CHAPTER 5 PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF ETHNOBOTANICAL LITERATURE Introduction Many traditional medicine remedies are employed specifically for fatigue,

loss of memory and rejuvenationall symptoms of the results of an inability to adapt to allostatic load. Most of these remedies come from plants, but other natural substances also include deer antlers (Bensky and Gamble, 1986; Hsu, 1986), gems (Ahmad et al., 1998), insects (Costa-Neto, 2002), and fungi such as Ganoderma lucidum (Shiao, 2003) and caterpillar fungi, Cordyceps sinensis (Koh et al., 2003). Accounts that have characteristics familiar to adaptogenic effects are especially interesting and could lead to potential adaptogenic species such as these below: Dr. Pushpangadan discovered the properties of Trichopus zeylanicus by accident. On a scientific expedition to the Agasthiar Hills in the Western Ghats in December 1987, he noticed that his guides, belonging to the Kani tribe, were very energetic in sharp contrast to the scientists. They had walked for several hours with the scientists the difference was that they ate the fruits of a wild plant (Trichopus zeylanicus) as they walked. Dr. Pushpangadan found from the tribesmen that it was indeed the fruits they were eating that made them energetic, a fact about the plant well known to the tribe for ages (Krishnakumar and Katakam, 2002). The Goldi hunters regarded the berries of Schizandra as a valuable means of strengthening themselves; they reported (1895) taking the dried berries instead of other provisions on their sable hunts; a handful of berries furnished enough strength to hunt sable all day (Komarov, 1937). Methods Ethnobotany and ethnomedicine has been successful in providing leads to drug research (Etkin, 2001). To test whether adaptogenic species could be specifically located in the ethnobotanical literature using search terms that were applied in this thesis a limited survey was undertaken. For this survey, I used five main descriptions to characterize remedies relating to stress adaptation or dysfunctioning of the HPA axis (see legend in Table 3). The parameters chosen may be considered too subjective, increasing the risk of producing false positives, or these parameters may be considered too limited, potentially missing valid adaptogenic species. Rejuvenating, anabolic, and antidepressant properties could be hidden within other remedies such as those for infectious or chronic disease. Future investigations could use broader descriptions but would still require strict parameters and ultimately application of bioactive and chemical studies for final differentiation. Most species in Table 3 are not sufficiently chemically described and none have been included in human clinical trials. Therefore, this sampling can only provide potential leads for further research, not assurance of an adaptogenic action. Sampling of the literature was limited to the Journal of Ethnopharmacology (Elsevier, 1997-2003), as well as some books and reports, including Black Hills National Forest Preliminary Report on the Medicinal Plants of the Black Hills Area of South Dakota (Byrnes, 2003), Thompson Ethnobotany: Knowledge and Usage of Plants by the Thompson Indians of British Columbia (Turner et al., 1990), Medicinal Wild Plants of the Prairie: An Ethnobotanical Guide (Kindscher, 1992), North American Ethnobotany (Moerman, 1998), and Medicinal Plants of the Pacific Northwest: A Digest of Anthropological Writings about Native American Uses (Thie, 1999). It should be noted that some of the taxa located in this ethnobotanical survey were also included in the list of 183 plant species investigated (see Appendix A) because they seemed particularly intriguing in their bioactive descriptions. These species were thus included in an extended search of the literature with others found outside the ethnobotanical literature. Those remaining were not applied to further search efforts due to either familiarity with the species (e.g., Ginkgo biloba) as being unlikely candidates, or unfamiliarity and rare mention in any other published papers. Thus, decisions were biased, but made due to brevity and the narrow purposes of the survey. Some species located in the ethnobotanical literature were subsequently supported by enough evidence of adaptogenic activity to be included in the phylogenetic analysis in this thesis. These species are bolded in Table 3.

