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Translation Today
Trends and Perspectives

Edited by
Gunilla Anderman and Margaret Rogers
MULTILINGUAL MATTERS LTD Clevedon Buffalo Toronto Sydney
Contents ..........- vii Contributors: A Short Profile .......... . . viii

Acknowledgements 1 Introduction
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Part 1 2 Round-table iscussion on !ranslation in the "ew #illennium$ $ 1%
Part 2 % "o &lobal Communication 'ithout !ranslation
Peter Newmark (( ) Some of Peter "ewmark*s !ranslation Categories Revisited Albrecht Neubert 68 ( +ooking ,orward to the !ranslation: -n *A .namic Reflection of /uman Activities*
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KirstenMalmkjxr.................. 0 'ith !ranslation in #ind
76
Marshall Morris .......... 1 !racing 2ack 3in Awe4 a /undred-.ear /istor. of S5anish !ranslations: 'ashington Irving*s The Alhambra Raquel Merino
86
........ . . 92 ......... ...
8 !he !roubled Identit. of +iterar. !ranslation
Piotr Kuhiwczak 112 6 Interlinear !ranslation and iscourse 7 la #ark !wain unnarMa!nusson.................125 18 #eaning9 !ruth and #oralit. in !ranslation Martin "eston ...#$% 11 !he ecline of the "ative S5eaker &a'i( ra((ol..................152 12 :nglish as +ingua ,ranca and its Influence on iscourse "orms in -ther +anguages )uliane*ouse ...#68 1% Inter5reting and !ranslation in the ;< Public Services: !he Pursuit of :=cellence versus9 and via9 :=5edienc. Aun Ccrsi+llis %#,#- ........................................................#8% 1$1 Audiovisual !ranslation in the !hird #illennium /urge U(uz Cintas ............................................................................................162
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Translation To(a.- Tren(s an( Pers/ecti'es 15 Translation and Interpreting Assessment in the Context of Educational Measurement
Stuart Campbell and Sandra Hale ...................................................................205
16 A Comment on Translation Ethics and Education

Gerard M Alester.............................................................................................225
Index ............................................................................................ ....22!
Acknowledgements
A number of people have helped to ma e this collection of papers a realit!. Above all "e "ould li e to than #eter $e"mar "ho% follo"ing the &ctober 1''' s!mposium held in (uildford in his honour% provided us "ith the opportunit! to gather together additional
contributions to a volume bearing his imprint. As a result% this ne" publication has been shaped% not onl! b! #eter)s o"n vision of the role of translation in the ne" millennium% but also b! that of friends and colleagues "ith "hom he has "or ed closel!. *o"ever% for all the contributors to be accommodated% speed of production had b! necessit! to be sacrificed. +e are ver! grateful for the contributors) patient acceptance of the time it has ta en for us to bring the "or to fruition. In addition% "e o"e a debt of gratitude to Multilingual Matters for allo"ing us sufficient time to ensure that a maximum number of #eter)s friends "ere given the opportunit! to participate. +e are pleased too that ,ob -ic inson agreed to give us a helping hand "ith the cop! editing. .ast% but certainl! not least% our than s as al"a!s go to (illian /ames not onl! for her attention to detail% persistence and patience but also for her enthusiasm and initiative in bringing the "or to its completion. +e hope the result is a fitting testimon! to an en0o!able and informative occasion. (unilla Anderman Margaret ,ogers (uildford /anuar! 1221
vll
Contributors: A Short Profile

(unilla Anderman is #rofessor of Translation 3tudies and the -irector of the Centre for Translation 3tudies. 3he teaches Translation Theor! on the -iploma4MA in Translation in the 3chool of Arts at the 5niversit! of 3urre!% 56. Stuart Campbell is Associate #rofessor and *ead of the 3chool of .anguages and .inguistics at the 5niversit! of +estern 3!dne!% Australia. Jorge Daz Cintas received his #h- in Audiovisual Translation from the 5niversit! of 7alencia% 3pain. *e is 3enior .ecturer in 3panish at the 5niversit! of 3urre! ,oehampton and also "or s as a freelance translator and interpreter. *e has recentl! published a boo on subtitling. Ann Corsellis &8E is 7ice Chairman of Council of the Institute of .inguists and a -irector of $,#3I .td% the $ational ,egister of #ublic 3ervice Interpreters 56% as "ell as co9ordinator of the first E5 (rotius pro0ect to establish e:uivalencies of standards and practice for legal interpreters and translators in member states. David Graddol is a lecturer in the 3chool of Education at the &pen 5niversit!% 56 and has chaired and contributed to a "ide range of multimedia distance taught learning programmes in
language schools. *e is the managing Editor of AILA Review. Sandra Hale is 3enior .ecturer and *ead of the Interpreting and Translation #rogram at the 5niversit! of +estern 3!dne!% Australia. Juliane House, #rofessor of Applied .inguistics at *amburg 5niversit! and its ,esearch Center on Multilingualism. 3he is principal investigator of a pro0ect examining ho" English influences texts in other languages via processes of translation. Piotr Kuhiw za! is the -irector of the Centre for Translation and Comparative Cultural 3tudies at the 5niversit! of +ar"ic % 56.
Cumnar "agnusson is 3enior .ecturer in (erman at 3toc holm 5niverA" ;pei ialising in
contrastive
studies of (erman and 3"edish #al x!nl%i ;
Contributors: A Short Profile
ix
6irsten Malm 0aer is #rofessor of Translation 3tudies and *ead of the Centre for ,esearch in Translation at the 5niversit! of Middlesex% 56. Gerard " Alester is a professional translator and lectures in Translation at the -epartment of Translation 3tudies% Tampere 5niversit!% <inland. $a%uel "erino teaches translation English93panish at the 5niversit! of the 8as:ue Countr! "here she is co9ordinator of the T,ACE =Censored Translations> pro0ect. 3he is the author of a number of articles as "ell as a boo on theatre translations English93panish. Marshall Morris has an M..itt. in 3ocial Anthropolog! from &xford and taught translation at the 5niversit! of #uerto ,ico for ?2 !ears. *e is no" engaged in freelance translation and editing. Albre ht &eubert is #rofessor Emeritus% author and lecturer on Translation Theor! and Applied Translation at the 5niversit! of .eip@ig% (erman!. Peter &ewmar! is the author of man! boo s and articles on translation. *e contributes regularl! to The Linguist and lectures fre:uentl! on aspects of translation in the 56 as "ell as abroad. Margaret ,ogers% ,eader in (erman% is the -eput! -irector of the Centre for Translation 3tudies and teaches on the -iploma4MA in Translation in the 3chool of Arts at the 5niversit! of 3urre!% 56. "artin 'eston is *ead of English Translation in the ,egistr! of the European Court of *uman ,ights% 3trasbourg.
Chapter 1
Introduction
GUNILLA ANDERMAN and MARGARET ROGERS
-n the afternoon of ,rida. 1 -ctober 16669 the da. immediatel. following St ?erome*s da.9 scholars of !ranslation Studies from around the world assembled at the ;niversit. of Surre. to 5artici5ate in a s.m5osium to 5a. tribute to Professor Peter "ewmark and his work$ ,ollowing the 5resentation of Peter "ewmark*s ke.note 5a5er entitled *"o global communication without translation*9 the 5roceedings continued with an at times ver. livel. Round !able discussion9 as Peter "ewmark @ostled with translation theorists and scholars9 answering their Auestions related to the 5a5er9 and in turn challenging their res5onses$ !he event concluded with a dinner and the
5resentation of a Liber Amicorum - Word, Text, Translation including contributions from scholars and friends engaged in the field of !ranslation Studies$ !he 5resent volume9 Translation Today Trends and !ers"ectives, owes its origins to this event$ It consists of the ke.note 5a5er9 a record of the Round !able discussion9 and contributions to the discussion on the eight to5ics chosen b. Peter "ewmark for consideration as translation issues in the new millennium and of 5articular interest to him$ !he to5ics selected and discussed in this volume are: *!he nature of translation*B *!.5es and kinds of translation*B *>alid and deficient te=ts*B *:nglish as the lingua franca of translation*B *Social translation and inter5reting*B *+ater modes of translation*B *!he assessment of translation*B and *!he universit. and the market*$ !he book is divided into two main 5arts$ !he first 5art contains the kick-off summar. b. Peter "ewmark of his ke.note 5a5er9 as well as a record of the ensuing Round-table discussion$ Partici5ating in the discussion were the following contributors to the Liber Amicorum as well as two colleagues from #ultilingual #atters9 #ike &rover and !ommi &rover: &unilla Anderman9 ;niversit. of Surre.9 ;< 3Chair4 Reiner ArntC9 ;niversit. of /ildesheim9 &erman. Simon Chau9 /ong <ong 2a5tist ;niversit.9 /ong <ong avid Connoll.9 translator and translation consultant9 :uro5ean :ducational -rganiCation9 Athens9 &reece 1
2 Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es
/ohn -odds% 5niversit! of Trieste% Ital! #iotr 6uhi"c@a % 5niversit! of +ar"ic % 56 *ans .ind:uist% 7Ax0B 5niversit!% 3"eden 3!lfest .omheim% Agder College% $or"a! (erard McAlester% Tampere 5niversit! <inland Albrecht $eubert% Emeritus #rofessor% .eip@ig 5niversit!% (erman! #eter $e"mar % 5niversit! of 3urre!% 56 Monica #edrola% postgraduate student at the 5niversit! of Trieste% Ital! Margaret ,ogers% 5niversit! of 3urre!% 56 Mi e 3hields% The Translators Association (ideon Tour!% Tel Aviv 5niversit!% Israel Contributors to the volume absent on the da! "ere #atric Chaffe!% 5niversit! of &slo% $or"a!C /an <irbas% Masar! 5niversit!% 8rno% C@ech ,epublicC 7iggo *0ernager9#edersen% 5niversit! of Copenhagen% -enmar C Eugene $ida% 5niversit! of Michigan% 53AC Eithne &)Connell% -ublin Cit! 5niversit!% IrelandC and Mar! 3nell9*ornb!% 5niversit! of 7ienna% Austria. /anet <raser% 5niversit! of +estminster% 56 "as able to attend in the evening. Members of professional organisations attending included (raham Cross of the Institute of Translation and Interpreting =ITI> and E!vor <ogart!% ITI and <DdDration Internationale des Traducteurs =<IT>% "ith *enr! #avlovich% Institute of .inguists% 0oining after the ,ound Table discussion. The second part of the boo starts "ith #eter $e"mar )s full9length e!note paper% follo"ed b! contributions on each selected topic b! participants attending the s!mposium as "ell as scholars and practitioners invited to contribute. +e are grateful for this further opportunit! to include papers from #eter)s man! friends and colleagues previousl! unable to contribute to "#rd$ %e&t$ %ranslati#n. In addition% in order to extend the discussion of )English as the lingua franca of translation)% a chapter b! -avid (raddol has also been included% reproduced b! ind permission of AI.A and the author.1 It is our hope that the present volume "ill have retained some of the liveliness of the discussion on the da!% and that the vie"s expressed b! the participants and assembled authors "ill in !ears to come provide an interesting record of a cross9section of vie"s on trends and issues of concern in Translation 3tudies at the beginning of the ne" millennium. The nature of translation% the first topic ambitiousl! tac led in #eter $e"mar )s paper% is a heading under "hich most "riting on translation could be accommodated. The papers in this section tac le broad issues% ranging from a reassessment of semantic4communicative translation% #eter $e"mar )s "ell9 no"n concepts% through an intriguing 7ie" of the
sour e text9target text =3T9)1;l)> relationship% and an experiential vie" "ntrodu tion #
of literar! translation informed b! a number of other disciplines% to the reception of texts as translations or original "or s. A common theme is the creative aspect of translation% seen from different perspectives. Engaging "ith #eter $e"mar )s "idel!9ac no"ledged distinction bet"een semantic and communicative approaches to translation% Albrecht $eubert vie"s the translator =cf. also 6uhi"c@a =this volume>> as both interpreter4critic and creatorC he argues that% rather than being t"o t'pes of translation% semantic and communicative translation =for "hich he prefers to use the semiotic label pragmati ( constitute t"o complementar! methods "ithin one t!pe% although operating at different levels. 3emantic translation is concerned "ith procedures% communicative "ith intentions% the latter acting as a filter for the former. $eubert also challenges $e"mar )s claims about the untranslatabilit! of certain English "ords on the basis of his "or in corpus studies% pointing to the importance of context and meaning potential for "ords. ,eferring to an English "ord such as pri)a '$ considered b! $e"mar as Euntranslatable) in some languages% $eubert sho"s ho" the translator might ma e expert use of the context in the TT% 0ust as the 3T contextualised its meaningsC this in turn enables $eubert to render pri)a ' in (erman in a number of different "a!s. $e"mar )s point% ho"ever% is that in certain situations context ma! not al"a!s be readil! available to allo" eas! transfer of individual lexical items from 3T to TT. Evidence supporting this claim ma! be gleaned from the fact that pri)a ' has no" been borro"ed into Italian as )la privac!) =cf. /ohn -odd)s comment in the ,ound Table discussion>. Attempts to define )translation) are legion and various% often reflecting specific aspects of the social and ideological contexts of their provenance. In describing translation as )a d!namic reflection of human activities)% #eter $e"mar allo"s us a tantalising glimpse of a more universal "orld. In her contribution E.oo ing for"ard to the translationF on a d!namic reflection of human activities)% 6irsten Malm 0xr attempts to elaborate this vie" from the perspective of philosophical semantics% at the same time engaging "ith one of the most challenging ideas to emerge in Translation 3tudies in recent !ears% namel! Tour!)s )3ource Text #ostulate) =1''5F ??9G>. +hat is challenging is the fact that a 3T has to be postulated at all rather than presupposed. Malm 0aer concludes 9 unsurprisingl! but for novel reasons 9 that one of the factors distinguishing translations from monolingual communications is indeed the influence of the 3T on the TT% a vie" "hich she nevertheless argues is consistent "ith Tour!)s TT9oriented vie" of e:uivalence. Central to Malm 0a9r)s argument is the so9called )for"ard9loo ing nature) of human communication% according to "hich a translation can be seen as a future but% in some sense, still shaped response to the original text. In other "ords% $ Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es
translations can be understood as being at the confluence of t"o dimensionsF temporal =past and future language use> and linguistic =source and target languages>. Translations are therefore distinguished from monolingual communications not onl! b! the obvious bilingual factor% but also b! the realisation of the less predictable% temporal perspective in an instance of language use "hich cannot be full! anticipated. It is in this interaction bet"een the 3T% an aspect of the past% and the TT% a text =to be> created in the future% that Malm 0aer sees a trul! )d!namic reflection of human activit!)% as envisaged in $e"mar )s paper. As readers of The Linguist and #eter $e"mar )s boo s "ill no"% the st!le of "riting "hich he uses often manifests itself in concise to9thepoint observations on aspects of translation% fre:uentl! "ide9ranging and% often% stimulating and highl! personal. 3imilarl!% in his e:uall! ver! personal contribution% Marshall Morris see s to stimulate the thoughts of fello" literar! translators b! pointing to different sources of inspiration "hich% he argues% can support and enlighten the translation process. In presenting his thoughts )+ith translation in mind)% Morris refers to sources in linguistics% ps!cholog!% histor!% philosoph!% sociolog! and social anthropolog!. The emphasis throughout is on the experiential aspects of translating% a perspective "hich ma! often be lost in more rationall!9based anal!ses. At times throughout histor! the dividing line bet"een translation and adaptation has been
difficult to dra"% as for instance in the 5nited 6ingdom during the 7ictorian Age =cf. *ale% 1221>. In her anal!sis of a number of 3panish translations of +ashington Irving)s The Alhambra, ,a:uel Merino illustrates ho" the boundar! bet"een translation and adaptation becomes hard to identif! in the context of a popular text "hich is reproduced in both the source language =3.> and the target language =T.> in a number of versions. )Tracing bac =in a"e> a hundred9!ear histor! of 3panish translationsF +ashington Irving)s The Alhambra# describes an ongoing stud! to =i> compile a bibliographical catalogue of 3panish versions of the Alhambra text% and =ii> trace the texts themselves. 8ased on the texts so far identified% Merino chooses a number of characteristics "hich she then uses as a basis of comparison bet"een 3Ts and TTsC in addition she also compares individual 3Ts and TTs. A stud! of these characteristics% including the se:uence of the tales% the number of tales% and the text of selected opening paragraphs% leads to the provisional conclusion that some texts presented as translations are more li el! to be adaptations. Huestions raised in relation to the second topic% )T!pes and inds of translation)% move us along the continuum of :uestions about translation from the general to the more specific% on the one hand to consider the hermeneuti and reative aspe ts of translation in the context of literar!
"ntrodu tion
translation% and on the other to consider the relative importance of t!pological and st!listic factors in translation. #iotr 6uhi"c@a )s pith! and cooll!9evaluative chapter sets literar! translation in the context of literar! criticism and creative "riting rather than that of Applied .inguistics. .iterar! translation% he points out =li e the stud! of English literature>% has a relativel! recent provenance in the earl! t"entieth centur!C it further develops% he argues% )the characteristic features of both creative "riting and literar! criticism). *aving raised some conse:uent :uestions about the teaching of literar! translation% in "hich a case9b!9case approach is the norm and a no" unfashionabl! evaluative frame"or based on text t!polog! is recommended% 6uhi"c@a goes on to discuss the translation of one of the t!pes identified% namel! highl!9conventionalised texts. In so doing% he illustrates that a translation can sometimes improve st!listic aspects of the original% at the same time missing its poignanc! and allusions. *is conclusion invites us to consider "hether the technical details of translation anal!sis enable us as readers to understand the nature of translation. The second chapter in this section adopts a linguistic perspective. A recurrent issue in the assessment of contrastive phenomena is the relative "eight of establishing% on the one hand% ty"ological $actors, and% on the other% stylistic ideals. 5sing Mar T"ain)s vie"s as a starting point% (unnar Magnusson)s paper discusses t!pological differences and their effects on st!le and discourse in English and (erman. The contrastive topics selected for discussion areF gender% case% compounds% and separable verbs. Magnusson)s discussion extends be!ond formal comparisons to the use to "hich available structures are put in discourse% that is texts% the milieu of translators. The relative complexit! of (erman is compared "ith English% both formall! and st!listicall!% using numerous examples from Mar T"ain)s "ell9 no"n essa!s on the (erman language. Magnusson ends "ith a radical proposal of his o"n% to "hich% he surmises% Mar T"ain "ould not have been uns!mpathetic. If the capitalisation of nouns "ere abolished% as happened in 1'GI in the case of the -anish language% the additional difficulties experienced in processing structures such as nominal embeddings "ould lead to formal as "ell as st!listic changes. In his contribution on )Meaning% truth% and moralit! in translation)% Martin +eston% li e #eter $e"mar % adopts a vie" of translating and interpreting "hich prioritises. language use over more abstract models. *e does% ho"ever% disagree "ith $e"mar about the translator)s dut! "ith respect to texts "hich are ethicall! )deficient). +hich brings us to the third topicF )7alid andJ.deficient texts... +eston sets out b! reexamining the triadic model of interpreting and translating in "hich an intermediate stage of )disembodied) meaning is interposed bet"een
Translation Today: Trends and Perspectives
the S+ and !+$ 2asing his critiAue on the abstractness - and therefore inaccessibilit. - of the "ens%e non $ormul%e or the deverbalised thought9 as well as its im5lied but un@ustified universalit.9 he also re@ects a four5art model9 in which the intermediate stage is s5lit into S+ and !+ meaning$ Instead9 'eston a55eals to a 'ittgensteinian notion of meaning as the use to which language is 5ut9 as articulated in the work of the linguist '$ /aas$ ,or the translator9 the
e=5ressions with which he or she works are therefore the ke. to translating9 not *m.thological entities and corres5ondences*$ Clearl. influenced b. his 5rofessional e=5erience in the Registr. of the :uro5ean Court of /uman Rights9 'eston challenges Peter "ewmark*s in@unction for the translator to intervene in the interests of *truth*9 arguing that the translator*s dut. is to the te=t at all times$ As.mmetr. in translation9 in 5articular literar. translation9 attracted the earl. attention of translation theorists of the Pol.s.stem School$ Accordingl.9 translation into :nglish9 as a global lingua franca9 normall. e=hibits a greater degree of assimilation than translation into lesser used :uro5ean languages$ 'hile this *domesticating* tendenc. has been criticall. evaluated b. some authors with res5ect to literar. te=ts9 Peter "ewmark*s remarks on the status of *:nglish as a lingua franca of translation* - our fourth to5ic - are 5racticall. motivated: :nglish is accessible to the s5eakers of man. languages$ In his intriguingl. entitled 5iece on :nglish9 *!he decline of the native s5eaker*9 avid &raddol argues that in the future :nglish9 as a lingua franca9 will be used mainl. in multilingual conte=ts as a second language for communication between non-native s5eakers$ Peter "ewmark*s e=am5les of the ina55ro5riate use of :nglish in9 for e=am5le9 the conte=t of tourism demonstrate the need for revision when translators are of necessit. second-language users$ &raddol*s carefull. anal.sed and evaluated statistics show a clear trend: more :nglish9 but in the conte=t of growing multilingualism rather than at the cost of other languages$ ,or translation9 this im5lies a growing demand for translators working into :nglish9 increasingl. to be met b. non-native s5eakersB as a result9 a growing training need for language two 3+24 translators as well as language one 3+l4 s5eaker revisers ma. be antici5ated$ !he influence of :nglish on other languages has been well documented9 5articularl. from a le=ical 5ers5ective9 and is often 5erceived to be 5ervasive or even invasive$ Det ?uliane /ouse shows in her contribution *:nglish as lingua franca and its influence on discourse norms in other languages* that its influence sto5s short of changing the make-u5 of te=ts$ I 1ouse*s results are re5orted as 5art of a larger stud. which aims to anal.se discourse norms in &erman9 ,rench and S5anish te=ts in three genres: popular science te=ts9 economic texts from global organisations9
Introduction
and software manuals$ !he data consist of$ three cor5ora: the *5rimar.* cor5us of translations 5roduced to a55ear simultaneousl. with the S!9 E kind of *covert* translationB a four-language *5arallel* cor5us of te=ts from the same genresB and a further translation cor5us from &erman9 ,rench and S5anish into :nglish9 again in the same genres$ !he three cor5ora are su55lemented b. other data such as interviews and background documents$ 2ased on a subset of the &erman translation te=ts and a control sam5le of authentic *monolingual* &erman te=ts9 /ouse 5ro5oses that &erman te=ts cannot easil. be categorised as strongl. content-oriented9 as 5reviousl. claimed b. authors such as Cl.ne$ ;sing a /allida.an framework to describe the functions of le=ico-grammatical 5atterns 3micro-conte=t4 su55lemented b. the conce5t of genre 3macroconte=t49 she shows that the &erman te=ts in her sam5le do not ado5t anglo5hone strategies for involving the reader9 including what /ouse calls *genre mi=ing* whereb. an :nglish te=t ma. start: &u""ose you are a doctor in an emergency room, while the &erman translation starts with a statement in the third 5erson$ -ther differences include the degree of e=5licitness in the 5resentation of information9 the &erman te=ts being more e=5licit than the :nglish te=ts anal.sed$ In cultures which are used to 5erceiving themselves as monoglot9 the social relevance of translation and inter5reting is often hard to establish$ Anglo-Sa=on cultures9 such as that of the ;nited <ingdom9 are cases in 5oint: the social marginalisation of translation and inter5reting for grou5s which often have minorit. status has economic and legal conseAuences9 often masked b. social 5re@udice$ 'riting on our ne=t to5ic9 *Social translation and inter5reting*9 Ann Corsellis anal.ses the needs9 obstacles9 and 5ossible solutions involved in the Cinderella field of 5ublic
service inter5reting and translating in the ;<B the intersection of 5rofessional language skills and societ. is clearl. a55arent$ In her challenging contribution we learn about the e=5ectations and learning e=5eriences of the three 5rinci5al grou5s: 5ublic service 5ersonnel9 linguists9 and the 5otential users of the services$ Corsellis*s argument9 arising from man. .ears* e=5erience and activism in the field9 is that effective solutions lie in the relationshi5s between these grou5s$ Practical and realistic throughout9 Corsellis gives us a uniAue insight into a s.stem in evolution9 in which a gradual 5rocess of acknowledgement9 5rofessionalisation9 and action is emerging9 more clearl. so in the legal than in the medical field$ !he develo5ment of 5ublic service inter5reting and translation in the ;< ma. even be seen as a microcosm of social change$ As Corsellis rightl. remarks: *#ultilingualism is not a 5roblem$ It is a fact$ It onl. becomes a 5roblem when it is not res5onded to effectivel.$* 'hile 5ublic service translation and inter5reting ma. be viewed as having a low social 5rofile9 largel. hidden from the ma@orit. communit.9
audiovisual translation is% in contrast% a highl! visible area of translation. 8oth are% ho"ever% areas in "hich s!stematic training has been largel! neglected% as #eter $e"mar accuratel! ac no"ledges b! including them for discussion% the latter under the topic% ).ater modes of translation). +hile the use of surtitling for opera performances% the mode in "hich #eter $e"mar expresses a particular interest% is no" often extended to foreign language theatre productions% it is in subtitling that developments are at present ta ing place "ith breathta ing speed. In his informative surve!% )Audiovisual translation in the third millennium)% /orge -Ka@ Cintas outlines some of these developments and reminds us of the need for universit!9level training instead of on9the90ob learning% as "ell as of the need for more diverse and empiricall!9 based research to replace speculative or prescriptive approaches. -Ka@ Cintas sees audiovisual translation as an increasingl! important part of Translation 3tudies% itself a fast9evolving discipline. Indeed% the theme of -Ka@ Cintas)s contribution is changeF an increase in the demand for audiovisual translation% including subtitling for the deaf and hard of hearingC changing preferences in so9called )dubbing) or )subtitling) countriesC the simultaneous production not onl! of subtitled and dubbed films% but also of versions in several languages for the ne" -7- technolog!C and the exploration of audiovisual media =film "ith voice9over> to present information disseminated b! the E5 in 11 languages. &ne of the potentiall! most interesting developments is the different vie"er4listener behaviour "hich some of these changes ma! elicit% through% for example% the opportunit! to activel! compare not onl! dubbed versus subtitled versions of films% but also versions in different languages. #ic ing up an issue discussed else"here in this volume% namel! the global influence of English =cf. (raddolC *ouse>% -Ka@ Cintas casts doubt on h!pothesised future scenario ruling out the need even for subtitling in some European countries. As ne" modes of translation emerge% the need to respond to #eter $e"mar )s call for more clearl! formulated and uniforml! applied methods of assessment of translation and interpreting competence% the penultimate topic discussed in his paper% "ill gro" more urgent. In their contribution on )Translation and interpreting assessment in the context of educational measurement)% 3tuart Campbell and 3andra *ale tacitl! ac no"ledge #eter $e"mar )s call for action in this field b! dra"ing attention to the largel! intuitive basis of the ma0orit! of assessment in these areas% "hether in an educational or a professional context. Campbell and *ale set out to surve! the literature concerned "ith research in educational measurement% and in particular in language testing% using a dit 9c list of criteria against "hich assessment procedures might be measured( )he* arrive at the conclusion that man* items are alread*
"ntrodu tion
&
relativel! "ell covered% includingF the purpose of the test instrument =aptitude% placement% formative% summative% accreditation>% competencies assessed =for example% .l and .1 no"ledge% transfer competence% speed% accurac!% memor!% terminolog!% etc.>% and form of the test =for example% timed translation% interpreting role pla!% multiple choice test% etc.>. The! note% ho"ever% that t"o crucial items in particular are notabl! absent from the research
literature% namel! validit! =is the test measuring "hat it is supposed to measureL> and reliabilit! =ho" consistent is the testL>. (iven that translation and interpreting are sociall! important 0obs% Campbell and *ale plead for a more considered approach to testing% lin ing this ultimatel! to the relevance of the s ills and the standard of performance for "hich translators and interpreters are accredited. The final topic in #eter $e"mar )s paper% )The universit! and the mar et)% criticall! and polemicall! remar s on the influence of the mar et% not onl! on universities as institutions but also on Translation 3tudies as a discipline. In certain circumstances% the translator)s decision to accept or re0ect a translation 0ob ma! be an ethical oneF if% for instance% the value s!stem expressed in the 3T conflicts "ith the translator)s% "hat options are availableL This is the problem that is confronted b! (erard McAlester in his contribution entitled )A comment on translation ethics and education). In arguing that translators should consider the option of not translating a text at all if the! find it morall! offensive% he adds to the options considered b! $e"mar % according to "hom translators can% if in their opinion the text is liable to )pro9 vo e or mislead)% correct informative texts =ho" is not clear> or gloss historical or authoritative texts. The issue is then% for McAlester% to allo" moral issues into the translation classroom% reflecting the trul! vocational aspect of the profession as a calling% and balancing the mar et9 oriented vie". In contrast to Martin +eston% "ho argues that the translator)s dut! is to the text% McAlester concludes that the ultimate responsibilit! of the translator is to his or her conscience 9 opposing vie"s% in some "a!s reflecting 3t /erome)s sentiments on the calumnies of his "or F )If I correct errors in the 3acred Text% I am denounced as a falsifierC if I do not correct them% I am pilloried as a disseminator of error; =8obric % 1221F 6>. These "ords of 3t /erome "ere "ritten more than 15 centuries ago. /ust over the threshold of a ne" millennium% /lus 'a change ...(
Note
#. (raddol% -. =1'''> The decline of the native spea er. In -. (raddol and 5.*. Meinhof
3rds4
fLnglish in a changing "orld% AILA Review )* +"". ,--.8/. CatchlineF 5nited 6ingdom.
10
Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es References
Bobrick, Benson (2001) The Makin! o0 the 1n!lish 2ible. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. Hale, err! (2001) "oman#icism and #$e %ic#orian a&e. 'n (. )rance (ed.) The 3x0or( ui(e to 4iterature in Translation 5//. *+,-2). ./ford: ./ford 0ni1ersi#! (ress. our!, 2ideon (1334) &escri/ti'e Translation 6tu(ies an( 2e.on(. 5ms#erdam: Ben6amins.
Part 1
Chapter 2
Round-table Discussion on Translation in the New Millennium

