Chapter 2 Sociological Research Sociology is a social science Scientia = knowledge / scio = i know Science refers to a systematic description and

nd explanation of phenomena Research (description) and theory (explanation) cant really be separated theyre interdependent Deductive vs. Inductive reasoning Deductive begins with theory and follows a top down approach that ends with research findings Start with a theory develop hypothesis find evidence to support it by going out to the real world Ex. Crime Sociology start with conflict theory hypothesis that those who are wealthy are able to get better lawyers and are found non-guilty more often find evidence by looking at rates of prosecution Inductive begins with research findings and follows a bottom up approach that ends with theory construction Start by going out to the real world and making observations find a theory to make sense of the observations Ex. What is life like for a student? collect evidence, you find that it is harder to get student loans find a theory to make sense of the evidence, look at conflict theory Steps in the Research Process Sociologists emulate (imitate) the scientific method a systematic, organizes series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem (deductive approach) 5 Basic Steps of the Scientific Method: 1) Define the problem draw out theories about why people think/act the way they do 2) Review the literature investigating previous research conducted by sociologists which allows one to refine the problem and clarify possible techniques for collecting data 3) Formulate the hypothesis a testable statement about the relationship between 2 or more variables, how one variable affects another Theories are more general statements of explanation; hypothesis are built on a cause-and-effect relationship 4) Collect and analyze data - research designs such as surveys, observation, experiments, and use of existing data 5) Develop the conclusion Research Designs Research Designs a detailed plan/method for obtaining data scientifically Method Examples Advantages Limitations Survey Questionnaires, Interviews Yields info about specific Can be expensive/time issues consuming Observation Ethnography Yields detailed info about Involves months/years of specific groups/orgs labour-intensive data collection Experiment Deliberate manipulation of Yields direct measures of Has ethical limitation to which peoples social behaviour peoples behaviour the subjects behaviour can be manipulated Existing Analysis of census/health Cost-efficiency Limited to data collected for sources/secondary data/films/TV commercials some other purpose analysis

Surveys Survey generally in the form of an interview or questionnaire that provides researchers with info about how people think and act Issues in designing surveys: Survey must be based on precise, representative sampling and have precise wording It must be simple and clear enough for people but must be specific enough for researchers to have no problems interpreting the results Open ended questions must be phrased to solicit the type of info desired The person who is interviewing can have an effect on the information received

Experiments Experiment an artificially created situation that allows a researcher to manipulate variables Used when scientists want to study a possible cause-and-effect relationship Researchers control the experimental context in order to measure the degree to which the independent variable causes change in the dependent Experimental Group the subjects who are exposed to an independent variable Control Group subjects who are not introduced to the independent variable Disadvantages of experiments: The presence of a social scientist/observer may affect behaviour of the people being studied Hawthorne Effect the unintended influence that observers of experiments can have on their subjects Developed from a research done on workers on a plant researchers manipulated variables to see what could impact their productivity, but the workers knew they were being studied so even in bad conditions their productivity levels were high Quantitative vs. Qualitative research Represent different epistemologies Different assumptions about how knowledge gets constructed/produced Quantitative research assumes there is an objective reality ready to be discovered and explained Research that collects and reports data primarily in numerical form Mean, median, mode Useful for testing hypotheses and generalizing results Knowledge gets constructed by observing a group (objective reality), if they all look at the same phenomena then theyll end up with the same conclusion Follows a deductive approach Start with theory hypothesis collect data analyze conclusion Reflects a linear process Quantitative research makes use of large samples but cant offer great depth and detail on a topic as qualitative research Qualitative research focuses on the subjectivity of both the researcher and the researched Relies on what is seen in field/naturalistic settings more than on statistical data Often focuses on small groups/communities rather than on large groups/whole nations Assumes that the phenomena that you research is subjective b/c the research is going to have an impact on the person Each researcher might have different conclusion b/c each researcher is going to bring their own knowledge and subjectivity Provides in-depth understanding and richness of detail (allows us to understand something on its own terms)

