rime #inister of independent 1ndia. 2ohn is a clever bo . Alice is a $ournalist.

2ote that proper nouns denoting historical periods and events, as well as certain others, often do take the articles. E+amples% !he Stone Age, !he 7rench Devolution, !he Enited States, !he Enited 2ations (rganiFation

Collective noun
A noun which denotes a collection of individual persons or ob$ects is called a collective noun. E+amples are% crowd, mob, team, flock, herd, arm , fleet, $ur , nation, famil , committee, government etc. "n 9ritish English, a collective noun ma be treated either as singular 'if the whole group is being thought of as a unit& or as plural 'if the group is being regarded as a collection of individuals&. !he $ur has announced its verdict. '!he $ur is regarded as a unit.& !he $ur are divided on this issue. '!he $ur is regarded as a group of individuals.&

"n American English, a collective noun is alwa s treated as singular, and Americans sa The jury is divided on this issue.

Common noun
A common noun refers to a class of things, such as dog, pencil, bo , tree or book. "t does not refer to a particular person or thing. Solomon was a wise king. Alice is a cleaver girl. 1ohn is a bo .

"n the above e+amples, Solomon, Alice and John refer to particular persons. !hese are called proper nouns. While king, boy and girl refer to the class or kind to which these proper nouns belong. !hese are called common nouns. ,ommon nouns include what are called collective nouns and abstract nouns.

Abstract noun
An abstract noun denotes something which is not ph sical and cannot be touched, such as pleasure, happiness, beauty, kindness, honesty, anger and idea. Sometimes the term is e+tended to include nouns denoting events and actions, such as arrival and e+plosion.

An abstract noun can be countable or uncountable. Encountable abstract nouns are followed b singular verbs. We do not use articles or numbers before them. &eath 'uncountable& keeps no calendar. Several deaths 'countable& have been reported from the cit .

pronouns

.repositions Prepositions are words that link a noun or a pronoun to another word in the sentence.
Here is a list of some of the most common prepositions% about, between, above, be ond, across, but, after, b , against, despite, along, down, amid, during, around, e+cept, as, for, at, from, before, in, behind, inside, below, into, beneath, like, beside, near, of, since, off, through, on, toward, onto, under, opposite, underneath, out, until, outside, upon, over, with, past, within A noun alwa s follows a preposition. A prepositional phrase is a preposition and its ob$ect. A prepositional phrase can be two or three words long, as these e+amples show% on the roof, in the door, under the bed. However, prepositional phrases can be much longer, depending on the length of the preposition and number of words that describe the ob$ect of the preposition. !here is a cat on the roof. He is fond of children. She sat by the fire. !he lion and the unicorn fought for the crown.

#ost English prepositions have several different functions. At the same time, different prepositions can have ver similar uses. When we use verbs after prepositions, we use 0ing forms, not infinitives. We are thinking of visiting them. '2(! We are thinking of to visit them.& He insisted on being paid at once. '2(! He insisted on to be paid at once.& " hate the idea of getting old. " am not ver good at coo!ing.

When to is a preposition, it is followed b an 7ing form. " loo! forward to seeing ou soon. She objected to my entering her room.

Active and Passive ?oice

When we sa what people and things do, we use active verb forms. When we sa what happens to people and things 0 what is done to them 0 we often use passive verb forms. !he built this house in ?GHI. 'active& !his house was built in ?GHI. 'passive& !his book will change our life. 'active& Your life will be changed b this book. 'passive&

!he object of an active verb corresponds to the subject of a passive verb. !he built this house 'ob$ect& in ?GHI. #his house 'sub$ect& was built in ?GHI.

"n most cases, the sub$ect of an active verb is not mentioned in the corresponding passive sentence. "f it does have to be mentioned, this usuall happens in an e+pression with by. !his house was built in ?GHI by 8ir 2ohn @lton.