Opening Address by G nilla Ander!an
<irst of all% then% "elcome to ever!one. I am particularl! pleased to be able to "elcome
representatives of the professional organisations as "ell as colleagues from academia. 3o ma! I "elcome E!vor <ogart! from <IT =<Dderation Internationale des Traducteurs> and the ITI =Institute of Translation and Interpreting>% Mi e 3hields from the TA =Translators Association>% and (raham Cross% Chair of the IT. *enr! #avlovich of the Io. =Institute of .inguists> "ill be 0oining us later. I am also delighted to "elcomeF ,einer Arnt@ =5niversit! of *ildesheim% (erman!>% 3imon Chau =*ong 6ong 8aptist 5niversit!% *ong 6ong>% -avid Connoll! =European Educational &rgani@ation% (reece>% /ohn -odds =5niversit! of Trieste% Ital!>% 6urt 6ohn =5niversit! of TMbingen% (erman!>% #iotr 6uhi"c@a =5niversit! of +ar"ic % 56>% *ans .ind:uist =7Ax0B 5niversit!% 3"eden>% 3!lfest .omheim =Agder College% $or"a!>% (erard McAlester =5niversit! of Tampere% <inland>% Albrecht $eubert =5niversit! of .eip@ig% (erman!>% (ideon Tour! =Tel Aviv 5niversit!% Israel>. +e are ver! pleased that representatives from the professions as "ell as academics are "ith us toda!. 3o% than !ou for coming and again "elcome to ever!bod!.
Pro"essor Peter Ne#!ar$

If !ou don)t mind% first I "ould li e to sa! than !ou ver! much for coming% in so far as !ou)re coming for me 9 I)m ver! flattered. And% than !ou ver! much also for organising this. 3econdl!% I have been told to ) eep it informal) 9 "ell% I usuall! am informal an!"a!. $o"% m! 0ob is to introduce the sections% "hich might not exactl! follo" m! paper. I have tried to give !ou a "ide range of things to discuss. This is an invitation% but it is not in an! "a! comprehensive% and I hope that !ou "ill discuss here the things that !ou are reall! interested in.
T%e nat re o" translation

3o% the first section is )Aspects of the nature of translation) and I)m going to tal! ver! briefl!. As !ou see% I don)t thin 9 unli e% for instance% 1? 1$ Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es
#ar. Snell-/ornb. - I don*t think translation changes in essence at all$ !here are three or four what I call *dualities*9 rather than *dualisms*B dualism suggests a certain o55osition9 duality sim5l. two sub@ects which I want to mention9 to bring out: on the one hand9 a sim5lified message9 and on the other hand the full meaning9 and there is alwa.s this choice$ !hen9 translation is 5artl. a science and 5artl. an art9 I would sa. also a craft and a matter of taste$ I think science is the search for truth - this is an old-fashioned word in !ranslation Studies$ !o me the scientific as5ect is9 above all9 non-literar.9 it*s about things9 it*s about realit.9 it*s about facts9 it*s im5ersonal9 and it*s about ob@ects$ !he other is the aesthetic9 or9 if .ou like9 translation as an art9 and this is imagination9 which is so im5ortant$ !his is beaut.9 this is literar. translation9 this centres on 5eo5le9 as literature does$
Types and $inds o" translation
'e know translation is alwa.s an a55ro=imation - imagination brings it nearer$ !his is so9 I think9 in man. t.5es of te=ts$ !hat is the secondar. 5art of translation 3*secondar.* is the wrong word9 but here it means secondar. to *Scientific !ruth*4$ It a55lies to non-literar. translation as well as literar. translation9 although in literar. te=ts imagination9 on the whole9 has a far greater role9 often the more im5ortant role$ I transfer from this to the nonliterar. - which I now often call *enc.clo5aedic*9 and literar. is more *dictionar.*$ 0onliterary centres in names9 in titles9 in ca5italised words 3remember9 these are big generalisations49 while the literary is the dictionar.9 the world of the mind9 what is hereB the nonliterary is more 5articular9 the dictionar. side is more general9 as .ou see in m. 5a5er9 it*s *lower case*$ !hen there*s a different kind of contrast - between fresh language and clichFs$ Increasingl.9 use of language is alwa.s ver. im5ortant in translation - *writing well*9 I call it - and it needs definition9 which I can*t do e=actl. nowB but a contrast between words
that are so often used that the. more and more lose their meaning9 and words that are freshl. used$ !his contrast9 I think9 again a55lies in all translation$ !hese are onl. glim5ses9 but I think that*s all I*d like to sa. here$
&alid and de"icient te'ts
#. ne=t section is on the need for a terminolog. in translation9 for certain words which are needed in translation9 and for agreed meanings of them$ "ow9 I @ust give .ou9 as m. e=am5les9 a *valid* te=t and a *deficient* te=t$ A valid te=t is one that is9 immediatel.9 .ou might sa.9 translatable$ It*s logical9 it*s accurate9 it*s ethical9 and it*s elegant$ A de$icient te=t is one that needs some kind of treatment9 either within the te=t9 or - if it*s a historical te=t or a famous te=t 3I often give 'in <am5f as an example
'ound(table )is ussion 1%
here4 - which needs some kind of gloss9 normall. on the 5art of the translator$ Secondl.9 I give .ou a contrast between *mistakes* which are due to ignorance 3the. are listed ver. briefl. in m. 5a5er4 and what I call *deviations*9 which is where the translation follows some kind of idea about translation9 as so man. translators do9 owing to what I call misguided teaching$ !he third 5oint is what I call *creative deviations*9 where the imagination9 the creativit.9 of the translator is reAuired9 5articularl. in challenging te=ts9 the. are essential to an. kind of imaginative translation$ -- In general for the first t.5e9 if one is assessing an e=am 3and I*ll return to that49 .ou would not normall. 5enalise deviations as heavil. as .ou*d 5enalise mistakes$ In m. 5a5er I*ve a section here on the im5ortance - if one is discussing translation or writing about translation - of e=am5les of live9 raw Auotations creating the main link between translation 5ractice and translation theor.$ "ormall.9 the more e=am5les and comments on e=am5les9 the more instructive - educative - such a te=t is$
Translating o t o" t%e lang age o" %abit al se
!his is an im5ortant matter9 because of translationese and false friends$ I think I give five e=am5les from !rier - I was writing this 5a5er 5artl. when I was in !rier - showing that these mistranslations9 such as 5robabl. written9 as I sa.9 b. a &erman 3but might have been written b. an :nglish 5erson49 are fairl. harmless9 but the. do stick out9 and therefore an. kind of munici5al authorit.9 I think9 must have at least one reviser to ten service translators$
Englis% as t%e ling a "ranca o" translation
!his section is self-contained9 I ho5e$ I*m suggesting that the role of :nglish is now established$ And I recount9 I ho5e9 an amusing incident in 2russels9 suggesting that it was arrogance$ It often is arrogance9 but it*s something that has to be recognised
Social translation and interpreting
"ow to this conce5t - again9 .ou ma. re@ect it - I ho5e I*ve defined it in m. 5a5er$ 'ith the decline of ideolog.9 the realisation is increasingl. im5ortant that9 as I*ve 5ut it9 this is an age of migrations9 5ublic service translators9 5ublic service inter5retersB I sa. that the. come first9 because social translation is centred on the 5oor and the disadvantaged9 because the. are in another countr.9 because of the enormous amount of translation work that the. reAuire$ I*ve also said that social translation comes between the other two9 that is9 literary and non-literary, because social translation9 unlike literar. translation9 is centred on real 5eo5le9 and here I talk about the difficulties of words that re5resent human Aualities9 and I've pointed out that !.tler discussed this as5ect of translation over 288
.ears ago: the fact that such words ought to be universal9 but the. are strongl. influenced b.
culture9 which is alwa.s the greatest barrier to translation$ It relates also to acron.ms and to institutional terms$
Later !odes o" translation
I leave it for somebod. else to discuss #achine !ranslation$ I feel I*m not Aualified to do so$ 2ut in m. 5a5er I*m interested in surtitles9 and the growing future of surtitles$ I*ve defined the conce5t9 so I*m not going to define it againB but most 5eo5le even now9 when I mention it9 think I*m talking about subtitles - but it*s not the same thing at all$ It*s the translation of o5era te=ts 5ro@ected above or alongside the stage which has also been e=tended to foreign 5la.s and9 soon I ho5e9 will be to +ieder te=ts$
T%e assess!ent o" translation
I*ve brought u5 again the matter of the assessment of e=ams - translation e=ams - because I think what goes on is that two or three 5eo5le write about assessing translations9 while man. 5eo5le don*t believe in it at all and sa. that translation alwa.s works in its time and its 5lace9 and wh. introduce standards9 or Aualities9 or values9 into it$ 'ell9 it is essential9 and again9 there is m. reference to valid texts. I*ve given .ou the four terms: valid te=ts9 deficient te=ts9 mistakes9 and deviations - all these in a wa. are closel. related to the matter of assessment of e=ams$
T%e niversity and t%e !ar$et
!he last thing - and9 in a wa.9 the most im5ortant thing - is what I call *!he ;niversit. and the #arket*$ "ow that translation in man. countries has become a disci5line9 there*s a reaction: once it*s in the universit. .ou sa. *but this is not the real worldB the real world is the market*$ Dou know what I mean: we are facing the challenges of the market$ I am not for a minute suggesting that the market should be ignored$ It must be taken into account9 but I*m suggesting that if .ou are in a universit.9 there are other things: and I*m talking about the values embodied b. universities - re5resented9 if .ou like9 b. Cardinal "ewman and b. 'ilhelm von /umboldt 3but I think Ale=ander is9 in a wa.9 much more im5ortant4: it*s humanistic ideas9 more general ideas9 that are im5ortant9 that language has been marketised in too man. cases$ "orman ,airclough has written well about this$1 !his is something that the translator has to guard against on the lowest level - sim5l. on the matter of what I call *P$R$ language* or *media language* - in other words9 a mass of clichFsB on a higher level9 humane ideals and values9 which is what /umboldt and "ewman were talking about$ !o sa. sim5l. the real world is a market9 as is often done 3and I*m 5articularl. concerned with translation what I*ve read about in &erman.9 but also in this countr.49 is com5letel. absurd9
'ound(table )is ussion 17
I think$ !he danger of the universit. ideal is that it is9 certainl.9 generalised$ As far as I remember9 "ewman9 in his book The Idea o$ the 1niversity in 1G()9 suggested that .ou shouldn*t have 5rofessional or technical sub@ects in the universit.$ I don*t agree with that9 because I believe it*s the e=am5les that bring us into the real world9 and I think the e=am5les are ver. im5ortant$ 2ut these universit. values of humaneness9 and the 5rimac. of both societ. and the individual in an. kind of activit.9 I think9 are ver. im5ortant9 and again it*s regrettable9 I think9 that some 5ro5onents of !ranslation !heor. are also talking about the customer all the time9 the *client*B the readershi5 sim5l. becomes *clientHle*9 so an.thing the clientHle sa.s must go$ And this is the last 5oint$ I have written here words that I*ll leave .ou with: the need to discriminate between an im"ortant text - and b. that I mean a te=t that sa.s im5ortant things9 humane things - and the o55osite9 which the translator has to do$ I am suggesting - and this is 5ositivel. m. last sentence9 which is a develo5ment9 I think9 from the 5a5er - that if one writes about translation9 it*s aesthetics and ethics that are9 sim5l.9 usuall.9 neglected or com5letel. misinter5reted$
T%e Disc ssion G nilla Ander!an
!hank .ou Peter$ "ow9 lets start with the first to5ic9 !he "ature of !ranslation$ So9 can I then9 5lease9 ask first &ideon9 and then Albrecht and Piotr9 who have indicated an interest9 to make a contribution to the first section9 to give us their views on this 5articular 5art of Peter*s 5a5er$ So we*ll start with &ideon$
Gideon To ry
I*m no longer sure that it*s onl. Section 1: ma.be it*s a general overview which focuses on Section I9 but it*s not reducible to it - if .ou don*t mind I*ll do it that wa.$ +et me first warn .ou that what I am tr.ing to do is 5ut some basic reactions to the written version of Peter*s 5osition 5a5er - but it is not too much removed from what we have @ust heard 3and we have all read the written version4 - in m. non-native :nglish9 for some kind of :nglish has certainl. become the lingua franca9 not onl. of translation itself9 but of !ranslation Studies as well$ So9 some kind of :nglish - that*s what .ou have to e=5ect9 no more9 no less$ I will no doubt have 5roduced what Peter has so em5haticall. called9 more than once toda.9 a deficient te=t9 namel. in st.listic terms$ I did9 however9 tr. to make m. te=t valid in all other res5ects9 namel.: logical9 factuall. accurate9 and ethicall. sound - or9 at least9 not too unsound. I*ll be following @ust one thread out of man.9
ho5efull.9 one that will result in a fair amount of *fair* coverage of Peter*s argumentation that uniAue :nglish word *fair* that .ou have discussed in the written version but never referred to in the oral version$ As some of .ou ma. know9 one of m. concerns is that9 when translation is discussed9 ver. often hats are too easil. changed9 and levels that had better remain se5arate are too often mi=ed together9 b. which I mean the unhol. trinit. of the theoretical9 the descri5tivee=5lanator. and the ideologicall. motivated$ !hus9 when Peter sa.s - and I*m Auoting from the written 5a5er9 but .ou Auoted it almost verbatim at the beginning of .our 5resentation toda. - when Peter sa.s that the nature of translation in its essence does not change9 he must have in mind what human beings9 when acting as translators9 ma. in 5rinci5le be doing9 rather than what the. are allegedl. su55osed9 or are reAuired to do9 even less so9 what a 5articular translator did9 is doing9 or will be doing at an. 5articular moment9 in an. 5articular 5lace9 or with regard to an. 5articular te=t$ It is the initial 5otential that ma. be said to be unchanging9 unless we acce5t - I don*t9 but ma.be there are those who would acce5t it unless we acce5t that the human mental a55aratus itself is still undergoing changes - namel.9 changes of essence9 rather than mere e=tent$ ,or instance9 that our memor. was once different from what it is now9 or that it will be essentiall. different in the future$ 2ecause9 if this is the case9 then the 5ossibilities themselves of realising the general notion of translation ma. also change$ According to our assum5tion9 changes do not occur in terms of the initial 5ossibilities9 but rather in the distribution of the actual realisations of those 5ossibilities that are to be encountered in the world of our e=5erience9 as well as those among the realisations which9 for one reason or another - or rather9 for a combination of different reasons9 would be regarded as 5referable$ ConseAuentl.9 there is a lot of difference between talking about translation in terms of what it can initiall. be9 and what it is9 under this or that set of circumstancesB what it is reAuired to be9 and what it tends to be$ :ach one of these Auestion areas is legitimate9 as well as interestingB and each one of us ma. choose an area to his or her own liking$ Still9 it should be realised that the. belong to different domains of !ranslation Studies9 and it sim5l. won*t do to mi= them all in one neutral9 or neutralising bag$ !hus9 sa.ing that the mode of translation or the ensuing te=t is unacce5table is not the same as sa.ing that it is im5ossible9 or even non-e=istent$ !he first claim is normative 3unacce5table49 the second - theoretical9 the third - descri5tive$ +ooked at from a different angle9
acce5tabilit. is a sociolinguistic notion referring to the cultural status of an initial 5ossibilit. which itself is basicall. cognitive$ ,inall.9 e=istence is @ust a raw fact which can be 5ositive or negative9 or even lack an. value tag whatsoever$ Peter alwa.s sa.s that I don*t give
'ound(table )is ussion 1&
e=am5les9 so I decided to bring an e=am5le$ !his is an e=am5le that Peter and I have been arguing about9 and disagreeing u5on in the 5ast$ !ake the 2ing 3ames 4ersion of the 2ible$ In 5rinci5le9 this 1011 te=t could have been 5roduced in 1666 tooB however9 I do not think it would have9 in view of the dominant conce5t of translation$ #oreover - and this is where we disagree if it did emerge now9 I don*t believe it would have counted as a ver. good translation9 not even of the 2ible9 if onl.9 but b. no means solel.9 because of the host of instances of interference it contains$ *A ver. visible translation indeed* - Auote9 unAuote - toda.*s culture critics would 5robabl. claim9 which for them9 but 5robabl. for them onl.9 in the overall subversive frame of reference the. entertain9 would have counted as a coveted mode of translation9 even though not necessaril. as a real o5tion9 much less so a dominant one9 certainl. not in :nglish$ /ad I had some more time9 I would have started wondering aloud - and I*m 5icking out another e=am5le which is in the 5a5er but which .ou have not Auoted toda. - what Peter would have made out of the fact that there are some )8 /ebrew translations of the &oethe 5oem .ou cited at the beginning of the 5a5er 3of the written version49 of the number of different translations9 as well as the multi5le conce5t of translation underl.ing them$ /owever9 I don*t have that kind of time9 and therefore I will do m. wondering in silence$ !hank .ou$
G nilla Ander!an
!hank .ou ver. much$ An. Auick comments hereI