Cant generalize results b/c of its richness in understanding Follows an inductive approach Faced with a social setting and you want to go out and understand something on its own term Reflects a circular process Have an idea of what you want to study collect data analyze data refines focus goes out to collect data but more focuses Depends less on which method you use than on how you use it Ex. Survey method can be used quantitatively (ex. questionnaire has specific questions and answers, the developer has a strong idea of what they want to know, close ended questions) and qualitatively (ex. interview, open ended questions)

Quantitative Research Methods Variable anything that varies (e.g., age, sex, race or ethnicity, years of education, political affiliation, shoe size and iq) A measurable trait/characteristic that is subject to change under different conditions Independent and Dependent variables Researchers are interested in the relationship between these two types of variables Independent Variable variable that causes or influences a change in a second variable Dependent Variable variable that is subject to the influence of another variable The independent variable is presumed to have some kind of an effect on the dependent variable Control Variable a factor that is held constant to test the relative impact of an independent variable Casual Logic the relationship between a condition/variable and a particular consequence, with one event leading to the other Ex. The time students spend studying may bring about a greater likelihood of getting a higher score Correlation a relationship between 2 variables in which a change in one coincides with a change in the other Relationships (correlations) can be positive (direct) or negative (inverse) Positive Correlation as one variable increases, so does the other, they both increase/decrease in the same direction Negative Correlation as one variable increases, the other decreases Correlation does not imply causation Just because you have an observed relation, doesnt mean one causes another Sociologists look to identify the casual link between variables Criteria for establishing causation: Cause must precede the effect A correlation must exist between the variables Variable must change in a patterned way The relationship must not be spurious Spurious One in which there appears to be a relationship but the actual cause of the relationship is a hidden third variable Ex. Kids shoe size vs. Reading skills if shoe size increase, reading skills also increase but the 3rd variable is age, which causes the change in both variable

Operational definition transformation of an abstract concept into indicators that are observable and measurable A standardized way of measuring a given variable (in order to communicate an abstract idea, taking a vague concept and finding ways to measure) There can be different ways of operationalizing depending on the method of measurement Ex. Measuring how religious someone is can see how often they pray or how often they go to church Validity and Reliability Validity the degree to which a measure or scale truly reflects the phenomenon under study Refers to accuracy (does it measure what it is supposed to measure?) Reliability the extent to which a measure produces consistent results Refers to dependability or consistency (do you get the same result each time?) Selecting the Sample a selection from a larger population that is statistically representative of that population Random sample vs. Sample of convenience Random sample every person in the population has a chance to be chosen Ex. UA student can be chosen by entering ID number into computer Benefits is that it allows sociologist to be confident that the results they obtain will be representative of the large population Sample of Convenience you might not know everyone in the population of interest so you sample those that you know Ex. want to research on those who are murders, go to a place that houses murders and sample them Questionnaires (quantitative approach) Typically consist of closed-ended questions (e.g., Likert scale strongly agree, agree...) Whole purpose is to survey population and generalize it Administered to a representative sample of the population of interest Strengths: high response rate, can explore relationships among many variables, cheaper Limitations: cant provide depth and detail, problems with understanding, issues of accuracy

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews Used to gather rich, detailed, first-hand information Inductive approach go out there w/ a particular question look for trends across participants explanation/theory 2 types of approach: Standardized: ask the same question in the same way to every person Unstandardized: start with a question but you base your next question on their responses (their experience guides the interview) Focus groups involve the use of 8-12 participants who share some trait that is relevant to the topic Using small group of individuals and get them to talk about your topic Ex. asking 18yr how/why they gravitate towards certain music genre Strengths: High response rate b/c people find it difficult to turn down a personal request Can provide depth and detail interviewers can go beyond written questions and ask for subjects feelings/reasons, ask follow up questions

