Design 2012 Cip Frerichs DH

The University of the Witwatersrand School of Mechanical, Aeronautical and Industrial Engineering Design of a High Performance Diesel Engine
DESIGN PROJECT
Final year project report
Project title: Design of a High Performance Diesel Engine- Cylinder head Project supervisor: Prof. D. Cipolat Date: 22 August 2012 Student: Darryn Frerichs Student number: 0600945H In conjunction with: Kurt Crossman (0700001J) Noordeen Sing (0601701G) Fuaad Abdool (304124)
University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg School of Mechanical, Industrial and Aeronautical Engineering
Declaration
Name: Darryn Frerichs Course no: MECN4005 Submission Date: 22 August 2012 Student no: 0600945H Course Name: Design Project Project Title: Design of a High Performance Diesel Engine
I hereby declare the following: I am aware that plagiarism (the use of someone elses work without their permission and/or without acknowledging the original source) is wrong; I confirm that the work submitted herewith for assessment in the above course is my own unaided work except where the I have explicitly indicated otherwise; This task has not been submitted before, either individually or jointly, for any course requirement, examination or degree at this or any other tertiary education institution; I have followed the required conventions in referencing the thoughts and ideas of others; I understand that the University of the Witwatersrand may take disciplinary action against me if it can be shown that this task is not my own unaided work or that I have failed to acknowledge the sources of the ideas or words in my writing in this task.
Signature: ___________________________
Date: _________________
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Executive Summary
It was required that a high performance compression ignition racing engine be designed which complies to the Federation Internationale de lAutomobile (FIA) World Touring Car Championship rules and regulations. A production BMW N47 engine was chosen to be
modified in accordance with the regulations with a design goal of achieving a maximum engine power of 180kW and 400Nm of torque. The design was distributed amongst 3 other individuals and components designed and modified to achieve the design requirement. The shape, length and size of the inlet and exhaust ports in the cylinder head were optimized in order to improve the volumetric efficiency of the engine. Furthermore, the valve train and its components were analysed and redesigned in accordance with the regulations, including both dimension and material specifications. The designed components were modelled and analysed using ANSYS to evaluate the thermal and stress forces occurring in the cylinder head components during the four stroke power cycle of the engine. Additionally, analytical analysis was performed on designed components to verify the ANSYS solutions and to gain insight into the fatigue life of the designed component. The designed engine theoretically fell marginally short of the design requirement and theoretically would produce 175kW of power and a maximum of 396Nm of torque.
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Table of Contents
Declaration __________________________________________________________________ ii Executive Summary ___________________________________________________________ iii Table of Contents _____________________________________________________________ iv List of Figures ________________________________________________________________ ix List of Tables _________________________________________________________________xii Nomenclature _______________________________________________________________ xiii 1 Statement of Task ________________________________________________________ 1
1.1 1.2 Task as Given _______________________________________________________________ 1 Interpretation of task statement _______________________________________________ 1
Literature Survey _________________________________________________________ 1

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 FIA World Touring Car Championship Rules ______________________________________ 1 Four-Stroke Cycle Turbocharged Compression Ignition Engines ______________________ 2 Current motor specifications __________________________________________________ 3 Inlet and Exhaust Processes ___________________________________________________ 5 Combustion Chamber ________________________________________________________ 6 Valve gear _________________________________________________________________ 7
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2.7
2.7.1 2.7.2 2.7.3 2.7.4
Valves ____________________________________________________________________ 8
Material __________________________________________________________________________ 8 Valve Guides ______________________________________________________________________ 9 Valve Seats _______________________________________________________________________ 9 Valve face angle ___________________________________________________________________ 9
2.8
2.8.1
Camshafts ________________________________________________________________ 10
Lever tappets ____________________________________________________________________ 12
Product Requirement Specification __________________________________________ 13

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 General Requirements ______________________________________________________ 13 General Constraints ________________________________________________________ 13 General Criteria ____________________________________________________________ 13 Specific Requirements ______________________________________________________ 13 Specific Constraints _________________________________________________________ 14
Design Development _____________________________________________________ 15

4.1
4.1.1 4.1.2 4.1.3
Concept Development ______________________________________________________ 15

Cylinder head and cover ____________________________________________________________ 15 Combustion chamber ______________________________________________________________ 16 Valve train layout _________________________________________________________________ 18
4.1.4 4.1.5 4.1.6
Valves __________________________________________________________________________ 19 Camshaft ________________________________________________________________________ 24 Lubrication system ________________________________________________________________ 25
Design Development _____________________________________________________ 26

5.1 5.2 5.3
5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3
Valve Size ________________________________________________________________ 26 Port and Manifold size ______________________________________________________ 28 Camshaft _________________________________________________________________ 29
Valve lift ________________________________________________________________________ 29 Lever tappets ____________________________________________________________________ 30 Camshaft profile __________________________________________________________________ 31
5.4
Valve springs ______________________________________________________________ 32
Performance Prediction ___________________________________________________ 35

6.1 6.2 6.3 Estimated analytical performance calculations ___________________________________ 35 Performance curves ________________________________________________________ 36 Estimated cylinder pressures and temperatures __________________________________ 37
Detailed Design Analysis __________________________________________________ 39

7.1
7.1.1
Analytical stress analysis ____________________________________________________ 39

Valve Spring _____________________________________________________________________ 39
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7.1.2 7.1.3
Valves __________________________________________________________________________ 41 Camshaft ________________________________________________________________________ 43
7.2
7.2.1 7.2.2 7.2.3
Finite element heat transfer analysis___________________________________________ 43

Thermal analysis with combustion modelled as constant heat added ________________________ 47 Heat transfer analysis with variable temperatures applied ________________________________ 53 Stress analysis with temperature _____________________________________________________ 56
8 9
Assembly Drawings ______________________________________________________ 58 Detailed Component Specifications __________________________________________ 63

9.1 9.2 9.3
9.3.1
Bill of components _________________________________________________________ 63 Cylinder head _____________________________________________________________ 64 Camshafts ________________________________________________________________ 65

Lever tappet _____________________________________________________________________ 66
9.4
9.4.1 9.4.2 9.4.3 9.4.4 9.4.5
Valves ___________________________________________________________________ 67
Intake valves _____________________________________________________________________ 67 Exhaust valves ____________________________________________________________________ 67 Valve clearance adjusters ___________________________________________________________ 68 Valve guides _____________________________________________________________________ 68 Valve seats ______________________________________________________________________ 69
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9.4.6 9.4.7 9.4.8
Valve springs _____________________________________________________________________ 69 Valve spring retainers ______________________________________________________________ 70 Valve collets _____________________________________________________________________ 71
10 Recommendations for Future Work _________________________________________ 73 11 References _____________________________________________________________ 75 Appendix A _________________________________________________________________ 78 Appendix B _________________________________________________________________ 79 Appendix C _________________________________________________________________ 87
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List of Figures
Figure 1: Otto cycle plotted on P-V and T-S curves [12] .......................................................... 2 Figure 2: N47 Engine camshaft timing diagram [7] .................................................................. 5 Figure 3: Cylinder Head assembly [3] ....................................................................................... 7 Figure 4: DOHC valve gear layout [13] .................................................................................... 7 Figure 5: Cam cross-section [7] ............................................................................................... 11 Figure 6: Combustion chamber shapes: a) wedge b) hemispherical c) Pent d) flat ................. 17 Figure 7: BMW N47 Valve train layout [7]............................................................................. 18 Figure 8: Plot showing the variation of Z with inlet flow area ................................................ 27 Figure 9: Modified camshaft timing chart ............................................................................... 32 Figure 10: Final predicted engine torque curve [20] ............................................................... 36 Figure 11: Predicted engine power curve [20] ......................................................................... 37 Figure 12: Variation of pressure per degree crankshaft revolution ......................................... 38 Figure 13: Estimated temperature per degree crankshaft revolution ....................................... 38 Figure 14: Exploded view of heat transfer analysis components ............................................ 45 Figure 15: Meshed cylinder head assembly ............................................................................. 46 Figure 16: Temperature fields on cylinder head assembly: view 1 ......................................... 48 Figure 17: Temperature fields on cylinder head assembly: view 2 ......................................... 49 Figure 18: Temperature fields on cylinder head assembly: view 3 ......................................... 49 ix
Figure 19: Temperature variation on valves and seats............................................................. 50 Figure 20: Temperature variation of cylinder head with valve components removed ............ 51 Figure 21: Inlet port temperature variation .............................................................................. 51 Figure 22: Exhaust port temperature variation ........................................................................ 51 Figure 23: Heat transfer with increased heat added ................................................................. 52 Figure 24: Heat transfer with increased water jacket heat transfer coefficient........................ 53 Figure 25: Temperature variation after 0.002963s .................................................................. 54 Figure 26: Temperature variation after 0.00333s .................................................................... 54 Figure 27: Temperature variation after 0.005926s .................................................................. 54 Figure 28: Temperature variation after 0.006667s .................................................................. 55 Figure 29: Temperature variation after 0.007037s .................................................................. 55 Figure 30: Temperature variation after 0.008148s .................................................................. 55 Figure 31: Temperature variation after 0.008889s .................................................................. 56 Figure 32: Temperature variation after 0.00963s .................................................................... 56 Figure 33: Stress concentration predicted in valves ................................................................ 57 Figure 34: Stress concentrations predicted in valve faces ....................................................... 57 Figure 35: Plan view of cylinder head assembly ..................................................................... 58 Figure 36: Front view of cylinder head assembly .................................................................... 58 Figure 37: Rear view of cylinder head assembly ..................................................................... 59 x
Figure 38: Left side view of cylinder head assembly .............................................................. 59 Figure 39: Right side view of cylinder head ............................................................................ 60 Figure 40: Cylinder head assembly.......................................................................................... 60 Figure 41: Exploded view of cylinder head assembly ............................................................. 61 Figure 42: Fully assembled engine .......................................................................................... 62 Figure 43: Variation of cylinder volume with crankshaft angle .............................................. 85 Figure 44: Instantaneous piston speed / mean piston speed variation with crank angle.......... 86
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List of Tables
Table 1: General engine restriction rules ................................................................................... 2 Table 2: Engine variant per model [7] ....................................................................................... 3 Table 3: Technical data of engine [7] ........................................................................................ 4 Table 4: Engine timing data [7] ................................................................................................. 5 Table 5: Weighted matrix selection table of cylinder head cover material ............................. 16 Table 6: Weighted matrix of Combustion chamber shape criteria .......................................... 18 Table 7: Weighted selection matrix table of valve design ....................................................... 20 Table 8: Weighted matrix selection table of valve guide material .......................................... 21 Table 9: Weighted matrix table of valve spring selection ....................................................... 23 Table 10: Calculated cycle state data ....................................................................................... 35 Table 11: Estimated effective pressures, power and efficiencies ............................................ 35 Table 12: Spring data for stress analysis.................................................................................. 39 Table 13: ANSYS mesh setting ............................................................................................... 45 Table 14: Assigned boundary conditions ................................................................................. 47 Table 15: Calculation of valve spring configuration ............................................................... 78 Table 16: Tabulated values of variables used in state calculations ......................................... 79 Table 17: Pressures and temperatures per degree crankshaft revolution ................................. 83
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Nomenclature
Symbol Ap Ai Description Piston area Inlet area Mean piston speed Flow coefficient past poppet valve Speed of sound in medium Stroke of engine Speed of engine Valve index number Diameter Area Minimum frequency Spring stiffness constant Acceleration due to gravity Weight Number of turns in spring Spring deflection Alternating spring force average Mean spring force Spring index Mean coil diameter of spring Bergstrasser factor Alternating shear stress Midrange shear stress Ultimate tensile strength Ultimate shear strength Factor of safety Heat flux between points 1 and2 Conduction heat transfer coefficient Convection heat transfer coefficient Temperature Heating value of fuel Ideal gas constant Air to fuel ratio Compression ratio CP Coefficient of pressure Units m2 m2 m/s m/s m m m m2 Hz N/m m/s2 N m N N m MPa MPa MPa MPa W/m2 W/m2K W/m2K K kJ/kmol kJ/kmolK kJ/kgK
Ci a L N Z d A
k g W
C D
k T QHV R A/F
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Cv B V
Coefficient of temperature Bore size Volume Mass flow rate of fuel Mass flow rate of air Heat added Work done by cycle Indicated mean effective pressure Brake mean effective pressure Mechanical efficiency Volumetric efficiency Specific fuel consumption Density of air Ignition delay Distance between crank axis and piston pin Ratio of stroke length to crankshaft radius
kJ/kgK m m3 kg/s kg/s kJ kW kPa kPa kg/ m3 ms m -
IMEP BMEP
I.d s R
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Statement of Task
1.1 Task as Given
Design a high performance compression ignition (CI) engine as a group.
1.2 Interpretation of task statement