Peter Ne#!ar$
-ne Auick comment would be that the 2ing 3ames 4ersion that was Auoted b. &ideon9 I don*t call it a Auotation9 that*s an illustration$ ,or a Auotation9 I must have a Auotation$ !he onl. other 5oint is that9 as I*ve said with 5oetr.9 it*s inevitable that there should be an enormous number of versions$ !here*s nothing there that contradicts an.thing9 because there are so man. constraints9 because imagination has 5la.ed such a strong 5artB and it*s sim5l. not sur5rising9 given that even in a concrete te=t9 a normal non-literar. te=t9 no two translations normall. are the same - not at all sur5rising$
Gideon To ry
2ut what I said is not @ust that the number was great9 and not onl. that each one of them was different from the rest of them9 but that the. were re5resentative of different a55roaches to what translation is at different 5eriods of time$ And this is something .ou kee5 ski55ing over - something which .ou seem not to like because it has been misused9 or even abused - the historicit. argument9 but it doesn*t make it an. more wrong$
2* Peter Ne#!ar$
I accept that% but I also accept that language changes% and it)s inevitable that there "ould be man! different versions.
Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es
G nilla Ander!an
3hall "e as Albrecht at this point% and "e can come bac to this later.
Albrec%t Ne bert
+ell% I haven)t got such a nicel! prepared contribution. I)ll 0ust react as I usuall! do to #eter)s ver! stimulating tal % and his stimulating paperC and I must sa! at the beginning that "hat I have al"a!s appreciated about his "or is that it is stimulating of thought and imagination. That)s reall! the first thing% and it)s al"a!s a little bit provocativeF !ou put in certain things "hich !ou no" are 0ust for rebuttal and% most importantl!% contradicting #eter is al"a!s raising the contradictor to a higher level 9 in other "ords it enhances the logical% cultural% philosophical and humane level of argumentationC that)s% incidentall!% also "h! I thin #eter is so fre:uentl! :uoted. $ot that I support ever!thing !ou sa! or "rite% but others ma e use of !our "or % !our ideas% !our examples 9 ver! often examples 9 let me ma e a comparisonF "hen !ou climb a mountain% !ou no"% !ou need something to hold on to on the "a! up% but still "hen !ou go on and leave it behind% !ou thin !ou "ill reach the mountain top% although the mountain in Translation 3tudies is still in the clouds% as far as I can see. 3o% I thin it "ill al"a!s remain some"hat in the clouds. 8ut his "ords 9 sometimes snippets of an idea% neat% or "itt!% or caustic 9 ma! remain in our minds% reminding us of #eter)s imaginative humane striving for enlightenment% and al"a!s of his contempt for the hac ne!ed% diseased% illogical% impure% fa e rhetoric.
G nilla Ander!an
Than !ou% Albrecht. #eter% I thin I "ould prefer to invite #iotr% and then that !ou perhaps respond to him and Albrecht% to ensure that "e give ever!bod! an opportunit! to contribute.
Piotr ( %i#c)a$
+hat I li e about #eter)s paper 9 and I "ould sa!% "h! I read #eter $e"mar 9 is that he uses different language from that "hich one often comes across in theoretical "riting about translationC and I li e his human side% and his o"n personal terminolog!. And toda! he used three termsF good9bad "riting% artistic9aesthetic% and I thin the most important "ord for me in this context 9 taste. $o"% obviousl! I am tal ing about literar! translation% literar! texts% and someho" this is the part of the stud! of translation "hich does not re eive too mu h attention( "a*be
'ound(table )is ussion
21
because it is ver! difficultC ma!be because% in universities toda! =as !ou said% there are some problems "ith universities>% !ou are not supposed to discriminate bet"een literar! texts% or bet"een an! texts% and the ver! idea of tal ing about% and discussing% and teaching taste is ver! controversial. I "ould li e to sa! this because !ou don)t sa! it in this paper% "hich is rather unusual because 9 if I am not mista en 9 not once do !ou mention the name of .eavis toda!.
Peter Ne#!ar$
It)s no good mentioning .eavis "hen man! people ma! not no" "hat .eavis means.
Piotr ( %i#c)a$
+ell% that)s exactl! the problem isn)t itL Nou see% I thin "ith $e"man it)s slightl! easier% he)s been in the media recentl!% but I thin .eavis hasn)t been in the media a lot recentl!. Net I thin this is part of the discourse. &bviousl!% it)s ver! unfortunateC ma!be it)s better not to mention the name% because it evo es rather negative associations toda!. If !ou sa! !ou are a .eavisite% or !ou sa! !ou read .eavis% !ou are not considered to be :uite sane. And it)s strange that being in the generation "hich does not remember .eavis% I "as not taught b! .eavis% I "as not taught b! the pupils of .eavis 9 but I still thin there)s a lot in .eavis "hich I thin English culture 9 "hich created .eavis 9 has lost% "hich is a shame. 3o% I "ould end b! sa!ing that the notions% the "ords !ou have used% are ver! difficult to define% but I thin it)s essential that "e loo at them ver! closel!% because translation is about discrimination% and literature is about discrimination. $o"% unfortunatel!% in order to discriminate% one needs a lot of courage% and one ma! ma e mista es. &ne should be prepared to pa! the price for this% and I no" that !ou are prepared to do that.
G nilla Ander!an
Than !ou. An! more general comments hereL 6urtL ( rt (o%n +hat I find ver! interesting is !our point% #eter% that translation in its ver! essence does not change. I agree that% as a practice% it doesn)t change% in the sense of "hat translators do. 8ut "hat does change is the "a! "e loo at translation% our models% our concept of "hat translation is% that changes dramaticall!% "hich in turn influences our practice. And here% I thin it)s extremel! important to see the lin bet"een translation models% or Translation Theor!% on the one hand% and
models of language% .inguistic Theor!% on the other.
22
!he wa. we think and talk about language determines the wa. we think and talk about translation9 and there is an obvious relationshi5 between9 sa.9 structuralist theories of language9 generative theories of language9 and corres5onding models or wa.s of thinking and talking about translation$ !his changed9 for instance9 with 5ragmatics and in the earl. 16G8s9 when discourse 5rocessing emerged as a research to5ic9 something b. the wa. which has been missing in our discussion so far$ 'ith these views on language9 our views on translation9 translating9 translation 5rocesses9 and translation strategies have changed .et again$ I find this e=tremel. interesting9 and let me give .ou an e=am5le: m. first readings in !ranslation Studies9 growing u5 with decoding9 transfer9 and encoding9 were modelled on a structuralist a55roach to language$ "ow9 from the 5ers5ective of discourse as 5rocess9 com5rehension9 and 5roduction9 I would sa. translation or translating a te=t ma. be viewed as nothing more than com5rehension and 5roduction9 but under adverse conditions$ 'e have all learnt how to read and how to understand a te=t and we have develo5ed different strategies for t.5es of 5rocessing conditions$ 'hen it comes to translation9 all we have to do is to understand and9 on the basis of what we have understood9 5roduce a te=t9 but the 5rocessing conditions have changed9 the. are now different9 and we have to ada5t our readingJwriting strategies9 and this is what makes it so difficult for 5eo5le to translate$ !he. a55l. the strategies the. are used to$ !his is something we could discuss at length$ And I think that Peter*s distinction between semantic and communicative translation is along the same lines$ "ow9 for e=am5le9 the *Rock.* te=t with which .ou are all familiar in the *r#+n/,ule discourse anal.sis book92 *Rock. got u5 from the mat 5lanning his esca5e9 but the lock that held him was strong* and then there is something about Rock.*s esca5e9 and that he was able to break the lock$ "ow9 de5ending on how .ou understand this9 it could be a wrestling situation or it could be a gaol situation$ !he te=t is consistent with either inter5retation and9 de5ending on whether .ou take it as a wrestling situation or as a gaol situation9 .ou understand it in a different wa. and hence .ou have to translate it in different wa.s$ So9 if .ou translate it into &erman9 for instance9 .ou end u5 with two different te=ts9 because a word like mat is rendered differentl.: Matratze$ -rits .e 3*gaol*4 or Matte 3*wrestling*4$
G nilla Ander!an
!hank .ou <urt$ Can I ask Peter to comment briefl. and then we*ll move on to the ne=t section$ PeterI
Peter Ne#!ar$
!hank .ou$ I haven*t disowned the conce5ts of communicative and se+anti translation, but I no longer use them. I now talk about a orrelati!e
'ound(table )is ussion 2#
theor. of translation9 which I write a lot about but nobod. ever com /ienKs$ !he 5oint is, I*ve never suggested that it was eit.er communicative #r semantic9 I 5oint out9 for instance9 that in advertising9 if .ou translate semanticall.9 it needs notes$ And if .ou translate Shakes5eare 5ro5erl.9 he needs notes9 both for :nglish and non-:nglish s5eakers$ And this is how a semantic translation is in a wa.9 if .ou like9 @ustified but needs notes9 footnotes9 5refaces9 where such difficulties are much better e=5lained$ I welcome the word *aesthetic* - .ou know I sa. right at the end of m. 5a5er9 there is not enough aesthetic criticism$ A last 5oint - the 5arado= about
translation - I think9 is that while it does not change basicall.9 it*s difficult to define$ #an. dictionaries @ust co5 out9 the. @ust sa. it means to render from one language to another9 in other words9 avoiding the word *meaning*$ !he word meaning is the thing that is so difficult to define9 and I mention this in the 5a5er$
Gideon To ry
#a. I add a note to <urt*s e=am5le of *Rock.*I /e rightl. enough said that I knew it ver. well9 because I got it from him .ears and .ears ago9 and he was talking about how such a 5assage could be translated9 as well as how it s.#uld be translated and9 .ou said9 *has to be translated*$ If .ou carr. out an e=5eriment9 .ou*ll soon enough find out that9 in most cases9 .ou*ll get a mi=ed translation$ So9 there are a lot of Auestions to be asked9 but this is an illustration - not an e=am5le - of what I refer to as the descri5tive-e=5lanator. dimension in !ranslation Studies$ And it calls for an e=5lanation9 which is what most translators would do$
( rt (o%n
And I think I would e=5lain this using Peter*s conce5t of mista/e. 'hen something goes wrong9 .ou*ll get a *mi=ed* translation9 i$e$ a translation that mi=es two 5ossible inter5retations$ !his might ha55en when the translator takes a word-b.-word or line-b.-line a55roach9 instead of having a full awareness of what heJshe is translatingB a holistic understanding of the te=t$ I carried out an informal e=5eriment with m. students% where I s5lit u5 the grou5 - a lecture grou5 of about G8 students - into three sub-grou5s$ !o one I said that this was a gaol situation9 the second I told it was a wrestling situation9 and the third grou5 I didn*t tell an.thing$ And then the. had to translate the te=t$ !he result was that all the *gaol* 5eo5le translated it consistentl. as a gaol stor.B and the second grou5 translated it consistentl. as a *wrestling* stor.$ In the third grou5 - and this is what*s interesting - I found both versions9 but the ma@orit. of students o5ted intuitivel. for the *gaol* situation$ !hat was in a wa. more familiar than wrestling9 which is not a
2$ Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es
mainstream activit.$ 2ecause of Roc5y, 5eo5le might think of bo=ing9 but then the information in the te=t doesn*t fit the *bo=ing* frame and the. notice this$ So 5eo5le*s 5reconceived ideas influence the wa. the. understand and translate9 and if .ou show them before the e=5eriment 5ictures of a gaol or of a wrestling situation9 this will influence their inter5retation and translation$ I*m not sa.ing that this 5ers5ective is the onl. one9 it*s the one I*m interested in9 and I think 5art of the controvers.9 if indeed there is a controvers.9 has to do with us tr.ing to come u5 with @ust one model9 while there are other 5ossible models of language and translation as well9 and we need different models of translation - we can*t 5ut it all in one$
Gunilla Anderman
!hank .ou9 thank .ou <urt$ I think that Albrecht wants to make a concluding 5oint before we move on to the ne=t section$
Albrecht Neubert
?ust one 5oint$ Peter9 .ou said that .ou are no longer using the conce5t of *communicative* and *semantic* translation but in .our 5a5er .ou gave a wonderful e=am5le9 what .ou called a semantic translation is9 for the readershi5 of advertising 5rofessionals9 nothing but a communicative one$ !hat*s the onl. 5ossible inter5retation we can give it9 because it serves the needs of these 5eo5le9 so it is communicative9 but - .ou are 5erfectl. right - the wa. it is done9 in .our terms it looks semantic9 still it is no doubt communicative$
Gunilla Anderman
!hank .ou ver. much Albrecht$ "ow moving on to the second to5ic9 !.5es and <inds of !ranslation9 I believe .ou would like to make a comment Simon$
Simon Chau
!here are three 5aragra5hs in this section$ I*ll read from the second 5aragra5h$ I find it slightl. amusing$ It reads: I*ve noticed that man. translation e=am candidates9 forgetting that translation is cultural as well as linguistic $$$ 'ell9 m. e=5erience is that it*s not onl. the candidates9 it*s the e=aminersL Some .ears ago9 I 5ointed out to the Institute of +inguists - I su55ose most of us know that the. are the authoritative bod. in the ;$<$ offering e=aminations in translation - that all candidates must be told what readershi5 the. are translating for$ If I were a candidate9 I wouldn*t know9 without being told9 who is going to read it$ 2ut still even toda.9 si= .ears after m. suggestion9 nothing has been done$ So I think that it*s high time that all of us9 as educators9 stated ver. clearl.9 in ever.
'ound(table )is ussion 2%
e=amination 5a5er9 where and under what conditions such te=ts - the translated te=ts - are to be used$ !hank .ou$
Gunilla Anderman
&ood$ Simon9 I think .ou also had a 5oint related to the ne=t to5ic9 >alid and eficient !e=ts$ 'ould .ou like to continue 5leaseI
Simon Chau
!hank .ou ver. much$ 'ell9 I think that9 as far as sacred texts are concerned9 the same te=ts can be sacred on one occasion9 and the. can be non-sacred on other occasions$ It*s not the nature of the te=t itself9 but Shakes5eare9 as well as !on. 2lair9 can be ver. sacred9 when translated for a 5articular 5ur5ose$ And9 .ou know9 these da.s we recite a com5lete work of Shakes5eare) in 61 minutes$ So9 Shakes5eare is no longer sacred9 in that sense$ !hank .ou$ 'ell9 that was brief and to the 5oint$ Perha5s9 we could then move on to the sub@ect of :nglish as the +ingua ,ranca of !ranslation$ Could I now ask Reiner ArntC to come in here$ And then after Reiner*s contribution9 5erha5s .ou*d be kind enough to res5ond to the 5oints that have been raised9 Peter$
Reiner Arntz Gunilla Anderman
I would like to select @ust one or two 5oints from Peter "ewmark*s im5ressive surve. - as5ects which seem to me to be 5articularl. im5ortant$ 2. means of some e=treme9 but undoubtedl. realistic e=am5les9 Peter "ewmark shows us how trul. de5lorable translations can be9 even toda.$ I*m talking here about the !rier e=am5les$ In the face of such disasters9 which9 de5ending on .our mood9 ma. move .ou to laughter or 5lunge .ou into des5air9 it is hard to sa. who deserves more blame - is it the unfortunate 5roducer of the te=t9 a55arentl. blissfull. unaware of the true state of his or her :nglishI -r is it the 5erson who commissioned it9 who9 5robabl. out of ignorance9 but 5erha5s also eager to save mone.9 set an incom5etent to create something that ma. be a source of amaCement to countless readers for .ears to comeI And9 should the unha55. 5roducer of the te=t actuall. turn out to be a trained translator9 well9 a considerable 5ortion of blame must then also be attached to those who trained that 5erson9 who taught him or her so little$ In defence of our 5rofession9 I would hasten to add that in recent .ears a great deal has changed for the better$ In most countries the wa. that translators are trained has become far more 5rofessional9 and a lot of the credit for this must be given to translation theor.9 its occasional e=cesses notwithstanding$ *I*ll is and the
26
increasing economic significance of technical translation have together resulted in a noticeable
professionalisation of translating% and this trend "ill no doubt continue. +e are in the middle of a process of globalisation that is encouraged and supported b! the constant improvements in tech9 nical means of communication. $umerous translation agencies have lin ed up to form international net"or s% and it is no" perfectl! normal for translators to "or in the countr! of their foreign language. Toda! it is reall! no problem at all to find an expert "ith native9spea er abilit! to loo through the text that "e have 0ust translated into their language% or even to underta e the translation itself. These possibilities alread! exist% but the! can onl! be exploited to the full if those "ho commission translations appreciate that :ualit! is a decisive factor in the translation too% and that :ualit! is not given a"a! for free. As #eter $e"mar )s examples plainl! sho"% there is still a lot that needs to be done in this respect. And it has to be said that universit! departments of Translation 3tudies have not% so far% done much to spread this particular message. $obod! toda! "ill den! that a good training in translation re:uires a solid foundation in translation theor!% but at the same time it is vital not to lose sight of translation in the real "orld. And in particular the customers% "ho for the most part "ill have no ac:uaintance "ith translation theor! "hatsoever% and "ho "ill often have a grotes:ue lac of understanding of "hat translation involves. A great deal still needs to be explained% and explained in language that non9specialists can understand% and the translation theorists shouldn)t feel that this is a tas that is beneath their dignit!. #eter $e"mar )s examples provide food for thought in another respect% in that the! seem to me to confirm the fact that the complexit! of lingua franca English has been hugel! underestimated. Clearl!% neither the person commissioning the translation% "ho almost certainl! learned English at school% nor the producer of the text seemed to realise that the! are both ma ing themselves loo ridiculous "ith such translations. There is nothing unusual about thisC that abuse of lingua franca English in its various forms is a universal phenomenon 9 a fate that the language of such historical and cultural significance hardl! deserves. Admittedl! this disadvantage is compensated for b! the enormous benefit that international communication and of course the English language communit! itself both derive from the lingua franca function of English. 8ut this doesn)t alter the fact that ever! lingua franca is a less than ideal solution. It is a step for"ard "hen <rench and (erman people toda! feel that the! can communicate "ith each other in English. ,eal understanding% ho"ever% above and be!ond the mere exchange of superficial pleasantries% re:uires% as it has al"a!s done% that one of the parties involved is competent in the language of the other. And% as a (erman "ho is specialising in the ,omance languages% I can onl! sa! that this situation is not "holl!
27
unappealing. The spea ers of the so9called lesser9used languages are "ell a"are of this% of course% as developments in Eastern Europe in the last 12 !ears have clearl! sho"n. The conse:uences of such developments have alread! made themselves felt in the translation mar et. The number of languages re:uiring translation is rising all the time. The volume of translations in languages that are actuall! "ithout a significant translating tradition is also on the increase. (ro"ing international competition for business has contributed to this :uite considerabl!. Customers notice that the! are being listened to% and so% for example% the! demand operating instructions in their language% and not in some lingua franca. Net the linguistic resources ma! not be completel! ade:uate to meet these demands. 3ometimes the necessar! terminolog! ma! not be available% but more often "hat is lac ing is experience in this ind of translating% and a sensitive a"areness of the problems. And so the :ualit! of the resulting translations often leaves much to be desired. Even so% the trend to"ards language diversit! can be expected to continue% despite globalisation and despite English as the lingua franca. Translating in general% and the training of translators in particular% are therefore faced "ith an enormous challenge. As "e move into a ne" centur!% "e must create the right conditions for being able to produce high :ualit! translations $rom as man! languages as possible into as man! languages as possible. And that this ob0ective is not completel! utopian is confirmed b! the progress that has alread! been achieved% progress that% in m! opinion% "e o"e in no small measure to "or li e #eter
$e"mar )s. Than !ou.
Si!on *%a
,einer% do !ou reall! mean that it)s eas! these da!s to find native spea ersL Nou can "al for ?222 miles in China "ithout finding a native spea er of English.
Peter Ne#!ar$
+e)re tal ing about the Trier ... Reiner Arnt) I am spea ing about the situation in Europe ... and for a translator in Trier% "ho translates into English% it)s not difficult to find an Englishman to help% especiall! in those cases !ou :uoted in !our paper #eter. It is something that is read b! thousands of people. I do thin it might be possible to find someone.
Albrec%t Ne bert
It "ould seem that the "hole development of English as a lingua +ran a has rea hed a ertain stage( <ollo"ing a conference last !ear I had
28
to edit a series of contributions and I came across statements such as )There is absolutel! no reason to follo" the idea or imagination of native spea ers an! longer. English no longer belongs to the English.) Actuall!% "hen these things happen in the "orld% "ell% the! must be understood for "hat the! are. +hen an Englishman sa!s )Nou couldn)t sa! that ...# no" this is a 0olt to the "hole s!stem% a change% "hether "e li e it or not. +hen ph!sicists in some fara"a! place 9 3outh Africa or the former 3oviet 5nion 9 communicate about their field in English% that)s one thing. 8ut it is a far cr! from "hat !ou legitimatel! demand as antithetic or logical or linguisticall! sound.
G nilla Ander!an
Than !ou ver! much% Albrecht. Ma!be at some point "e should have a conference on that sub0ect. It certainl! is a ver! interesting one% and more and more a topic of heated discussion. I could perhaps remind !ou at this point that the idea for this t!pe of round9table discussion originated "ith Multilingual Matters% and Christina 3chAffner has run and organised similar events at Aston. I thin "e "ant to pa! our compliments to Christina for providing us "ith a model. &n one occasion "e had a ver! livel! and interesting discussion at Aston follo"ing a paper given b! Mar! 3nell9*ornb!. Mar! couldn)t be here toda!% unfortunatel!% but !ou "ill find that% in the issue no" in preparation for 6urrent Issues in 0anguage and S# iet'$5 this :uestion is being discussed. Can I then as #eter to briefl! comment on 3imon)s% ,einer)s and Albrecht)s points% then "e)ll move over to the next 3ection. #eterL
Peter Ne#!ar$
+ell% firstF ,einer certainl! overestimates the influence not 0ust of me% but of translation theories% because I don)t thin the! are interested in the t!pe of text I "as discussing produced b! non9native spea ers. I also thin he overestimates the badness of these translationsC I thin the!)re :uite amusing% and the delight of translation is al"a!s translationese. I also thin that he underestimates% as 3imon pointed out% the difficult! of finding a translator in Trier% "hen it is so much a to"n for tourists and there is so much translation to be done. I)ve suggested a solution here% at the end of the paragraph. The onl! point about 3imon)s )sacred texts) is that% if the intention of the translator is the same as the intention of the "riter% "hich after all is so in 3ha espeare% then "hat I sa! about valid te&ts or sa red te&ts holdsF that !ou can)t pla! *arr! in translating a speech. I use the "ord 3ha espeare% but !ou no" "hat I mean b! that. $aturall!% if it)s for some other purpose 9 and I said so in m! introduction 9 I sa! there that translation can be used for man! purposesC if !ou change the purpose% then !ou treat it differentl!% that)s all.

