Road Alignment

Document No: 67-08-62G Revision: 4 Date amended: 16-Aug-2005 The information below is intended to reflect the preferred practice of Main Roads Western Australia ("Main Roads"). Main Roads reserves the right to update this information at any time without notice. If you have any questions or comments please contact Stephen Curgenven by email or on (08) 9323 4415.

To the extent permitted by law, Main Roads, its employees, agents, authors and contributors are not liable for any loss resulting from any action taken or reliance made by you on the information herein displayed. Revision Register Ed/Version Number ISSUE 1 ISSUE 2 ISSUE 3 ISSUE 4 Clause Number ALL 6.6 6.4 ALL Description of Revision GUIDELINE DEVELOPED AND APPROVED FIGURES 6.3a & 6.3b AMENDED FIGURE 6.1 - COMPOUND CURVE PLAN TRANSITION SHIFT FORMULA CORRECTED GUIDELINE REVISED AND APPROVED Date 14/03/02 12/02/04 14/02/05 16/08/05

Table Of Content:

6. CHAPTER 6 OF 10. THE ROAD ALIGNMENT 6.1. GENERAL 6.2. TANGENTS 6.3. CIRCULAR CURVES 6.3.1. GENERAL 6.3.2. RADIUS TO MEET SIGHT DISTANCE REQUIREMENTS 6.3.3. LENGTH OF HORIZONTAL CURVES 6.3.4. SMALL DEFLECTION ANGLES 6.4. CURVES WITH ADVERSE CROSSFALL 6.5. TYPES OF HORIZONTAL CURVES

6.5.1. COMPOUND CURVES 6.5.2. BROKEN BACK CURVES 6.5.3. ADJACENT HORIZONTAL CURVES SEPARATED BY A SHORT TANGENT 6.5.3.1. ADJACENT HORIZONTAL CURVES SEPARATED BY A SHORT TANGENT ... 6.5.3.2. ADJACENT HORIZONTAL CURVES SEPARATED BY A SHORT TANGENT ... 6.5.3.3. ADJACENT HORIZONTAL CURVES SEPARATED BY A SHORT TANGENT ... 6.5.4. ADJACENT HORIZONTAL CURVES SEPARATED BY A LONG TANGENT AND... 6.5.5. REVERSE CURVES 6.5.5.1. REVERSE CURVES WITH PLAN TRANSITIONS AND A SHORT TANGENT 6.5.5.2. REVERSE CURVES WITHOUT PLAN TRANSITIONS AND A SHORT TANG... 6.5.5.3. REVERSE CURVES WITH LONG SEPARATING TANGENT 6.5.5.4. REVERSE CURVES WITHOUT A SEPARATING TANGENT (COMPOUND ... 6.6. PLAN AND SUPERELEVATION TRANSITIONS 6.6.1. CALCULATING SUPERELEVATION DEVELOPMENT LENGTH AND PLAN TRA... 6.7. SELECTION OF DESIGN SUPERELEVATION RATE 6.7.1. GENERAL 6.7.2. MINIMUM SUPERELEVATION 6.7.3. MAXIMUM SUPERELEVATION 6.7.4. SUPERELEVATION ON BRIDGES

6.7.5. SUPERELEVATION AT INTERSECTIONS 6.7.6. DEVELOPMENT OF SUPERELEVATION TO AVOID DRAINAGE PROBLEMS. 6.Chapter 6 of 10. THE ROAD ALIGNMENT 6.1.General 6.2.Tangents 6.3.CIRCULAR CURVES 6.3.1.General 6.3.2.Radius to meet Sight Distance Requirements 6.3.3.Length of Horizontal Curves 6.3.4.Small Deflection Angles 6.4.Curves with Adverse Crossfall 6.5.Types of Horizontal Curves 6.5.1.Compound Curves 6.5.2.Broken Back Curves 6.5.3.Adjacent Horizontal Curves Separated by a Short Tangent 6.5.3.1.Adjacent Horizontal Curves Separated by a Short Tangent with Plan Transitions 6.5.3.2.Adjacent Horizontal Curves Separated by a Short Tangent with One Plan Transition 6.5.3.3.Adjacent Horizontal Curves Separated by a Short Tangent without Plan Transitions 6.5.4.Adjacent Horizontal Curves Separated by a Long Tangent and Plan Transitions 6.5.5.Reverse Curves 6.5.5.1.Reverse Curves with Plan Transitions and a Short Tangent