In a group of four students, individually design components of a high performance BMW 2l turbocharged diesel racing engine for use in the Federation Internationale de lAutomobile (FIA) World Touring Car Championship. Perform an accurate heat transfer analysis on the components designed and provide a final assembly of all components designed by the group in an overall design report.
Literature Survey
2.1 FIA World Touring Car Championship Rules
The Federation Internationale de lAutomobile (FIA) sets out a set of competition rules with regards to the engines used in the World Touring Car Championship. The engines used must be modifications of the standard production engine provided by the manufacturer within the modification limits set out by the FIA. All modifications performed on the engine must be homologated by the FIA and also produced in kit variant form for sale to the public. Article 263D from the FIA with regards to the specific regulations for modified diesel engines on circuits outlines the limitations of the allowed modifications to the engines and a summary of important regulations is outlined below in Table 1. For a more in depth analysis of the regulations please consult references [1] and [2], or consult Section 3 for constraints specific to individual components.
The University of the Witwatersrand School of Mechanical, Aeronautical and Industrial Engineering Design of a High Performance Diesel Engine Table 1: General engine restriction rules
Engine restriction Capacity Pulleys Valves Variable valve timing Bore Compression ratio Materials Fuel
4 Cylinder turbocharged diesel 2000cm Free 4 maximum per cylinder of steel material Not allowed Circular at least 16:1 Titanium, ceramics, magnesium, composites or reinforced fibreglass is forbidden unless corresponding exactly to original parts Diesel limited to 50ppm sulphur
2.2 Four-Stroke Cycle Turbocharged Compression Ignition Engines

Turbocharged diesel engine output is usually constrained by the maximum stress levels that can be withstood by critical engine components as well as the thermal loadings of these components, which limits the cylinder pressure which can be tolerated under continuous operation, which is magnified by continuous racing operation. Boost pressure from the turbocharger increases the pressure difference in the ports of the cylinder which proportionally increases the stresses and thermal loadings in engine components. To
overcome the increase in stress problem, the compression ratio of the engine may be reduced as well as the maximum fuel/air equivalence ratio. [3] Figure 1 below shows the otto-cycle describing the diesel cycle plotted on P-V curve and T-S curves.
Figure 1: Otto cycle plotted on P-V and T-S curves [12]
2.3 Current motor specifications

The motor being modified is a BMW 2l diesel engine from the modern 120d model. The engine model is known as the BMW N47 engine from a BMW E87 sedan. Table 2 below shows an overview of the engine variants of models with the N47 engine.
Table 2: Engine variant per model [7]
Bore/stroke (mm)
Power in kW/bhp at rpm
Cylinder capacity (cm)
118d 120d 118d 120d 320d
E81 E81 E87 E87 E92
1995 90/84 1995 90/84 1995 90/84 1995 90/84 1995 90/84
105/143 4000 130/177 4000 105/143 4000 130/177 4000 130/177 4000
300 at 1750 350 at 1750 300 at 1750 350 at 1750 350 at 1750
Table 3 overleaf shows the technical data of the M47 engine to be modified to meet the specific rules outlined in Section 2.1 previously.
Torque in Nm at rpm
Model series
Modell
The University of the Witwatersrand School of Mechanical, Aeronautical and Industrial Engineering Design of a High Performance Diesel Engine Table 3: Technical data of engine [7]
Engine type Cylinder capacity (cm) Stroke/bore (mm) Output at engine speed Torque (1st gear at engine speed) Torque remaining at engine speed Cut-off speed (rpm) Power output per litre (kW/l) Compression ratio Cylinder gap (mm) Valves/cylinder Inlet valve diameter (mm) Exhaust valve diameter (mm) Main bearing journal diameter of crankshaft (mm) Big end journal diameter of crankshaft (mm) Engine management Emissions standard
4 inline 1995 90/84 120/163 4000 280 /2000 320 /2000 4600 60.15 17 91 4 27.2 24.6 60 45 DDE604 EURO4
The firing interval of an engine is the angle of crankshaft rotation between two successive ignitions. The engine operates using a four-stroke cycle and therefore the crankshaft turns 720 to complete one cycle. Having the same firing interval between all ignition points ensures that the engine runs evenly at all speeds where the firing interval is determined by dividing the angle required to complete one cycle (720) by the number of cylinders, producing a firing interval of 180 in the four-cylinder engine. The firing order is the order in which the cylinders are ignited and is directly responsible for how smooth the engine runs. The firing order used in the N47 engine is 1-3-4-2. [7] The camshaft timing is imperative when modifying an engine and all modifications to other engine systems are complemented by adequate camshaft or valve timing. Figure 2 w shows the standard valve timing of the N47 engine while Table 5 beneath it shows the timing data for the engine. 4
Figure 2: N47 Engine camshaft timing diagram [7] Table 4: Engine timing data [7]
Valve diameter Max. valve lift Lobe separation Valve opens Valve closes Valve open duration
(mm) (mm) (crankshaft) (crankshaft) (crankshaft) (crankshaft)
inlet 27.2 7.5 100 352 568 216
exhaust 24.6 8 108 140.7 362.5 221.8
2.4 Inlet and Exhaust Processes

The engine must be constantly supplied with air during its four-stroke cycle, while the exhaust gases must be expelled. The intake of the fresh air and the expulsion of exhaust gases are known as the gas exchange cycle and the inlet and exhaust ports are periodically opened and closed by the inlet and exhaust valves. The timing and sequence of the valve movements are determined by the camshaft. The entire mechanism for transferring cam lift to the valve is known as the valve gear, comprised of the camshafts, transmitting elements, valve assembly, and valve clearance adjustment. 5
2.5 Combustion Chamber

The combustion chamber is the region located in the cylinder head where the combustion of the fuel initially takes place when the piston is at top dead centre. The region is a small volume and the shape can directly affect the quality of the combustion process and therefore the performance output of the engine and the volumetric efficiency. The chamber also contains the valves and the fuel injector and affects the compression ratio of the engine because of its volume. The combustion chamber shape can help improve the swirl of the fuel/air mixture which will promote the mixing of the gasses for improved combustion efficiency. The shape of the chamber will affect the flame propagation as the diesel fuel combusts spontaneously under compression. A round combustion chamber may be the most advantageous due to the concentration it provides of the forces generated by the combustion of the fuel onto the top of the piston, however, this design presents other complications such as the location of the valves and how a radial valve design would be required to achieve this design which imposes a complicated camshaft design. The most common design is a triangular shaped design where the intake valves are located at an angle to the exhaust valves with the injector situated between the valves. The best shape is one with the shallowest angle between the valves which allows a high compression ratio to be achieved without introducing high domed pistons which would affect the flame path. The edges of the combustion chamber should be flat and shaped and sized similar to the piston edges to produce a region known as squish, which forces the fuel towards the centre of the combustion chamber with added turbulence upon compression. The clearance between the wall of the cylinder head and the top of the piston in a squish area is usually about 0.75mm. The top of the combustion chamber may be ceramic coated to promote heat transfer should it be required. Figure 3 overleaf shows a cross section of a cylinder head with a 27 valve angle and also shows the squish areas. [3]
Figure 3: Cylinder Head assembly [3]
2.6 Valve gear

There is a number of valve gear types used in engine design. Valve gear types are usually distinguished according to the number and position of the valves and camshafts, the method of actuation of the valves and the method of valve clearance adjustment. The BMW N47 engine uses a double overhead camshaft (DOHC) valve gear layout which means that the engine has overhead valves with two camshafts located above the cylinders where one camshaft is used for the intake valves, and the other for the exhaust valves. [7] Cam movement is transferred to the valve by roller cam followers in the DOHC configuration. Figure 4 below is a schematic of a DOHC valve gear layout.
Figure 4: DOHC valve gear layout [13]
2.7 Valves
The valves directly affect the volumetric efficiency of the engine as the air must navigate past the valves both when entering the combustion chamber, and when exiting through the exhaust ports. Valves which allow an increase in air flow will produce a higher volumetric efficiency in the engine and an engine that produces more horsepower. Valves with thinner valve stems provide less restriction to air flowing past it and are lighter allowing a higher revving engine with less stress on valve components. [5] 2.7.1 Material
The valves allow the combustion gases to enter the combustion chamber during the inlet stroke of the crankshaft and allow the exhaust gases to exit the chamber after the combustion process has occurred, while providing an air-tight seal in the chamber during the combustion process to maximise the power obtained during each cycle. The valves are opened and closed by camshafts at the appropriate time which is discussed below in Section 2.6. The valves can open and close up to fifty times per second in a diesel engine operation at 6000rpm, and are therefore a highly stressed item in the engine that incur large fluctuation forces and need to be designed to achieve a very high fatigue life. Most performance engines use a good quality grade of stainless steel valves such as 21-4N stainless steel, however, titanium may also be used when costs are a lesser a factor to be considered and mass is important. The fatigue life of valves depends largely on their
material, as well as their application; a valve being used in a low rpm situation will most certainly last longer than a valve used in a formula 1 engine. [4] Sodium filled valves are hollow valves that are filled with sodium in their stems which promotes heat transfer and is useful for use in exhaust valves. The sodium in the stem melts as the valve heats up and moves around, promoting heat transfer from the valve head area, up the stem, which in turn removes heat from the valve seat area, producing a better seating, cooler operating valve which lasts longer. [4]
The stems of the valve can be hollowed out to reduce the weight of a steal valve in order to achieve a similar mass to a titanium valve. Only the upper part of the valve stem may be removed, where the transverse stresses are minimal. [4] A cheaper alternative to making a new valve out of a different material is to coat the valve with a nitride coating or a derivative thereof, using metal treatment, to create a hard coating which is resistive to wear and also provides lubricating properties to improve the operation of the valve. [4] 2.7.2 Valve Guides
Valve guides in production diesel engines are often made of cast iron and coated with a phosphate coating whereas bronze guides are the guides of choice in racing applications because of their high wear, lubrication, and heat transfer properties. Valve guides are
important in the engine as they provide protection to the valve and the cylinder head while the valve moves up and down, they provide a seal from the top of the head to the ports and account for approximately 40% of the heat transfer from the valve. The clearance between the valve and the valve stem is important as it affects the sealing of the valve, and the conduction of heat from the valve to the cylinder head. [4] 2.7.3 Valve Seats
The valve seats provide a contact area between the valve and the cylinder head. The seats seal off the combustion chamber from the ports when the valves are closed and transfer heat away from the valve and into the cylinder head. The valve seats are usually pressed into the cylinder head and are made from different materials with different thermal conductivity and hardness properties. Race engines are often built with beryllium-copper alloy or coppernickel alloy seats to provide a faster heat transfer medium from the titanium valves. [4] 2.7.4 Valve face angle
Multi angle valve jobs improve the airflow through the port and into the combustion chamber by reducing the separation of the air as it passes over small changes in angle (almost curved) on the valve face. Multi angle valve jobs are more expensive than single angle and take 9
longer to produce and while they may not last as long as single angle valves, they provide a better seal against the valve seat, improved heat transfer to the valve seat from the valve, and better airflow characteristics. [4]
2.8 Camshafts
Camshafts control the opening and closing of the intake valves with reference to the position of the crankshaft. The shape of the lobes on the crankshaft determine the rate and time at which a valve is opened or closed, known as valve duration, as well as the length by which it is opened, known as the valve lift. Camshafts are specifically designed to achieve maximum power within a certain range of engine speed and directly affect the fatigue life of valve train components. The camshaft is the part which connects all the other modified parts of the engine such as the turbocharger, piston and porting modifications. Diesel engines require high compression ratios, resulting in the cam duration tending to be short, with minimal overlap, to prevent the loss of compression because of an open valve as the compression stroke begins. Valve lift is often limited in diesel engines because of the tight clearances between the piston and valves as a result of the required high compression ratio. The effectiveness of the turbocharger is directly related to the characteristics of the exhaust camshaft which is required to keep the turbo spinning at peak efficiency in the engines power band. The cylinder pressure is important when developing large, usable power in an engine and in order to achieve this power the overlap of the valves should be limited. A camshaft with asymmetrical profiles for the intake and exhaust valves will deliver a broader and fatter power band. Camshafts with 105 to 110 degree centrelines seem to produce a broader increase in power. [6] The diesel engine operates between 2500 and 4500 rpm, and therefore does not reach the high rpm values of a spark ignition petrol engine. The modifications to the valve train components do not substantially increase the operating speed of the engine and therefore considerations of secondary effects such as valve float (where the valve does not follow the profile of the camshaft directly) are a lot smaller in diesel engines and valve spring stiffness often need not be changed. [6]
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The camshaft profile is described by the cam lift, cam tip, cam shoulder, and the base circle. Figure 5 below shows a cross-section of a cam and identifies its various elements. The cam follower follows the action of the cam and transmits it to the valve. The transfer of cam movement to the valve by the roller cam follower depends on the ratio of the lever lengths. The cam shoulder may be concave when used in conjunction with roller cam followers. The N476 engine uses roller cam followers and the cam lift of the exhaust is greater than that of the inlet, producing greater valve lift [7].
Figure 5: Cam cross-section [7]
The camshaft duration is the number of degrees of rotation on the crankshaft that the valves are open or off their seats. Phasing is the relationship of the duration of the inlet and exhaust cycles to each other. Duration and phasing are tied together when discussing camshafts. Valve lift is the term applied to the maximum distance which the valve travels off its seat. Camshaft lobe lift is different to valve lift as at varies with the ratio via the rocker. The lift on the camshaft may be different to that of the valve but the correct amount and rate achieved because of the rocker ratio. Overlap is the number of degrees of duration which the inlet and exhaust valves are open simultaneously. The lift rate relates the speed with which the valve is opened per degree of crankshaft rotation. [11]
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2.8.1
Lever tappets
The lever tappet is responsible for transferring cam movement to the valve. The lever tappet can also be referred to as a cam follower as it follows the contour of the cam. The movement of the cam is transmitted indirectly to the valve by the follower with a transmission ratio due to the lengths of the lever tappets. Lightweight and rigid transmissions are important
considerations to be made in lever tappet designs. The lightweight characteristic of the lever tappet is necessary to keep inertial forces in the engine to a minimum. Rigid transmission ensures that the valve lift pattern follows the desired progression in order to optimise cylinder charging. [7]
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Product Requirement Specification