E!vorL Eyvor +ogarty
2& G nilla Ander!an
Nes. #eter has emphasised truth in this paper 9 the )truth9see ing nature of translation). This assumes that the translator can see or find the truth in the original. In this tal toda! and else"here% as in )#aragraphs on Translation)% !ou touch briefl! on the five medial truths% the five medial factors in translation% and the one I)d li e to refer to 0ust no" is the m#ral truth% based on the 5$ Uni)ersal 1e larati#n #2 Human 3ig.ts. 4 "ondered if !ou could sa! a fe" "ords about the appropriateness of this "hen translating documents in a contemporar! and historical setting.
Peter Ne#!ar$
+ell% I)ll tr! to. +hen !ou sa! )contemporar! and historical setting)% I assume !ou)re referring to official texts of some nature and historical texts. It)s not the translator)s 0ob to cross out a "ord such as 1ntermensch or "hatever it is 9 as being a "ord of pre0udice 9 but if he thin s such a text is going to mislead the reader% then the text must be glossed% one "a! or the other. I don)t no" if that ans"ers !our :uestion.
Eyvor +ogarty
I suppose I "as thin ing of the re"riting of children)s literature% for example.
Peter Ne#!ar$
+ell% it depends "hat ind of children)s literature it is. If it is something li e *ans Christian Andersen% and there is something there that "ould offend the moral principles of toda!% I thin !ou gentl! amend it% or !ou should at least tone it do"n% because false values are the last thing% I hope% that !ou "ould "ant to transmit to a child. I)m assuming such a text is in the public domain 9 in other "ords% no longer cop!right. In that case% I "ould certainl! modif! it. At least% that)s m! first reaction. *ave I ans"ered !our :uestionL
Eyvor +ogarty
Nes% than !ou. G nilla Ander!an Than !ou both. #erhaps "e can no" move on to our next sub0ect% Translating out of the .anguage of *abitual 5se "hich follo"s logicall! from our discussions on English as the .ingua <ranca of Translation. I thin that /ohn "ould li e to sa! something here. #erhaps !ou could start, /ohn.
#*
Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es John Dodds
'ell9 at one 5oint Reiner said that9 with the new res5ectabilit. that translation has achieved in the universities now9 Aualit. too is im5roving$ 2ut9 I think this is relative9 because in the countr. where I work9 Ital.9 we have actuall. got universities who make agreements with clients - customers - to use first-.ear students with absolutel. no translating or inter5reting e=5erience whatsoever to go into the booths9 to do simultaneous conference inter5reting work 5rofessionall.$ ,or this9 industr. 5a.s the universit.B the students don*t get 5aid one lira$ So9 I @ust wanted to start off with that$ I think it de5ends a great deal9 as alwa.s9 on the universit. or the institution - unfortunatel.$ It would be marvellous to sa. that all universities guarantee 5rofessional Aualit. but I*m afraid that on man. occasions this is not the case$ 'ith res5ect to what 5revious s5eakers have said as regards native versus non-native s5eakers9 I agree - certainl.9 in the Italian situation - we do have Auite a @ob finding native s5eakers$ I 5ersonall. think that the 5oint about using revisers - and this was in Peter*s written te=t9 but I think <urt or 5erha5s Reiner also mentioned it - .ou can alwa.s find a native s5eaker who will @ust read through the te=t for .ou$ I find revising te=ts e=tremel. 5ainful and usuall. it*s more e=5ensive for the client to use me as a reviser than to have 5aid me in the first 5lace to do the translation - which I would have 5referred to do9 because I find editing e=tremel. difficult$ I don*t think one can sim5l. have a reviser there as somebod. who is @ust going to have a look at the te=t and check that tense agreement is right9 @ust a Auick grammatical check9 because I don*t think .ou need a native s5eaker9 necessaril.9 for that 5ur5ose$ In Peter*s 5a5er9 he makes a reference to the ;":SC- &eneral Conference in 16109 where at the time the debate was certainl. ver. hot over the use of native and non-natives5eakers as translators$ In ?ul. this .ear9 I was at !he ;nited "ations Inter-Agenc. Conference on +anguage Practice held in Rome$ And it*s no longer a debate about native versus non-native s5eakers9 but about humans versus non-humans$ I think the financial factor - *the market*9 as Peter calls it - has become so im5ortant9 and with the vast amount of translation work9 the
millions of 5ages of :nglish that have to be translated9 it no longer matters financiall.

whether .ou*re 5a.ing a native s5eaker or a non-native s5eaker9 because the.*re both too e=5ensive$ And therefore we are now talking about translation-assisted 5rograms9 we*re talking about com5uters doing a great deal of the work9 we*re talking about class-A and a class-2 t.5e translationsB within the ;nited "ations9 the. are now talking about internal documents done b. com5uters and corn5uter-assisted translations$ And e=ternal documents #nl' to be done b. humans9 without mentioning whether these humans
'ound(table )is ussion #1
are native or non-native s5eakers$ So9 the whole conce5t is changing - for financial reasons9 for market reasons$ !he use of com5uters9 obviousl.9 is ver. im5ortant for some of the develo5ments Peter touches on in his 5a5er$ Students 3and here I agree with Simon - also teachers4 aren*t aware of the im5ortance of enc.clo5aedic knowledge9 etc$9 and obviousl. if '#u are doing e=ams or if .ou are doing a class with com5uters9 .ou now literall. have this information at .our fingerti5s$ I remember9 at the time when I was Peter*s student9 he would sa. *2ring in enc.clo5aedias*9 and9 for the life of me9 I didn*t have the muscle to do so$ I was luck. if I managed to get two or three different dictionaries and thesauruses into the e=amination with me$ !here was no wa. one would think of having access to 1nc.clo/ae(ia 2ritannica or whatever enc.clo5aedia9 which .ou can have at a touch toda.9 and this is im5ortant$ So9 I would also ask for a comment from Peter on this - com5uters taking over from the nonnative s5eaker9 giving us the distinction between human and non-human translation - rather than9 almost 2( .ears ago9 between native and nonnative s5eakers$
Gunilla Anderman !hank .ou9 ?ohn$ #ikeI Mike Shields
Des9 thank .ou ver. much$ I*d like @ust to sa. something about the role of the reviser: I Auite agree - it reAuires a great deal of tact9 and I think one has to be constantl. aware of the level of translation that is reAuired$ !he tem5tation9 of course9 for the native s5eaker9 is to make it sound as 5erfect as 5ossible9 and this is not alwa.s necessar.$ !here seems to be the feeling that onl. something that is ver. close to 5erfection is acce5table$ I*m thinking 5articularl. of Christiane "ord*s work9 the ,unctional School9 and the concern with the function of the translation9 whom the translation is intended for$ I don*t think 5erfection 9 or even near 5erfection9 is alwa.s necessar.$ Gunilla Anderman Interesting 5oint$ <urtI
Kurt Kohn
?ust a brief 5oint on the Auestion of native versus non-native s5eakers and having a native s5eaker at hand and a translation not having to be 5erfect: I think it has to do with the Auestion of translation being an art or a science$ I would sa. it*s an art9 definitel.$ 'ith our students in !Mbingen and in /eidelberg9 I*ve found that it*s not sufficient to
#2 Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es
know the language or to be a native s5eaker9 but to be good9 to have a good flare for handling te=ts$ "ot ever. native s5eaker has got it9 not all are sensitive with res5ect to com5rehension9 and are creative9 fle=ible9 and versatile with res5ect to 5roduction$ If the. have it9 then it onl. takes a crash course to tell them a few things that the. need in order to avoid certain tra5s$ !he. ma. need !ranslation !heor. though for other 5ur5osesB but in order to be a good translator - those who don*t have a flare for understanding and 5roducing te=ts - the. will never learn it9 the. will never become
good translators9 for all the amount of !ranslation !heor. that .ou offer them$ And this brings us back to revision and asking a native s5eaker if the. will look at the te=tB but looking at a te=t9 and revising it9 is a different 5rocess$ !he. ma. acce5t it9 and sa. *.es9 -<9 it*s fine*9 but it*s not -<9 it*s not fine on the st.listic level9 with the right word in the right conte=t$
Gunilla Anderman
"ow9 &rahamI
Graham Cross
Des9 I @ust want to sa. that I agree absolutel. with what <urt has @ust said9 es5eciall. about the 5ointlessness of tr.ing to teach 5eo5le who haven*t got that 5articular s5ark which makes it 5ossible to do a translation well - if that*s not there9 .es9 .ou are flogging a dead horse$ Dou cannot teach that$ It is something which is inborn$ &od knows how or wh.9 but it is$ 2ut I think9 also9 that this is the @ustification for the e=istence of the human translator9 because9 at the end of the da.9 the human translator is more cost effective9 because the skilled and welltrained human translator can get the right - whatever that is - translation straight off9 first time9 much more chea5l. - no re5rocessing9 no e=tra 5asses$ It*s a false econom. to use mechanical means9 even though the. can churn out large volumesB unless it is something which merel. has to be intelligible - rather than understandable - it is alwa.s9 I think9 in the last anal.sis9 going to be chea5er to use a human being$
Gunilla Anderman
!hank .ou9 &raham$ &ideonI

Gideon Toury
I think that*s a good argument9 but is it reall. trueI

Gunilla Anderman
Albrecht9 I think9 and then ?ohn$

'ound(table )is ussion ##
?ust one 5oint$ I*m afraid it*s even more com5licated than that$ I remember a number of cases - it was about 28 .ears ago - when our school in +ei5Cig was a55roached to do some translation work for the #inistr. of /igher :ducation$ I thought the best thing would be to ask some of our native s5eakers9 who were actuall. teachers of translation9 and the. came u5 with9 in m. o5inion9 wonderful translations$ 2ut I was told off in no uncertain terms$ !he #inister himself said *Im5ossibleL* !hese :nglishmen 3our native s5eakers4 wanted to make the translation as readable as 5ossible for the normal 'estern reader in :ngland$ 2ut this was not what the #inistr. wanted$ 'hat I 5ersonall. thought was good was not suitable for a 5articular 5ur5ose9 in this case9 higher government administration$
Gunilla Anderman
Albrecht Neubert
!hank .ou9 Albrecht$ ?ohnI At the ;nited "ations the.*ve made their own decisions9 and Auite clearl. said that it is not economical to have humans translating all the time9 for two reasons: one - most of the 5eo5le working there don*t need to read the translations carefull.9 the. sim5l. need to glance at them to get a rough idea what the.*re aboutB and the second reason is if ever.thing is
John Dodds
going to be translated9 the final document for ever.bod. being in :nglish9 I can see that the.*re going to want an :nglish which isn*t *:nglish-sounding* but as close to their own original language as 5ossible$ !his means sa.ing in Italian *I have the 5ossibilit. to $$$*9 rather than sa.ing *I*m able to $$$*or whatever9 because the 5erson who is not a 5erfect :nglish s5eaker understands that better9 and is able to translate more directl. from his own language$
Graham Cross
I wasn*t sa.ing that the human translator is alwa.s going to outdo the machine$ I have a colleague9 for e=am5le9 who has a 5rogram which will translate ver. satisfactoril. for man. commercial 5ur5oses from utch to :nglish and from :nglish to utch9 and will do 289888 words overnight - no 5roblem$ "o human is ever going to com5ete with that$ 'hat I was sa.ing was that there is alwa.s going to be Auite a large chunk of the market there for the human translator$
Gunilla Anderman
!hank .ou9 &raham$ >er. briefl.9 <urt9 did .ou have a concluding commentI
#$ Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es ( rt (o%n
Des9 there is no 5roblem9 reall.9 when we are dealing with te=ts which are not read b. that man. but there are te=ts like maintenance manuals for a 2oeing9 for instance9 which have to be rightL !he thing is: how can the machine and the translatorJhuman being interact in such a wa. that the task can be done faster9 more cost-effectivel. and still be done well$ I wouldn*t want to do this kind of @ob as a translator$ ;sing a machine9 of course9 hel5s enormousl. with regard to consistenc.$ ,or such a document it*s ver. difficult to achieve the same degree of consistenc. with a grou5 of human translators - even 5rofessionals9 even 5eo5le who are used to working in grou5s$
G nilla Ander!an
Peter9 would .ou like to res5ond to <urtI

Peter Ne#!ar$
!hank .ou$ 'ell9 I think that the Auestion of the com5uter versus the human $$$ I don*t think the com5uter will take the 5lace of the human element with certain te=tsB I don*t think there*s been enough em5hasis on t.5es of te=t here$ I think that manuals and instructions in general reAuire a human - and that*s where I would agree with what .ou*ve said9 <urt$ 2ut9 for the kind of ;" re5orts - what I call *gre. economic te=ts*9 or *gre. institutional te=ts* - I think this can be done roughl. b. com5uters9 and then the right degree of accurac. achieved b. 5ost-editing$ !hat*s all$
G nilla Ander!an
Right$ !hank .ou ver. much indeed$ Can we move on to Peter*s ne=t to5ic9 Social !ranslation and Inter5reting$ I know that both S.lfest and Albrecht would like to sa. something about this sub@ect$ S.lfest9 would .ou like to startI
Syl"est Lo!%ei!
!hank .ou$ ,irst I would like to @oin those who have alread. 5aid com5liments to Peter$ I agree$ I*ll s5eak to the e=tent of m. e=5ertise9 so I will s5eak briefl.$ It has to do with the use of the term *social translation*$ As far as I can see9 translation is dictated b. the t.5e of te=t: we have literar. te=ts9 we have non-literar. te=ts$ o we have s# ial te=tsI I would sa. all te=ts 5erha5s are social$
Peter Ne#!ar$
Can I sa.9 I didn*t mean social in that sense$ I meant social in the sense of social res5onsibilit.$
'ound(table )is ussion #% Syl"est Lo!%i!
-<$ !hat would e=5lain it9 because I was not convinced9 when reading the 5a5er9 that we need the term *social translation*9 as an in-between term between literar. and non-literar.$
Peter Ne#!ar$
'ell that ma. be so9 but $$$

Syl"est Lo!%ei!
And another terminological Auestion is the basic word itself$ I started thinking about *translation*9 the word - and it*s not new9 what I*m going to sa. now - but9 we tend to use the word translati#n ambiguousl.9 all the time$ ,irst9 we use translati#n as the word for transfer linguistic transfer - of meaning$ !hen9 and of course Peter used that word earlier on - translation9 the nature of translation$ 'e also9 all of us9 use the word translati#n as written-te=ttransfer to written-te=t-transfer9 which means that our basic word of use is s.stematicall. ambiguous$ #. sim5le Auestion is: are we ha55. with that situation9 or shall we do something about itI #argaret9 .ou*re the terminologist$ !hose were m. two 5oints$
Margaret Rogers
'ell9 !erminolog. itself is full of e=am5les of that kind$

( rt (o%n
2ut the 5roblem differs from language to language$ It*s not as if this 5articular one or an. other t.5e of terminological 5roblem e=ists in ever. language$
Syl"est Lo!%ei!
I didn*t sa. that$ I was talking about :nglish$

G nilla Ander!an
I saw Simon nodding over there$ 'ere .ou nodding in agreement9 or would .ou like to sa. something - was it the term Social !ranslation that .ou would like to comment onI
Si!on *%a
!he term Social !ranslation as used here can be misleading$ #a.be with our collective wisdom we can invent a better one$
G nilla Ander!an Right. Albrecht #6 Albrecht Neubert
+ell% it)s not reall! about 3ocial Translation but about !our example #eter% in this section. +hen !ou tal about the untranslatabilit! of )privac!) 9 here% I thin the translator does not reall! face a problem. I invo e m! old themeF "ords are not alone in the source text 9 a fact I have to cope "ith in m! lexicographical "or . <or the last ten or so !ears% I have had the experience that !ou)re absolutel! right in all these things% because in a dictionar! !ou must find some sort of :uasi9e:uivalentC and here it)s ver! difficult to find a "ord for )privac!)% as "ell as for man! other "ords. 8ut% as far as translation is concerned% I must sa! that this is not a problem. $o"% !ou mention ,eagan here 9 that is% his sneer% that here the ,ussians are lac ing on the lexical level. 8ut !ou also sa! on another occasion ).et)s loo for the meaning.) $o"% I
loo ed up the definition of )privac!) recentl!% in the dictionar!. And it gives the meaning as follo"sF if !ou have )privac!)% !ou are alone% or can be alone% or !ou can do things "ithout other people seeing !ou or disturbing !ou. I)m not sure "hether all native spea ers "ill accept this definition% but I thin it)s a ver! good one. $o"% let me give !ou a couple of examples from computer corpora 9 the! are not invented. In the sentence )*e hated the lac of privac! in the dormitor!)% no"% here)s a perfectl! good (erman translationF )Er hasste es% oder es gefiel ihm gar nicht% dass er im 3chlafsaal niemals allein "ar.) I don)t thin !ou can improve on that one. $extF )I felt I needed privac!) F )Ich fMhlte% dass ich allein sein "ollte oder musste.) &rF )the privac! of !our o"n home)F )die 5nbestBrtheit der eigenen +ohnung)C )#erhaps !ou "ould li e to ta e it home and read it in privac!)F )7ielleicht mBchten 3ie es gern nach *ause nehmen und in ,uhe lesen.) I could go on and on 9 these are all authentic examples% not 0ust illustrations. The untranslatabilit! of "ords% "hich !ou have to a ver! large extent in poetr!% I have all the time 9 in fact ever! morning% "hen I do m! dictionar! "or . 8ut then again% it hasn)t an!thing to do "ith translation% because "henever "e use "ords to spea or "rite in our native language% there is al"a!s a ris that the person I)m addressing "ill not understand me correctl!. The! "ill misunderstand a (erman "ord or an English "ord I)m using% but this is a philosophical% or metaph!sical% point% it)s related to the :uestionF Can "e communicate at allL If "e are tal ing on this level 9 fine. 8ut normall! "e are not. *o"ever% if "e are% I do thin that there are untranslatable "ords. 8ut% fundamentall!% most texts are translatable.
Gunilla Anderman
Than !ou ver! much% Albrecht. #eterL
eter Ne!mark
,egarding the last point% the point is that these are extracts from the -ni!ersal )e laration
of .u+an 'i/hts0 the! are not tile ind of collo:uial 'ound(table )is ussion #7
uses of )privac!) that Albrecht has :uoted. And I)m simpl! sho"ing that in that 1niversal 7eclaration, "here "rivacy is an isolated concept% the translations are more or less inade:uate That)s all I)m tr!ing to sa!. &f course% there are degrees of context% but in this case the context is much thinner than in the examples that Albrecht gives.
Albrecht Neubert
8ut I)m afraid then% !ou)re tal ing about the 7eclaration o$ 8uman Rights, not about "rivacy.
eter Ne!mark
$o% I)m tal ing about ho" to translate this "ord.
Albrecht Neubert
8ecause actuall!% then it means that the 7eclaration o$ 8uman Rights cannot be translated ade:uatel!.
eter Ne!mark
+ell that)s "hat I)m tr!ing to sa! 9 that)s m! "hole point.
Graham Cross
Can I comment hereL I thin this is a fundamental problem in translation. If one regards "ords as occup!ing a certain amount or representing a certain amount of semantic space% for example if one ta es a t"odimensional model or a three9dimensional model% or a multi9dimen9 sional model% !ou can sa! that a "ord maps out a particular area% volume% or h!per9volume in that s!stem of coordinates. Those t"o spaces are not going to be directl! comparable in an! t"o languages 9 "hich is ver! obvious. 8ut the less obvious fact 9 "hich is ver! important for translation 9 is that the semantic space occupied b' an' one "ord in an! particular language is governed b! the occupation of space in that language b! other "ords. And "here !ou have this sort of situation% "here !ou have a concept "hich is "holl! untranslatable as one "ord in
another language% !ou have to approach the translation b! arriving at the same conceptual space using the other language)s "ords in a totall! different "a!% and to tr! and actuall! translate )privac!) is not "hat one has to do% and the examples !ou give ...
eter Ne!mark
8ut the! had to do it hereO And the! did it inade:uatel!.
Graham Cross
Nes% because the! "ere attempting to translate the "ord% rather than going for the concept 9 "hich is "hat Albrecht)s expressions 9 rather%
#8
illustrations - showed ver. well$ And .ou also get the situation where .ou actuall. have antithetical conce5ts - for e=am5le9 in ,rench: the ,rench will alwa.s9 when the.*re looking at a tank of liAuid9 tell .ou how 0ull it is$ In 2ritish industr. the. tell .ou how em"ty it is$ 'e have a conce5t *ullage*9 which is the e=act o55osite of *fullness*$ So a tank which is G8N 0ull has a 9:; ullage - this is a ver. nice9 neat o55osite correlation between occu5ation of semantic s5ace9 but9 as .ou become less and less close to 5h.sical realit.9 of course the boundaries become much more nebulous$
G nilla Ander!an
<urt9 could .ou comment ver. briefl.9 5lease9 because I would then like to ask ?ohn9 and then I think9 if .ou don*t mind9 Peter9 we*ll close the discussion on Social !ranslation and Inter5reting and move on to the ne=t to5ic$ Des9 I think &raham*s reference to semantic conce5ts is ver. im5ortant9 and I agree that it*s alwa.s 5ossible to find a means of e=5ression in an. language for a certain semantic conce5t9 but here I think that what Peter had in mind was something else again$ 'e are not @ust dealing with the word9 the ever.da. word *5rivac.* here9 we are dealing with a legal term9 in the wa. in which it has been used in a certain legal document for which there is no corres5onding legal term in other languages$ I think that is the 5roblem here with *5rivac.*$ So9 if I have to translate it9 then I would 5refer to kee5 the term *5rivac.* or9 somehow9 @ust tr. to invent9 which is of course the big 5roblem with terms: .ou can*t @ust invent terms$ 2ut that is another dimensionB that*s how I understood the 5roblem that Peter 5ointed to$
G nilla Ander!an ( rt (o%n
Des9 that*s a ver. good 5oint$ Can I 5lease ask ?ohn to conclude$
,o%n Dodds
>er. briefl.9 a comment on the Italian situationB I think the 5roblem is the Auestion of when the 7eclaration o$ 8uman Rights was translated9 because *diritti dell*uomo* has become *diritti umani* toda. in Ital.9 and *5rivac.* has become *la 5rivac.*$ 'e don*t have 5roblems an. more in translating this te=t$ In Ital. toda.9 la "rivacy is standard$
G nilla Ander!an
!hank .ou ver. much$ "ow9 for the ne=t to5ic +ater #odes of !ranslation9 there are three s5eakers who have asked to make a contribution$
'ound(table )is ussion #&
I have the good news that one of the s5eakers 5romised us some light entertainment$ So
5erha5s we should start with /ans$ 'ould .ou like to beginI