6.5.5.2.Reverse Curves without Plan Transitions and a Short Tangent 6.5.5.3.Reverse Curves with Long Separating Tangent 6.5.5.4.Reverse Curves without a Separating Tangent - (Compound or Contiguous Reverse Curves) 6.6.Plan and Superelevation Transitions 6.6.1.Calculating Superelevation Development Length and Plan Transition Length 6.7.Selection of Design Superelevation Rate 6.7.1.General 6.7.2.Minimum Superelevation 6.7.3.Maximum Superelevation 6.7.4.Superelevation on Bridges 6.7.5.Superelevation at Intersections 6.7.6.Development of Superelevation to Avoid Drainage Problems. For reverse curves without plan transitions and a short tangent, the superelevation development from one curve to the next should be applied to the separating short tangent and the superelevation runoff should extend into the circular curve as recommended in Austroads - A Guide to the Geometric Design of Rural Roads (2003) - Table 9.7. The minimum length of short tangent should be the length of both curve superelevation runoff lengths less the amount extended into the circular curve. The length of short tangent may exceed the total of the curve superelevation runoff lengths but should not be too long as to cause surface drainage problems. All tangent lengths should also be checked to ensure proper drainage. The minimum value of superelevation should not be less than the slope of the normal crossfall adopted for the adjacent tangent alignment. This is normally 3% for sealed surface. For asphalt or concrete freeway type surfaces, 2.5% crossfall can be used for the crowned cross section and minimum superelevation. Main Roads general maximum superelevation is limited to 6%. Shaded areas within the 'Horizontal Curve Tables' is for superelevations on turning roads and loop ramps. The absolute maximum superelevation for turning roads and loop ramps is 10%. Heavily laden or slow moving vehicles limit the maximum acceptable value of superelevation. The designer should take into account the types of vehicles using the road and limit the acceptable maximum superelevation to ensure their safety. For the stability of turning vehicles at intersections, changes of grade greater than 4% through the turning

movement or superelevation exceeding 4% at the intersection is not acceptable. - Refer to Section 6.7.5 Superelevation at Intersections Bridge designers prefer that bridges are located on tangent alignments with straight grades. If this is not possible, the next best situation is a bridge on constant curvature. Superelevation transitions on bridges should be avoided. The road alignment, more than any other single design feature, affects the driver's perception and consequently the operating speed that is adopted. For this reason, whenever curves are used to change the direction of travel, the radii and superelevation must be designed to permit operating speeds commensurate with those expected on adjoining tangents or along a section of the road. Generally, the adopted alignment should be as direct as possible, with curve radii as large as practicable. As with other elements of design, the horizontal alignment should provide for safe and continuous operation at a uniform operating speed. Sudden reductions in standard, such as isolated curves of small radius, particularly at the end of long tangents, introduce an element of surprise to the driver and should be avoided. Where physical restrictions on curve radii cannot be overcome and it becomes necessary to introduce curvature of lower standard, the design speed of successive geometric elements should not change by more than 10 km/h. On two-way roads both directions of travel need to be considered. Where the road design is required to connect into existing alignment(s), the tie-ins shall match the existing road alignment centreline and shall be designed with minimum disturbance to the existing road. If the geometry is not satisfactory it may be necessary to extend the design section slightly and sacrifice a portion of the existing pavement. The design shall provide for continuity between new and existing geometry. The road alignment should be designed in accordance with this guideline and the following reference documents:

Horizontal Curve Table (2005) Austroads - A Guide to the Geometric Design of Rural Roads (2003) Austroads - Guide to the Geometric Design of Major Urban Roads (2002) AASHTO - A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (2004) NAASRA - Design Guide for Grade Separated Interchanges (1984) NAASRA - Guide Policy for Geometric Design of Freeways and Expressways (1976)

In the event of any inconsistency between these documents, the inconsistency must be resolved by giving precedence to the document in the order they are listed above. The tangent is one of the major elements of an alignment. It provides clear orientation, but at the same time can be visually uninteresting unless aimed at a landmark. Being totally predictable, with a view that appears static, it can cause driver monotony and encourage the undesirable combination of fatigue and

excessive speed. At night, opposing headlights can also be a problem. Tangents of suitable length are desirable on two lane roads to facilitate overtaking manoeuvres and should be provided as frequently as the terrain permits. Excessively long tangents should be avoided as they may encourage drivers to travel in excess of the safe operating speed. In flat terrain, long tangents may have to be accepted. If curves are deliberately introduced into the design to break the monotony, they should have long arc lengths to avoid the appearance of kinks. Unless the change in alignment is considerable, oncoming headlights will remain a nuisance to drivers. Adverse crossfall occurs when the road pavement slopes down from the inside of a curve to the outside of the curve, which is contrary to normal practice. Although adverse crossfall on curves should be avoided, situations may arise where the adoption of adverse crossfall may be necessary. Reference should be made to the Main Roads Horizontal Curve Tables (2005) and Austroads - A Guide to the Geometric Design of Rural Roads (2003) - Section 9.8 and Austroads - Guide to the Geometric Design of Major Urban Roads (2002) - Section 9.5. (Note consideration should be given to the text in Section 9.5 using 50% of the normal f value for the absolute minimum radius for adverse crossfall when calculating from first principals. The values in Table 9.6 are desirable minimum radii.). In general, consecutive horizontal curves should satisfy the following condition:

The design speed of the flatter curve should be not more than 10 km/h greater than the design speed of the sharper curve.

Where both curves require a plan transition hold the lowest value of the superelevation through that curve's plan transition and the tangent and develop the greater superelevation in the plan transition of the curve that requires the larger superelevation. Refer Figure 6.2a. The objective of the designer is to select values of curve radius and superelevation (e) such that the individual curve is safe for the operating speed of the road section. The "Horizontal Curve Tables" should be used as a guide in the selection of suitable radii/superelevation. As a general rule these values may be used in most situations. However in constrained, low speed urban situations, the designer may need to return to first principles. The design speed and superelevation is generally applied as recommended in 'Austroads - Rural Road Design' A Guide to the Geometric Design of Rural Roads (2003). 'Austroads - Rural Road Design' A Guide to the Geometric Design of Rural Roads (2003). uses a linear distribution method to distribute 'e' and 'f' such that there is a consistent relationship between them for superelevations up to 6% (i.e. emax = 6%). Above 6%, Austroads uses the maximum amount of 'f' (fmax) to calculate the required superelevation. The superelevation that is applied (e) is limited to a maximum of:

6% for high speed roads (>100 km/hr) 7% for intermediate speed roads (>70 to <100 km/hr)

10% for low speed roads (30 to 70 km/hr)

'Austroads - Guide to the Geometric Design of Major Urban Roads (2002)' uses a similar linear distribution but it is applied evenly for all superelevations and 'emax' is limited to 5%. Main Roads has adopted a linear distribution method for all superelevations - i.e. there is a consistent relationship between 'e' and 'f' for all superelevations used using the desirable 'f' (Table 9.1 Austroads Rural Road Design ' A Guide to the Geometric Design of Rural Roads (2003).), and 'emax' is set at:

6% for high speed roads (>100 km/hr) 7% for intermediate speed roads (>70 to <=100 km/hr) 10% for low speed roads (30 to 70 km/hr)

The superelevation for each curve and speed can be calculated using the 'emax' as recommended in 'Austroads - Rural Road Design' A Guide to the Geometric Design of Rural Roads (2003). The maximum side friction factor (fmax) values are the desirable maximum recommended in 'Austroads Guide to the Geometric Design of Major Urban Roads (2002)' Table 9.1. The superelevation value is based on the formulae

Where; V is design speed in km/h. R is radius in metres. e is superelevation in m/m. emax is maximum superelevation in m/m. fmax is the desirable maximum side friction factor.