!enses
!he word tense is from the 8atin word tempus, which means time. English marks tense in verbs. !he tense of a verb shows the time of an action or event. English has three tenses% the past% the present and the future. #he present tense refers to the moment of speaking. With most English verbs the present tense is marked b the suffi+ -s in the third person singular but otherwise has no marking at all. #he past tense refers to a time before the moment of speaking. With most English verbs, the past tense is marked b the suffi+ -ed% though a number of verbs have an irregular past tense. #he future tense correlates with time later than the time of speaking. Each of these three main tenses has four forms% the simple% the progressive% the perfect and the perfect progressive.

personal pronouns

E+clamations
@xclamations are often constructed with how and what or with so and such. 2egative *uestion forms are also common.

.xclamations with how

9orm> how 6 adjective/adverb 6 subject 6 verb How cold it isJ '2(! How it is coldJ& How beautifull she singsJ

!he structure how 6 subject 6 verb is also possible. How ou have grownJ

.xclamations with what

9orm> what a/an *6 adjective+ 6 singular countable noun What a lovel songJ '2(! What lovel songJ& What a surpriseJ '2(! What surpriseJ&

We use what 6 adjective before an uncountable or plural noun. What lovel flowersJ '2(! What a lovel flowersJ& What foolsJ '2(! What a foolsJ& What beautiful weatherJ '2(! What a beautiful weatherJ&

"hat 6 object 6 subject 6 verb What a beautiful smile ou haveJ '2(! What a beautiful smile have ouJ&

.xclamations with so and such

6ifferent structures are possible. 9orm> so 6 adjective You are so sweetJ

9orm> such a/an *6 adjective+ 6 singular countable noun He is such a nice bo J

9orm> such *6 adjective+ 6 uncountable/plural noun !he are such kind peopleJ !he talk such rubbishJ

6irect and indirect speech

!here are two main wa s of reporting people:s thoughts, words, beliefs etc.

%irect speech
We can repeat or *uote the e+act words spoken. !his kind of reporting is called direct speech. She said, K" am going.L K!he soup is too hotJL cried little Einstein. He said, K" want to go home.L

Indirect /reported0 speech

We can make a speaker)s words or thoughts part of our sentence, using con$unctions 'e.g. that& and changing pronouns, tenses and other words when necessar . !his kind of reporting is called indirect speech or reported speech. ,ompare% She said, K" might bring a friend to the part .L '6irect speech& She said that she might bring a friend to the part . '"ndirect speech& 9ill said, K" don:t like this part .L '6irect speech& 9ill said that he didn:t like the part . '"ndirect speech&

Rules for indirect speech

!here are some grammatical differences between direct and indirect speech. !hese changes are mostl natural and logical, and it is not necessar to learn complicated rules about indirect speech in English. ,ompare% 1ohn 'on Saturda evening&% " don't like this part . " want to go home now. .eter 'on Sunda morning&% 1ohn said that he didn't like the part , and he wanted to go home right away.

%ropping that
!he con$unction that is often dropped, especiall after common reporting verbs 'e.g. sa , think& in informal speech. She said 'that& she has had enough. " think 'that& ou are probabl right.

#hat cannot be dropped after certain verbs 'e.g. repl , telegraph, shout&. She shouted that she was bus . '2(! She shouted she was bus .& " replied that " was not coming. '2(! " replied " was not coming.&

@nglish 8entences
A sentence is a group of words that e+press a complete thought. "t has two main parts% a sub$ect and a predicate. !he sub$ect includes the noun or pronoun that tells what the sub$ect is about. !he predicate includes the verb that describes what the sub$ect is doing. Here are some e+amples of complete sentences. You stopJ 2ew York ,it is called the =9ig Apple). Alice is m friend. She is a doctor. !he milk turned sour.