3.1 General Requirements
Assembled engine must produce at least 180 kW power Assembled engine must produce at least 400Nm torque
3.2 General Constraints

A minimum compression ratio of 16:1 must be used Engine must contain four cylinders Engine volumetric capacity must be no more than 2000 cm3 A maximum of four valves per cylinder can be used A maximum boost pressure of 2.5 bar must be used for the intake manifold of the engine
3.3 General Criteria

Maximum power should be achieved at highest rpm Maximum torque should be achieved at lowest rpm Maximum volumetric efficiency should be achieved Components should be designed for maximum durability and reliability The mass of the engine should be minimised as much as possible Engine should be as compact as possible Cost restrictions may be neglected
3.4 Specific Requirements

The original cylinder head must form the basis of the modified head. Intake and exhaust ports and combustion chamber must be analysed and redesigned with modifications by machining of standard cylinder head. The minimum height of the cylinder must not be reduced by more than 2mm. The number of valves per combustion chamber may not change. The engine must not exceed four cylinders with an overall capacity of 2 litres. 13
The combination of the assembly must produce the maximum possible power from the engine throughout all RPM, limited to 4500rpm. The camshaft must be redesigned to attain the desired maximum power by changing timing and lobe shape but not changing bearings on the shaft and number of shafts. Valve stroke must not exceed 10mm Valve seats and valve guides must be redesigned including materials. Valve shape, size and length must be redesigned. Valve springs must be redesigned but must be steel. Upper section of the valve collar must have a stop collar with a diameter greater than 0.5mm. Overall compression ratio must be greater than 16:1. A thorough heat analysis must be done on all components and the assembly.
3.5 Specific Constraints

All components must be designed to be made available to the public in kit form and must be homologated by the FIA. The cylinder head may have two threaded connections of maximum size M-14 machined in to it to improve cooling. The head gasket is free but may not exceed 5mm thickness. Titanium, ceramics, magnesium, and composite materials may not be used unless they are the original material of the component but all chemical and heat treatment is permitted. All standard components may be ground, filed, or re-machined to achieve desired modification.
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Design Development
4.1 Concept Development
4.1.1 Cylinder head and cover
The design of the cylinder head influences the output efficiency, fuel consumption, torque, exhaust emissions and noise characteristics of the engine. The shape of the cylinder head depends on the components accommodated by it. Components accommodated by the
cylinder head are; the valves, camshafts, glow plugs, injectors, and the inlet and exhaust ducts. Furthermore, the cylinder head should be as compact as possible and depends on the size, number and shape of each component it accommodates, the method of injection, and the method of cooling to be used in the engine. The cylinder head of the standard N47 engine comprises of two large cast parts with the camshafts integrated inside their own camshaft carrier. The standard cylinder head configuration will be used as per the requirements set out in Section 3.4 previously, where only modifications to the standard head may be performed by grinding or welding. The cylinder head cover covers the valves and camshafts and the top of the cylinder head in the DOHC configuration. The cover seals the top of the cylinder head from the outside and provides sound insulation between the noisy camshaft mechanism and the outside of the engine. The N47 product information manual (reference 7) says that the cylinder head cover of the 47 engine also performs the following tasks (verbatim): Retention of the blow-by gas exhaust line from the crankcase, of the oil separation system and of the pressure regulating valve of the crankcase breather Retention of the fuel system rails Retention of the camshaft sensor Retention of the oil filler neck Retention of line feed-throughs.
The cylinder head cover does not directly influence the performance output of the engine, however, the cover does add mass to the engine and must provide adequate sound insulation as well as seal off the top of the engine from the outside environment to keep the oil inside of 15
the engine and unwanted dust and water outside the engine. Elastomer seals can be used to seal the join between the cylinder head and the cover, while a weighted matrix is used to determine an adequate material to be used to construct the cover. Aluminium and plastic materials are viable options for the construction of the cover and the criteria used to determine the most suitable material were; sound insulation, weight, heat resistance, and manufacturability. The design is to be used in high performance application where high temperatures will be reached, and weight is a key issue with regards to performance, therefore, these two criteria are assigned a larger weighting in the selection process than the sound insulation and manufacturability. Table 5 below shows the weighted matrix table for the cylinder head cover material selection.
Table 5: Weighted matrix selection table of cylinder head cover material
Criteria Weight Heat resistance Manufacturability Sound insulation TOTAL
Weighting 40% 30% 15% 15% 10
Material Aluminium Plastic 3 4 3 2 0.5 1.5 1 1.5 7.5 9
It was decided that plastic would be used to make the cylinder head cover due to its score of 9 out of ten in Table 5 above. 4.1.2 Combustion chamber
The combustion chamber is the space bounded by the cylinder head, the piston, and the sides of the cylinder. The cylinder head forms the ceiling of the combustion chamber and its shape affects the combustion efficiency and the characteristics of the engine by affecting the mixture preparation prior to combustion. The combination of the cylinder head and the geometry of the piston determine the overall shape of the combustion chamber. Shape of combustion chamber The roof of the combustion chamber can take the form of many different shapes and sizes. As per the requirements set out in Section 3.4 previously, the standard flat cylinder head can 16
be modified by grinding or welding.
Four different combustion chamber shapes are
considered for the modified cylinder head, namely; hemispherical, pent, flat, and wedge. The different shapes are shown below in Figure 6.
Figure 6: Combustion chamber shapes: a) wedge b) hemispherical c) Pent d) flat
The designs are evaluated against three criteria with different weightings to select the most suitable combustion chamber shape for the modified high performance cylinder head. The size of the valve used directly affects the performance of the engine, discussed in detail later, where in general, the larger the valve, the better the performance. Therefore the valve size criteria are given the largest weighting. The standard production head is a cross-flow head, where the inlet and exhaust valves are located on opposite sides to one another which improves cooling and efficiency of the engine in comparison to counter-flow heads. The straightness of the ports directly affects the power of the engine as the air entering or exiting the combustion chamber has is obstructed less by a strait port where it need not negotiate a turn twist and incur losses due to the changing of direction of the air. A formula 1 car, for example, has an almost strait port as the size of the cylinder is not as an important consideration as the power developed by the engine. The final criteria considered is the manufacturability of the cylinder head and the size occupied by its construction. The final criterion was allocated the smallest weighting as the design is for a high performance specification. Table 6 overleaf shows the weighted matrix table used to select the shape of the combustion chamber. 17
The University of the Witwatersrand School of Mechanical, Aeronautical and Industrial Engineering Design of a High Performance Diesel Engine Table 6: Weighted matrix of Combustion chamber shape criteria
Criteria Maximum valve size Port straightness Manufacturability and size TOTAL
Weighting
Combustion chamber shape Wedge Hemispherical Pent Flat 50% 4 2 3 5 30% 1 1.5 3 2 20% 10 1 6 0.5 4 1 7 1 8
A flat combustion chamber shape was chosen for the design. 4.1.3 Valve train layout
The valve train layout may not be modified as per the regulations set out by the FIA [1]. The layout therefore remains a double overhead camshaft (DOHC) configuration, where the valves are located overhead the engine and the camshafts are located above the cylinders. Furthermore, the transferring of the cam movement to the valves is achieved by the use of roller cam followers. Figure 7 below is a schematic of the valve train layout used in the N47
engine.
Figure 7: BMW N47 Valve train layout [7]
18
Modification to the valves in terms of their shape, size, valve lash, and construction may be performed and is considered in the succeeding section. The modification to the camshaft is entirely unlimited in terms of material and specifications, explored upon below in Section 4.2.5. 4.1.4 Valves
Number of valves The number of valves used per cylinder may not be altered from the production cylinder head as outline in the requirements in Section 3.4. The engine will have two intakes and two exhaust valves in a cross flow configuration. This valve layout promotes a better charge cycle and increased efficiency of the combustion chambers by comparison with two valve engines. The layout also allows the injector to be located centrally which is necessary to ensure high specific output with a low exhaust gas emission. The restriction of changing of the number of valves per cylinder head should not affect the output performance of the engine as reducing the valves to one intake or exhaust would require a very large valve to achieve the same cross sectional area as the two valves which would produce a heavy valve with large stresses in the component, furthermore, the addition of the number of valves to three would increase the surface area of the valves and produce lighter valves for higher revving application, however, additional camshaft components would be required, increasing the mass of the engine and the number of moving components. Four valve cylinder heads is therefore the configuration of choice, and the reason the majority of cylinder heads are designed in this configuration. Valve type Lifting poppet valves are used in the N47 engine, as with all BMW engines, as locking mechanisms for the gas exchange ducts. The inlet and exhaust valves are high-precision engine components that are subjected to extreme stresses. The valves can be of monometal, or bimetal construction. Single metal valves are made from one material and formed into the desired shape by forging and grinding. Bimetal valves are manufactured from different materials, often to achieve a better heat transferring component. The valve shaft and valve 19
head are manufactured separately and joined by friction welding.
Bimetal valves are
advantageous in their heat transfer capabilities and the stem, for example, can be made of a harder wearing material than the head, however, the manufacturing process is complicated and the overall cost of the valves is high. The valves can also be lightened by using a valve with a hollow stem which will produce a higher revving application. Final modifications to the valve involve changing their influence on the air stream flowing past them. A valve with a thinner stem provides a smaller obstruction to airflow, but is more susceptible to fatigue failure. The fillet of the valve or radius of curvature from the stem to the valve head also interrupts the smooth flowing of air, where a large fillet is optimal. In addition to the fillet radius, the valve seat angle also affects the flow of air as it provides a change in path direction of the air. The size of the valve head, in combination with the camshaft profile, controls the flow rate of the air as it controls the cross sectional area of the port through which the air travels to and from the combustion chamber. A weighted matrix was used to determine the ideal valve design for the modified cylinder head whereby the weightings are determined with high performance being the major requirement of the valve and cost and fatigue life being secondary performances. Table 7 below shows the weighted matrix of the valve selection.
Table 7: Weighted selection matrix table of valve design
Criteria
Weighting
Standard (monometal) Standard (bimetal)
Design
Standard with hollow stem Narrow stem in air path Large Fillet multi angle seat angle
Weight
Airflow resistance
25% 30% 20% 10% 5% 10% 10
1 2 0.5 1 0.5 1 6
1.5 2 2 0.5 0.2 0.9 7.1
2 2 1.5 0.5 0.3 0.7 7
2.5 3 1 0.4 0.3 0.7 7.9
1 3 1.5 1 0.5 1 8
1 3 1 0.3 0.2 0.5 6
Thermal conductivity Manufacturabili ty Cost Fatigue life TOTAL
From the weighted matrix Table 7 above, it was decided that standard bimetal valves would be used with narrower exhaust valves and a narrower stem in the path of the flowing air. 20
Large fillets were chosen to be used, providing a smooth connection from the stem to valve head with multi-angle valve seats. Valve guide The valve guide ensures that the valve is centred on the valve seat and that heat can be conducted away from the valve head through the stem to the cylinder head. An optimum amount of play is required between the guide bore and the valve stem. Too much play impedes heat conduction, while too little play may cause the valve to stick. The optimum clearance between the valve and the guide is the smallest possible clearance without sticking occurring. The valve guides are pressed into the cylinder head and may be made from different materials that need to be good heat conductors as well as having a high wear resistance as a worn valve guide will not seal the ports and will reduce the power output of the engine. The operation of the valve guide is imperative as a worn guide will reduce heat transfer and increase oil consumption, while a guide with improper centre misalignment will add stresses to the valve in the form of bending, resulting in premature failure of the component. Only two materials are compared in the weighted matrix Table 9 below with regards to the selection of a valve guide material. Standard valve guides are made from cast iron with a phosphate coating and performance guides are generally made from a bronze material, as discussed in Section 2.8.2. Performance is again assigned a higher weighting than cost and fatigue life because of the high demands of a racing engine.
Table 8: Weighted matrix selection table of valve guide material
Criteria Weight Heat transfer Lubrication Manufacturability and cost TOTAL
Weighting
Material Coated cast iron Bronze 20% 1 1.5 40% 3 4 30% 1.5 2.5 10% 10 1 6.5 0 8
Bronze valve guides were selected for the design. Valve collet 21
The valve collet attaches the valve spring retainer to the valve stem. The valve collets can be compression or non-compression joints. In a non-compression joint, the valve collets rest against one another (rather than the valve in a compression joint), allowing a small degree of freedom between the valve stem and the collet. The freedom allows the valve to be able to move slightly, and to rotate, which benefits the bedding of the valve and the cleaning of the seat, while reducing shear forces in the stem [7]. The non-compression joint therefore is the joint of choice for the high performance cylinder head assembly. Axial forces are transmitted through the collet beads engaged in the valve stem grooves and the valve collets are therefore hardened to withstand these forces. Valve spring The valve springs close the valve in a controlled manner by following the profile of the cam lobe. The spring must precisely follow the cam profile at all engine speeds with a stiffness constant sufficient enough to prevent valve float or vibration of the valve when it is closed while not providing too much resistance to the cam motion, hindering engine performance. The valve springs need to maintain performance at high temperatures and have a large fatigue life as they incur thousands of cycles every race. Standard design valve springs are simply symmetrical, cylindrical springs with round wire cross sections. With a standard spring, the coil spacing is symmetrical and the diameter is constant at both ends, while the force applied by the spring increases as it is compressed further, due to the contact between coils as travel increases. The most important property to be considered when designing a high performance engine with a higher engine speed and possibly more valve lift is the force which the spring applies to the valve, related to the spring stiffness constant. A variation of the standard spring is to use two coil springs in parallel with one another where one springs compresses inside the other, or a spring with varying cross section which provides a varying reactive force as it is compressed. Table 9 overleaf is the weighted matrix table used to select the spring type to be used in the high performance cylinder head assembly. Mass and accuracy of the valve spring force are assigned the majority of the weighting, while cost and simplicity are assigned minor weightings.
22
The University of the Witwatersrand School of Mechanical, Aeronautical and Industrial Engineering Design of a High Performance Diesel Engine Table 9: Weighted matrix table of valve spring selection
Criteria
Weighting
Material Standard single Dual Varying diameter 1.5 2 1.5 0 0.5 5.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 5
Weight Accuracy Stiffness Cost Simplicity TOTAL
30% 35% 15% 10% 10% 10
3 3 1 1 1 9
Standard, single valve springs of suitable stiffness and material were chosen to be used in the design as opposed to duel of varying diameter valve spring configurations. Valve lash or clearance adjuster The valves must be able to close properly under all engine operating conditions to prevent loss of power due to a loss of compression or combustion pressure and to dissipate heat generated through the cylinder head and coolant. Heat transfer is essential in compression ignition engines because if an exhaust valve does not seal, hot combustion gases may flow at high velocities through the narrow gap resulting in extremely high localised temperatures on the exhaust valves which may cause pre-ignition of the diesel fuel. The two most popular ways of controlling the clearance between the valves and the rocker arms to control the perfect sealing of the valves at all times are by a hydraulic valve clearance adjuster systems, or by a fixed, mechanical clearance adjuster system. The lever tappet rests on the valve clearance adjuster which controls the clearance between the tappet and the valve. The hydraulic clearance adjustment system maintains the valve clearance at zero under all operating conditions and manual adjustments are easily and efficiently made, even after substantial engine service time. The manual system involves manually inserting a shim between the tappet and the lever to control the valve clearance. A manual system weighs less than a hydraulic system and is more reliable, however, the hydraulic system can make fine adjustments and all operating conditions and adjustments are efficiently performed. All current BMW models use a hydraulic valve adjuster system and the system has proven to be 23
robust and reliable and therefore the same hydraulic adjuster system shall be used in the high performance application [7]. 4.1.5 Camshaft
In order to make the valve gear as rigid as possible the engine will make use of an overhead camshaft layout to decrease the length of the linkage between the camshaft and the valves. The engine will have separate camshafts for the exhaust and inlet valves respectively. The main component of the camshaft is the cylindrical hollow shaft with the cams, or lobes, arranged around it. The actuation forces are braced by camshaft bearings which are directly mounted onto the camshaft tube in the high performance application. The surface of the camshaft is to be ground at the mounting points of the bearings and an oil bore in the bearing point will provide the necessary lubrication. In addition to the camshaft bearings on the shaft, a thrust bearing will limit axial float of the camshaft. The gear of the inlet camshaft should be easily adjustable in order to change the performance characteristics of the engine to suite different racing circuits. A camshaft sensor will be installed in the gear of the inlet camshaft as per the standard N47 engine specification [7]. Camshaft manufacture technique Two variations of the camshaft manufacturing are considered in the design of the high performance engine; forging, and composite constructions. Composite camshafts are made by manufacturing the shaft tube, cams, and other functional elements such as drive gear separately and joining them afterwards. A composite camshaft can weigh up to 40% less than a forged or moulded shaft which in turn reduces engine fuel consumption, improves vibrational and noise characteristics and allows the possibility of weight saving on other system components such as the valve gear mechanism [7]. Furthermore, composite camshaft manufacturing permits the possibility of combining different materials in the component and a more economic production of the component. The advantages of a composite camshaft far outweigh the disadvantages and a composite camshaft construction will therefore be used in the high performance engine design.
24
There are many different methods by which composite camshafts can be made. Firstly, there is the classic positively interlocking or frictional shaft and collar joint by which individual components are attached to the shaft, secondly, components can be fixed by thermal shrink fitting, or the shaft widened to obtain a frictional joint. Thirdly, the components may be fixed to the shaft by welding or soldering. Finally, the tube can be widened by rolling, and given pitchless thread at the relevant position intended for the seat of a cam or other components; the appropriate part is then pressed on at the desired angle. The bore of the part being pressed on has a longitudinal profile and this creates a positive and negative connection between the shaft and the pressed part. The last method is known as the Presta method and is a robust method that does not allow parts to come loose. The camshaft undergoes thousands of stress and thermal cycles during operation and the most robust shaft must be used when producing the high performance component, therefore, the Presta method shall be used to produce the composite camshaft. Lever tappets Lever tappets are not bearing mounted on a shaft; they rest one end directly against the valve clearance adjuster and the other in the valve stem, while the cam presses on the centre of the lever tappet from above. The inertia and rigidity of the tappet depends heavily on its design, where short levers make for low mass moments of inertia, and tappets made from sheet metal rather than cast are much lighter. Roller cam followers reduce the internal friction of an engine by following the action of the cam by a roller running on needle bearings and are a must in a high performance application as a reduction of frictional losses will increase performance, especially in the lower rev band. 4.1.6 Lubrication system
The design and optimisation of the cylinder heads lubrication system was not conducted in this document. It was assumed that the standard lubrication system in the N47 engine would provide adequate lubrication and protection to the designed components. Any modelling of the lubrication system was not performed in the design.
25
Design Development
5.1 Valve Size
The volumetric efficiency of an engine is a quantifiable indicator of the performance of the engine. An engine with a high volumetric efficiency is vital in a high performance engine. The inlet and exhaust valve size affects the volumetric efficiency of an engine and the optimal size needs to be calculated. The inlet valve size affects the volumetric efficiency and power output of an engine more than the exhaust valve as the exhaust valves are, in simple terms, used to expel gases from the combustion chamber once they have been used to produce power. An inlet Mach number index Z is formed from an average gas velocity through the inlet valve and is given by:
(1)
where
and
are the piston and inlet areas respectively, is defined as the mean piston is the flow coefficient past the poppet valve while is the speed of sound in the
speed and
medium in the inlet port [8].
Taylors correlations have been used to show that the
volumetric efficiency is drastically decreased beyond an index of 0.5 due to separation and frictional effects passed the cylinder head components, furthermore, in high performance racing applications, indices in the region of 0.4 are preferable. The calculation of the
discharge coefficient is a complicated process as it depends on the ratio of valve lift to diameter as well as the seat angle and width [8]. John Heywood (reference 8) says that at full open throttle when valve lift is at its maximum an approximation of is calculated using the following formula: Where is the stroke of the engine in meters and (2) is the operational speed of the engine in =0.45 is sufficient.
rev/second. A plot was compiled of inlet Mach number indices for different flow inlet areas, while engine speed is maintained at a maximum of 4500rpm and the piston area and flow coefficient are 26
maintained constant with reference to a bore of 81.5mm and a fully opened poppet valve. The plot showing the variation of Z with flow area is shown below in Figure 8.
0.6
0.5
0.4 Z index
0.3
0.2
0.1
0 0.0007
0.0009
0.0011
0.0013
0.0015 Inlet flow area
0.0017
0.0019
0.0021
0.0023
Figure 8: Plot showing the variation of Z with inlet flow area
From Figure 8 above, a Z index number of 0.4 requires an inlet flow area of approximately 0.0011m which corresponds to two inlet valves of diameter of approximately 27mm. From Table 3 of Section 2.3 it is noted that the inlet valve diameter of a standard engine is 27.2mm which corresponds to a Z index number of 0.38 which will be adequate in producing a high volumetric efficiency engine. The ratio of exhaust to inlet valve diameters lies between 0.85 and 0.92 for multivalve racing engines [9]. The standard exhaust valve size is 24.6mm as shown in Table 3 of Section 2.3. The use of this 24.6mm exhaust valve results in a ratio of 0.904 which is well within the acceptable limits. As discussed in Section 2.8.4, multi angle valve jobs would be beneficial in the performance of a racing engine. A 5-angle valve job was selected for the high performance engine 27
application with the middle angle being the preferred 45. The angles chosen were 75, 60, 45, 30, 15 degrees respectively to promote a smooth transition. The 75, 60, and 45 degree angles were cut into the valve seat while the 30 and 15 degree angles were cut into the cylinder head for a perfect seal and to allow the use of the multi angle valve job.
5.2 Port and Manifold size