Results The preliminary survey of ethnobotanical reports published between 1990 and 2003 resulted in 78 potential plant adaptogen species belonging to 50 plant families (see Table 3). Sixty-five species in 37 plant families are not those found in the phylogenetic analysis in Chapter 8. The families represented in Table 3 are: Acanthaceae, Amaranthaceae, Apiaceae, Araliaceae, Arecaceae, Asteraceae, Basellaceae, Bombacaceae, Boraginaceae, Brassicaceae, Caesalpiniaceae, Celastraceae, Clusiaceae, Combretaceae, Commelinaceae, Connaraceae, Convolvulaceae, Crassulaceae, Cyperaceae, Dioscoraceae, Dryopteridaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Flagellariaceae, Ginkgoaceae, Hippocrateaceae, Lamiaceae, Lauraceae, Liliaceae, Linaceae, Loranthaceae, Malpighiaceae, Malvaceae, Melastomataceae, Menispermaceae, Myrsinaceae, Nyctaginaceae, Oleaceae, Pandanaceae, Poaceae, Ranunculaceae, Rubiaceae, Rutaceae, Selaginellaceae, Schizaeaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Solanaceae, Thymelaeaceae, Tiliaceae, and Vitaceae. Search terms resulting in the identification of most species related to the following actions: restorative, rejuvenator, exhaustion, fatigue, enhancement of stamina, physical perfomance, promotes longevity, health or well-being, debilitated, or degenerative conditions. Collection of the most species, however, does not necessarily correlate to successful identification of adaptogens. These taxa first require in vitro or in vivo testing and perhaps analysis of chemical constituents in comparison with constituents found in adaptogen species. This survey suggests that these terms can result in many new lead species and that the ethnobotanical literature contains potential new leads for adaptogenic species.

North American Ethnobotany Aspects

The results of the ethnobotanical survey shows a lack of taxa representing North American indigenous cultures. A review of Turner et al. (1990), Kindscher (1992), Moerman (1998), and Thie (1999), uncovered very little recognition of effects produced by adaptogens. Moerman (1998) suggests terms which could be related to stress adaptation such as blood medicine, ceremonial medicine, heart medicine, love medicine, panacea, preventative medicine, strengthener, tonic, witchcraft medicine, and protection. Yet, upon closer investigation it is difficult to ascertain either enhancement of the HPA axis, increase in resistance to stress, nor a remedying of conditions resulting from dysfunction of stress mediators (neurotransmitters and hormones). Moerman may have inadvertently re-produced an artifact of the strengthening remedies. For instance, Hawaiian tribes were the source of the more than 50 out of 65 strengthener remedies. These herbs were employed in a variety of ways such as placing the ashes of the plant in an infants mouth, eating the fruit, chewing or drinking the tea. It seems unusual that the term strengthening would only apply to these tribes. Native American tribes commonly employed herbal baths to toughen an infant, child or adult. Many of these herbs turned out to be vesicants or have powerful stimulating effects, nullifying their use as adaptogens. The use of the stem of Dirca palustris (Thymelaeaceae) as an aphrodisiac and a strengthener by the Iroquois (Moerman, 1998). The tribe also employed this herb to induce pregnancy and as a strong purgative. Further investigation revealed that the fresh bark is a vesicant and ingestion causes severe vomiting (Ramsewak et al., 2001). Thus, this species does not meet the definition of adaptogen because it is not innocuous.

Table 3. Potential adaptogens identified in ethnobotanical literature. Species Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet Aegle marmelos (L.) Corra Agelaea pentagyna (Lam.) Baill. Albizzia lebbeck (L.) Benth. Amaranthus paniculatus L. Anacylus pyrethrum (L.) Lag Anastatica hierochuntica L. Andrographis paniculata (Burm. F.) Nees Aquilaria agallocha Roxb. Aralia mandshurica Rupr. & Maxim. Aralia nudicaulis L. Aralia schmidtii Pojark Asparagus adscendens Roxb. Astragalus membranaceus Moench Bacopa monniera (L.) Wettst. Basella alba L. Boerhavia diffusa L. Bowdichia virgilioides Kunth. Burasaia madagascariensis DC. Cavanillesia sp. Ruiz & Pav. Cassia occidentalis L. Cassia siamea Lam. Celastrus paniculata Willd. Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume Commelina madagascarica C.B. Clarke Conocarpus erecta L. Convolvulus prostratus Forssk. Corchorus depressus (L.) C. Chr. Dendropanax arboreus (L.) Decne. & Planch. Family Malvaceae Rutaceae Connaraceae Fabaceae Amaranthaceae Asteraceae Brassicaceae Acanthaceae Thymelaeaceae Araliaceae Araliaceae Araliaceae Liliaceae Fabaceae Scrophulariaceae Scrophulariaceae Basellaceae Nyctaginaceae Fabaceae Menispermaceae Bombacaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Celastraceae Apiaceae Lauraceae Commelinaceae Combretaceae Convolvulaceae Tiliaceae Araliaceae AB AD AS NO RS X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Reference Singh et al., 2002 Cheeptham and Towers, 2002 Novy, 1997 Chintawar et al., 2002 Bhatia and Jain, 2003 Lev and Amar, 2000 Yoshikawa et al., 2003 Puri et al., 2000 Lev and Amar, 2000 Baranov, 1982 Marles et al., 2000 Baranov, 1982 Shinwari and Khan, 2000 Toda et al., 1999 Vohora et al., 2000 Sumathi et al. 2002 Moundipa et al., 1999 Mungantiwar et al., 1999 Bourdy et al., 2000 Novy, 1997 Bourdy et al., 2000 Novy, 1997 Cheeptham and Towers, 2002 Nalini et al., 1995 Babu et al., 1995; Zainol et al., 2003 Kumar and Gupta, 2002 Cheeptham and Towers, 2002 Novy, 1997 Roth and Lindorf, 2002 Singh et al., 2002 Singh et al., 2002 Bourdy et al., 2000