-ans Lind. ist
'ell9 I ho5e I can live u5 to thatL I*d like9 5erha5s a little bit lightheartedl.9 to go back to the arts$ !he nice thing9 I think9 about .our writing and teaching9 Peter9 is that there*s alwa.s an element of the fine arts9 the 5ictorial arts or music$ In +ater #odes of !ranslation9 .ou mention in .our 5a5er that we need translations of the l.rics to be able to full. a55reciate music9 like +ieder and o5era9 and .ou talk about surtitles$ Dou also sa. that translation needs to be in .our terms semantic, as I understand it - that is9 .ou sa. *the meaning lies entirel. in the music*9 so we need the translation to get the meaning out of the music9 somehow$ I*m going to turn now to an artist whom .ou mentioned earlier on$ So9 let*s have a look at some 5ictures $$$ I*m going to ask .ou9 Peter9 what .ou think we need to do about the translation of te=ts contained in 5ictures9 like the following one$ Dou mentioned #agritte9 and this is a famous #agritte 5icture containing a te=t9 which9 of course9 .our Italian visitors or Swedish visitors to this museum in 2elgium 5erha5s wouldn*t reall. understand$ It is interesting that the titles of #agritte*s art are also 5art of it9 so this one is La trahison des images or9 in :nglish9 The <etrayal o$ Images=> so there*s a relation between the 5icture and the meaning$ And then9 I*d like to show another #agritte 5icture9 which I think is #agritte*s comment on translation9 5erha5s$ !he title of this one is9 funnil. enough9 La r%"roduction interdite - 0ot to be re"roduced, and it looks like this$1 Is this a 5icture of translation - are we seeing the back9 not the front side - the reverse - in the mirrorI I don*t know$ !he final 5oint is that the book in this 5ainting is the ,rench translation of one of #agritte*s favourite writers - :dgar Allan Poe - The Adventures o$ ?ordon !ym, in ,rench$ So9 an. comments on this9 PeterI 'ell9 an. comment I have would be obvious$ If .ou mean *what ca5tion should there beI*9 again9 the #agritte 5ictures were dis5la.ed at the Palais des 2eau=-Arts$ !hen .ou need a ca5tion9 giving the literal translation of those titles in three languages9 notabl.9 I would sa.9 ,lemish9 :nglish and9 5erha5s9 &erman$ I don*t know whether this is the kind of comment .ou want$
-ans Lind. ist Peter Ne#!ar$
'hat about the te=t in the 5ictureI

$* Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es Peter Ne#!ar$
'ell9 .ou can*t $$$ the 5icture is the 5icture$ All .ou can do is this kind of gloss on the 5icture$ I wouldn*t attem5t to touch an.thing in the 5icture - .ou*re not allowed to$ Dou*re not telling me that if .ou dis5la.ed an. of these 5ictures in Stockholm9 .ou would be allowed to tam5er with #agritte*s 5aintingsI
-ans Lind. ist
2ut the. dub movies$

Peter Ne#!ar$
Des9 I know9 but .ou can*t $$$

-ans Lind. ist
ub a 5ictureI
Peter Ne#!ar$
Certainl. not9 I would sa.$ I mean9 in a wa.9 a subtitle would be the gloss$ Dou know what I feel about the res5ective merits of subtitling and dubbing - it*s onl. a non-serious film that ought to be dubbed$ An. other kind of film ought to be subtitled - that*s m. view$
-ans Lind. ist
!hank .ou$
G nilla Ander!an
'ould an.one else like to commentI <urt$

( rt (o%n
I love these 5ictures$ And I use them in discourse anal.sis to make m. students aware of certain 5rocesses in connection with te=ts and 5ictures9 or world knowledge and conte=tual information9 and I think9 in a wa. - in a narrow sense - there*s no translation 5roblem here whatsoever$ 2ecause if .ou wanted to translate 6eci n#est "as une "i"e or 1ne $emme triste, then .ou could @ust do it in a straightforward wa.9 and there*s no 5roblem$ !he other thing is9 of course9 do we want to translate itI 'ell9 it de5ends - that is a 5ractical Auestion9 and then either .ou ado5t Peter*s a55roach and .ou work with a gloss9 or .ou ada5t it9 .ou translate it9 and the interesting thing here is that9 if .ou translate it9 then what #agritte wanted to sa. with his work of art sta.s the same$ So the message is ke5t intact$
'ound(table )is ussion $1 Albrec%t Ne bert
!here*s @ust one minor 5oint9 returning to the Auestion of social translation$ If somebod. looks at this 5icture and hasn*t the slightest idea of ,rench9 don*t .ou think there*s some @ustification in hel5ing this 5erson understand - whatever .ou call it9 because after all9 .ou must, because .ou make it im5ossible for non-,rench understanding 5ersons to a55reciate it$ In m. broader understanding of translation9 this is 5art of itB and it*s again what .ou would call *communicative*$ !he wa. in which .ou do this9 the wa. .ou make it 5ossible for somebod. to understand ma. be different$ 2ut whether directl. or not9 .ou should o5en a door - that*s all .ou can do$
G nilla Ander!an
!hank .ou9 Albrecht$ &ideonI

Gideon To ry
I have a follow-u5 Auestion$ Is there a 5oint where this kind of thinking9 or the decision making which has to do with it9 must sto5I ,or instance9 in the case of the #agritte 5icture9 most /ebrew s5eakers would not understand the ,renchB but if .ou decide to have it in /ebrew9 then the writing would go from right to left9 but the 5icture would be still looked at from left to right$ Should .ou then also reverse the 5icture9 or notI !his is alread. a real 5roblem when translating cartoons$
G nilla Ander!an
!hank .ou &ideon$ I don*t think we*re going to solve a 5roblem of this com5le=it. now given the time we*ve got toda. I think we have to move on and I also have #ike Shields down for this section$
Mi$e S%ields
'ell9 as .ou know9 I*m here re5resenting the !ranslators Association9 and it*s slightl. ironic that the organisation which is generall. regarded as the association for literar. translators is9 in fact9 currentl. chaired b. a technical translator$ Also9 I should sa. that I*ve had virtuall. nothing to do with !ranslation Studies over the .ears9 and I*m not an academic9 so I*m 5erha5s the odd man out in this room$ And for that reason I was 5articularl. interested to read this 5a5er9 and I found it ver. informative9 but don*t feel I*m Aualified to comment on most of it$ 2ut one area
where I differ from .ou is that in a 5a5er entitled !ranslation in the "ew #illennium9 .ou dismiss9 in a single 5aragra5h9 the one factor which will certainl. have more effect on translation in the new millennium than an.thing else - which is of course the com5uter$
$2 Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es Peter Ne#!ar$
I*m sorr.9 I do not dismiss it$ I sa. I*m not Aualified - that*s ver. far from dismissing it$
Mi$e S%ields
I was going to sa. that$ I*m sorr. that I 5hrased it 5erha5s inadeAuatel.9 but .es9 I think that m. feelings about the com5uter are 5robabl. similar to .ours - that it*s a kind of necessar. evil$ 2ut it*s certainl. alread. affecting the wa. we work9 and indeed9 out there on the coalface where I hack m. living9 it*s affecting whether we work9 and if .ou don*t have the right software9 and if .ou don*t have the right hardware9 .ou @ust don*t get @obs$
Peter Ne#!ar$
I love m. com5uterL
Mi$e S%ields
Des9 right9 well I was @ust giving an e=am5le before9 that ?a5anese com5anies have issued their em5lo.ees with 5ol.st.rene baseball bats to hit their com5uters with when the. don*t 5erform 5ro5erl. - and the. are such infuriating things that I reall. wish I had one at times$ 2ut there*s no need for science fiction e=am5les of what will ha55en twent. .ears from now$ If we look at the last 28 .ears9 and how things have changed9 and where com5uters are now9 com5ared to where the. were 28 .ears ago9 @ust about ever.thing .ou do is affected b. com5uters$ Dou 5ut .our foot on the accelerator of .our car and .ou*re not o5ening a valve an. more - .ou*re telling a com5uter that .ou would like the car to go faster$ And the com5uter will sa. *'ell .es9 I know what .ou want9 but9 since the roads are a bit wet9 we won*t let .ou go Auite as fast as .ou*d like9 and we*ll 5revent the car from sliding$* And so on$ And in translation it is getting to the 5oint9 even now - as I sa.9 .ou don*t need science fiction e=am5les - $$$ right now9 I*m under considerable 5ressure from several of m. clients if .ou*ll forgive the use of the term - to use translation memor. s.stems$ I don*t know whether ever.bod.*s familiar with them9 but9 in effect9 the. are com5uter s.stems which store and memorise ever. word9 sentence9 5hrase and 5aragra5h that .ou translate9 and constantl. search the database of terms as .ou work on .our translation9 and when .ou come to a similar sentence9 u5 5o5s the translation for .ou$ Dou don*t have to use it9 but if .ou want to use it9 .ou can immediatel. insert it into .our te=t and 5roceedB and9 in man. wa.s9 for man. @obs9 and in man. conte=ts9 it*s ver. useful$ And9 .ou might think it*s a great aid to translating all these boring manuals9 something we have to do9 but reall. the 5ressure for this is coming not from
'ound(table )is ussion $#
translators9 but from the clients9 from the com5anies9 from the translation com5anies9 from the engineering com5anies9 or whatever$ And the idea is not to save the translators* time or to allow the translators to earn a better living: the 5ressure is to save the com5an. mone.9 and that means costing the translator mone.$ And9 as Chairman of the !ranslators Association 3!A49 which9 .ou might know9 is 5art of the Societ. of Authors - and is for that reason a trade union9 as well as a 5rofessional association - I*m ver. interested in translator rights$ It seems to me that in this area9 translation work - for man.9 man. translators - is going to be seriousl. affected9 because9 @ust as an e=am5le9 most of us are 5aid 5er 1888 words or 5er 5age9 or 5er line9 and this is fine9 so long as it re5resents an average of the hard bits and the eas. bits$ :ver.bod. knows that in some translations .ou find a bit that .ou*re ver. familiar with 5articularl. in things like technical manuals9 .ou find .ourself sa.ing *-h .es9 I did that bit
before*9 and .ou can co5. a whole 5aragra5h down and get on with it$ And then .ou find other bits where .ou*re not Auite sure what it means9 or what the word means in this conte=t9 and .ou can s5end an hour thinking about it$ And what*s going to ha55en is that all the eas. bits are going to be taken out of translation9 and we*re going to be left onl. with the difficult bits$ And if we*re 5aid b. the 1888 words at the same rate as we*re getting now9 then our rate 5er hour which is what reall. matters - I mean9 the rate 5er 1888 words is nothingB .our bills come b. the week9 and 5a. 5er unit time is what*s im5ortant - then our rate 5er hour is going to 5lunge9 unless something is done about it$ It*s going to ver. seriousl. affect how 5eo5le9 certainl. in m. field9 do their work$ 2ut I think9 if .ou look at the rate at which com5uters have advanced9 it can affect other areas as well$ I can see novels being banged out in machine translation s.stems and handed over to ghost writers to turn them into as good :nglish as is necessar.9 and com5letel. wi5e out translators - and even inter5reters$ It*s alread. 5ossible to dictate to a com5uter$ -nce the words are in the com5uter9 it*s alread. 5ossible to translate them$ It*s alread. 5ossible to generate a voice from a com5uter9 and it*s therefore not at all inconceivable that even inter5reting could take 5lace in 28 .ears9 %8 .ears9 at the rate of 5rocessing that we have now$ 'ith the siCe of memories that we have now9 the access to memor. that we have now9 it*s com5letel. 5ossible that this might ha55en$ If .ou look at what was thought 5ossible 28 to 2( .ears ago9 and what is 5ossible now9 even science fiction writers didn*t get it right$ Someone did a surve. of forecasts made res5ectivel. b. la.men9 scientists9 and science fiction writers9 and com5ared them with what reall. ha55ened$ +a.men tended to think things would go on more or less as the. were9 scientists tended to take a tangent to the curve9 science fiction writers tended to take an e=5onential line9 but in fact
$$ Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es
realit. e=ceeded even that$ So9 when we think about what is going to affect translation in the new millennium9 I think the com5uter is going to affect all of us in ever. 5ossible wa.9 and shouldn*t - can*t - be ignored$
Gunilla Anderman
!hank .ou ver. much9 #ike$ Can we have some more brief comments9 :.vorI
"y#or $o%arty
I think that in all this I am heartened b. the memor. that ?ulius Caesar sacked his inter5reter and em5lo.ed his cousin$ 'hat he was looking for was not the mechanised9 5erfect translation that the inter5reter was giving him9 but the 5erson he could trust9 who understood both sides9 and made the role of the translator - as it has alwa.s been - some kind of mediator in all this$
Graham Cross
Des9 I*d like to make a cou5le of comments9 both totall. unrelated - the first being that the 5erson who is currentl. selling !rados is finding that one of the greatest uses9 or 5otential uses9 of !rados is not in translation9 but in technical writing9 to ensure that the original document has the necessar. consistenc.B and the second is9 .es9 com5uters are changing ver. much the manner in which translations are done and 5re5ared9 but I think - as <urt 5ointed out earlier - that translation itself doesn*t actuall. change - it*s still the same old chestnut$
Gunilla Anderman
Peter9 would .ou like to comment ver. briefl.I eter

Ne!mark
I*ve alread. made m. comment$

Gunilla Anderman
-<9 thank .ou ver. much$ <urt9 ver. briefl.9 a concluding remarkI
Kurt Kohn
I totall. agree and disagree with .ou9 Peter: I don*t love m. com5uter9 I love m. wife$ I find m. com5uter ver. useful9 but interestingl. enough so is m. wife$ 2ut I agree with #ike9 the same thought crossed m. mind with res5ect to the title of this s.m5osium - !ranslation in the "ew #illennium: I think the com5uter9 in all its sha5es9 will have a tremendous im5act9 and I think it*s also a ver. interesting develo5ment to stud.$
'ound(table )is ussion $%
Dou mentioned the 5ractical 5roblems involved$ In !Mbingen we are involved in a research 5ro@ect together with a com5an. in #unich9 a videoconferencing com5an.9 and the idea is to develo5 a videoconferencing s.stem with an integrated inter5reting station: here the inter5reter is not an additional 5artner in the conference9 but has his or her se5arate track - ver. much a simultaneous inter5reting situation$ And we did the evaluation of all this9 but it*s interesting to look first at how the 5artici5ants behave9 communicate9 under these conditions9 and how the translators9 the inter5reters9 co5e with the situationB but when 5eo5le talk about videoconferencing9 communication9 or inter5reting in this conte=t9 the. alwa.s em5hasise the technolog.-mediated as5ects which9 as far as communication is concerned9 the. feel are ver. restricted and limited$ I think it*s @ust the other wa. round: I mean9 we are able to communicate9 we are able to translate and to inter5ret9 but we do it al+a's under certain conditions which9 at the same time9 make 5ossible but also limit what we are doing$ !hank .ou ver. much9 <urt$ "ow9 on the sub@ect of !he Assessment of !ranslations9 Peter s5ecificall. mentions #ac*s work$ 'e*ve got #ac here with us and as .ou know #ac has a 5articular interest in this to5ic$ I think we would like to start off b. hearing his ideas about Peter*s views and about Assessment of !ranslations in general$ So9 could I ask #ac to start 5lease$
Gerard McAlester Gunilla Anderman
!his sounds like a horrible res5onsibilit.L I*ve onl. 5re5ared a few random comments here but it would seem to me that this is the area in which !ranslation Studies has its worst failure$ A few .ears ago9 I asked &unilla to tell me how translations were assessed at Surre.9 and she said she wasn*t Auite sure9 and that she*d ask her teachers9 or her lecturers9 here how the. assess their translations - which she did9 and she sent their re5lies$ "ow9 what I found was e=actl. the same situation as at m. own universit. - that ever.bod. did it a bit differentl.$ And I have a feeling that a 5rofession which can*t define its own criteria of com5etence is9 in a sense9 in a bad wa.$ I*ve a feeling that we ought to be able to - and9 in a sense9 this is an a55eal of the same kind that Peter is making in his 5a5er - agree on some guidelines9 outlines as to how we should a55roach evaluation of translation$ "ow I use the word e)aluati#n because what we*re very often reAuired to do is actuall. to 5lace a value on a translation$ ;ltimatel.9 of course9 what we*re tr.ing to do is to 5lace a value on the translator$ 2ut it*s ver. difficult to do that without evaluating the actual work9 and in one of his books or articles Peter once said - it won*t
$6 Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es
be an e=act Auotation here - something like: O etailed schemes for the assessment of translation are dead ducks$* It ma. be $$$
eter Ne!mark
I couldn*t have said thatL
Gerard McAlester
'e should never Auote to 5eo5le what the. have said in the 5ast but I*ll dig it out for .ou$ I mean what we need is more of the kind of thing that ?uliane /ouse has 5roduced$ I*m ver. 5leased now that what .ou sa. here Peter is an a55eal for some kind of guidelines - which I think should 5referabl. be done internationall. - for what we*re doing when we tr. and assess translations 3whether in terms of an accreditation bod.9 like the Institute of +inguists9 or in universities4B @ust what are we tr.ing to do and what should we be looking forI I would suggest that such a task could start with some kind of classification of translation 5roblems9 because the te=t - that*s the wrong word as I think Simon Chau 5ointed out - a translation is not @ust a te=t9 it*s actuall. a task which involves all kinds of 5henomena Auite a5art from the te=t$ I should sa.9 b. the wa.9 that in m. own universit. we*re reAuired to s5ecif. the audience and the 5ur5ose of the translation9 for assessment 5ur5oses$ 'e do need a set of guidelines for this$ I mean9 there are other activities where this has been done9 5erha5s none as com5licated as translation$ 2ut9 for goodness* sake9 5eo5le com5ete in the 'orld ,igure Skating Cham5ionshi5s9 and @udges actuall. have to give a numerical score for what the. do$ Surel. we can graduall. begin to do thisB I mean9 I do feel that also9 having e=5erimented with various norm referenced t.5es of evaluation9 that the.*re not good enough9 and that the. should in the end be criterion referenced$ 2ut9 of course it*s an enormous task9 and e=tremel. difficult to do9 but I would @ust endorse Peter*s a55eal for this9 and ho5e that we can set about doing itB I think that it would be an e=cellent task for the ne=t millennium9 for institutions like the Institute of +inguists$
Gunilla Anderman
Right9 -< - Simon$