The dimensions of the intake and exhaust system play a significant role in the volumetric efficiency of an engine. The high performance diesel engine is to be designed to operate over a small rpm range between 2500 and 4500rpm, producing maximum power at maximum speed where it would operate for the majority of a race. When the intake and exhaust valves open and close pressure waves occur within the cylinder ports. The pressure waves move through the ports and it is said that a port is tuned when the moving waves can be used to force additional air into the combustion chamber prior to the valves closing. The different piston speeds will cause different pressure wave phenomena to occur and an engine can therefore only be tuned to produce the maximum power and torque over a small rpm range. The standard cylinder head is to be modified and therefore it was determined that the standard port lengths be used, with adjustments made to the lengths by adjusting the lengths of the intake and exhaust manifolds, designed separately. The throat diameters behind the valve in normal engines are usually in the range of 0.8-0.85 times the valve diameter [8]. In racing applications, experimental data has shown that throat diameters of 0.86-0.89 times the valve diameter produce the largest power from the engine [10]. The required throat diameters were calculated as follows:
The ports can be any shape; square or circular variation. The valves are round and therefore the valve ports need to be round, because of this, the port shape was designed to be elliptical to reduce flow disturbance regions and regions of high carbon build up in the exhaust ports in small radius areas. The area of the port before it splits into the two ports respectively is 28
needed to be slightly larger than the sum of the areas of the individual ports. The areas of the inlet and exhaust port are calculated below:
The dimensions of the ports were calculated using the equation for an oval where a is the height and b is the width as shown below:
A venture shape was added to the inlet ports above the throat area to improve the distribution and velocity of flow around the valve. The restriction incurred by the smaller bore is overridden by the improvements gained by the flow improvements. The diameter of the venture was calculated as 85% of the inlet valve diameter [12]:
Further optimization of port shape and size should be performed using a computational flow dynamics analysis package (CFD).
5.3 Camshaft
5.3.1 Valve lift
In most high performance applications the valve is required to be open for as long as possible at its maximum lift to allow the maximum possible amount of air to pass through it in each cycle. Production camshafts are designed to generate large amounts of power without adding additional, unrequired stresses to the valve train components. Racing or high performance camshafts do not take this into too much consideration as components such as valves and valve springs can be replaced after each race. The performance camshaft was designed to lift the valve as quickly as possible within the limitations of the valve gear design and close it as quickly as possible, leaving it open for as long as possible. The lift rate was slowed down as 29
the valve reached maximum lift to ensure that the valve followed the profile of the camshaft and the inertia of the valve did not cause it to continue lifting past the lobes basic profile [11]. The FIA rulings limit the camshaft duration to 10mm for the diesel engine. Experimentation shows that when the valve is opened 0.3 of its diameter, the flow through the valve is a maximum and further opening does not increase flow rate, it only adds stress to valve components, it is therefore desired that this maximum lift be reached as soon as possible and maintained as long as possible [8, 12]. The inlet and exhaust valve lift were therefore calculated as follows:
The inlet flow of air into the combustion engine is not only driven by a pressure difference between atmosphere and the combustion area, but by a turbocharge system which drastically increases the flow rate of air into the chamber by nearly three times a normally aspirated system. The exhaust valves do not drastically affect the volumetric efficiency of the engine and the best exhaust valve operation will extract the air as quickly and efficiently as possible. Larger exhaust valves will allow a greater flow rate of air through them while applying smaller stresses on the piston components as the air is pumped out. With the turbocharged configuration, there is a larger mass of combustion gasses inside the cylinder that needs to be extracted than in a normally aspirated configuration, rather than increasing the size of the valve to decrease stresses during the exhaust cycle, the valve lift can be increased to achieve the same affect. A valve lift of 8mm for the exhaust valve was selected to achieve this. [12] 5.3.2 Lever tappets
The lever tappets were discussed in Section 2.9.1. A lever tappet ratio of 0.6:1 was selected to decrease wear and stresses on the camshaft, and makes use of the lever design, resulting in an exhaust cam lift of 4.8mm and an inlet cam lift of 4.92mm. The ratio selected conforms to the standard lever tappet ratio. Further optimization of the lever tappets was not performed.
30
5.3.3
Camshaft profile
The diesel engine was designed to produce maximum power at only 4500rpm which is considerably less than that of a petrol engine. The camshaft modification possibilities and inlet and exhaust processes were discussed in Sections 2.4 and 2.9. The standard engine produces maximum power at about 3500rpm. The inlet valve opening angle (IVO) was increased from 8 degrees before top dead centre (BTDC) to 12 degrees to allow more air to be forced into the combustion chamber when the engine operates at a higher rpm, improving volumetric efficiency, although performance at idle speed and initial acceleration will decrease. At high engine speeds, the air traveling into the combustion chamber, boosted by the turbocharger, has a high moment of inertia, therefore, it is possible for air to continue entering the chamber even after the piston has moved passed bottom dead centre (BDC) and begins travelling upwards. The decrease in the compression ratio to 16:1 and the increase in boost pressure allow the inlet valve closing angle to be increased from 28 degrees after bottom dead centre (ABDC) to 31 degrees ABDC. The changes to the inlet valve opening and closing angles change the inlet cam duration from 216 degrees to 219 degrees compared to the standard configuration. The pumping work done by the engine during the exhaust stroke is decreased by decreasing the pressures in the cylinder to as close to atmospheric as possible at BDC. The exhaust valve opening angle was chosen to remain at 39.3 degrees before BDC as with the standard camshaft configuration and an adjustment was made to the exhaust valve closing angle to increase the duration of the cam and the valve overlap, improving the scavenging characteristics of the engine at high speed operation. The exhaust valve closing angle was increased marginally from 2.5 degrees after TDC to 3.5 degrees ATDC, as explained in Section 2.4 previously. The duration of the exhaust cam was increased to 222.8 degrees which is more than the inlet cam as the exhaust gasses are under less pressure than the inlet gasses because of the turbocharger. 31
The profile of the camshaft lobe was selected to produce maximum power by opening the valve as quickly as possible and keeping it open as long as possible. The most rapid lift rate occurs between 30 and 80% of the total valve lift. In the first 30% of a valves lift the valve was accelerated from being stationary up to the highest rate and then slowed down in the last 20% of the maximum lift to maintain the control over the movement of the valve as the camshaft reaches maximum lift. There is almost no lift produced 10 degrees of camshaft movement on either side of the maximum lift position of the camshaft. The shape of the cam was chosen to be symmetrical to achieve the same phenomena on closing the valve as achieved when opening. [11] The resulting camshaft timing is shown below in Figure 9. In comparison to Figure 2 of Section 2.3, it can be noted that the modified design is more aggressive in terms of the speed of the valve opening, as well as the valve overlap and durations of the valves.
10 8 V a l v e 6 l 4 i 2 f t 0 -360 -260 -160 -60 40 Crankshaft Degrees 140 240 340 Int
Figure 9: Modified camshaft timing chart
5.4 Valve springs