Main Roads round up the calculated value of superelevation to the nearest 0.5%. Superelevation is introduced at the minimum radius with adverse crossfall as recommended in 'Austroads - Guide to the Design of Major Urban Roads (2002)' Table 9.6 and Austroads - A Guide to the Geometric Design of Rural Roads (2003) Table 9.8. For an operating speed of 30 km/h, a minimum radius with 3.0% adverse crossfall of 250m has been used in the Horizontal Curve Tables. It is assumed that the design is on level ground and no correction for grade has been applied. For grade corrections refer to Section 9.5.2 in Austroads - A Guide to the Geometric Design Of Rural Roads (2003). Figure 6.2d - Adjacent Horizontal Curves with Long Tangent and Plan Transitions Refer to Austroads - A Guide to the Geometric Design of Rural Roads (2003) Section 9.3.1.3 and Austroads - Guide to the Geometric Design of Major Urban Roads (2002) Section 9.2.2. The length of the curve should be taken as the length of the central circular curve plus the sum of the plan

transition lengths. The appropriate minimum length of curved roadway is a function of aesthetics and is therefore subjective, and should generally satisfy the following conditions: 1. A minimum length of curve equivalent to three times the length of the plan transition. 2. The distance travelled by a vehicle during one second for each 10 km/h of design speed. This is calculated by the following formula: Lh = V2/36 Where: Lh = Length of horizontal curve (m). V = Design speed (km/h).

This is the formulae used to calculated the rounded values of minimum curve length in Austroads - Guide to the Geometric Design of Major Urban Roads (2002) - Table 9.9. 3. A minimum length of curve equal to the stopping sight distance for the curve design speed.

In some situations the use of larger curve lengths to enhance appearance may be desirable. Refer to Austroads - A Guide to the Geometric Design of Rural Roads (2003) - Section 9.9 and Austroads - Guide to the Geometric Design of Major Urban Roads (2002) - Section 9.6. For details of the desirable minimum curve length for small deflection angles for appearance and maximum deflection angle for which a curve is required refer to Table 6.1. Deflection Angle
5 4 3 2 1
o o o o o o o o

Min Curve Length 150 180 210 240 270 300 No Curve Required

0 30' to 1 30' < 0 30'

Table 6.1 Desirable Minimum Curve Lengths for Small Deflection Angles Such curves would normally have a radius large enough that it would not be necessary to provide superelevation.

Refer AASHTO - A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (2004), page 229. For reverse curves with plan transitions and a short tangent, the superelevation development from one curve to the next should be applied over the full length of both curve plan transition lengths and the short tangent - refer Fig 6.3a. Short tangent lengths should be desirably not less than 0.6V. A check should be done to ensure there are no surface drainage problems.

Notes: 1. Rounding vertical curves (not shown above) should be applied at all changes of grade of edge profiles.

Figure 6.3a - Reverse Curves with Plan Transitions and a Short Tangent For reverse curves with a long separating tangent the road section should be returned to a crown cross section. Refer Figure 6.3b.