Simon Chau
!hree 5oints9 ver. briefl.$ Point number one: I would like to recommend to ever.bod. here the guidelines of the Institute of +inguists* i5loma !ranslation :=amination$ I think those guidelines are the best in the world$ I*ve been using them for nine .ears9 and I*ve never come across an.thing better$ Second 5oint: I have a colleague teaching translation and the two of us never agree upon anything related to !ranslation !heor.$
'ound(table )is ussion $7
2ut when we co-mark9 double mark9 our students* and the Institute*s 5a5ers9 we agree ver. closel. - our marks are alwa.s ver. close$ #. last 5oint is this: I think9 as e=5erienced 5rofessionals in the translating communit.9 we have a kind of .ardstick here - we*ll take a look at a translation9 and we will know instinctivel. whether it*s -< or otherwise$ I*ve @ust talked to &raham - I think we all know instinctivel.$ 'e don*t have to mark9 to rate it with 5oints9 with ver. com5licated schemes9 and we all know whether this will work for our clients9 or otherwise$ !hank .ou$
Graham Cross
#a. I come in thereI Des9 it leads on ver. much to what I was going to sa' originall. but in connection with another as5ect of Peter*s Pa5er$ -n the Auestion of assessment let me @ust sa. where I*m coming from: I*m a 5ractising freelance translator9 although I*m also Chairman of the Institute of !ranslation and Inter5reting$ So I*m not a translation theorist9 although I have m. own ideas about it$ I am working in the market - ver. much so9 and9 in connection with what Peter sa.s about the market9 I would @ust remind 5eo5le that a market - an. market - is a collection of se5arate stalls which all sell different merchandise in different wa.s$ As a 5ractising translator9 I am 5roducing a commodit.9 a 5roduct - a 5roduct which9 in fact9 is
governed b. the Su55l. of &oods 3Im5lied !erms4 Act in this countr.$ And one of the reAuirements of the Su55l. of &oods 3Im5lied !erms4 Act is that goods must be fit for their 5ur5ose$ "ow9 this is 5articularl. 5ertinent to translation9 because translation is not an.thing in isolation$ !ranslation is9 as Peter sa.s - or rather9 im5lies - in his 5a5er9 because he mentions it in the title9 with the word #mmuni ati#n$ and he mentions it in the ver. last sentence9 where he sa.s *ever. te=t serves its 5ur5ose in its time and its 5lace* $$$ translation is an act of communication9 the te=t on which a translation is based is itself an act of communication$ !hat communication was generated originall. for a s5ecific 5ur5ose9 for a s5ecific target audience$ !he translation itself is then generated for another s5ecific 5ur5ose9 which ma. or ma. not be the same as the original 5ur5ose9 for .et a different audience$ As <urt and Albrecht mentioned earlier on9 translation - or rather the message9 the communication - is a multidimensional thing$ It is not @ust conce5t9 it is not @ust technical content9 it is not @ust form of language9 it is not @ust emotional affect9 it is not @ust cadence and rh.thm and that sort of thing - all these things are com5onents$ !he original message9 the communication9 has a multitude of dimensions attached to it$ It is the translator*s task to know what the 5ur5ose is9 or9 in terms of literar. translation9 5robabl. deciding himself what the 5ur5ose is9 because the 5ur5ose is not set b. the clientB he himself decides what he wants to get over from the original - given that not ever.thing can be got over in translation9 he
$8 Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es
has to em5hasise some 5articular as5ect$ Rather like in the Pol.nesian cultures: if .ou look at the Pacific islands9 .ou a55ear to have a mass of ver. different cultures in different island grou5s in the PacificB when .ou look at it more closel.9 .ou find9 in fact9 that the. all have a common culture9 which has a number of different elements9 in which each grou5 seems to have9 b. some means9 concentrated on a 5articular as5ect of the culture9 taking it to a high level - like9 for e=am5le9 the statues on Christmas Island - that sort of thing$ !he translator is alwa.s making this kind of @udgement9 or has to meet someone else*s criteria in making that @udgement9 and it is not an absolute thing9 and it is not something which is universal - either in nature or in timeB as Albrecht said9 .ou have a cline9 or a s5ectrum$ If we @ust take one dimension9 sa.9 fidelit. to the actual words in the te=t9 .ou can go from one e=treme - of total fidelit. which .ou have to have9 for e=am5le9 in the case of 5atents - legal documents an.wa.9 but 5atents even more so9 where the te=t is actuall. defining the sco5e of the claim9 the 5rotection wanted9 so .ou have to be ver.9 ver. close there9 as far as the target language idiom will allow9 to the wa. in which it is actuall. 5hrased $$$ com5letel. to the other end of the s5ectrum9 where translation is hardl. an. longer translation9 but merging into ada5tation9 where9 at the ver. end of the scale9 sa.9 for e=am5le9 where .ou have an advertisement which is 5re5ared for a different culture9 there ma. be nothing of the original word message there9 it ma. be @ust the image9 and an eAuivalent in terms of emotional affect which will have the same result in the reci5ient of the advertising te=t as the intended reci5ient of the advertising te=t in the source countr.$ !he same end will be achieved b. totall. different means$ 'hat I think is an essential 5art of the translator*s skill is to be aware of the multi5licit. of dimensions9 and of the s5ectrum within each of those dimensions9 and9 either to be able to match the reAuirements which have been set for him9 or to set himself at a 5articular 5oint in this s5ectrum and sa.: this is what I*m achieving b. m. translation$ And in fact this is normall. the case with literar. translations - .ou*ll find there*s an e=tensive 5reface9 in which the translator initiall. decides9 and tells ever.bod.9 what he*s tr.ing to do$ I feel that this is an essential element which must be taught in translation courses9 in so far as this can be taught at all$ And I think also it might be the answer to the assessment 5roblem$ If .ou ask the student not @ust to translate the te=t9 but first of all to state what his intention is in doing a 5articular translation9 and then assess his translation against his abilit. to satisf. the criteria he has himself set$
Gunilla Anderman
!hank .ou9 &raham$ "ow9 can we move on to the last to5ic9 !he ;niversit. and the #arket$ 1 think we might have some comments here
'ound(table )is ussion $&
and then9 Peter9 .ou could 5erha5s res5ond to the contributors to the last two sections$
eter Ne!mark Graham Cross
Des9 but most of what &raham said would seem to relate to the to5ic coming u5 an.wa.$
It was intended to9 thank .ou$ eter Ne!mark I @ust want to sa. that I agree with most of what .ou said$ 2ut .ou haven*t reall. got my 5oint9 which is that the danger is that the translation is onl. concerned with the consumer9 the client9 the customer9 and that*s all$ Actuall. .ou made the same 5oint I did9 but .ou didn*t 5ut it in the wa. that I would - that there are such things as standards and values in translation9 and it de5ends on what kind of te=t it is - that*s what I mean b. discriminating between te=ts - as to how .ou treat it$ And to bear in mind that with certain te=ts - notabl. the kind of te=ts I was considering when I was talking about social translation - it is not enough to satisf. the consumer9 the client and all the rest of it9 and actuall. this is a criticism of societ.$ !hat*s about all$
Gunilla Anderman
Right$ "ow over to #ac9 5lease$ Gerard McAlester A cou5le of 5oints$ ,irst of all9 .es I agree about asking for comments on the translations$ I think this is an e=cellent device9 it*s one that we use in m. universit.$ -ne then can assess the translation according to different kinds of criteria: one - as to how well the translator has managed to do what he set out to do9 as e=5ressed in his commentar.B but another would be9 was his strateg. - his tactics - were the. wise in this9 was he setting out to do the right thingI !his is a totall. different matter$ !he other 5oint is something that Simon suggested$ I am much less confident that one reall. does know if this translation is good enough or if this translation isn*t good enough$ I have to be accountable to m. students9 to sa.: 'h. is this not good enoughI /ow man. mistakes can I make and it would still be good enoughI And what kind of mistakes can the. beI I don*t know if this is true in all universities9 but in mine m. students can come u5 and ask me about this and sa.: *'hat*s wrong - wh. have I onl. got a C9 instead of a 1%9 or an AI* And I actuall. have to evaluate, in the sense of 5lacing a numerical value on a translation9 and
%* Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es
it is for this ind of reason that I feel that some ind of guidelines are needed.
Gunilla Anderman
+e)ve time for a ver! brief concluding statement.
Albrecht Neubert
7er! briefl!% I thin "e are in the situation of having the ca e and eating it. I thin a lot of "hat #eter sa!s is irrefutable% if ta en in a universit! context. If "e teach translation% "e can decide upon the parameters of the assessment% and "e are the ones to spea 9 because "e are responsible for the academic developments of our students 9 in fact% "e all fundamentall! spea as teachers. The other stor! 9 and that)s "hat I meant "hen I said "hat I did about having the ca e and eating it 9 is the real "orld. In realit! it)s different. If there is this consumerist societ!% deciding upon ho" the translator "ill earn his mone!% "e can tr! to prepare our students to
react to this in a sensible "a! 8ut most of "hat "e sa! about Translation Theor! is reall! based on our experience as teachers% and rightl! so. +e certainl! incorporate aspects of the real "orld% but the universit! is not the real "orld% it "ill never be% and should never be. It)s li e "e tal about medicine% there)s a distinction bet"een a practising doctor and a medical student. +e can)t have the same standard for the medical student but "e can tr!% ver! subtl!% in a number of "a!s% to train% to prepare him4her. In most of our discussions "e are tal ing about "hat translation is% but actuall! "hat "e mean is "hat translation is in the classroom% "hat "e attem"t to prepare the students for. And this is something "hich "e tend to forget I)m afraid. And I no" this% because "henever% at international conferences on some aspect of Translation 3tudies% the sub0ect is brought up ever!one loo s the other "a!.
Gunilla Anderman
That)s another topic "e should have a conference about.
eter Ne!mark
Man! teachers are translators.
Gunilla Anderman
I thin that /ohn "ould li e to sa! something.
John Dodds
&6% the classroom isn#t the real "orld% but surel! "e are tr!ing to simulate realit!. This is the point "hich Mi e 3hields made. I don)t no"
%1
"hat the situation is in 8ritain or in (erman!% but in Ital! "e)ve got 5P of our students "ho no" ho" to use a computer "hen the! come in the first !ear% and "e)re luc ! if it)s 12P of the students b! the time the! leave "ith a degree. +hich means I2P% according to Mi e% are going to be unemplo!ed "hen the! leave.
Gunilla Anderman
Than !ou. #eter% "ould !ou li e to add somethingL
eter Ne!mark
+ell I said itO This thing about )the real "orld)F I thin I)ve alread! said it 9 "e)re not living in the real "orld. It)s an ivor! to"er "e)re living in% as academics I mean 9 there is some truth in this% although% unfortunatel!% people "ho are sa!ing it don)t even realise ho" true it is.
Gunilla Anderman
Than !ou #eter. And I thin that ma! be a good note on "hich to conclude the discussion on the sub0ect of Translation in the $e" Millennium.
Notes
1. <airclough% N. 5#7878 4an!ua!e an( Power. *arlo"F .ongman. 9. 8ro"n% (. and Nule% (. 5#78,8 &iscourse Anal.sis. CambridgeF Cambridge 5niversit! #ress. ?. These "ere students of translation at the 5niversit! of *eidelberg% (erman!. G. ,eference to the pla!% The :om/lete "orks o0 "illiam 6hakes/eare 5Abri(!e(8 at the Criterion Theatre in the +est End of .ondon.
;. :urrent <ssues in 4an!ua!e an( 6ociet. 5#7778 6=9> //. #%,?9%.
6. At this point *ans .ind:uist sho"s MagrittD s "ell9 no"n painting "ith the <rench text :eci n+est /as une /i/e "ritten underneath the picture of a pipe. The 2etra.al o0 <ma!es=4a trahison (es ima!es 5#7978> .os Angeles Count! Museum of Art. Q. *ans .ind:uist sho"s Magritte)s picture of a man loo ing into a mirror% "ith the man)s bac rather than his face reflected in the mirror. The painting also features a boo % the title of "hich is the <rench translation of an Edgar Allen
#oe novel% The A('entures o0 or(on P.m. Not to be Re/ro(uce(=4a r@/ro(uction inter(ite 5#7,A8> ,otterdam Museum.
-art 2
6ha"ter *
No Global Communication Without Translation