The valve springs control the movement of the valves by maintaining a tensional force ensuring that the movement of the valve follows the profile of the camshaft at all engine speeds. They are subjected to high temperatures and cyclic loadings as the valve is opened by the camshaft and closed by the tensional force of the spring. Fatigue life and spring stiffness are therefore important properties to be considered when designing the valve spring. The spring designed must operate within its elastic limits as over compression of the spring will result in plastic deformation and unforeseen properties of the spring with undesired operation. The frequency of the compression of the spring must not be close to the springs 32
natural frequency as the oscillations may become uncontrolled and undesirable, resulting in undesired operation of the spring and premature failure. The camshaft operates at half of the speed of the crankshaft and the valve spring is excited at the same frequency of the camshaft. The camshaft therefore operates at a speed of 2250rpm when the engine is at its maximum. The natural frequency of the spring was designed to be at least 4 times the normal operating frequency of the spring:
The minimum frequency value of the spring was used to calculate the minimum stiffness to weight ratio of the spring to determine the minimum spring stiffness required [14]: ( ( ) )
( ) ( )
The valve springs were required to be made of steel allow material as outline in Section 3.4. Chrome Vanadium springs were chosen as they are used in applications where shock loads, high stresses and elevated temperatures are predicted. The shear modulus and specific weight of chrome vanadium springs are 77200MPa and 82g/cm3 respectively [15]. The spring stiffness and weight ratios for different coil and wire diameter configurations were calculated and an appropriate configuration was chosen, using the spring stiffness to weight ratio as a reference. Table A-1 of Appendix A shows the comparison of different spring
configurations. A 3mm wire diameter and 16mm mean coil diameter configuration produced a spring of 38.167N/mm stiffness with a stiffness to weight ratio of 261.1mm-1 which far exceeds minimum stiffness to weight ratio determined and therefore was chosen as the spring configuration for both inlet and exhaust valves. The length of the valve spring was calculated taking into account the solid spring height for a valve spring [14] and the maximum deflection that the spring incurs because of the maximum valve lift: 33
( (
) )( )
The above calculated spring length is an absolute minimum and does not account for compressions incurred because of spring retainers or larger deflections incurred due to unforeseen conditions. The spring length was therefore determined to be 40mm to ensure the spring operates within its elastic deflection limits, taking into account all components in the cylinder head.
34
Performance Prediction
6.1 Estimated analytical performance calculations
In order to gain an estimate of temperatures and pressures after each process in the engine cycle and to determine expected engine power output values the combustion process was modelled as an air standard diesel cycle as explained in [8]. The cycle was greatly simplified with idealizing assumptions made, such as the injection of fuel and combustion being a constant pressure process, and therefore the calculations were used as indications of actual values. The calculated conditions at the inlet, compression, injection and combustion, and exhaust states are tabulated below in Table 10. For detailed calculations refer to Appendix B.
Table 10: Calculated cycle state data
State 1 2 3 4
Pressure (kPa) 350 16976.01 16976.01 1017.94
Temperature (K) 374 1133.75 2453.63 1098.08
The constant and calculated values in Tables 10 and 12 in Appendix B were used to determine work, power, mean effective pressures and efficiencies using equations from [8]. Table 11 below shows the calculated values, detailed calculations are contained in Appendix B.
Table 11: Estimated effective pressures, power and efficiencies
Gross work per cycle Indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP) Brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) Maximum Output power Specific fuel consumption Fuel conversion efficiency Volumetric efficiency
152.55kW 2810.5kPa 2529.36kPa 175.86kW 0.00256 83.15% 268.07%
35
6.2 Performance curves

The final performance curves were calculated by Kurt Crossman [20] as they are heavily dependent on the functionality of the turbocharger. The turbocharger was set by [20] to begin boosting at 2000rpm and reach maximum boost at 2500rpm corresponding to the turbocharger setting and properties. The figures calculated in [20] are reproduced below in Figures 10 and 11. The engine produced maximum power of 175kW at maximum engine speed with a torque of 396Nm at 2500rpm. The torque and power requirements outlined in Section 3.1 are higher than the values attained with the modifications but were deemed acceptable as they were within 5% of the requirements.
450 400 Tourque (N.m) 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 Engine Speed (rpm)
Figure 10: Final predicted engine torque curve [20]
36
200 180 160 Power (Kw) 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 Engine Speed (rpm)
Figure 11: Predicted engine power curve [20]
6.3 Estimated cylinder pressures and temperatures

The pressures and temperatures within the cylinder were approximated using the calculated conditions at each state during the combustion process. The calculated values are tabulated in Appendix B and sample calculations shown. It was determined that 180 crankshaft angle would be bottom dead centre where inlet conditions are at state 1, 360 is top dead centre and 540 bottom dead centre. Temperatures and pressures were not calculated during the exhaust and inlet strokes. The ignition delay time was calculated as 59.9765x10 -6 (See Appendix B) and the addition of heat from combustion was added after top dead centre, correlating to this value. Figures 12 and 13 below show the estimated variation of pressure and temperature per degree of crankshaft revolution respectively. The figures generated follow similar trends to text book data in [8].
37
20000 18000 16000 14000 Pressure (kPa) 12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0 160 210 260 310 360 Crankshaft angle
Figure 12: Variation of pressure per degree crankshaft revolution
410
460
510
560
3000
2500
2000 Temperature (K)
1500
1000
500
0 160 210 260 310 360 410 460 510 560 Crankshaft angle
Figure 13: Estimated temperature per degree crankshaft revolution
38
Detailed Design Analysis

7.1 Analytical stress analysis
7.1.1 Valve Spring At
The valve spring undergoes thousands of cyclic loadings during a race weekend.
maximum engine speed the valve spring is undergoing about 37.5 cycles per second and is directly influencing the power produced by the engine by controlling the valve movement. The valve spring was designed to be as lightweight as possible as explained in Section 5.4 and it was decided that the valve spring service life could be far less than infinite and will need to be replaced after almost each race weekend. The factor of safety of the fatigue loading of the valve spring was calculated using both the torsional Gerber and torsional Goodman fatigue failure criterion with Zimmerli data. For a fatigue life that is not infinite, the factor of safety was deemed to be satisfactory if greater than 1. Table 12 below shows the data used for the calculation.
Table 12: Spring data for stress analysis
Operational Frequency Deflection Uncompressed length Wire diameter Mean coil diameter Minimum force applied Maximum force applied Spring constant
37.5Hz 2-10.2mm 40mm 3mm 16mm 76.334N 389.3N 38.167N/mm
All equations used below are found in [14].
Spring index:
Bergstrasser factor: 39
( ( ) ( ( ) )( )( ) )( )( )
Alternating shear stress component:
Midrange shear stress:
From Table 10-4 in [14]: m=0.263 and A=2065Mpa.mmm for stainless steel springs. Ultimate tensile strength: Shearing ultimate strength: Load line slope: For peened springs from [14], Ssu=398MPa and Ssm=534MPa Gerber ordinate intercept for Zimmerli data:
Amplitude component of strength:
) )
Gerber fatigue factor of safety:
Goodman order intercept: Amplitude component of strength: Goodman fatigue factor of safety:
The two factors of safety of 1.324 and 1.25 indicate that the design of the spring is suitable for the spring not to fail during an event if replaced regularly as the fatigue life was not designed to be infinite.
40
7.1.2
Valves
As outlined in Section 3.2, the valves are restricted to being made of stainless steel. The valves were designed to be nitride coated to improve the hardness of the surface of the valve and to reduce the friction between the valve and the valve guide. The groove area of the valve where the collets support the valve was shot peened to improve the strength in this high stress area. The estimated expected maximum stress in the valve was determined by making assumptions that the pressure force from combustion applies a uniform load to the valve and that the valve rests equally in the valve seat with a contact length of 2mm throughout. The predicted stress was calculated as:
for the inlet valve, and 69.57MPa for the exhaust valve The stress concentration factor due to the collet grooves was calculated as follows [14]:
Taking into account fatigue loading [14]: ( ( Endurance limit [14]: ) )
The material selected was chosen by researching different performance valve types and manufacturing processing. The chosen material has the following properties:
41
Type:
Stainless steel (nitride hardened)
Tensile strength: 1030MPa Yield strength: 760MPa
The factors were calculated using the material properties [14]: ( )
The valve stems were predicted to operate in the region of 400C, especially in the exhaust, due to the 3000W of heat added in each combustion cycle, therefore the temperature factor chosen was [14]:
A 95% reliability factor was selected as the components wold be regularly replaced in the application: [14]
The endurance strength of the valve was then calculated as:
Fatigue factor of safety [14]:
The factor of safety calculated is above 1 and in line with that calculated for the valve springs and therefore the material chosen and valve configuration is sufficient.
42
7.1.3
Camshaft
The dynamic loads experienced by the camshaft are complicated and fluctuating due to the varying torsional and direct force loads applied by the rocker arms and the sprocket on the camshaft. The calculation of the stresses in the camshaft below was highly estimated and more than likely vastly exaggerated as forces were predicted using educated guesses. The torsional force applied by the gear was assumed to be 50Nm. Moments induced by the camshaft lobes were calculated using the rocker ratio to be 494N in the exhaust cam, which experiences the larges forces, which were approximated to 500N. The diameter of the camshaft was limited to 23.4mm in order to utilise the standard journal bearings and lubrication system on the standard cylinder head. The camshaft diameter is 1.42 times larger at the exhaust lobe than on its journal diameter which induces a stress concentration factor. The notch sensitivity factor was estimated as follows for EN40B material [14]: ( ) ( )
Therefore the factor of safety factor was calculated as follows [14]:
The safety factor calculated is fairly low but as mentioned above, forces in the camshaft were approximated and exaggerated and a more in depth finite element analysis should be performed on the camshaft to verify the forces estimated.
7.2 Finite element heat transfer analysis