Species Eleutherococcus senticosus (Rupr. & Maxim.) Maxim. Eryngium yuccifolium Michx. Euphorbia hirta L. Euterpe precatoria Mart. Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L. Flagellaria indica L. Galipea longiflora K. Krause Ginkgo biloba L. Heteropterys aphrodisiaca O. Mach. Hugonia castanea Baill. Hymenaea courbaril L. Hypericum perforatum L. Jasminum fruticans L. Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb. Lepidium meyenii Walp. Lygodium lanceolatum Desv. Maesa lanceolata Forssk. Matteuccia struthiopteris (L.) Tod. Mauritia flexuosa L. f. Mimosa pudica L. Morinda citrifolia L. Myosotis sp. L. Ocimum canum Sims Ocimum sp. L. Ocimum sanctum L. Oplopanax elatus (Nakai) Nakai Ormosia sp. Jacks. Paeonia mascula (L.) Mill. Panax ginseng C. A. Mey Panax notoginseng (Burkill) F.H. Chen ex C.H. Chow Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb. Pfaffia glomerata (Sprengel) Pedersen Rhodiola sachalinensis Boriss.

Family Araliaceae Apiaceae Euphorbiaceae Arecaceae Convolvulaceae Flagellariaceae Rutaceae Ginkgoaceae Malpighiaceae Linaceae Fabaceae Clusiaceae Oleaceae Cyperaceae Brassicaceae Schizaeaceae Myrsinaceae Dryopteridaceae Arecaceae Fabaceae Rubiaceae Boraginaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Araliaceae Fabaceae Ranunculaceae Araliaceae Araliaceae Pandanaceae Amaranthaceae Crassulaceae

AB X

AD

AS X

NO X

RS X X X X X X X X X

Reference Baranov, 1982 Kindscher, 1992 Novy, 1997 Bourdy et al., 2000 Singh et al., 2002 Novy, 1997 Bourdy et al., 2000 Cheeptham and Towers, 2002 Galvao et al., 2002 Novy, 1997 Roth and Lindorf, 2002 Khalifa, 2001 Said et al., 2002 Hellion-Ibarrola et al., 1999 Cicero et al., 2001 Novy, 1997 Novy, 1997 Marles et al., 2000 Roth and Lindorf, 2002 Novy, 1997 Cheeptham and Towers, 2002 De Feo, 2003 Lev and Amar., 2000 Bourdy et al., 2000 Archana and Namasivayam, 2000; Medirrata et al., 2002 Baranov, 1982 Bourdy et al., 2000 Lev and Amar., 2000 Baranov, 1982 Lee et al., 2003 Cicero et al., 2000 Cheeptham and Towers, 2002 de Paris et al., 2000 Seo et al., 2001

X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Species Rhodiola sacra (Prain ex Raym.-Hamet) S.H. Fu Ruellia californica (Rose) I.M. Johnst. Salacia impressifolia (Miers) A.C. Sm. Selaginella bryopteris (L.) Bak Senecio ericaefolius Benth. Spilanthes acmella (L.) Murray Stenotaphrum dimidiatum (L.) Brongn. Struthanthus haenkeanus (Presl) Standl. T. longifolia (genus not given) Tephrosia virginiana (L.) Pers. Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers Trichopus zeylandicus Gaertn. Trigonella foenum-graecum L. Vitis vinifera L. Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal

Family Crassulaceae Acanthaceae Hippocrateaceae Selaginellaceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Poaceae Loranthaceae (family not given) Fabaceae Menispermaceae Dioscoraceae Fabaceae Vitaceae Solanaceae