PETER NEWMARK
In this 5a5er9 I want to sa. something about the nature of translation9 which in its essence does not changeB the various new forms that translation takes9 stimulated b. technolog.9 travel9 and tourismB and9 finall.9 how we ma. comment9 criticise and assess translation9 so that we can use it as a clean and incisive instrument which is not clogged in a mush of media and PR language9 but as 5rimaril. a noble9 truth-seeking 5rofession$ #. ob@ect is *to make it new*9 as Pound said9 *to make .ou think*9 as "ietCsche said9 to startle a bit $$$ strange that two writers with some a55alling ideas9 "ietCsche on women9 and Pound on ?ews9 but the second with infinitel. more a55alling and cruel ideas than the first9 who was merel. stu5id in this and other res5ects9 should have written so well9 not least about translation $$$ !ime that with this strange e=cuse Pardoned <i5ling and his views And will 5ardon Paul Claudel $$$ 3Pound9 "ietCsche $$$4 Pardon them for writing well $$$ 3In #emor. of '$2$ Deats9 '$/ Auden4
The Nature of Translation
,irst then9 the 5rocess of translation9 originall. 5erha5s engraved in stone or 5archment9 5erha5s around the third millennium 2C as :ugene "ida sa.s9 usuall. so 5oorl. defined in the dictionaries: to convert $$$ but whatI words or te=ts or meaningI from one language into another $$$ or from one language into the same language $$$ or from one language into the one 5ure language9 as 'alter 2en@amin would have it$ Det an.one can instinctivel. define translation9 even though there is no one classical basic te=t that defines itB 5erha5s we can make do with: *taking the meaning from one te=t and integrating it into another language for a new and sometimes different readershi5*$ It sounds so sim5le9 but the snag is
%6
in the conce5t of meaning9 of which -gden and Richards 316084 identified 2) kinds in their @eaning o$ @eaning, but which I summarise in two: first9 the full sense9 with all its
richness9 its denotations and connotations9 all that the writer said9 sometimes even modified b. what she meantB and9 secondl.9 the message9 the 5ragmatic sense9 what and how she wanted the reader3s4 to act and feel and thinkB and so the full meaning and the message are at two ends of a long 5ole9 and the translator whose entire activit. consists in making a series of decisions has to hit on the 5recise schwer"un5t or em5hasis there too9 between the full meaning and the mere message$ As I have said9 there is no such thing as one basic or classical te=t that defines translation9 but instinctivel.9 I know there are basicall. two kinds of translation$ ,irst9 I get a written message and I want to know what it tells me to do: *!omorrow I*ll see .ou at the entrance of 'estminster Abbe. at 18$2($* !here are five facts here: I, you, tomorrow, ):.9,, the entrance. !he rest can be e=5ressed in a 188 wa.s: be, arrive, see, come, Aoin, meet, $ind, go, etc$ /ow the message is translated is not im5ortant9 but it should be clear and succinct$ Inevitabl.9 allowing for different idioms9 and that*s a big allowance9 the translation will be fairl. close9 since the original is so concise$ Secondl.9 I see a 5oem or a legal document$ In all three te=t t.5es - the message9 the h.5othetical legal document9 the 5oem - I want to know e=actl. what it sa.s and means9 and in the case of the 5oem9 a magical combination of all the resources of language9 how it sounds$ !he transfer of all the sound won*t be 5ossible9 but usuall.9 the amount that is translated will be worth it: Pber allen &i5feln Ist Ruh In allen 'i5feln S5Mrest du <aum einen /auch 3&oethe4 -ver all the hill-to5s is 5eace9 In all the tree-to5s .ou feel scarcel. a breath "ote that in all three cases9 including the imaginar. legal document9 translation is a worthwhile9 truth-5ursuing activit.9 but the translated truth in the third 5oetic case will be dee5er9 more com5rehensive9 even though it will onl. be a 5art of the truth$ ,urther9 the form of a translation ma. change de5ending on its function. !hus an advertisement for soa5 ma. be translated in accordance
1o 2lobal Co++uni ation 3ithout Translation %7
with the different advertising st.le and conventions of the target language 3!+4 culture9 for the 5ur5ose of 5ersuading the new readershi5 to bu. the soa5B in 5rinci5le9 this translation ma. look ver. different from the original9 though in fact it does not usuall. do so$ I used to call this a *communicative* t.5e of translation$ -n the other hand9 the advertisement ma. be translated closel. - sim5l. to show a different readershi59 consisting of advertising 5rofessionals9 how advertisements are 5roduced9 successfull. or unsuccessfull.9 in the source language 3S+4 countr.9 5robabl. America if the ca5tions have more to do with se= than with the 5roductB this then would be a *semantic translation*$ !hirdl.9 if the !+ readershi5 is in a third or fourth world countr.9 the translation ma. have to combine e=5lanation with the transfer of the original meaning$ +astl.9 a dense and closel. reasoned original ma. have to be inter5reted as well as translated9 outside if not inside the te=t9 if the readershi5 is going to be enlightened$ !hese four t.5es of translation9 the first kee5ing the function of the original9 three with changed functions9 have alwa.s been 5ossible and 5ractised$ Recentl.9 Susan Sarcevic 316614 in her otherwise admirable book with its strange title9 0ew A""roach to Legal Translation, got ver. e=cited because she thought that Sko5os theorists such as >ermeer9 Reiss9 "ord9 /olC-#QnttQri9 <ussmaul9 /onig had changed the face of !ranslation !heor. b. *dethroning* the S+ te=t and discovering constanc. and inconstanc. of function in translationB in fact Albrecht "eubert did this in the 1608s9 but he never claimed to have dethroned the original$
Types and (inds o" Translation
?ust as all writing can be divided into 3a4 fiction9 the imaginative descri5tion of non-e=istent 5eo5le and 5ersons9 and 3b4 non-fiction9 the account of knowledge about the world9 so translation9 which is a d.namic reflection of human activities9 can be divided into two categories9 usuall. called literar. and non-literar. 3technical9 general translation9 &achbBcher or *thing-books* in the &erman 5arlance4$ !he first describes the s5here of the mind and of language9 the second that of realit. and the world$ Although most modern dictionaries 3Collins9 "ew -=ford9 :ncarta all described as enc.clo5aedic dictionaries4 are crossing the divide9 it is I think useful for the translator to retain the distinction between the dictionar.9 the word in small letters9 the general ob@ect or conce5t9 and the enc.clo5aedia9 the ca5italised name or title9 the singular9 the 5articular9 the individual$ !he word can be translated +der Tisch is *the table*49 the name can onl. be transferred or *transon.mised* 3>eneCia is >enice is >enedig is >enecia is9 believe it or not9 CCech 2enatk.4B for 5ersonal names9 transference is normall. the translation 5rocedure to be used9 since
,8 Translation Today Trends and !ers"ectives
3an translated to *?ohn* would change the man*s nationalit.9 negating the translation$
I have noticed that man. translation e=am candidates9 forgetting that translation is culturalJreferential as well as linguistic and st.listic9 onl. bring in or consult dictionaries9 thesauruses9 and dictionaries of s.non.ms as reference booksB the. fail to bring their enc.clo5aedias9 atlases9 gaCetteers9 road ma5s9 street 5lans9 and dictionaries of Auotations9 modern Auotations9 biogra5hies9 and other knowledge books as well$ In res5ect of kinds of translation9 these ma. range from full through summaries9 5rFcis9 abstracts9 5artial translations9 gists9 *the sum* 3Shakes5eare4 to heads$ Clearl. with the increase of media waffle9 the e=cessive gobbledegook alread. lambasted in 8amlet 3*#ore matter with less art*49 and the multilingual translations9 man. translations should become shorter$
Valid and Deficient Texts
I think that attitudes towards the source te=t 3S!4 are changing$ All te=ts are no longer sacred in 5rinci5le9 nor is absolute fidelit. due to them9 in the sense that the. were sacred to the one time do.en of inter5reters at the +eague of "ationsB ?ean /erbert would have committed himself to the death to an. kind of te=t 5rovided he had signed the contract$ ,urther9 nor do I think9 like the Sko5os theorists9 that te=ts have lost their inviolabilit. because the. are @ust a means to an end9 which is determined b. the initiator$ 'hen a te=t is deficient9 it cannot be sacred9 but a valid te=t is in 5rinci5le to be res5ected$ #. conce5t of a *valid* te=t for translation can onl. be an a55ro=imate one: such a te=t9 in 5articular when it is nonliterar.9 has to com5l. with four universal medial factors$ I would define it as a te=t that is 5rima facie logical9 factuall. accurate9 ethicall. sound9 and elegantl. written$ 'here a te=t is deficient in one or more of these factors9 and is liable to 5rovoke or mislead its 5utative readershi59 the translator would be advised to correct it if it is an information te=t9 or9 if it is a historical or authoritative te=t9 to gloss it9 outside the te=t in a 5reface or9 if within the te=t9 briefl. in sAuare brackets with a 5si 6$ to show she disowns it$ #. definition of a valid te=t is in 5rinci5le ob@ective9 though sub@ective factors do lie on the edges of moral and aesthetic 5rinci5les$ /owever9 and this is m. first medial factor9 words describing 5eo5le such as bent, broad, dus5y, small, big, yid, lower class, when used 5e@orativel.9 are usuall. clearl. *wrong*9 since the. infringe the ;" 1niversal 7eclaration o$ 8uman Rights and 5arallel Council of :uro5e and national statements$ Secondl.9 connectives relating to logic 3I am not referring to their cohesive functions49 a field which is alwa.s outside culture and ideolog.9
0o ?lobal 6ommunication Without Translation ,C
such as there$ore, because, conseDuently, be$ore, a$ter, then, sometimes 5atchil. translated9 since national languages have evolved in an *illogical* or 5o5ulist manner9 so that words like en$in and aussi, da and dann, have more senses than the. can reasonabl. be e=5ected to carr.B such connectives must be used a55ro5riatel. in valid te=ts$ !hirdl.9 in non-literar. te=ts9 facts and events have to be accurate9 but in fiction this will de5end on the degree of fantas. of the te=t: authors such as !olsto. and ?ane Austen9 Stendhal and Camus9 can write in a dr. im5ersonal st.le indistinguishable from im5ersonal9 historical 5rose: *Sir 'alter :lliot9 of <ell.nch /all9 in Somersetshire9 was a man who9 for his own amusement9 never took u5 an. book but the 2aronetage $$$$* 3?ane Austen9 !ersuasion/ which is in contrast to the unmistakable imaginative literar. language of others 3for e=am5le Anita 2rookner4 for which a counter5art is not alwa.s available in the !+: *2ut most of the time I sle5t9 dee5l.9 greedil.9 volu5tuousl.9 as if slumber E&chlummer, but a blank in Romance languagesIR were the onl. 5leasure I could strive for$* 3Anita 2rookner9 A Family Romance./ ,ourthl.9 the aesthetic level$ It goes without sa.ing that a valid te=t must first be rid of mis5rints9 ga5s9 grammatical and le=ical errors9 inadvertent re5etitions9 redundancies9 uncoordinated and 5onderous 5aragra5hs9 the absence of which deficiencies some translation critics hail as evidence of a dee5 knowledge of a language$ (4l $aut connGitre sa langue/. 2ut this is not the 5oint at all$ A valid te=t has to be elegantl. written: the language9 the writing must s5im 3*raser*49 hug 3*F5ouser*49 scorch 3*brSler*4 the thought9 the contentB it must be as neat9 5lain9 nice 3accurate4 as 5ossible$ !hese three latter words are t.5ical :nglish golden *untranslatable* monos.llables which s.mbolise the concision both of good writing and of translation$ !his is sound9 health.9 fresh language9 the o55osite of what <enneth /udson 3161G4 has called *diseased* language9 which is the media-driven @argon and the gobbledegook that inflates and bloats the *market* toda.: for marketing9 *e=5ort sales management control function*B for book 5ublishing9 *works of such wit and wisdom that the. illuminate the nature and meaning of life*B for art criticism9 *when art has to be fundamental9 no distracting detail is 5ossible*B for 5s.chiatr.9 *treatment goals are limited to the modification of s5ecific behaviour 5atterns*B and above all for sociolog.9 from which !ranslatolog.J!ranslation Studies so often steals its vocabular.9 *a factor of considerable im5ortance in naturalistic socialisation conte=ts is the timing of 5unishment*$ !hese are all sni55ets or scra5 e=am5les from the literature9 assembled b. <enneth /udson$ e5ending on the occasion9 translation can either e=5ose their sources with a close clean9 shar5 translation9 or summarise them to demonstrate their authors* ideas$ In fact9 <enneth Hudson calls these extracts 'diseased :nglish*9 but man. of them are
6* Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es
American :nglish double-noun com5ounds deriving from &ermanB diseased writing is bad writing in an. languageB it has nothing to do with *the author being foreign*9 or knowledge of the grammatical and le=ical mechanics of language9 and9 like translation9 ever.thing to do with sensitivit. and intelligence$ Englis% as t%e Ling a +ranca o" Translation #agritte*s house in 2russels at 1%( Rue :sseghem is being converted into an attractive museum which includes several 5aintings9 5osters9 and memorabilia$ At 5resent all ca5tions are in ,rench and utch onl.9 and visitors are few$ 'hen I suggested to the 5ro5rietors that the ca5tions should also be translated into :nglish9 two :nglish old-st.le 22C visitors who were addressing each other loudl. and self-consciousl. in ,rench9 5rotested at the arrogance of the :nglish 3me4 wanting ever.one to learn their language$ So I asked them if the. e=5ected the ?a5anese or the Russians to learn ,rench if the. were keen on #a9gritte$ +ater the 5ro5rietor told me she would have the :nglish translations done$ Clearl.9 and in 5articular for economic reasons9 when one 5ros5ects the future of the
translation business9 one has to reconsider the sub@ect of someone translating whose language of habitual use is not the !+9 and who is therefore translating out of hisJher first language$ &erard #acAlester from ,inland and Stuart Cam5bell from "ew South 'ales have written e=tensivel. about this sub@ect9 5ointing out that it is not a matter of what ought to be9 but of what must be9 owing to the shortage in most countries of *native* s5eakers reAuired in the !+$ In 1610 the ;":SC- &eneral Conference at its meeting in "airobi declared that *a translator should as far as 5ossible translate into his or her own mother tongue or into a language of which he or she has a master. eAual to that of his or her mother tongue*$ &iven the children of so man. *bilingual relationshi5s*9 and so man. earl. migrations9 it is in man. cases not eas. to define a *mother tongue*9 and *language of habitual use* is a more realistic conce5t$ ,urther9 translating has become increasingl. and intensivel. globalised and is an integral 5art of the e=5ansion of travel9 tourism9 and the service industries9 and translators often have to be found in situ. If9 a55ro=imatel. following 2Mhler9 one divides all writing into 3a4 literar.Je=5ressive9 3b4 5ersuasiveJdirective9 3c4 information te=ts9 one might agree that 3a4 and 3b4 reAuire a 5rofound com5etence in the relevant !+ and knowledge of its culture9 and have to be translated b. 5rofessionals who are com5etent to achieve functional or d.namic eAuivalence$ !he translation of information te=ts has to be as naturall. and credibl. written as a book9 but is more often seen as a
1o 2lobal Co++uni ation 3ithout Translation 61
comic and deficient notice in a hotel corridor or bedroom or a tourist brochure or guide$ +ooking for e=am5les at the literature 5ublished b. the &erman cit. of !rier in the Rhineland-Palatinate 3transon.ms !rTves9 !reviri9 !revira9 Rheinland-PfalC49 I have the im5ression that e=tensive and im5ressive as it is 3all guides9 brochures9 notices9 ca5tions9 and titles in museums are trilingual49 it is all +2 translation$ !hus: -lease sta' in t.e +a's for * as 2etreten der Anlagen ausserhalb der Uffentlichen 'ege ist nicht gestattetJ+es visiteurs sont 5riFs de ne 5as Auitter les chemins*9 a confusing notice9 suggesting that visitors should at least kee5 to the 5ublic 5aths and avoid the 5ublic lawns or grounds9 or whichever of the thousand meanings of the most 5rotean of all &erman words (Anlagen( .ou care to choose9 not forgetting Ru5ert 2rooke*s &rantchester9 where .ou ma. remember das *etreten7s n#t )erb#ten. !hese are more e=am5les:
%id' and .eer2ul pla es #2 re reati#n re2res. t.e )isit#r a2ter all .is e22#rts8 %.e r# # # +ing materialises ()er+ir/li .t9( t.e pleasure:l#)ing peri#d at its de line8 %.e pr#menade t# t.e "eiss.aus is ;uite re+arding 35resumabl.9
*ein S5aCiergang Cum 'eisshaus ist besonders em5fehlenswert* - note that ;uite is entirel. de5endent on tone of voice for its meaning4B "it . .unting spread li/e t.e plague8 and
<erusalem be #mes in)isible b' t.e means #2 t.is interi#r7s unrealit'.
It is @ust 5ossible that these sentences were translated b. an e=cessivel. 5edantic and literal minded :nglish student9 but it is more likel. the. were done b. a so called service translator9 a &erman with insufficient feeling for :nglish (Spra .ge27=.l(. Admittedl. such slightl. deficient te=ts are unlikel. to deter visitors and ma. amuse them9 but a self-res5ecting munici5al authorit. should not 5roduce shodd. and deficient te=ts9 and I suggest that it should hire one near-bilingual reviser to ever. five service translators9 which would at least at last legitimise the status of service translation within information translation$ 2ear in mind9 however9 that intelligence and common sense in translation are alwa.s likel. to be a greater value than naturalness of language$
Social Translation and Interpreting In this age of un5recedented migrations and minorities9 as.lum seekers9 flights9 refugees9 civil wars9 the voluntar. movements of g.5sies9 travellers and romanies9 secessions9 where a 5rovince s5lits off from a countr. and a dialect is abru5tl. declared to be a new language9 accom5anied
.9 Translation Today Trends and !ers"ectives
b. all the tortuous linguistic a55aratus of 5hilological scholarshi5 to su55ort an un5roveable case9 though the sce5tics ma. sa. the 5rovince is too small to be viable as an inde5endent new countr. 35resumabl. like Andorra9 &ibraltar9 San #arinoL49 the call is first for inter5reters9 rather than translators9 since the mass of the 5oor 5eo5le immediatel. affected have to learn to s5eak a few words of their new language long before the. learn to write it$ In fact the American "ational Association of ?udiciar. Inter5reters and !ranslators was onl. founded in 16619 followed in 166) b. the ;< "ational Register of Public Service Inter5reters9 which is owned and o5erated b. the ;< Institute of +inguists on behalf of the 5ublic services$ !heir main call for em5lo.ment is in the immigration offices9 the law courts9 the 5risons9 the schools9 the local government offices9 the general 5ractices9 the housing de5artments9 the 5robation offices9 the social services9 the 5olice stations9 the hos5itals9 and ma. e=tend to citiCens* advice bureau= and tourist information offices$ !he te=ts to be translated are government regulations9 statutes9 official re5orts9 interviews with as.lum seekers9 statements b. social service and health officials9 C>s9 a55lications for accommodation and services$ Social translation contrasts with literar. and non-literar. translation9 which are as different as chalk and cheese9 even if9 like chalk and cheese9 the. sometimes look the same$ Social translation9 like imaginative literature9 is essentiall. concerned with individuals and grou5s 3and often brings home the moral of a literar. allegor.49 but9 like non-literature9 its 5ur5ose is to describe them factuall. and accuratel.$ !he 5eculiar linguistic features of a social te=t for translation are I think its institutional terms9 including its acron.ms9 and its words 3ad@ectives9 adverbs9 ad@ectival nouns9 descri5tive verbs4 of human Aualities$ In such te=ts9 the institutional terms to be translated have to be clarified9 often b. being transferred9 given a !+ cultural eAuivalent9 and *neutrall.* glossed$ !hus for @inistre des "artici"ations de L#Htat, *the ,rench minister for State holdings*9 *,rench minister for State Investments*B for <undestag, *the &erman /ouse of Commons*9 *the lower chamber of the &erman Parliament*$ ,urther9 acron.ms such as A V : 3Accident and :mergenc. e5artment in hos5itals4 should be s5elt out in the translation9 unless there is an eAuall. freAuent and eAuivalent acron.m in the !+$ !he tendenc. to use acron.ms either to declare the im5ortance of the ob@ect or to demonstrate one*s membershi5 of an *in* grou5 has to be resisted9 unless the translator has a good reason for doing so9 for e=am5le the universal convenience of abbreviation$ "ote also that some institutional terms merge with colloAuial ordinar. language and ma. not a55ear in s5ecial-language dictionariesB thus9 to sign un, *5ointer au chomage*B to be admitted 3*hos5italise*4 or discharged 3*auturis0 A Auitter*4 from hos5ital$
0o ?lobal 6ommunication Without Translation .*
!here are three s5ecial factors that affect words denoting human Aualities such as nice, nasty, and values9 for e=am5le9 right and wrong. ,irst9 as !.tler 5ointed out in 11689 words of Aualit. like nice and nasty have no 5recise eAuivalents in most foreign languages9 5articularl. when the. are9 like these e=am5les9 somewhat colloAuial$ Secondl.9 though man. ma. originate from a common medieval +atin9 and designate universals9 the. are affected in the course of time b. cultural and regional factors9 and sometimes change substantiall. in meaning$ !hus virtue originall. meant 5h.sical courage9 candour is $ran5ness in :nglish but ingenuousness in
,rench 3*candide*49 truculent is sullen in :nglish but earthy in ,rench9 sincere often becomes true in ,rench9 the +atin *scurra* or bu$$oon turns to ludicrous 3*skurril*4 in &erman but to *wickedJcoarseJobscene* in :nglish$ So here is where most of the famous false friends and dece5tive cognates come from$ !hirdl.9 words of human Aualit. veer between 5ositive9 sometimes neutral9 and negative attitudes which define the whole tone of a te=t9 and the translator has to sense the a55ro5riate one$ !he. tend to be more difficult to determine 3*cerner*4 in foreign languages than in :nglish with its abundance of s.non.ms of Aualit.: thus economical and thri$ty, moderate, and care$ul, and mean or stingy> courageous and brave or $oolhardy or rash> generous and extravagant> $ree and licentious> com"assion and sentimentality, as "ietsche 5erversel. noted$ !here are 5arallels in all languagesB note the wa. that toll 3&erman *mad* to *su5er*4 and ,rench extraordinaire, *e=traordinar.* to *amaCing*9 have gone$ I use the term *social* to indicate that these te=ts deal with the Aualities 3hence the ad@ectives4 of 5ersons as individuals or grou5s9 from a 5oint of view that is consonant with the 5rinci5les of the ;" 1niversal 7eclaration o$ 8uman Rights, which is the reverse of sub@ective but is d.namic$ !hese te=ts have le=ical units denoting moral Aualities +$ree and eDual in dignity and rights/ and illocutionar. or connotative sentences disguised as e=istential statements +#Iveryone has the right to li$e, liberty and security o$ "erson#/ which the translator has to be sensitive to$ +ooking at the e5och-making 1niversal 7eclaration o$ 8uman Rights, more than (8 .ears after its 5ublication9 one notes that ,rench and Italian still stick to the historical Rights o$ @an, which Canadian ,rench has changed to Rights of the Person$ !he :nglish version has the three classical untranslatable ke.words "rivacy, home and 0air 3from fair 5la.4$ I 5ro5ose now to review the official translations of these words9 which have such 5owerful meanings outside their conte=ts$ President Reagan once sneered that Russian has no word for "rivacy, unaware that it is missing in nearl. all other languagesB these have to ma e do with ,rench vie "rivee, S5anish vida "rivada, <talian vita "rivata,
&erman !rivatleben, and Russian li@aia i semeinaia JiJn. "o language has a 5owerful single word e=ce5t CCech +sou5romi/, while Russian re5laces it with the weaker *5ersonal and famil. life*$ ,or home, there is ,rench domicile, S5anish casa, Italian domicilio, Russian shilishcha, dom> onl. &erman kee5s the full denotative and 5ragmatic meanings in 8eim 3watered down in nach 8ause/> the others alternate between general words and legal terms$ Fair, associated with cricket and fair 5la.9 is a *classical* cultural term now a55ro5riated b. &ermanB in the ;" te=ts we have ,rench %Duitable, Italian eDuo, S5anish con Austicia, &erman der <illig5eit ents"rechend, Russian s"ravedlivi +#Aust#/. Again9 the other languages shift to a more formal register9 and the educated <illig5eit comes closest to the :nglish$ ,or the rest9 note that standard, that is9 a recognised level9 is a uniAue and indis5ensable :nglish word 3other languages flounder with variants of ideal and even tas5 and target/. ?enuine and echt with com5onents of real and sincere, are uniAue to ,rench and &erman9 and onl. :nglish can make the brilliant distinction between *historic* and *historical*$ I close these fragmentar. remarks on social translation with an ins5iring Auotation from !heodore Weldin 316604: *!he aim now is increasingl. going to be the e=change of res5ect between individuals9 rather than the domination of one 5erson or grou5 b. another$* So goodb.e to ideologies9 hidden agendas9 5ost-colonialism9 and cons5irac. theories of histor.$ 3'e should be so luck.$4
Later Modes o" Translation
I am not Aualified to discuss the various modes of machine or com5uter aided translation but it is evident that9 unless a te=t consists mainl. of standardised language9 5re-editing in the S+ and 5ost-editing in the !+ will alwa.s be reAuired if the @ob is to become worth the mone.9 which is a main consideration in a general te=t$ !erminolog. being standardised is closel. related to #! 3machine translation49 and this field too is develo5ing as fast as the com5uter generations$ !he relative im5ortance of words and music in o5era9 oratorio9 cantata and song is alwa.s an issue$ "ormall.9 the words are the essential ke. to the meaning which lies entirel. in the music$ !hus the sound of the words and the Aualit. of the writing are not as im5ortant as the straight meaning of the te=t or of the translation$ !he freAuent omissions of brochures in C s and cassettes 35reviousl. +I*ti4 and even concert 5rogrammes with te=ts and translations in 5reference to gossi5. 5ublicit. about composers and artistes are always regret
1o 2lobal Co++uni ation 3ithout Translation
65
table$ Recentl. a 22C 5roducer defended this omission on the ground that artists do not like seeing listeners with heads buried in 5rogrammes$ Personall. I do not think one can a55reciate or understand vocal music of an. kind without knowing the words and te=ts well$ A few .ears ago such a55reciation was enhanced b. the introduction of surtitles9 the translations of o5era te=ts 5ro@ected above or alongside the stageB this has been e=tended to foreign 5la.s9 and I ho5e +ieder te=ts and their translations will soon a55ear on 5ersonal videos$ !he. will need sensitive translators like Richard Stokes9 who has alread. com5iled admirable translations of &erman 3selected b. ,ischer- ieskau4 and ,rench songs$ Phili5 &lass*s new Choral S.m5hon. "o$ (9 ReAuiem9 2ardo and "irmanaka.a9 is a massive o5en-air entertainment in &hentB the soloists sing in :nglish while enormous bright surtitles light u5 the ,lemish translation above the dais$ ;nlike other avant-garde com5osers9 Phili5 &lass 3cf$ &orecki4 is the reverse of tedious9 but it is not serious music$ "evertheless the audience would be lost without the surtitled trans lations$
T%e Assess!ent o" Translations
&iven the increase in t.5es and Auantities of translations throughout the world9 and9 lagging behind9 the increased number of Schools of !ranslation with their degrees9 5ostgraduate degrees9 and di5lomas9 it is not hel5ful to continuousl. leave the sub@ect of translation assessment to isolated individuals like ?uliane /ouse9 with a few cha5ters in /atim and #ason 3166149 olleru5 and +indegaard 3166)49 me9 and one or two others$ :ven the e=amination marking scheme of the Institute of +inguists International i5loma in !ranslation is not generall. known or it is ignored9 and e=amination boards and e=aminers are not aware of the literature$ In an. event9 what is reAuired in this or that national educational s.stem are se5arate conferences of literar. and non-literar. translators and teachers9 with the 5artici5ation res5ectivel. of 5ublishers and em5lo.ers9 for the 5ur5ose of establishing some minimum areas of agreement on the assessment of e=ams$ Xuestions to be discussed should include the definition and im5ortance of linguistic and factual accurac.B the weight of te=t and word in various te=t-t.5esB the relative im5ortance of trouvailles 3ha55. renderings4 and various categories of mistakes 3howlers9 barbarisms9 solecisms9 faults9 errors9 sli5s4 all in relation to the commonness of the word and its referential im5ortance in the te=tB the conte=tinde5endence of a translationB the fluenc. or stiffness of a translation$
bb Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es
<urther% mista es due to ignorance or carelessness have to be distinguished from deviationsC in a deviation% an aberrant theor! of translation is usedF for instance% the translator deliberatel! avoids using a "ord =sa! decide/ although it is closest in meaning to its 3. cognate =<rench )dDcider)% Italian )decidere) etc.> simpl! because the "ords resemble each otherC secondl! she unnecessaril! tries to embellish or improve on the 3. text% even though it is valid as it standsC thirdl! she deliberatel! overtranslates or undertranslates% usuall! to flaunt her literar! st!le. In general% deviations% "hich are usuall! due to misguided teaching rather than the candidate)s ignorance% should be penalised more lightl! than mista es. <urther% normal deviations should be distinguished from creative deviations% "hich are pluses to be regarded as trouvailles =1> ,eplacing an! poor "riting in information texts% technical reports instructions% and publicit! b! fresh "riting. *ere I thin the creative deviation is mandator!. =1> Inevitabl!% a fine poet translating a mediocre poem "ill ma e creative deviations. =?> In general% in translating poetr!% the more poetic constraints there are in the poem =rh!me% metre% assonance% alliteration% onomatopoeia% etc.> the more creative deviations% often b! "a! of compensation% are li el! to be re:uired.
T%e University and t%/ Mar$et

In 1'Q2s% the 1'I2s and the earl! 1''2s% man! translator institutes in Europe "ere see ing incorporation "ithin universities =compare the pol!technics) )academic drift) into the universities>% mainl! I thin to enhance the image of their sub0ect and no doubt to ac:uire more funds and better buildings. The Idea o$ a 1niversity =$e"man>% the universit! as )a place of light% of libert! and of learning) =-israeli>% the universit! ideals of the *umboldts% of Matthe" Arnold% and of .eavis% do not interest the universities no"C academia is a "ord associated "ith ivor! to"ers% translation resembles the production of an advertisement or of )not innocent propaganda)% and the readership is identified "ith the customer and the client% the patron and the commissionerC the idea of discriminating bet"een the "eight and importance of one text and another and one translation and another is unheard of in this consumerist societ!C ever! text serves its purpose in its time and in its place% and the supreme dut!% rather than 0ust one factor to be rec oned "ith% not ignored% is to be sensitive to the ever changing challenges of the mar et. It is time the imbalance is corrected.
1o 2lobal Co++uni ation 3ithout Translation
67 0ibliograp%y
#. 6tan(ar(=ima!inati'e literature Auden% +!stan *ugh 5#7A68 :ollecte( Poems. $e" Nor F ,andom *ouse. Austen% /ane 5#7$78 Persuasion. .ondonF Rodiac #ress. 8roo e% ,upert 5#7$98 The :ollecte( Poems. .ondonF Cape. 8roo ner% Anita 5#77,8 A Bamil. Romance.
.ondonF Cape. -israeli% 8en0amin% 3peech in the *ouse of Commons of 11 March
#8A,
.eavis% <ran ,a!mond 5#7A78 1n!lish 4iterature in our Time an( in the Cni'ersit.. CambridgeF Cambridge 5niversit! #ress. $e"man% /ohn *enr! 5#7798 The <(ea o0 a Cni'ersit.- A Reexamination. $e" *aven4 .ondonF Nale 5niversit! #ress.
9. Translation
8en0amin% +alter 5#7688 The translator)s tas . In *. Arendt =ed.> <lluminations 5//. 67?898. $e" Nor F 3choc en 8oo s. 8Mhler% 6arl 5#7,$=#7898 6/rachtheorie. &ie &arstellun!s0unktion (er 6/rache. 3tuttgart4$e" Nor F <ischer. Campbell% 3tuart 5#7788 Translation into the 6econ( 4an!ua!e. .ondonF .ongman. -ollerup% Ca! and .indegaard% Annette =eds> 5#77$8 Teachin! Translation an( <nter /retin! 9- <nsi!hts> Aims> Disions. AmsterdamF 8en0amins. *atim% 8asil and Mason% Ian 5#77A8 The Translator as :ommunicator. .ondonF
,outledge. *ouse% /uliane 5#7AA8 A Mo(el 0or Translation Eualit. Assessment. TMbingenF $arr. *erbert% /ean 5#7;98 Manuel (e 4+<nter/rFte. (enSveF (eorg. *udson% 6enneth 5#7A88 The &ictionar. o0 &isease( 1n!lish. .ondonF Macmillan. $eubert% Albrecht 5#7688 #ragmatische Aspe te der i/berset@ung. In A. $eubert =ed.> run(0ra!en (er Gbersetzun!swissenscha0t. .eip@igF 7erlag En@! lopAdie. $e"mar % #eter 5#7888 A Textbook o0 Translation. *emel *empsteadF #rentice *all International. &gden% Charles 6a! and ,ichards% Ivor Armstrong 5#76%8 The Meanin! o0 Meanin!. .ondonF ,outledge and 6egan #aul. 3arceviD% 3usan 5#77A8 New A//roach to 4e!al Translation. The *ague4.ondonF 6lu"er .a" International. 3to es% ,. and 8ird% (. 5#7A68 Bischer?&ieskau 2ook o0 4ie(er. .ondonF (ollanc@. T!tler% Alexander 5#7A88 1ssa. on the Princi/les o0 Translation. AmsterdamF 8en 0amins. Reldin% Theodore 5#7768 Translation and civili@ation. In /. Ta!lor% E. McMorran and (. .eclerc: =eds> Translation *ere an( Now> Now an( Then. ExeterF Elm 8an #ublications.
Chapter 4 Some of Peter Newmark's Translation Cate ories Re!isited