The peak temperatures of combustion gasses inside a cylinder of a diesel engine are in the region of 2500K, but the melting point of the aluminium composite cylinder head is far below that. Therefore, the maximum temperatures of the metal surfaces enclosing the combustion chamber must be limited to much cooler values by cooling the cylinder, cylinder head, and piston to ensure trouble free operation of the engine. The rapid changes in temperature lead 43
to substantial thermal stresses in the cylinder head and its components which are increased further by the application of the large pressure gradients induced by the compression and combustion of the fuel mixture. The cylinder head is one of the most complicated parts of the combustion engine as it houses valves, seats, intake and exhaust ports, water jackets, injectors and glow plugs, as well as being directly exposed to the high pressures and temperatures of combustion. When designing the cylinder head, the operation of all components must be considered and often compromises are made with certain components to allow the desired operation of another. A finite element heat transfer analysis was conducted to provide information on the temperature distribution in the overall assembly of the cylinder head. Problematic areas and areas of interest where extreme thermal loadings are experienced were highlighted for a more accurate examination. The valves are directly exposed to the peak temperature combustion and the valve seats reject the valve heat through their direct contact. Furthermore, although the exhaust gas temperatures are much lower than the maximum combustion temperatures obtained, the flow of the gasses through the ports promotes forced conduction and heat transfer to the walls. The predicted high stress regions were areas of great interest. Simplifications and assumptions were made in order to be able to perform a heat transfer analysis with meaningful results with minimal computational power required. The large cylinder head housing four cylinder was reduced to a one cylinder segment and the assumption that heat transfer in the remaining three cylinders would be almost mirror images was made. The camshaft is not directly exposed to the high heats of combustion and was removed from the assembly to reduce the number of elements in the calculation. Additionally, the valve springs and retainers were also removed and a heat transfer was only performed with the valves, seats and guides installed in the head as they are all in direct contact with high heat stress areas. Figure 14 below shows an exploded view of the cylinder head components analysed.
44
Figure 14: Exploded view of heat transfer analysis components
The heat transfer analysis was conducted using ANSYS 14. The assembly was meshed with predicted areas of high heat stress meshed more finely, with more nodes per area, for greater clarity of temperature variation over finite distances. The break-down of the meshing of the assembly is shown below in Table 13 while Figure 15 is an image of the final mesh of the assembly.
Table 13: ANSYS mesh setting
General settings Physical preference Relevance Advanced sizing Relevance centre Element size Smoothing Minimum edge length Automatic inflation Transition ratio Growth rate Total nodes Total elements Valve seats Method Element type Patch conforming Tetrahedron Mechanical 100 Off Coarse Default Medium 7.8578e-003mm None 0.272 1.2 419717 255351
45
Cylinder head Method Size Valve guides Method Valves Method Element type Size Patch conforming, size Tetrahedron 1.5mm Water jackets Method Sizing Size 2mm Inlet and exhaust ports Method Sizing Size 2mm Contact between head and valve guides Method Refinement Automatic Element size 1.1mm
Figure 15: Meshed cylinder head assembly
46
The engine operates with cyclic thermal and pressure loadings that vary considerably over small time increments. The system was initially analysed under steady state conditions on the basis of approximate time average values due to the speed of the variations, this solutions is reasonably accurate in modelling a real system. Furthermore a transient temperature variation analysis was performed and a constant temperature with structural pressure force, in Section 7.2.3. Contact interactions are described by heat flux from one surface to another with reference to their temperature differences and a contact heat transfer coefficient k: ( ) [16]. Convection occurs between surfaces in contact with flowing gasses
such as the ports. It was assumed that the heat transfer in the regions was steady, where the heat flux is determined with reference to surface and average temperatures, and a heat transfer coefficient h: ( ) [16]. Boundary conditions were assigned to
contact regions in the assembly as outline in Table 14 below. Approximate conduction and convection heat transfer coefficients were assigned to the boundaries as specified in Table 14. The values used are in accordance with [17], where a heavy diesel engine cylinder head was analysed and coefficients in the text were referenced from [18] and [19]. 7.2.1 Thermal analysis with combustion modelled as constant heat added
Table 14: Assigned boundary conditions
Boundary condition Bonded- Cylinder head and valve guides Bonded- Cylinder head and valve seats No separation- Valve and valve guide No Separation- Valve and valve seat Water jackets Inlet ports Exhaust ports Exterior of cylinder in contact with air
Average Heat transfer coefficient temperature (W.m-2.K-1) (K) 6000 6000 600 6000 2500 358 800 374 800 800 Stagnant air file in ANSYS 320
The large temperatures experienced on the surface of the water jackets may induce localised boiling with a larger heat transfer coefficient; an analysis was performed at a coefficient of 4000 W.m-2.K-1. A heat flow was applied to the combustion surface of the cylinder (the bore
47
region) and the valves to simulate the transfer of heat from combustion. A heat flow of 4000W was used as a maximum, calculated in Appendix B. Figures 16, 17, and 18 below show the temperature fields on the overall assembly with the given boundary conditions. As expected, the faces of the valves and head directly exposed to the heat transfer experience the highest temperatures in the order of 600K, safely below the melting point of the Aluminium head and stainless steel valves.
Figure 16: Temperature fields on cylinder head assembly: view 1
48
49
The temperature variation on the valves and seats are shown below in Figure 19.
Figure 19: Temperature variation on valves and seats
Figure 19 shows that the seat is almost the same temperature as the valve face, but that the temperature reduces over a small distance up the valve stem, furthermore, the exhaust valves (smaller) have a steeper temperature gradient than the inlet valves which is surprising. The larger water jackets closer to the valve seats on the exhaust valves drastically improve the cooling of the valves, allowing them to operate at similar temperatures, where, theoretically the exhaust should be hotter than the inlet valves. Figures 20, 21 and 22 show the
temperature variations in the ports, enforcing the explanation of the water jackets effectively cooling the exhaust valves and ports: The temperatures close to the exhaust valve seats are higher than the intake valves but dissipate fairly quickly away from the high temperature region.
50
Figure 20: Temperature variation of cylinder head with valve components removed
Figure 21: Inlet port temperature variation
Figure 22: Exhaust port temperature variation
51
The analysis was useful in gaining insight into the temperature variations in the cylinder head. Figures 16 through 18 show small variations on the combustion chamber surface between the inlet and exhaust sides, as well as through the height of the cylinder which minimizes stress concentration points and warping of the head due to temperature variations. The distribution and values determined seem reasonable and bare similarity to experimentation by [17] and the model was deemed to be fairly accurate, given these verifications. The water jackets seem to effectively cool the head in the high temperature regions and regions initially predicted as high stress regions were accurate. Figure 23 shows the
temperature variation in the cylinder head with 5000W of heat added and Figure 24 shows the temperature distribution with an increased heat transfer coefficient of 4000 W.m-2.K-1in the water jackets, induced by boiling, with 4000W added with marginally cooler temperatures.
Figure 23: Heat transfer with increased heat added
52
Figure 24: Heat transfer with increased water jacket heat transfer coefficient
7.2.2
Heat transfer analysis with variable temperatures applied
As mentioned in Section 7.2, the combustion surface is subjected to large, fluctuating temperatures as the combustion gasses are compressed and ignition occurs. The temperatures that the surface is exposed to were approximately calculated and are shown in Appendix B in Table 17 with sample calculations. An analysis was performed on the cylinder head showing the temperature variations in the component with temperatures varying as a function of time, simulating the combustion process (see Table 17). Boundary conditions remain as described in Table 14 of Section 7.2.1. The simulation was run over 0.0133 seconds, simulating the 4 states describes in Section 7.1. ANSYS results show the temperatures that the head experiences range from 487.64K to 810.6K, which are values consistent with those attained in the steady analysis in Section 7.2.1. Figures 25 to 32 below show the temperature variations in the cylinder head either side of the combustion process after certain intervals of time. It was noted that the overall head does not rise to large temperatures because it is exposed to the peak combustion temperature for a short period of time. 53
Figure 25: Temperature variation after 0.002963s
54
55
7.2.3
Stress analysis with temperature
A steady state ANSYS stress analysis was performed on the cylinder head to gain insight into the stresses induced and the locations of stress concentrations induced by combustion and compression. The analysis was performed at steady state conditions with a heat flow of 2500W to the combustion chamber roof, as explained in Section 7.2.1, and a pressure applied of 17MPa, in accordance with the maximum pressure calculated in Section 6.1 previously. Furthermore, a force was applied to the valves at the location of the collets of 76N to simulate the farce applied by the valve springs in tension (compressed by 2mm). It was noticed that the region where the valves made contact with the valve seats was the region with
56
substantially higher stress concentrations due to the small contact area between the valve seat and the valve of 2mm. Figures 33 and 34 below show the stress variation in the valves determined by an ANSYS simulation where constant pressure and temperature forces were applied to the combustion chamber. Average stresses of approximately 40MPa occurred on the valve stems, slightly higher in the thinner exhaust valves as expected, while higher stresses of approximately 100MPa were found to occur on the valve face near the contact area with the seat. The stresses obtained by the simulation bare similarity to those calculated in Section 7.1.2 and the similarity was used to verify the model as being moderately accurate.
Figure 33: Stress concentration predicted in valves
Figure 34: Stress concentrations predicted in valve faces
57
Assembly Drawings
Various views of the cylinder head assembly and selected components are shown in the figures below.
Figure 35: Plan view of cylinder head assembly
Figure 36: Front view of cylinder head assembly
58
Figure 37: Rear view of cylinder head assembly
Figure 38: Left side view of cylinder head assembly
59
Figure 39: Right side view of cylinder head
Figure 40: Cylinder head assembly
60
Figure 41: Exploded view of cylinder head assembly
61
Figure 42: Fully assembled engine
62
Detailed Component Specifications

9.1 Bill of components
The components designed and used in the cylinder head assembly are listed below with detailed specifications in subsequent sections: Item 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Part Cylinder head exhaust valve seat inlet valve seat exhaust valve guide inlet valve guide exhaust valve Inlet valve bottom inlet valve spring retainer Top inlet valve spring retainer Inlet valve spring assembly bottom exhaust valve spring retainer Top exhaust valve spring retainer Exhaust valve spring system exhaust valve collet intake valve collet Exhaust camshaft Inlet camshaft Camshaft cap Bolt GB 5784-86-M5 x 30 Camshaft cover Lever tappet Hydraulic valve adjuster Intake camshaft Gear Exhaust camshaft Gear QTY 1 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 16 16 1 1 10 20 1 16 16 1 1
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9.2 Cylinder head

Material: Configuration: AlSi7MgCu0.5 (Standard) Cross-flow cooling with Double Overhead Camshaft (DOHC) carrier Number of cylinders: Number of valves Valve arrangement: Combustion chamber shape: Position of injectors: Shape of inlet duct: Shape of exhaust duct: Basic components housed: 4 4 per cylinder (2 exhaust and 2 intake per cylinder) Parallel Flat Centre of each cylinder Elliptical (47.2mm x 31.4mm diameters) Elliptical (42mm x 29mm diameters) Glow plugs; inlet and exhaust valves, guides, springs and retainers; roller cam followers; valve clearance adjusters; inlet and exhaust camshafts. Inlet port shape: Each cylinder has two inlet ports. In each cylinder, one port is used to improve the swirl characteristics of the engine by taking a longer path with a curve in it to the valve port, which improves the mixing of the gasses in the cylinder resulting in improved combustion efficiency per cycle Inlet valve throat diameter: Exhaust valve throat diameter: 23.8mm (23.1mm venture) 21.53mm
64
Inlet port surface finish:
Slightly rough with polished swirl to promote turbulence to reduce boundary layer effects and improve swirl
Exhaust port surface finish:
Polished smooth to reduce carbon build up and improve flow rate of exhaust gasses
Injector/Glow plug bolt thread: Cylinder head cover bolt thread: Inlet manifold bolt thread: Exhaust Manifold bolt thread:
M3x0.5 M5x0.8 M6x1 M7x1
Detailed engineering drawings of the cylinder head design are contained in Appendix C in Figures C-1 to C-5.
9.3 Camshafts
Configuration: Cylindrical hollow shaft with cam components arranged along and around it Mounting: Bearing mounted on camshaft tube (oil bore on mounting points) with thrust bearing to limit axial float Material: Construction method: Actuating element: Inlet cam lift: Exhaust cam lift: Exhaust cam duration: Nitriding Steel (EN40B) Composite Presta (Shaft billet rolled) Cam follower 4.92mm 4.8mm 222.8 65
Inlet cam duration: Inlet valve opening angle:
219 12 before top dead centre (measured on crankshaft rotation)
Inlet valve closing angle:
31 after bottom dead centre (measured on crankshaft rotation)
Exhaust valve opening angle:
39.3 before bottom dead centre (measured on crankshaft rotation)
Exhaust valve closing angle:
3.5 after top dead centre (measured on crankshaft rotation)
Shaft diameter: Cam surface roughness:
23.45-23.55mm 0.2m
Camshaft journal surface roughness: 0.4 m Detailed engineering drawings of the camshafts are contained in Appendix C in Figure C-13 and Figure C-14. 9.3.1 Type: Material: Ratio: Bearing type: Lever tappet Roller cam followers Titanium alloy 0.6:1 Needle roller
The standard lever tappets were used in the design and are not modelled in any engineering or assembly drawings contained in this document.
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9.4 Valves
9.4.1 Material: Length: Tip length: Groove type: Stem diameter: Manufacture technique: Face diameter: Seat angles: Seat width: Surface finish: Intake valves EV8 Stainless steel 106mm 4mm Dual square 7mm at collet, taper at 75mm to 6.5mm in air path Forged billet, collet groove areas shot peened for extra strength 27.2mm Multi (75, 60, 45, 30, 15) 2mm Polished stem with swirl polish head/neck area
Detailed engineering drawings of an intake valve are shown in Figure C-8 in Appendix C. 9.4.2 Material: Length: Tip length: Groove type: Stem diameter: Exhaust valves EV8 Stainless steel 106mm 4mm Dual square 6mm
67
Manufacture technique: Face diameter: Seat angles: Seat width: Surface finish:
Forged billet, collet groove areas shot peened for extra strength 24.6mm Multi (75, 60, 45, 30, 15) 2mm Polished stem
Detailed engineering drawings of an exhaust valve are shown in Figure C-7 in Appendix C. 9.4.3 Valve clearance adjusters
The standard hydraulic valve clearance adjusters used in the N47 engine will be used and are not modelled in further drawings in this document. 9.4.4 Material: Inlet inner diameter: Exhaust inner diameter: Installation: Hole size: Guide outer diameter: Valve guides Bronze 7.5mm 6.5mm Medium drive fit 10 - 10.018mm 10.028 - 10.039mm tapered to 9.4mm after protruding from head to allow spring fit Inlet length: Exhaust length: 35mm 55mm
Detailed engineering drawings of the valve guides are shown in Figure C-11 in Appendix C. 68
9.4.5 Material: Installation:
Valve seats Beryllium-copper alloy Medium drive fit
Detailed engineering drawings of the valve seats are shown in Figure C-12 in Appendix C. Inlet valve seat Hole size: Seat outer diameter: Seat inner diameter: Width: Exhaust valve seat Hole size: Seat outer diameter: Seat inner diameter: Width: 9.4.6 Material: Manufacturing technique: Composition: 25.6 25.625mm 25.643 25.659mm 21.5mm 2mm Valve springs Chrome vanadium steel alloy Cold drawn and heat treated before fabrication 0.48-0.53% Carbon, 0.8-1.1% Chromium, minimum 0.15% Vanadium 28.2 28.225mm 28.243 28.259mm 23.8mm 2mm
69
Spring stiffness: Wire diameter: Mean coil diameter: Length: 9.4.7
38.167N/mm 3mm 16mm 40mm Valve spring retainers
Detailed engineering drawings of the valve spring retainers are shown in Figure C-6, and C10 in Appendix C. Top Inlet Material: Inner diameter: Retaining ridge diameter: Outer diameter: Height: Bottom Inlet Material: Inner diameter: Outer diameter: Height of retaining ridge: Top Exhaust Titanium Alloy 10.1mm 14.5mm 0.8mm Titanium Alloy Taper from 10mm at 10 angle 12.4mm 18mm 13mm
70
Material: Inner diameter: Outer diameter: Retaining ridge diameter: Height: Bottom Exhaust Material: Inner diameter: Outer diameter: Height of retaining ridge: 9.4.8
Titanium Alloy Taper from 9mm at 10 angle 18mm 12.4mm 13mm
Titanium Alloy 10.1mm 14.5mm 0.8mm
Valve collets
Detailed engineering drawings of the valve collets are shown in Figure C-9 in Appendix C. Inlet Material: Height: Revolving angle: Outer diameter: Inner diameter: Stainless Steel 9mm 176 9 10.6mm 7mm
Number of retaining grooves: 2 71
Retaining groove dimensions: 0.5mm x 1.1mm, 0.3mm fillet radii Distance between grooves: Exhaust Material: Height: Revolving angle: Outer diameter: Inner diameter: Stainless Steel 9mm 176 8 9.6mm 6mm 3mm
Number of retaining grooves: 2 Retaining groove dimensions: 0.5mm x 1.1mm, 0.3mm fillet radii Distance between grooves: 3mm
72
10 Recommendations for Future Work