AB

AD

AS

NO X

RS X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Reference Ohsugi et al., 1999 Felger and Moser, 1985 Bourdy et al., 2000 Singh et al., 2002 De Feo, 2003 Novy, 1997 Novy, 1997 Felger and Moser, 1985 De Feo, 2003 Kindscher, 1992 Singh et al., 2002 Subramoniam et al., 1999 Miraldi et al., 2001 Paul et al., 1999 Archana et al., 1999 Dhuley, 2000 Agarwal et al., 1999

X X X X X X X

Acronym definitions: AB anabolic; increases synthesis of RNA and proteins; builds muscle tissue; antianorectic AD relieves depression, anxiety, and insomnia AS antistress, non-specific immune defense, adaptogen, nerve tonic, improve stress resistance NO nootropic; brain tonic; enhances memory, learning and concentration, RS restorative/rejuvenator; exhaustion/fatigue; enhances stamina and physical performance; promotes longevity, health or well-being; debilitated and degenerative conditions

The Kayenta Navaho in Southwestern United States used Frasera speciosa for alarm and nervousness, as a life medicine, to clear the mind if lost and rubbed the infusion on hunters to strengthen them (Moerman, 1998). Frasera speciosa is closely related to Gentiana lutea, an extremely bitter herb used for dyspepsia and other digestive problems. Frasera is also very bitter and currently used by modern herbalists as a digestive tonic for the elderly who often have slowed or congested digestion due to a diet lacking fiber and insufficient exercise (Moore, 1979). The strong digestive effects of this herb, along with a listing of constituent properties would not likely support an adaptogenic action for Frasera. However, adaptogenic remedies are commonly used by elders in traditional cultures, and additionally, recent scientific investigations show that the stress system may be interrelated with the gastric mucosa via neural connections (Genton and Kudsk, 2003; Masood, 2003). In fact, it is taught among modern herbalists today that the nervous system can be accessed through stimulation of the digestive system (Weiss, 1988; Mills and Bone, 2000). Thus, it is possible that digestive tonics provide a secondary support to the stress response system. A common finding in the ethnobotanical literature that suggests an adaptogenic effect is for the treatment of debility. This term appears to be associated with fever and was commonly applied to conventional and irregular medicine in the late 1800s and early 1900s, the same time period of some ethnobotanical publications upon which recent bibliographic reviews are based. The term debility is an archaic term no longer used in conventional medicine nor in modern herbal medicine. Whether it really confers the meaning of stress response dysfunction or relates to the effect of increasing resistance to stress is unclear, but potentially useful. The practice of smudging (burning) with Artemesia ludoviciana and other aromatic plants high in terpenoid compounds were commonly used during afflictions to drive away bad spirits by Plains Indian tribes (Moerman, 1998). There may be a scientific explanation such as inhibition of viral and bacterial particles on contact with the smoke. This explanation would not describe an adaptogenic effect, however, bad spirit could easily relate to amelioration of psychological stress factors involved in dysfunctional stress adaptation. It is possible that the literature has simply missed recording of adaptogenic remedies by Native American tribes because of interviewer bias. A lack of appreciation of traditional therapeutic models either through unfamiliarity or because the model was antithetical to the conventional medical and pharmacological paradigm, could have caused a bias in reporting. Additionally, interviewers may have been unfamiliar with medical conditions caused by dysfunction of stress adaptation systems. The interviewer may have neglected crucial questions, did not understand responses, or even mistranslated clues to adaptogenic remedies using instead terms that they themselves understood, but which were incorrect (Moerman, 1998). It may be that crucial information has been lost to obscurity or held in confidence because of an association with sacred or magical use (Kindscher, 1992; Marles et al., 2000). Certainly, indigenous tribes of North America experienced allostatic overload in response to diseases such as measles, mumps and smallpox. Potential adaptogenic plant species could be found among remedies used to treat these serious diseases. Such activity could also be hidden in the term tonic which is commonly used in North American ethnobotanical reports. Ethnobotanical reports are not likely to be good predictors for adaptogens found in North America. Possible factors affecting this phenomena are explored further in Chapter 8 in the discussion of phytogeography. SUMMARY A limited survey of the ethnobotanical literature resulted in two main findings. The search terms as delinated in Table 3 did result in many new potential adaptogen plant species and plant families. The second finding was that the ethnobotanical literature is of limited use and should not be relied upon solely as a source for new leads for adaptogen activity in plant species, particularly for North America. Robyn Klein 2006 www.rrreading.com Phylogenetic and phytochemical characteristics of plant species with adaptogenic properties MS Thesis, 2004, Montana State University Chapter 5 of 8