Notes: 1. Rounding vertical curves (not shown above) should be applied at all changes of grade of edge profiles. 2. Superelevation runoff length and plan transition length are common. Figure 6.3b - Reverse Curves with Long Separating Tangent When neither curve requires a plan transition hold the lowest value of the superelevation through the tangent and apply the additional superelevation to the curve that requires it using the design practice as described in Section 6.6. Refer Figure 6.2c. Reverse curves without a separating tangent should be avoided. If they cannot be avoided the superelevation runoff length/plan transition length for each curve should be calculated assuming the tangent section is to return to a crown cross-section. (Refer Section 6.6) If the shift for either curve is less than the required 0.200m and no plan transition is required, then the application of the reverse curves is to be avoided and the alignment changed to suit the short tangent without transitions case in Figure 6.3a. Main Roads only permits contiguous reverse horizontal curves when both curves have plan

transitions/superelevation runoff lengths that meet at a common tangent point. (Refer Figure 6.3c). The length of the superelevation runoff/plan transition may be increased to fit the topography but should not be too long as to cause surface drainage problems. Superelevation development length shall be profiled to avoid the creation of flat pavement area and drainage problems. Refer to Austroads - Guide to the Geometric Design of Rural Roads (2003) Section 9.3.1.1 and Austroads - Guide to the Geometric Design of Major Urban Roads (2002) Section 9.2.3.

Notes: 1. There may be situations where adjacent reverse curves do not readily conform to the above cases. In such situations, amend the alignment to suit the short tangent case. (Fig 6.3a). 2. Superelevation run-off length and plan transition length are the same. 3. Rounding vertical curves (not shown above) should be applied at all changes of grade of edge profiles. Figure 6.3c - Reverse Curves without a Separating Tangent (Compound or Contiguous Reverse Curves) Refer to Austroads - Guide to the Geometric Design of Rural Roads (2003) - Section 9 and Main Roads Horizontal Curve Tables (2005). Before a curve radius is finally selected it is generally necessary to give consideration to the transitions. Two types of transitions are generally required.

A plan transition maybe required to give a gradual change in curvature from zero on the tangent to a value corresponding to the circular curve radius. The curve used by Main Roads for this purpose is the clothoid spiral. A superelevation transition is required to give a gradual change in cross section shape from a crowned or one-way crossfall section on the tangent to the superelevation section on the curve.

The practice adopted by Main Roads is similar to that adopted by Austroads. The difference is Main Roads applies the superelevation transition on the inside edge over the full length of the superelevation development length. This is illustrated in Figure 6.4. This practice enables the pavement to be rotated about either pavement edge in a superelevation transition in order to prevent flat areas and associated drainage problems.

On freeways for aesthetic reasons, the ratio of the plan transition length to arc length should be generally such that the circular arc occupies at least half of the total length of the curve. (Guide Policy for Geometric Design of Freeways and Expressways - NAASRA 1976)

Typical Development of Superelevation for Curves with Plan Transitions - Overview

Typical Development of Superelevation for Curves with Plan Transitions - Profile Note: Rounding vertical curves should be applied at all changes of grade of edge profiles. Legend PI Point of intersection of the main tangents. TS Tangent to Spiral - common point of tangent and spiral and start of superelevation development.

SC Spiral to Curve - common point of plan transition and circular curve. CS Curve to Spiral - common point of circular curve and plan transition. ST Spiral to Tangent - common point of plan transition and tangent at end of superelevation development.

Lp Length of plan transition, TS to SC (m) and CS to ST (m). Lt Length of tangent runout (m).

Ls Length of superelevation runoff (m). Le Length of superelevation development (m). n e Normal pavement crossfall (%). Pavement superelevation (%).

Figure 6.4 Typical Development of Superelevation for Curves with Plan Transitions on Two-Way Roads Main Roads uses the same terminology used by Austroads with the exception of the following: Superelevation Transition Length = is the superelevation development length including the rounding vertical curves.