The stress analysis performed on the camshaft was minimal in order to gain an estimate of the safety factor when using the required shaft diameter to fit in the standard cylinder head journals. A more in depth analysis needs to be performed on the camshaft component using both analytical and computational methods such as ANSYS to verify the stresses calculated and provide a more robust design of the component. The modifications of the engine may cause the standard camshaft configuration to become insufficient due to the higher operating temperatures of the engine and increased forces generated by stiffer valve springs with large valve lift. The ANSYS thermal analysis performed theoretically yielded accurate and useful results, showing regions of high thermal stress in accordance with predicted regions and a generally expected temperature distribution through the components. The simulation relied heavily on previous experimentation values of heat transfer coefficients and although results attained were similar to those obtained by previous experimenters; it would be useful to verify these results with actual readings from the standard BMW N47 engine. Furthermore, the addition of pressure should be included with the simulation to attain the most realistic model of the cylinder head. The modelling of the cylinder head in ANSYS with a stress analysis was difficult with regards to restraining the movement of the head when the pressure was applied to the combustion surface with realistic accuracy. Furthermore, the pressure developed by the combustion of the fuel acts on multiple components such as the piston and cylinder walls and this needs to be accounted for. Although the simulation provided similar results to the analytical calculation, the results from the model are quoted with reasonable uncertainty as forces modelled on the valve grooves by the cotter pins were approximated in terms of direction and magnitude. The ANSYS simulation of the stresses occurring in the component seems to be moderately accurate; however, further optimisation of the model should be performed to improve its accuracy. The shape, size, and direction of the inlet and exhaust ports can be further optimized by modelling the components is a computational flow dynamics (CFD) simulation. An accurate 73
CFD simulation can provide insight into the flow patterns of the mixture in and out of the combustion chamber through the ports. Turbulence and boundary layers resulting from the flow of the mixture around components can be analysed and optimized by a CFD analysis. Furthermore, the valve lift and duration may also be analysed and optimised in a CFD simulation by modelling the flow patterns and behaviour past the valves at different valve lifts, also with different valve shape configurations. An accurate, in depth CFD analysis should be performed, modelling flows through all components of the engine during different stages of the engine cycle to maximise the optimisation of the design and produce an engine which operates at its best efficiency, producing the maximum possible power and torque possible. No analysis was performed on the lubrication system of the cylinder head. It was assumed that the standard lubrication system would lubricate the camshaft and valve train components sufficiently and that failure would not occur due to this assumption. A detailed analysis should be performed on the lubrication system of the cylinder head, including the oil grade required, operating temperatures predicted and journal and roller bearing analysis on the camshaft bearings. In closing, it is important to realise that the calculated component specifications are theoretical and not always the most optimal in terms of attaining the desired engine performance. Furthermore, the calculated theoretical engine output values are theoretical and can only be verified if an engine was built to the designed specifications and analysed. A prototype engine should be built and analysed on the dynamometer to determine its power output and also run in race simulating conditions to examine the fatigue life of the engine components realistically. Slight variations of components such as cam duration and valve lift should also be analysed in a realistic racing situation.
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11 References
1. FIA, 2012. Article 263- 2012- Specific Regulations for Modified Production Cars on
Circuits (Super-2000). 1st ed. Europe: FIA Sport/ Technical department. 2. FIA, 2012. Article 263D- Specific Regulations for Modified Production Diesel Cars on
Circuits. 1st ed. Europe: FIA Sport/ Technical department. 3. Bill Sherwood. 2009. The Combustion Chamber. [ONLINE] Available at:
http://www.billzilla.org/engcombust.htm. [Accessed 23 July 12]. 4. Engine builder mag. 2011. Valves, Guides and Seat Materials and Selection. Available at:
[ONLINE]
http://www.enginebuildermag.com/Article/91131/valves_guides_and_seat_materials_and_sel ection.aspx. [Accessed 25 July 12]. 5. Engine builder mag, Larry Carley. 2006. Performance Valves. [ONLINE] Available at:
http://www.enginebuildermag.com/Article/1285/performance_valves.aspx. [Accessed 25 July 12]. 6. Engine builder mag, Larry Carley. 2006. Diesel Performance: Camshafts, Lifters and [ONLINE] Available at:
Valvetrain.
http://www.enginebuildermag.com/Article/81065/diesel_performance_camshafts_lifters_and _valvetrain.aspx. [Accessed 25 July 12]. 7. Aftersales training, BMW, 2006. N47 Engine Product Information. BMW Service, Rear
chain drive, Vacuum pump in the oil sump, Balancing shafts in the crankcase, 3-91. 8. Heywood, John B., 1988. Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. 1st ed. United
States: McGraw-Hill. 9. Taylor, Charles F., 1960. The Internal Combustion Engine in Theory and Practice. 1st
ed. United States.
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10.
Larry Carley. 2008. The inside angle on valve seats. [ONLINE] Available at:
http://www.enginebuildermag.com/Article/16025/the_inside_angle_on_valve_seats_what_yo u_need_to_know_to_go_with_the_flow.aspx. [Accessed 03 August 12]. 11. Hammil, D. How to choose camshafts and time them for maximum power. 1st ed.
United States: Speedpro Series. 12. MotoIQ. 2011. Compression Ratio: The squish. [ONLINE] Available at:
http://www.motoiq.com/magazine_articles/id/1950/compression-ratio--the-squish.aspx. [Accessed 14 August 12]. 13. SpeedTV. 2009. F1 Valve train technology. [ONLINE] Available at:
http://forums.speedtv.com/threads/5721-F1-VALVE-TRAIN-TECHNOLOGY. [Accessed 14 August 12]. 14. Budynas, Richard G; Nisbett, Keith J, 2008. Shigley's Mechanical Engineering Design.
8th ed. United States: Mc. Graw Hill. 15. Optimum Spring solutions. Chrome Vanadium - ASTM A 231 Spring Wire Properties. Available at:
[ONLINE]
http://optimumspring.com/technical_resources/materials/steel_alloys/chrome_vanadium_231 _spring_wire.aspx. [Accessed 10 August 12]. 16. Adrienne S Lavine, Theodore L Bergman, David P Incropera, Frank P Dewitt, 2011.
Introduction to heat transfer. 5th ed. United States of America: John Wiley and Sons. 17. M. Divis, R. Tichanek, M. Spaniel, 2003. Heat Transfer Analysis of a Diesel Engine
Head. Acta Polytechnia, vol. 43, No. 5/2003, pg. 34-39. 18. Horak, F., Macek, J. Use of predicted Fields in Main Parts of Supercharged Diesel
Engine. Proceedings of XIX. Conference of International Centre of Mass and Heat Transfer. New York: Pergamon Press, 1987. 19. Haddad, S. D. , 1984. Principles and performance in diesel engineering. 1st ed. United 76
States of America: John Wiley and Sons.
20.
Crossman, K., 2012. Design of high performance diesel engine- Turbo charger and
exhaust system. Final performance predictions. Johannesburg, South Africa: University of the Witwatersrand.
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Appendix A
Table 15: Calculation of valve spring configuration
Number of Wire Mean coil Shear active diameter diameter modulus of spring coils (d) (mm) (D) (mm) alloy (Mpa) (Na) 1 10 77200 5 1 12 77200 5 1 14 77200 5 1 16 77200 5 1 18 77200 5 1 20 77200 5 2 10 77200 5 2 12 77200 5 2 14 77200 5 2 16 77200 5 2 18 77200 5 2 20 77200 5 3 10 77200 5 3 12 77200 5 3 14 77200 5 3 16 77200 5 3 18 77200 5 3 20 77200 5 3 22 77200 5 4 14 77200 5 4 16 77200 5 4 18 77200 5 4 20 77200 5 4 22 77200 5 4 24 77200 5 4 26 77200 5 5 14 77200 5 5 16 77200 5 5 18 77200 5 5 20 77200 5 5 22 77200 5 5 24 77200 5
Specific Weight () (kg/mm3) 8.2E-05 8.2E-05 8.2E-05 8.2E-05 8.2E-05 8.2E-05 8.2E-05 8.2E-05 8.2E-05 8.2E-05 8.2E-05 8.2E-05 8.2E-05 8.2E-05 8.2E-05 8.2E-05 8.2E-05 8.2E-05 8.2E-05 8.2E-05 8.2E-05 8.2E-05 8.2E-05 8.2E-05 8.2E-05 8.2E-05 8.2E-05 8.2E-05 8.2E-05 8.2E-05 8.2E-05 8.2E-05
Stiffness (N/mm) Weight (N) 1.93 0.010116345 1.116898 0.012139613 0.703353 0.014162882 0.471191 0.016186151 0.330933 0.01820942 0.24125 0.020232689 30.88 0.040465378 17.87037 0.048558454 11.25364 0.056651529 7.539063 0.064744605 5.294925 0.07283768 3.86 0.080930756 156.33 0.091047101 90.46875 0.109256521 56.97157 0.127465941 38.1665 0.145675361 26.80556 0.163884781 19.54125 0.182094201 14.68163 0.200303621 180.0583 0.226606117 120.625 0.258978419 84.71879 0.291350722 61.76 0.323723024 46.4012 0.356095327 35.74074 0.388467629 28.11106 0.420839932 439.5955 0.354072058 294.4946 0.40465378 206.833 0.455235503 150.7813 0.505817226 113.2842 0.556398948 87.25767 0.606980671
Stiffness to weight ratio 190.780375 92.0044247 49.661697 29.110775 18.1737135 11.9237734 763.1215 368.017699 198.646788 116.4431 72.6948541 47.6950938 1717.02338 828.039822 446.955273 261.996975 163.563422 107.313961 73.2968793 794.587151 465.7724 290.779416 190.780375 130.305563 92.0044247 66.7975124 1241.54242 727.769375 454.342838 298.094336 203.602442 143.756914
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Appendix B
Calculation of state conditions and engine power output using air standard diesel cycle Assumptions: Air can be modelled as an ideal gas The process occurs with steady state conditions The process is for one cylinder The air in the piston-cylinder assembly is the closed system The compression and expansion processes are adiabatic and all processes are reversible Kinetic and potential energy effects are negligible Specific heats do not vary with temperature and pressure
Tabulated below in Table 16 are the constants used in the analysis.