!o be a sentence, a group of words must have a sub$ect and a predicate. "t must also e+press a complete thought. 9eing able to recogniFe the sub$ect and the verb in a sentence will help ou make sure that our sentences are complete and clear. Demember that in most sentences, the sub$ect will come before the verb. 2ot so with *uestions. "n a *uestion, the verb often comes before the sub$ect. Here are some e+amples. "s the cat on the roof- '!he sub$ect of the sentence is =cat.:& Are ou coming with us- '!he sub$ect of the sentence is = ou.:

"t can be trick to find the sub$ect in sentences that start with here or there. Demember that here or there never function as the sub$ect of a sentence. 7or e+ample% Here is our cat. '!he sub$ect of the sentence is =cat.:&

?erb patterns and structures

1ubject & intransitive verb
Some sentences have $ust two words 5 a noun and an intransitive verb. 9irds fl . 6ogs bark. 7ire burns. !ime flies.

1ubject & transitive verb & direct object

A transitive verb must have an ob$ect. !he normal order of words in an English sentence is subject 6 verb 6 object. 1ohn likes milk. !he principal punished the bo . !he unrul demonstrators invaded the platform. !he scoundrels should be given a good thrashing. !he government should ban all militar organiFations.

=1ohn likes: 3what- #ilk. =!he principal punished: 3 whom-: !he bo . !he direct ob$ect is the answer to the *uestion whom or what.

1ubject & verb & object & adverb particle

Some verbs are followed b particles 'e.g. put on, take off, give away, bring up, call in&. Sometimes the particle is detached from the verb and put after the ob$ect. 1ohn put his hat on. !he called the doctor in. He threw it away. You must send them bac!.

!he particle is put after the ob$ect, when the ob$ect is a personal pronoun 'e.g. him, them, me, us, it& or when it is comparativel short. When the ob$ect is long or has to be made prominent or when it is *ualified b an ad$ectival phrase or clause, the particle comes before the ob$ect. !he principal gave away the prices. He put on an air of innocence. We will not throw away an thing useful. !he poor widow had to bring up all three children. !he sailors put out the fire in the hold of the ship. !he called in 6r Smith, a famous specialist.

1ubject & verb & indirect object & direct object

!his order is preferred when the indirect ob$ect is shorter than the direct ob$ect or when the direct ob$ect has to be made prominent.

!he president awarded him a gold medal. He told us an interesting story. !he robber dealt the traveller a heavy blow. We promised our guide a handsome reward. !he teacher wished the boys all success.

1ubject & verb & direct object & preposition & indirect object
!his order is preferred when the direct ob$ect is shorter than the indirect ob$ect, or when the indirect ob$ect has to be stressed. He distributed sweets to all the boys in the class. " don:t lend boo!s to anybody. She bought a present for her mother. She ordered a new dress for herself. He made coffee for all of us.

#ransformation of sentences hanging an exclamatory sentence into an assertive sentence

!he transformation of a sentence means changing its form without altering its sense. What a wonderful opportunit J 'e+clamator & "t is a wonderful opportunit . 'assertive& ( that " were oung againJ 'e+clamator & " wish " were oung again. 'assertive& How kind of ou to help him like thatJ 'e+clamator & "t is ver kind of ou to help him like that. 'assertive& How noble he isJ 'e+clamator & He is trul noble. 'assertive& What a great pleasure it isJ 'e+clamator & !his is indeed a great pleasure. 'assertive&

hanging an interrogative sentence into an assertive sentence

"s not wisdom better than riches- 'interrogative& Wisdom is better than riches. 'assertive& Wh worr about what people sa - 'interrogative& "t is foolish to worr about what people sa . 'assertive& 6id " ever ask ou to do it- 'interrogative& " never asked ou to do it. 'assertive& "s there an sense in doing that- 'interrogative& !here is no sense in doing that. 'assertive& What does it matter whether we win or lose- 'interrogative& "t matters little whether we win or lose. 'assertive&

hanging an imperative sentence into an interrogative sentence

Stop talking. 'imperative& Will ou stop talking- 'interrogative& Shut the door. 'imperative& Will ou shut the door- 'interrogative& .lease, get me a glass of water. 'imperative& Will ou, please, get me a glass of water- 'interrogative& Get out of here. 'imperative& Will ou get out of here or not- 'interrogative&

!he interrogative is a milder or more polite form of the imperative. However, the addition of or not 'see the last e+ample& adds a touch of threat to the command.