Rounding Vertical Curve = Ease. For appearance purposes Main Roads has adopted the rounding curves lengths as shown in Table 1. NUMBER OF LANES IN ONE DIRECTION 1 (3.5 m) 2 (7.0 m) 3 (10.5 m) LENGTH OF ROUNDING (m) 20 30 40

TABLE 1 - Superelevation Development Length Rounding Curve Lengths Note these rounding curve lengths are not applicable in situations where stopping sight distance to a zero object height is required (i.e. at intersections) and therefore they shall be amended accordingly. Step 1 Calculate the Length of Superelevation Development Using Rate of Rotation (Refer Austroads 'Guide to the Geometric Design of Major Urban Roads', 2002) Calculate the length of superelevation development using the following formulae; Le = (e1 - e2) V/0.126 Le = (e1 - e2) V/0.09 Where, for vehicle operating speed < 80 km/h for vehicle operating speed => 80 km/h

Le = superelevation development length (m) e1, e2 = crossfall or superelevation at ends of development length (m/m) V = vehicle operating speed (km/h)

Step 2 Calculate the Length of Superelevation Development Using Relative Grade Select a value of Gr from either Austroads - A Guide to the Geometric Design of Rural Roads (2003) Table 9.4 or Austroads - Guide to the Geometric Design of Major Urban Roads (2002) - Table 9.3 This value for Gr is substituted in the formula below to calculate the length of superelevation development (Le) required to satisfy the relative grade criterion.

Where,

Le = superelevation development length (m) Wr = width from axis of rotation to outside edge of traffic lanes (m) e1, e2 = crossfall or superelevation at ends of transition length (m/m) Gr = relative grade (%)

The greater value of the lengths calculated in Steps 1 and Step 2 is then adopted for Le.

Step 3 Calculate the Superelevation Runoff length and Tangent Runout Length The superelevation runoff length is calculated using the formula:Ls = Le - Le [e1/(e1 - e2)] Lt = Le - Ls Where, Ls = superelevation runoff length (m) Le = superelevation development length (m) e1 = normal crossfall at start of development length (%) e2 = full superelevation at end of development length (%) Lt = tangent runout (m)

AASHTO - A Policy on the Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (2004) pages 175 to 192 investigates the lengths of plan transition curves. It states that a value of 0.200m is consistent with the minimum lateral shift that occurs as a result of the natural steering behaviour of most drivers and likewise a value of 1.0m is generally the maximum lateral shift that occurs. (Refer page 188). AASHTO also recommends on page 190 "For the most part the calculated values for length of spiral and length of runoff do not differ materially." Also "The length of runoff is applicable to all superelevated curves, and it is recommended that this value should be used for minimum lengths of spiral. In this manner, the length of spiral should be set equal to the length of superelevation runoff." Therefore Main Roads has adopted superelevation runoff length to be equal to the plan transition length and any shift less than 0.200m can be contained within the width of the normal lane. Step 4 Calculate the Shift for the Superelevation Runoff Length/Plan Transition Length (i) The superelevation runoff length is assumed to be equal to the plan transition length. Ls = Lp = plan transition length. (ii) Calculate the shift using the formula: -

P=L2/24R Where, P = shift (m) L = plan transition length/superelevation runoff length (m) R = radius of central curve (m)

If the shift is less than 0.200m then no plan transition is required. If the shift is equal to or greater than 0.200m then a plan transition is to be applied. Main Roads method of rounding the Superelevation Development Length is to round to the nearest 1 metre and for the superelevation runoff length, round to the nearest 1 metres. The uniform application of the super development tends to locate the level cross section at the tangent point when plan transitions are used. The superelevation runoff length should be coincident with the plan transition. When the plan transition is omitted, the superelevation development length is positioned with the larger portion of the superelevation runoff length on the approach tangent. - As specified in 'Austroads Rural Road Design' A Guide to the Geometric Design of Rural Roads (2003) Table 9.7 For a typical development of superelevation for curves Without plan transitions refer to Figure 6.5.

Typical Development of Superelevation for Curves Without Plan Transitions - Overview

Typical Development of Superelevation for Curves Without Plan Transitions - Profile Note: Rounding vertical curves (not shown above) should be applied at all changes of grade of edge profiles. Legend PI Intersection point of the main tangents.

TS/ES Tangent point and end of superelevation transition SS Start of superelevation transition.