Table 16: Tabulated values of variables used in state calculations
Fuel type Heating value of fuel (QHV) Ideal gas constant (R ) Air to fuel ratio Compression ratio ( ) Number of cylinders Specific heat ratio (k) Specific heat coefficient of pressure (CP) Specific heat coefficient of volume (Cv) Volumetric flow rate of air Bore Stroke Crank Radius Engine speed Mean piston speed Engine volume Density of air
Diesel (C12H26) 47000kJ/Kg fuel 8317 30 16 2 1.4 1.005 kJ/Kg.K 0.718 kJ/Kg.K 0.1 m3/s 0.0815m 0.0955m 0.04775m 75 Rps 14.325m/s 2 dm3 0.94kg/m3
79
State 1: The pressure and temperature and state 1 was approximated to be equal to the outlet conditions of the turbocharger, thus ignoring losses in the head as the air flows past the components, residue in the cylinder and current cylinder temperatures. The pressure and temperature at 1 were 350kPa and 374K respectively. State 2: Temperature: Pressure: ( )
Specific volume:
)
( )(
)(
State 3:
Temperature:
Mass flow rate fuel: ( ) ( ( ) ( )( ) )
Specific volume: Heat added to cycle:
State 4:
Temperature:
Pressure: Specific volume:
Calculation of pressures, power and efficiencies Gross work per cycle: ( ) ( )
Indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP): 80
Brake mean effective pressure (BMEP): Power:
Specific fuel consumption:
Fuel conversion efficiency: Volumetric efficiency:
Calculation of fuel mixture ratio, exhaust composition and heat flow induced by combustion of fuel Diesel fuel with a general chemical composition of was assumed to be the fuel used
with a mixture ratio of 30:1. The exhaust gas was assumed to be comprised of carbon dioxide, water, apparent nitrogen, and unburned oxygen. Stoichiometric composition: ( Stoichiometric Air: fuel ratio: ( )( ) )
( )
Excess air calculation: The desired ( ) is 30; therefore the percentage excess air was calculated:
Mixture composition: 81
Heat added by combustion of fuel where inlet gasses enter closed chamber at 375K and exhaust gasses exit chamber at 1098K:
( ( (( (
( ) ) )) ( (
) )) )
With 48g fuel in chamber at max speed:
Calculation of pressures and temperatures per degree crankshaft revolution Ignition delay: Ignition delay is the time taken for the diesel to ignite under temperature and pressure and was calculated as follows from [19].
Distance between crank axis and piston pin (s) [8]: ( )
82
Cylinder volume at crank angle [8]: ( ( )( ( ) )
(Design condition by Noordene Sing) Pressure at crank angle: At 180 the pressure and temperature were set to the conditions at state 1. At 360 the conditions were matched to state 2 and state 3 conditions were assigned at 361.6194, to account for the ignition delay experienced at maximum engine speed of 4500rpm. Pressure [8]: ( )
Temperature [8]: Where the subscripts 1 and 2 represent the current and previous conditions respectively. Table below shows the calculated data for each crank angle revolution.
Table 17: Pressures and temperatures per degree crankshaft revolution Distance between crank axis and piston pin (m) 0.0955 0.095490466 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0.095139359 0.094093216 0.092467477 0.090433307 0.088217087 0.086082537 0.084302456 0.083120032 0.082705426 0.083120032 Instantaneous piston speed over average speed 0 0.066577611 0.407586043 0.793440041 1.1366389 1.41808895 1.621960313 1.737642597 1.762015996 1.70124779 1.570796327 1.392617012
Crank Angle (degrees) 0
Cylinder Volume at 3 crank angle (m ) 0.000032833 3.29805E-05 3.84339E-05 5.49383E-05 8.14627E-05 0.000116573 0.000158354 0.000204523 0.000252605 0.000300164 0.000345062 0.000385685
Pressure at crank angle (kPa)
Temperature at crank angle (K)
Elapsed time (s)
83
The University of the Witwatersrand School of Mechanical, Aeronautical and Industrial Engineering Design of a High Performance Diesel Engine 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 361.619 370 380 390 400 410 420 430 440 450 460 470 480 490 500 510 0.084302456 0.086082537 0.088217087 0.090433307 0.092467477 0.094093216 0.095139359 0.0955 0.095139359 0.094093216 0.092467477 0.090433307 0.088217087 0.086082537 0.084302456 0.083120032 0.082705426 0.083120032 0.084302456 0.086082537 0.088217087 0.090433307 0.092467477 0.094093216 0.095139359 0.0955 0.095490466 0.095139359 0.094093216 0.092467477 0.090433307 0.088217087 0.086082537 0.084302456 0.083120032 0.082705426 0.083120032 0.084302456 0.086082537 0.088217087 0.090433307 0.092467477 0.000421048 0.00045077 0.000474923 0.000493846 0.000507976 0.000517732 0.000523447 0.000525328 0.000523447 0.000517732 0.000507976 0.000493846 0.000474923 0.00045077 0.000421048 0.000385685 0.000345062 0.000300164 0.000252605 0.000204523 0.000158354 0.000116573 8.14627E-05 5.49383E-05 3.84339E-05 0.000032833 3.29805E-05 3.84339E-05 5.49383E-05 8.14627E-05 0.000116573 0.000158354 0.000204523 0.000252605 0.000300164 0.000345062 0.000385685 0.000421048 0.00045077 0.000474923 0.000493846 0.000507976 1.190115438 0.983056449 0.784639281 0.601287882 0.434157427 0.281047929 0.137945797 9.62229E-17 -0.137945797 -0.281047929 -0.434157427 -0.601287882 -0.784639281 -0.983056449 -1.190115438 -1.392617012 -1.570796327 -1.70124779 -1.762015996 -1.737642597 -1.621960313 -1.41808895 -1.1366389 -0.793440041 -0.407586043 -5.77338E-16 0.066577611 0.407586043 0.793440041 1.1366389 1.41808895 1.621960313 1.737642597 1.762015996 1.70124779 1.570796327 1.392617012 1.190115438 0.983056449 0.784639281 0.601287882 0.434157427 350 351.7622835 357.2099034 366.8516803 381.6300859 403.0860487 433.6441192 477.0968413 539.4430095 630.3971811 766.2478324 975.5568153 1311.090052 1875.81972 2880.273539 4756.950929 8257.4317 13616.66826 16976.02554 16976.02554 13702.3912 8309.415876 4786.898034 2898.406132 1887.628833 1319.343942 981.6983759 771.0717006 634.3658095 542.8390413 480.1003765 436.3741003 405.6236532 384.0326156 369.1611735 374 374.5370712 376.1852211 379.0588085 383.3603483 389.3985949 397.6140492 408.6120527 423.2051024 442.4709954 467.8434146 501.2647673 545.4402303 604.216352 682.9747637 788.2434176 922.7702548 1064.530527 1133.755992 2453.631 2307.950504 2000.607798 1708.947509 1480.720289 1309.968477 1182.539178 1086.764769 1014.305759 959.2972025 917.5278718 885.8894778 862.045307 844.2338291 831.1426364 821.8167028 0 0.00037 0.000741 0.001111 0.001481 0.001852 0.002222 0.002593 0.002963 0.003333 0.003704 0.004074 0.004444 0.004815 0.005185 0.005556 0.005926 0.006296 0.006667 0.006727 0.007037 0.007407 0.007778 0.008148 0.008519 0.008889 0.009259 0.00963 0.01 0.01037 0.010741 0.011111 0.011481 0.011852 0.012222
84
The University of the Witwatersrand School of Mechanical, Aeronautical and Industrial Engineering Design of a High Performance Diesel Engine 520 530 540 550 560 570 580 590 600 610 620 630 640 650 660 670 680 690 700 710 720 0.094093216 0.095139359 0.0955 0.095139359 0.094093216 0.092467477 0.090433307 0.088217087 0.086082537 0.084302456 0.083120032 0.082705426 0.083120032 0.084302456 0.086082537 0.088217087 0.090433307 0.092467477 0.094093216 0.095139359 0.0955 0.000517732 0.000523447 0.000525328 0.000523447 0.000517732 0.000507976 0.000493846 0.000474923 0.00045077 0.000421048 0.000385685 0.000345062 0.000300164 0.000252605 0.000204523 0.000158354 0.000116573 8.14627E-05 5.49383E-05 3.84339E-05 0.000032833 0.281047929 0.137945797 2.88669E-16 -0.137945797 -0.281047929 -0.434157427 -0.601287882 -0.784639281 -0.983056449 -1.190115438 -1.392617012 -1.570796327 -1.70124779 -1.762015996 -1.737642597 -1.621960313 -1.41808895 -1.1366389 -0.793440041 -0.407586043 -1.15468E-15 359.4586973 353.9767823 352.2034044 815.586635 812.0133711 810.8489764 0.012593 0.012963 0.013333
Figures and below show graphical representations of the variation of cylinder volume and piston speed with crankshaft angle.
0.0006 Cylinder volume (m3) 0.0005 0.0004 0.0003 0.0002 0.0001 0 0 100 200 300 400 Crankshaft angle 500 600 700
Figure 43: Variation of cylinder volume with crankshaft angle
85
2 1.5 1 Spavg/Sp 0.5 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
-0.5 -1 -1.5 -2
Crankshaft angle
Figure 44: Instantaneous piston speed / mean piston speed variation with crank angle
86
Appendix C
Figure C- 1: Cylinder head top view........................................................................................ 88 Figure C- 2: Cylinder head bottom view ................................................................................. 89 Figure C- 3: Cylinder head front view ..................................................................................... 90 Figure C- 4: Cylinder head back view ..................................................................................... 91 Figure C- 5: Non-dimensioned sectional view of cylinder head showing ports ...................... 92 Figure C- 6: Bottom valve spring retainers.............................................................................. 93 Figure C- 7: Exhaust valve ...................................................................................................... 94 Figure C- 8: Intake valve ......................................................................................................... 95 Figure C- 9: Valve collets ........................................................................................................ 96 Figure C- 10: Top valve spring retainers ................................................................................. 97 Figure C- 11: Valve guides ...................................................................................................... 98 Figure C- 12: Valve seats ......................................................................................................... 99 Figure C- 13: Exhaust camshaft ............................................................................................. 100 Figure C- 14: Inlet camshaft .................................................................................................. 101 Figure C- 15: Camshaft cap ................................................................................................... 102
87
Figure C- 1: Cylinder head top view
88
Figure C- 2: Cylinder head bottom view
89
Figure C- 3: Cylinder head front view
90
Figure C- 4: Cylinder head back view
91
Figure C- 5: Non-dimensioned sectional view of cylinder head showing ports
92
Figure C- 6: Bottom valve spring retainers
93
Figure C- 7: Exhaust valve
94
Figure C- 8: Intake valve
95
Figure C- 9: Valve collets
96
Figure C- 10: Top valve spring retainers
97
Figure C- 11: Valve guides
98
Figure C- 12: Valve seats
99
Figure C- 13: Exhaust camshaft
100
Figure C- 14: Inlet camshaft
101
Figure C- 15: Camshaft cap
102

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The University of the Witwatersrand School of Mechanical, Aeronautical and Industrial Engineering Design of a High Performance Diesel Engine

Literature Survey _________________________________________________________ 1

Product Requirement Specification __________________________________________ 13

Design Development _____________________________________________________ 15

Concept Development ______________________________________________________ 15

4.1.4 4.1.5 4.1.6

Valves __________________________________________________________________________ 19 Camshaft ________________________________________________________________________ 24 Lubrication system ________________________________________________________________ 25

Design Development _____________________________________________________ 26

Valve springs ______________________________________________________________ 32

Performance Prediction ___________________________________________________ 35

Detailed Design Analysis __________________________________________________ 39

Analytical stress analysis ____________________________________________________ 39

Valves __________________________________________________________________________ 41 Camshaft ________________________________________________________________________ 43

Finite element heat transfer analysis___________________________________________ 43

Assembly Drawings ______________________________________________________ 58 Detailed Component Specifications __________________________________________ 63

Bill of components _________________________________________________________ 63 Cylinder head _____________________________________________________________ 64 Camshafts ________________________________________________________________ 65

9.4.6 9.4.7 9.4.8

kJ/kgK m m3 kg/s kg/s kJ kW kPa kPa kg/ m3 ms m -

Design a high performance compression ignition (CI) engine as a group.

1.2 Interpretation of task statement

2.2 Four-Stroke Cycle Turbocharged Compression Ignition Engines

Figure 1: Otto cycle plotted on P-V and T-S curves [12]

2.3 Current motor specifications

Power in kW/bhp at rpm

Cylinder capacity (cm)

118d 120d 118d 120d 320d

E81 E81 E87 E87 E92

(mm) (mm) (crankshaft) (crankshaft) (crankshaft) (crankshaft)

inlet 27.2 7.5 100 352 568 216

exhaust 24.6 8 108 140.7 362.5 221.8

2.4 Inlet and Exhaust Processes

2.5 Combustion Chamber

Figure 3: Cylinder Head assembly [3]

2.6 Valve gear

Figure 4: DOHC valve gear layout [13]

Figure 5: Cam cross-section [7]

Product Requirement Specification

3.2 General Constraints

3.3 General Criteria

3.4 Specific Requirements

3.5 Specific Constraints

Criteria Weight Heat resistance Manufacturability Sound insulation TOTAL

Weighting 40% 30% 15% 15% 10

Material Aluminium Plastic 3 4 3 2 0.5 1.5 1 1.5 7.5 9

be modified by grinding or welding.

Four different combustion chamber shapes are

Figure 6: Combustion chamber shapes: a) wedge b) hemispherical c) Pent d) flat

head are manufactured separately and joined by friction welding.

Bimetal valves are

25% 30% 20% 10% 5% 10% 10

1.5 2 2 0.5 0.2 0.9 7.1

2 2 1.5 0.5 0.3 0.7 7

2.5 3 1 0.4 0.3 0.7 7.9

1 3 1 0.3 0.2 0.5 6

Thermal conductivity Manufacturabili ty Cost Fatigue life TOTAL

Criteria Weight Heat transfer Lubrication Manufacturability and cost TOTAL

Weight Accuracy Stiffness Cost Simplicity TOTAL

30% 35% 15% 10% 10% 10

medium in the inlet port [8].

Taylors correlations have been used to show that the

0.0015 Inlet flow area

Figure 8: Plot showing the variation of Z with inlet flow area

5.2 Port and Manifold size

Figure 9: Modified camshaft timing chart

Valves __________ 19 Camshaft 24 Lubrication system 25

Valves __ 41 Camshaft 43

Assembly Drawings ____________ 58 Detailed Component Specifications 63

Bill of components ___________________________ 63 Cylinder head _ 64 Camshafts __________________________________ 65