8ynthesis of sentences
S nthesis means the combination of two or more simple sentences into one new sentence 5 simple, compound or comple+. English Grammar

8ynthesis of sentences
S nthesis means the combination of two or more simple sentences into one new sentence 5 simple, compound or comple+.

Ways of combining two or more simple sentences into one simple sentence2
$y using a participle !his is possible onl when the sentences have a common sub$ect. " read the book. " returned it to the librar . (aving read the book " returned it to the librar . !he farmer $umped on his horse. He rode to the market. 2umping on his horse the farmer rode to the market. He opened the gate. He took the dog out for a run. /pening the gate he took the dog out for a run. Henr planted a rose. He watered it. He manured it. He was delighted to see it beginning to flower. (aving planted a rose, and watered and manured it, Henr was delighted to see it beginning to flower.

$y using the absolute construction !his is done when the sentences have different sub$ects. 3ead the sentences given below. !he dog bit the post man. !he farmer decided to shoot it. !hese two sentences can be combined into one b using the absolute construction. !he dog having bitten the post man% the farmer decided to shoot it. '=Having bitten the postman, the farmer decided to shoot the dog: is wrong. 9ecause it would mean that it was the farmer who bit the postman and not the dog. & "t was a rain da . We had to cancel the match. "t being a rain da , we had to cancel the match. '2(! 9eing a rain da we had to cancel the match.& "t was a small cot. He could not sleep on it. "t being a small cot, he could not sleep on it. !he president took his seat on the dais. !he meeting began. !he president having ta!en his seat on the dais, the meeting began. !he storm subsided. We began our march again. !he storm having subsided, we began our march again. !he monsoon started. !he village roads became mudd . !he monsoon having started, the village roads became mudd .

!he e+amination was over. !he college was closed. !he students left for their homes. !he campus loo!ed deserted. !he e+amination being over, the college being closed and the students having left for their homes, the campus looked deserted.

(rder of Words in a Sentence !o make meaningful sentences we need to arrange words in a particular order. !he usual order of words in an English sentence is as follows%

1ubject
"n an affirmative sentence, the subject usuall comes before the verb. She is m friend. 'Sub$ect 5 she, verb 5 is& "t is m bag. 'Sub$ect 5 it, verb 5 is& !he dog barked. 'Sub$ect 5 dog, verb 5 barked&

"nterrogative sentences usuall begin with an au+iliar verb followed b the sub$ect. "s she our friend- 'Au+iliar verb 5 is, sub$ect 5 she& "s it our bag- 'Au+iliar verb 5 is, sub$ect 5 it& 6id the dog bark- 'Au+iliar verb 5 did, sub$ect 5 dog&

(bject
!he ob$ect usuall comes after the verb. He killed the snake. 'Sub$ect 5 he, verb 5 killed, ob$ect 5 snake& " love m mother. 'Sub$ect 5 ", verb 5 love, ob$ect 5 mother&

When there are two ob$ects, the indirect ob$ect 'which usuall denotes a person& usuall comes before the direct ob$ect 'thing&. She brought me a cup of coffee. '"ndirect ob$ect 5 me, direct ob$ect 5 cup of coffee& " told them a story. '"ndirect 5 them, direct 5 stor &

#djective
When an ad$ective is used attributivel , it comes before the noun it *ualifies. 9ew children came. She is a beautiful girl. He is a laAy bo .

When an ad$ective is used predicativel , it comes after the verb. She is beautiful. He is laAy.