Le n e

Length of superelevation development (m). Normal pavement crossfall (%). Pavement superelevation (%).

Figure 6.5 Typical Development of Superelevation for Curves without Plan Transitions on Two-Way Roads Where a side road junction is on the outside of a curve, a compromise may be necessary between adequate superelevation on the through road and safe conditions for vehicles turning against the adverse crossfall. The situation worsens if the curve is located on a steep grade. If the intersection cannot be relocated, the superelevation may need to be modified to ensure safe turning conditions. Generally, if the through road has a steep longitudinal grade over 3%, the superelevation/crossfall on the through road should not exceed 4% and should preferably be limited to 3%. The same problem does not exist where the junction is on the inside of the curve as the superelevation then favours the turning movements. Junctions on the inside of curves are not desirable due to sight distance constraints. The maximum effective adverse crossfall for turning movements at intersections is 5%. At intersections with higher speed turning movements (i.e. traffic signal controlled intersections) the maximum safe effective adverse crossfall may need to be less than the maximum. The effective adverse crossfall can be determined using vector diagrams.

Figure 6.6 Vector Diagram of Maximum Effective Crossfall The changes of grade required on the edges to provide superelevation transitions are often of the same order as the changes of grade in the main profile. This is particularly so in flat terrain. It is also necessary to avoid situations where a level cross section within a superelevation transition coincides with a level longitudinal grade on any part of the cross section. This situation creates a flat area where water ponding will occur with consequent hazardous driving conditions. To provide a smooth appearance to the edge profiles and avoid creating a flat area, it is necessary to coordinate the design of the main profile with the design of the edge profiles through the superelevation transitions. The 'flat area' problem can be avoided by ensuring that either crossfall or longitudinal grade is maintained through the superelevation transitions. This can be achieved by rotating the pavement about one edge or the other rather than around the centreline. A minimum grade of 0.3% should be applied to any kerbed edges and 0.2% to any unkerbed edges through a superelevation transition. Refer Chapter 7 Section 7.3.2. The superelevation transition length design should be checked for flat areas by contouring the pavement at

20mm intervals. The changes of grade on the pavement edges should be provided with rounding vertical curves centred on the nominal ends of the superelevation development length as shown in Figures 6.7 to 6.14 inclusive. For appearance purposes Main Roads has adopted the rounding curves lengths as shown in Chapter 6 Section 6.6.1 - Table 1. Note for Figure 6.7 to Figure 6.14 the illustration is for a two-way road with a centre line design reference line. Consideration should also be given to the Coordination of Vertical Curves with Superelevation Rounding Curves. Refer Chapter 7 Section 7.4.5. General rules for coordination of Vertical Curves with Superelevation Transition Rounding Curves: 1. The main profile Vertical Curve should not overlap the rounding Vertical Curve. 2. A main profile Vertical Curve may be compounded with a rounding Vertical Curve turning the same direction. 3. Compound reverse Vertical Curves are not allowed. 4. On a superelevation transition the whole pavement shall have a longitudinal fall in only one direction.

It should be noted that the treatment of the superelevation transitions with the vertical alignment in Figure 6.7 to Figure 6.14 are shown as specific cases. Other combinations may be used to provide correct road drainage and appearance.

Figure 6.7 Crest VC on flat grades

Figure 6.8 Crest VC on steeper grades

Figure 6.9 Rising or falling grade with Crest VC

Figure 6.10 Sag VC on flat grades

Figure 6.11 Sag VC on steeper grades

Figure 6.12 Rising or falling grade with Sag VC

Figure 6.13 Rising or falling flat grade

Figure 6.14 Rising or falling steep grade For information on radius to meet sight distance requirements refer to:

Main Roads Sight Distance Guidelines Chapter 5, Section 5.4. Austroads - A Guide to the Geometric Design of Rural Roads (2003) - Section 9.11 and Austroads - Guide to the Geometric Design of Major Urban Roads (2002) - Section 8.5 These are adjacent horizontal curves in opposite directions with common or near common tangent points. Reverse curves may be used provided they have either plan transitions or are separated by a sufficient length of tangent to enable superelevation to be developed at rates similar to those normally applied to curves. Where back to back reverse curves are unavoidable, radii should exceed the minimum radii as per Section 9.2.3 in Austroads - Guide to the Geometric Design of Major Urban Roads (2002). Where deceleration is required on the approaches to a lower radius curve (lower design speed element), sufficient length must be provided to enable drivers to react and decelerate. The connected curves should not have a design speed difference of greater than 10 km/h. To allow for the development of superelevation from one curve to the next, normal superelevation development length should apply for each curve. The length of plan transitions required for the horizontal design for that curve radius/speed combination should be calculated assuming the tangent section is to return to a crown crosssection. Refer Section 6.6. Notes: 1. The superelevation development length is then placed coincident with the plan transition length. Figure 6.1 - Broken Back Curve (Curve to Curve Plan Transition) These are horizontal curves in the same direction separated by a tangent (or straight) length of greater than 1.0V and less than 3.0V - 4.0V (where V is the operating speed in km/h). Such curve combinations should be avoided. It is virtually impossible to produce a pleasing grading of the edge profiles. If due to constraints this combination of curves is unavoidable one of the following cases detailed in Sections 6.5.3.1 to 6.5.3.3 should be applied. The length of superelevation runoff/plan transitions should be calculated assuming the tangent section between curves returns to a crown cross-section. Refer Section 6.6. The length of the plan transition determined above is that required for the horizontal design for this curve radius/speed combination. Broken back curves are adjacent curves in the same direction separated by a tangent (or straight) length of less than 1.0V. Broken back curves should be avoided. Where they are unavoidable, the alignment should be connected by a curve-to-curve plan transition. For application of the plan transition and superelevation development Refer to Figure 6.1. When only one curve requires a plan transition treat the superelevation the same as in 6.5.3.1. Refer Figure 6.2b. To achieve the desirable design of adjacent curves in the same direction the distance between the

superelevation development lengths should represent a minimum of 4.0 seconds of travel time at the operating speed. Note if a curve does not have a superelevation development length (due to it radius/speed combination not requiring superelevation), an equivalent tangent must be provided which is equal in length to the superelevation development length determined on an assumed 3% superelevation. The superelevation is to return to a crown cross section on the part of the tangent that is in between the superelevation development lengths. Refer Figure 6.2d. Figure 6.2b - Adjacent Horizontal Curves Separated by a Short Tangent with One Plan Transition Figure 6.2c - Adjacent Horizontal Curves Separated by a Short Tangent without Plan Transitions Figure 6.2a - Adjacent Horizontal Curves Separated by a Short Tangent with Plan Transitions The second major element of an alignment is the curve. A wide range of curve radii may be chosen for an operating speed. The choice of the radius depends on the deflection angle, superelevation, sight distance, site limitations, and cost of providing a better facility and overall design philosophy and intent. In developing the road alignment, the designer should generally select the largest curve radii attainable. Isolated small radii curves in an otherwise free flowing alignment, and small radii curves at the end of long straights, on steep down grades and over crests are unsafe and must be avoided. The Horizontal Curve Table - Main Roads WA (2005) should be used as a guide to the selection of a suitable curve radius. These Tables list the appropriate superelevation and transition lengths for different design speeds and curve radii. Compound curves are curves of two different radii turning in the same direction with a common tangent point. Compound curves which have radii < 1 000m should be avoided and a single curve used if economically possible.

The ratio of the flatter radius to the sharper radius should not exceed 1.5:1, Max ratio of 2:1 may be used at intersections and ramps. (Reference: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets", AASHTO, 2004, p201.) Refer to: Austroads - A Guide to the Geometric Design of Rural Roads (2003) - Section 9.3.1.2. Austroads - Guide to the Geometric Design of Major Urban Roads (2002) - Section 9.2.1.

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