Can clarify questions to avoid misunderstandings Challenges: requires the establishment of rapport (trust), they have to trust you to get good responses interviewer can influence an interviewees responses they may distort what they are saying to seem socially accepted group dynamics can be an issue in focus groups one person may monopolize the interview and talks the most, or they may not talk at all Observation a research technique in which an investigator collects info through direct participation and/or by closely watching a group or community Allows sociologists to examine certain behaviours and communities Ethnography study of an entire social setting through extended systematic observation (ethno = people; graphy = description), MICRO (small groups interaction) Focus is on how the subjects view their social life in a setting Appropriate when the research question involves learning about, understanding or describing a group of interacting people (an in-depth understanding of small-scale social settings) Understand a small scale social setting of a group of people you immerse yourself in the natural setting Participant Observation when sociologist actually joins the group to get an accurate sense of how it operates May be difficult because one needs to gain acceptance into an unfamiliar group first Once gained acceptance, the participant must not allow close associations/friendship influence the subjects behaviour/conclusions of the study the researcher gathers field notes and often interviews group members (for fuller perspective) Strengths: can provide rich detail can confirm observations by interviewing participants Challenges: requires acceptance by the group but also the ability to maintain detachment (needs a certain level of rapport w/ the group) dont want to get too close, needs to be objective and cant influence what is happening Secondary Data Analysis makes use of previously collected and publicly accessible information and data Researchers use data in ways that were unintended by the initial collectors of the information Ex. TV Commercial Surveys Men theoretical knowledge, men say the theory of how the product works Women experimental knowledge, they the product works b/c they used it Theoretical knowledge is more acknowledged Content Analysis the systematic coding and objective recording of data Secondary analysis allows us to study social contexts through analysis of cultural, economic, and political documents (ex. songs, scripts, TV recordings) gathering and analyzing the content of text (text refers to anything written, visual or spoken that acts as a medium for communication e.g., books, newspapers, magazine articles, advertisements, official documents, music lyrics, photos, etc.) search for theme in the content of the text

Strength: non-reactive doing this type of study does not influence what you find can avoid the Hawthorn effect Ex. Emile Durkehims statistical analysis of existing suicide data neither increased/decreased human self-destruction Limitation: required data may not exist

Research Ethics Key Principles: 1) Respect for Persons Autonomy informed consent, voluntary participation Recognizing that people have the right to choose if they want to participate or not Consent is always provisional, they can back out at any time, consent is always subject to being revoked You tell the person of their involvement in the research but if you dont want to reveal too much info in case it might skew the actions during the research, you can debrief with them after they participate 2) Concern for Welfare Avoidance of harm (ex. economic, social) Justice Fair and equitable treatment Code of Ethics the standards of acceptable behaviour developed by and for members of a profession Value Neutrality Max Webers term for objectivity of sociologist in the interpretation of data Weber believed that researchers should not allow their personal feelings influence the interpretation of data As part of this neutrality, investigators have an ethical obligation to accept research findings even when the data run counter to their personal views Feminist Methodology: Sociologists using the feminist perspective has influenced current generation social researchers Before, researchers studied work and family separately (2 discrete institutions), however feminist theorists rejected that they are separate spheres and looked at housework as real work and investigate the struggle people face in balancing demands of work and family Feminist methodology seeks to extend its focus not only to women but also other marginalized groups Ethical Controversy Cases The Obedience Study - Stanley Milgram (1963) Looked at the influence of social pressure and authority on peoples behaviour Subjects were teacher and students the teacher had to get the students to memorize something (students were actors) Each time the student made a mistake the teacher was told that the student would experience an increasing electrical shock (students would act, crying out in pain) Even though the teacher didnt want to do it and inflict harm, when the researchers told them to do it they would still do it shows the influence of authority on the teacher Highlights issues surrounding deception and causing stress (harm) for participants

The Tearoom Trade Laud Humphreys (1970) A study of male homosexual encounters in public restrooms He was the watcher and served as a lookout in the restrooms, he followed these men to find their addresses and interviewed them found that many were outwardly heterosexual Highlights issues of consent and deception The men didnt agree to participate in his research Stanford Prison Experiment Philip Zimbardo (1972) Created an artificial prison situation Recruited young men and divided them into 2 role playing: guards and prisoners The prisoners were stripped of their identity and the guards were told to keep a certain level of control This led to the guards becoming aggressive and the prisoners becoming more passive got out of hand Highlights issues of psychological and physical harm to research participants