#dverb

An adverb is usuall placed close to the word it modifies. He is a rather laF bo . 'Here the adverb rather modifies the ad$ective laF .& " was pleasantly surprised. 'Here the adverb pleasantl modifies the verb surprised.&

Agreement of the verb with the sub$ect

1ingular subjects ta3e singular verbs

A verb must agree with its sub$ect in number and person. (e is m friend. 'Here the singular verb is agrees with the singular sub$ect he.& "e are waiting to hear from ou. 'Here the plural verb are agrees with the plural sub$ect we.&

Sometimes due to what is called =the error of pro+imit : a verb is made to agree with the nearest noun, and not its proper sub$ect. !his practice should be avoided. ,onsider the e+amples given below% !he quality of the apples wasn't ver good. '2(! !he *ualit of the apples weren:t ver good. Here the proper sub$ect is the abstract noun =*ualit : and not =apples:.& His proficiency in "ndian languages is remarkable. 'Here the proper sub$ect is the singular abstract noun =proficienc : and not =languages:.&

as well as
We use singular verbs with a singular sub$ect followed b Bwith' or Bas well as'. !he manager, with his subordinates, is to be present at the venue. '2(! !he manager with his subordinates are 3& Alice, as well as her sisters, has been invited. '2(! Alice as well as her sisters have been invited.& Sanskrit, as well as Arabic, is taught here.

When one of the sub$ects $oined b or or nor is plural, the verb must be plural in number, and the plural sub$ect should be placed nearest to the verb. .either the officer nor his subordinates were present at the meeting.

When the sub$ects $oined b or or nor are of different persons, the verb agrees with the nearest noun. Either he or you are mistaken. 'Here the verb are agrees with the nearest pronoun ou.& 2either he nor 1 am interested. 'Here the verb am agrees with the nearest pronoun ".&

"t is better to avoid these constructions and to write% He is mistaken, or else ou are. He is not interested, nor am ".

.ither* neither etc2

@ither% neither% each% everyone and many a must be followed b a singular verb.

.either of the applicants is suitable for the $ob. any a man has succumbed to this temptation. @veryone of us loves riding.

ollective nouns
A collective noun can take either a singular or a plural verb. 2ote that collective nouns are alwa s singular in American English. !he committee has submitted its report. #he committee are still discussing the matter.

1s 1t "rong to @ver 8plit an 1nfinitive?

An infinitive is a particular verb form which e+presses the verbal idea in its simplest form. "t has no marking for tense, person or mood. "n English, the infinitive is the verb form which can immediatel follow a modal au+iliar verb like should or must. " should go now. We will wait.

An infinitive can also follow the particle to. " want to go. We will have to wait.

#an people have, however, gained the false impression that infinitives are forms like to write and to go. !his view is mistaken and learners should realiFe that that to does not form part of the infinitive at all. "n fact, it is possible to separate the to from the following infinitive b a phrase. 7or e+ample in the sentence B#he teacher as!ed the student to carefully read the lesson' , the adverb carefully separates the particle to from the following infinitive read. Similarl in the sentence B8he decided to never touch another beer can', the adverb never separates the particle to from the infinitive touch. Here the se*uences Bto carefully read' and Bto never touch' are e+amples of the split infinitive. #an grammarians still feel that it is wrong to separate the particle from the following infinitive. !he are of the opinion that the adverb should be used either before to after the infinitive as in the following e+ample% #he teacher as!ed the student to read the lesson carefully. "n some sentences, however, the intervening adverb cannot be shifted to another position without changing the meaning of the sentence. 7or e+ample consider the sentence She wishes to really understand his motives . 2ow tr changing the position of the adverb reall % She reall wishes to understand his motives. She wishes reall to understand his motives. She wishes to understand reall his motives.

2one of these sentences means the same thing as% She wishes to really understand his motives. !he use of split infinitives in such cases has been $ustified b modern grammarians.