5LB"7CH N70B7" Semantic #ersus Communicati#e Translation
In his ke.note 5a5er Peter "ewmark has again made a convincing 5lea for translation as a *noble9 truth-seeking 5rofession*$1 ,or him the nature of translation9 its essence9 *does not change*$ !he Oform of a translation ma. change de5ending on its function* but the author*s te=t and the meanings it 5uts into words cannot and should not be con@ured awa. b. whatever sko/os translators or translation commissioners9 for that matter9 tend to think u5 under the concrete condition of 5articular translation assignments$ -f course9 the fidelit. or9 if .ou like9 the lo.alt. owed to the original does not necessaril. force translators to 5roduce nothing but a mere co5.$ :ven when a literal rendering is the demand of the target addressee9 such as in the case of a word-b.-word translation of a 5oem9 notabl. from a language utterl. unknown to the commissioning 5oet who wants to recreate 5nach(ichten8 the original in the target language 3!+49 where hisJher 5oetic imagination is at home9 the *5re-translator* endows the unfinished *crib* with 5lent. of 5ara5hrasing remarks about the meaning structures of the words and their interrelations in the source language 3S+4 5oem$ It is true the 5oetic Aualit. of the original ma.9 on the face of it9 have disa55eared$ !he author has certainl. not disa55eared$ As much as 5ossible of the truth of the ori!inal is ke5t9 though in rough9 unhewn sha5e to be subtl. sublimated b. the 5oet who transforms this raw material into new 5oetic grandeur$ Det translating 5oetr. is never tantamount to 5roducing something entirel. new$ Similarl.9 though with Auite a different effect9 translations for 5ri maril. informative 5ur5oses ma. reflect S+ features to an often e=cessive degree9 seemingl. marring !+ conventions$ If a firm wants to market
their 5roducts in a countr. where advertising is markedl. different from the firm*s home territor.9 it is Auite usual that an effective advertising cam5aign in the !I9 countr. ma. be 5receded b. making tile 5ros5ective writers of advertising co5. aware of @ust those unfamiliar marketing !"
So+e of Peter 1e4+ar56s Translation Cate/ories 'e!isited 6&
techniAues so that the. can gear their te=ts to the !+ countr.9 whether the. are actuall. authored b. translators or b. natives on the basis of the e=5ectations of the targeted bu.ers$ !he. have to get a glim5se of the linguistic and st.listic usages familiar to their new customers b. reading through the lines of the often literal translations of t.5ical advertisements 5roduced in the target area$ !he eventual te=ts distributed of the firm*s advertisement in the home market 3incidentall. also literall. anal.sed4 follow the models of the envisaged market while being true to the firm*s marketing intentions$ It is 5erha5s a moot 5oint whether the latter techniAue is9 strictl. s5eaking9 still translating9 or what 2rian /arris9 referring to 5revalent 5ractice in bilingual Canada9 has called co?writin! 3/arris9 16G%: 1214$ "ewmark*s main 5oint9 as I see it9 has to do with the translator*s res5onsibilit.$ /owever varied the tasks translators have to co5e with in their 5rofession9 in the 5ast as well as in the 5resent9 the. are doing a service both to societ. and to individuals and grou5s with var.ing interests$ And this service9 bridging gulfs between s5eakers of different languages and members of contrasting cultures9 5uts translators in a double-bind$ !he. have to serve two masters9 though the. often enough kno8 onl. too well that one of the two9 the S+ author or the !+ audience9 ma. not alwa.s get an even share$ 2ut a share it is9 whatever translators ma. think is their own achievement in the 5rocess$ !he. are mediators who would not be needed had there not been an activating or motivating im5etus from a source that9 for whatever reason9 calls for a target te=t 3!!4 in the conte=t of another language$ !he conseAuence is a functional shift: a new need for an old te=t$ -riginals9 however 5erfectl. the. ma. have served in their old environment9 have to be redone9 even at the cost of losing something$ Reaching an entirel. new audience that has cried out for them or that the. are targeted to reach is made 5ossible b. the uniAue achievement of the translator$ And it is 5recisel. as a result of 5erforming this multifaceted service that translations tend to var. in kind9 but never in nature$ !he translator*s @ob9 5erfectl. done or 5oorl. rendered9 is not an original communicative act$ Its creativit. is derived$ +ike actors9 translators act out a te=t9 but theirs is a *5erformance without a stage* 3'echsler9 166G4$ ,or "ewmark this acting out is constrained b. two kinds of decision9 which for him are antinomical: the. are either intended to recover the #$ull meanin!+ of the source te=t or to deliver its +mere messa!e+ 3m. italics4$ /e defines these two ob@ects of the translator*s mediating craft as follows: *firstl.9 the full sense9 with all its richness9 its denotations and connotations9 all the writer said9 sometimes even modified b. what she meantB and9 secondl.9 the message9 what and how she wanted the reader3s4 to act and feel and think*$
As is well known9 "ewmark made this antinom. the starting 5oint of his famous distinction between semantic and communicative translation9 originall. introduced9 as far as I can see9 in his seminal A""roaches to Translation 3"ewmark9 16G14$ Although he has 5ointed out more recentl. that he would no longer use these two categorical terms with the original rigour9 I think their conce5tual core9 i$e$ their fundamentall. antinomic frame of reference9 still bears witness to his credo when he now states that *instinctivel.9 I know there are basicall. two kinds of translation*$ "otwithstanding the usefulness of negotiating between *semantic meanings* and *communicative effects* when deciding 5articular translation 5roblems9 the Auestion9 in m.
o5inion9 remains whether this actuall. im5lies that *there are two basic kinds of translation*$ Are thereI -r have we not rather two wa.s of looking at basicall. one kind of translation demanding different methods to solve different translation 5roblems within one 5articular translationI Along with man. scholars9 I have been using 9 "ewmark*s im5ortant distinction in m. teaching and research$ 2ut I have alwa.s been a bit * war. of its methodological stance$ I think semantic and communicative are 5erfectl. legitimate and necessar. 5ointers to certain as5ects of the translation 5rocess$ 2ut9 and this is m. 5oint9 the. refer to Auite different levels of anal.sis$ In 5articular9 semantic translation highlights the attem5t of the translator to gras5 the full meanings e=5ressed in the source te=t 3S!4 and to render as much as 5ossible into the !+ version$ -f course9 this will alwa.s remain an a55ro=imation$ +inguistic meanings9 as was convincingl. shown b. ,irth 316(1B cf$ also Palmer9 160G4 and his man. disci5les - with regard to translation notabl. b. Catford 3160(4 - are basicall. rooted in the language 3s.stem4$ !hough conte=tualised b. use9 the. are intricatel. linked to the total meaning 5otential held in store b. the S+$ Carr.ing meanings across and tr.ing to recover them in the translation involves unavoidable losses because the new e=5ressions are 5art and 5arcel of another semantic s.stem$ ?acob &rimm9 more than 1(8 .ears ago9 e=5ressed this truth b. a ver. telling nautical meta5hor$ Pla.ing on the homogra5hic 5otential of Bbers%tJen 3figurativel.: *translate*4 and KBbersetJen 3literall.: *carr. over or across*49 &rimm likens translation to a sea @ourne. which ends on different shores: was MbersetCen auf sich habe9 lQsCt sich mit demselben wort9 dessen accent ich blosC Cu Qndern habe9 deutlich machen: MbersetCen ist *MbersetCen9 traducere navem9 wer nun Cur seefart aufgelegt9 ein schif bemannen und mit vollem segel an das gestade @enseits fMhren ann, musC dennoch landen9 wo andrer boden ist und andere Iuft streicht$ 3&rimm9 1G)19 Auoted after &rimm9 16G): ))4
So+e of Peter 1e4+ar56s Translation Cate/ories 'e!isited 71
&emantic translation9 nevertheless9 seeks to ada5t the meanings carried over as much as 5ossible
to the new surroundings$ :=5erienced translators have often worked wonders b. using a vast re5ertoire of "rocedures, meant to reduce irrevocable semantic losses to a minimum$ 3,or a surve. of translation 5rocedures available9 see >ina. V arbelnet9 1610B "eubert9 16G)B Chesterman9 1661: G1-110$4 6ommunicative translation, b. contrast9 is not about 5rocedures$ Its conce5tual status is on a much higher level of abstraction$ :ver. te=t9 whether it is a 5oem or a 5rosaic message9 is a communicative event$ +iterar. as well as non-literar. translations have communicative intentions or functions$ !here is aesthetic communication9 howeverB as "ewmark would have it9 *the translated truth in the $$9 5oetic case will be dee5er9 more com5rehensive even though it will onl. be 5art of the truth*$ I would think9 however9 that de"th or com"rehensiveness are matters of degree9 at least with regard to translation$ -f course9 the world of te=ts "er se in an. language 3without regard to translation4 re5resents an enormous range of t.5es$ And one can make a case that literar. te=ts are in a wa. a5art from all other te=t tokens because they are mimetic. !he. create a world of their own$ !hough the. ma. be linked in man. ways to the actual world of their creators9 the. are fundamentall. fictitious9 creations of the mind9 subtle sublimations of realit. outside and within us$ Det once materialised into s5oken or written s.mbols9 the. communicate something9 as a rule9 to an audience or9 if need be9 onl. to their own creator9 who had no other 5ersons but @ust self-e=5ression in mind$ And it is as ob@ects of communication that te=ts9 an. te=t9 can be sub@ected to translation$ All translations9 in this sense9 are communicative acts$ Communicative translation9 "ewmark*s alternative to semantic translation in this reading9 turns out to be a tautolog.$ -f course9 "ewmark9 in coining the term9 had something Auite differ Y* ent in mind$ According to his original definition this *t.5e* of translation *attem5ts to 5roduce on its readers an effect as close as 5ossible to that obtained on the readers of the original* 3"ewmark9 16G1: %64$ :videntl.9
, communicative was sim5l. meant to indicate that the translation should communicate as easil. as the original9 or rather9 it should give the im5ression of being a 5art of the *normal* communication of and
for target readers$ And it should e=hibit all the linguistic and st.listic features used b. t.5ical target communicators. In short9 communicative translation should read like normal communication in the !+$ !hus for "ewmark9 as far as I can see9 communicative, @ust as semantic, denotes attributes of translations$ !he. arise either from the translator*s handling of the meanings of the original or from the attitudes ado5ted b. the 5ros5ective users towards the translation$ !hese are actuall. semiotic relations9 having to do with texts and either meanings or users. #his is wh. I used the semiotic
72 Translation Today: Trends and Perspectives
terms semantic and "ragmatic for @ust this im5ortant distinction9 with "ragmatic neatl. covering the range intended b. "ewmark*s use of communicative 3"eubert9 160G4$% Such a semiotic reading would bring into focus an im5ortant as5ect of translation endeavours$ It does not, however9 stand in o55osition to the translator*s attem5t to reca5ture the conte=tual meanings of the original$ !he two a55roaches ma. rather be seen to be com5lementar.$ Semantic choices are filtered b. communicative Dua 5ragmatic intentions$ ?ust as in the S! the meanings are the under5innings of its communicative function9 their reconstruction in the !! should serve the same 5ur5ose9 5rovided the translation is su55osed to have the same intent as the original$ 'hat "ewmark rightl. condemns is that 5oor or ine=5erienced translators often e=cuse their gross deviations from source meanings b. referring to *communicative* concerns9 instead of tr.ing harder to come closer to the semantic content of the original with the e=5licit aim of combining semantic and communicative9 i$e$ "ragmatic, adeAuac.$ A communicativel. satisf.ing translation can @ust as well be semanticall. congruous$ At least9 there is alwa.s a scale a55l.ing to units of translation from single words to 5hrases u5 to the whole te=t$ !o render them into the !! translators negotiate semantic-cum-5ragmatic choices$ At the same time semantic deficiencies have to be consistentl. eliminated without @eo5ardising communicative effects9 i$e$ "ragmatic adeDuacy. !he 5ractice of 5oetic translation as well as of non-literar. or technical translation abounds in e=am5les of how such res"onsible matching of semantic and communicative Dua 5ragmatic concerns can be achieved$ #he $ole of %ords in Social Translation ,or "ewmark social translation, a term rarel. used in !ranslation Studies9 *like imaginative literature9 is essentiall. concerned with individuals and grou5s9 3and often brings home the moral of a literar. allegor.49 but like non-literature9 its 5ur5ose is to describe them factuall. and accuratel.*$ /e derives this translation t.5e from social texts. /e uses the term *social* to indicate that these te=ts deal with the Aualities 3hence the ob@ectives4 of 5ersons as individuals and grou5s from a 5oint of view that is consonant 9 with the 5rinci5les of the ;" 7eclaration o$ 1niversal 8uman Rights. :videntl.9 "ewmark isolates a general translation categor. from a 5articular genre of te=ts$ #aking statements about9 for instance9 the translatabilit. of words 3in these te=ts4 can result in somewhat tenuous distinctions$ After all9 is there reall. a 5articular use of le=ical items9 such as of ad@ectives and nouns denoting a Aualit. which is idios.ncraticI It goes9 of course9 without sa.ing that translating a ;" document has to take into account the relevant textual re&uirements. 'ut this is the case
Some of Peter Newmark's Translation ate!ories "evisited 7#
with an. other genre$ A technical te=t9 for instance9 contains man. technical terms9 which demand from translators the technical e=5ertise to render them into available technical eAuivalents$ !he need often arises that loans or technicall. acce5table 5ara5hrases have to be used$ !hus technical
terms are an attribute of technical translation. Similarl.9 in the 5ast 5oetic translation was characterised b. "oetic diction. 2ut long since this has given wa. to 5racticall. ever. kind of word9
ever.da. to highl. abstract or even technical9 being used in 5oetr. and hence its translation$ Actuall.9 it is a moot 5oint to assert that there is a restriction as to which words should be used in a 5articular translation t.5e$ &ocial texts do not9 in fact9 contain #social words# as such$ Instead9 the institutionalised among them certainl. abound in technical words, t.5icall. em5lo.ed in the various institutional settings9 often historical or culturall. determined$ !here are9 however9 man. le=ical items that have entered a social text from the vocabular. of the res5ective languages9 whose 3grou5s of4 s5eakers the te=ts *describe $$$ factuall. and accuratel.*$ #aking absolute statements about the translatabilit. of those words is9 I think9 Auite 5roblematic$ Xuite a5art from the im5lication that an irreconcilable le=ical gulf could im5air the universal validit. of9 sa.9 the ;" eclaration of ;niversal /uman Rights9 claims about the untranslatabilit. of ke.words cannot 5ossibl. be maintained$ 2esides home and $air "ewmark singles out "rivacy as an e=am5le of a *classicall. untranslatable* le=eme$ ;nfortunatel.9 he does not su55l. the concrete conte=t of the word in the social textL but refers to cumulative renderings in a number of languages9 im5l.ing that "rivacy #is missing in nearl. all other languages*$ Among his Auasi-eAuivalents9 which are all given out of conte=t9 he mentions &erman *Privatleben*9 which is clearl. not on a 5ar with a *5owerful single word* such as :nglish "rivacy. It is9 actuall.9 but a common dictionar. eAuivalent9 Auite a 5oor rendering of the ;" document$ ,urthermore9 it accounts for @ust one sense of "rivacy out of three9 namel.9 *the state of being free from intrusion or disturbance in one*s 5rivate life or affairs* with the right to serving as a 5rotot.5ical collocation$( !he much acclaimed Collins 6M<1IL7 Inglish Language 7ictionary 316G1: 11)149 with the referring to its com5uter database of *real* and not *invented* Auotations9 gets awa. with @ust one sense9 claiming with its characteristic sim5licit.: *If .ou have "rivacy, you are alone or can be alone9 so that .ou can do things without other 5eo5le seeing .ou or disturbing .ou$*0 /ave the com5ilers 5erha5s neglected all social texts, or else did the. want to include sense 2 in their condensed definition9 suggesting that a 5otential translation should take the te=t t.5e into account$- If this is the case9 the *5owerful meaning* of "rivacy as a social word can be effectivel. translated into &erman9 i$e$ into the &erman social te=t$ Claiming that sentences cover up the seeming untranslatabilit. of
7$ Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es words should alwa.s be inter5reted as a corollar. of
the conte=t of the whole te=t and9 for that matter9 of the te=t t.5e or genre$ !ranslation can achieve this because the conte=tualisation occurs alread. in the original9 with the translator making e=5ert use of this 5ervasive feature of mono lingual9 in fact all9 communication$
Notes
1$ All Auotations9 if not further s5ecified9 are from Peter "emark*s 5a5er9 !ranslation in the new millennium: no global communication without translation9 in this volume$ 2$ Cf$ *Semantic translation attem5ts to render9 as closel. as the semantic and s.ntactic structures of the second language allow9 the e=act conte=tual meaning of the original* 3"ewmark9 16G1: %64$ %$ I still think that "ragmatic is a more adeAuate term em5hasising the concern with the translation users* relation to the !!$ !his loan from semiotics would also 5ut the term on the same footing as semantic, facilitating the use of the two attributes as either meaning centred or user centred$ "ewmark 316G1: )%4 re@ected "ragmatic as *confusing* because he thought the term9 originall. defined b. #orris9 had later been used in other senses9 such as *non-literar.*9 *technical* and*5ractical*$ 2ut I am afraid communicative has acAuired at least @ust as man. meanings9 which 5air it rather inadeAuatel. with semantic, the latter being invariabl. involved in an' communicative act$ )$ I take it to be the right to "rivacy, which would be more adeAuatel. *Recht auf Privats5hQre* or *Recht auf 5ersUnliche Intims5hQre*$ ($ Cf$ sense 2 in The Random 8ouse 7ictionary o$ the Inglish Language 316G1:1()849 the other two senses being: 1$ the state of being 5rivateB retirement or seclusionB %$ secrec. 3the latter9 incidentall.9 omitted in most 2ritish dictionaries4$ In m. own :nglish-&erman dictionar. 3"eubert V &rUger9 16GG49 however9 I ascribed three senses to "rivacy with *Privatleben9 -s5hQre9 Intims5hQre* as eAuivalents of sense 29 im5l.ing that *Privatleben* is not t.e onl. choice$ 0$ Incidentall.9 the four attested Auotations all translate easil. into &erman: e$g$ I hated the lac5 o$ "rivacy
gerne mit nach /ause nehmen9 um es 3ungestUrt4 in Ruhe Cu lesen Zor: und es 3ungestUrt4 in Ruhe lesenR$* 1$ !his reading is corroborated b. e=am5les two and three9 5rovided the. occur in a social text. !he. should then be translated b. *Ich fMhlte9 dass ich meine Privats5hQre brauchte9 *die Privats5hQre deiner eigenen 'ohnung Zor colloAuiall.: deiner eigenen vier 'QndeR*$ Is there 5erha5s semantic overla55ing between senses 1 and 29 which is not made e=5licit in the translation but is a conseAuence of the conte=t su55lied b. the genreI
Re"erences
in the dormitory *Ich hasste es Zor: es behagte mir ganC und gar nichtR9 dass ich im Schlafsaal niemals allein war Zor: niemals allein sein konnteR* $$$ 4 $elt I needed "rivacy *Ich fMhlte9 dass ich allein sein wollte Zor: mussteR* $$$ the "rivacy o$ your own home *die ;ngestUrtheit deiner eigenen 'ohnung Zor: deiner eigenen vier 'QndeR* $$$ !erha"s you#d li5e to ta5e it home and read it in "rivacy *>ielleicht mUchten Sie es
Catford9 ?ohn Cunnison 3160(4 A +inguistic Theory o$ %ranslati#n. +ondon: -=ford ;niversit. Press$
So+e of Peter 1e4+ar56s Translation Cate/ories 'e!isited 7%
Chesterman9 Andrew 316614 @emes o$ Translation The &"read o$ Ideas in Translation 8istory. AmsterdamJPhiladel5hia: ?ohn 2en@amins$ 6M<1IL7 Inglish Language 7ictionary 316G14$ +ondon and &lasgow: Collins$ ,irth9 ?ohn Ru5ert 316(14 !a"ers in Linguistics )C*L-,). +ondon: -=ford ;niver sit. Press$ &rimm9 ?acob 316G)4 Reden in der A5ademie. AusgewNhlt und herausgegeben von W. 0eumann und 8. &chmidt. 2erlin: Akademie->erlag$ /arris9 2rian 316G%4 Co-writing: A Canadian techniAue of communicative eAuivalence$ In &$ ?Qger and A$ "eubert 3eds4 &emanti5 und ObersetJungswissenscha$t. PbersetCungswissenschaftliche 2eitrQge 0 355$ 121%24$ +ei5Cig: >erlag :nC.klo5Qdie$ "eubert9 Albrecht 3160G4 Pragmatische As5ekte der PbersetCung$ In A$ "eubert 3ed$4 ?rund$ragen der ObersetJungswissenscha$t. ,remds5rachen9 2eiheft II 355$ 21-%%4$ +ei5Cig: >erlag :nC.klo5Qdie$ "eubert9 Albrecht 316G)4 !e=t-bound translation teaching and the 5rotot.5e view$ In '$ 'ilss and &$ !home 3eds4 7ie Theorie des ObersetJens und ihr Au$schluPwert $Br die 7olmetsch- und ObersetJungsdida5ti5 +"". 01-184$ !Mbingen: "arr$ "eubert9 Albrecht and &rUger9 :$ 316GG4 8andwQrterbuch Inglisch 7eutsch. +ei5Cig: >erlag :nC.klo5Qdie$ "ewmark9 Peter 316G14 A""roaches to Translation. -=ford: Pergamon Press$ Palmer9 ,rank Robert 3ed$4 3160G4 &elected !a"ers o$ 3.R. Firth. +ondon and /arlow: +ongmans$ Random 8ouse 7ictionary o$ the Inglish Language 316G14 32nd edn4$ "ew Dork: Random /ouse$ >ina.9 ?ean Paul and arbelnet9 @ean 316104 &tilistiDue com"ar%e du $ran'ais et de l#anglais. Paris: idier$ 'echsler9 Robert 3166G4 !er$orming Without A &tage The Art o$ Literary Translation. "orth /aven: Catbird Press$
6ha"ter , "ookin #orward to the Translation$ %n &' D(namic Reflection of )uman 'cti!ities'
KIRSTEN MA MK!AR Introd ction In his 5a5er9 "o global communication without translation9 Peter "ewmark defines translation as *a d.namic reflection of human activities*$ !he definition a55ears almost casuall.9 as a 5art e=5lanation of wh. it is that translation can be divided into literar. and non-literar. 3because original writing can be either fictional or factual4 but it strikes me as
5rofound and rich in im5lication9 the more so9 5erha5s9 because in his 5a5er "ewmark leaves it dangling in a state of tantalising underelaboration$ I take it that translation reflects human activit. on several levels9 but I intend to focus on the fact that a translation 5ur5orts to reflect a source te=t 3S!4 3!our.*s 3166(: %%-)4 Source!e=t Postulate4$ !o be sure9 concomitant with this focus is another: a focus on the creative 5rocess b. which the translation comes to e=ist as a 35ur5orted4 reflection9 and this must also be dealt with$ 2ut9 in both as5ects9 the reflection of the S! seems to me the ver. basis of translation9 a view which I know can seem reactionar.$ I think that it is not9 though9 once we swee5 awa. a few 5articularl. obscurant cobwebs from our notion of eAuivalence9 and I think that careful consideration of the notions of meaning and of how communication with language 5roceeds in general might hel5 us in this res5ect$ * .namic* is a word - as so man. others - with several strings to its meaning-bow9 arranged in var.ing orders of merit in different dictionaries and 5robabl. also in different 5ersons* mental le=icons$ In dictionaries9 e=5lanations like *marked b. continuous activit. or change* +Longnian, 16G)4 are likel. to figure with some 5rominence9 and the two notions9 activit. and the forward looking as5ect9 change9 drew me, magnet-like9 to "ewmark*s definition of translation$ !he combination9
Loo5ing Forward to the Translation
--
*d.namic* with *reflection*9 seems to me doubl. effective in ca5turing two tensions that are inherent in translation: 3i4 between the constraints im5osed b. the need to reflect the S! and the creativit. reAuired to write be.ond co5.ing9 as an. translator of an. te=t must do because of the obvious differences between languages and the well documented lack of isomor5hism between language 5airsB and 3ii4 between the essentiall. backward looking focus of the need to reflect the S! and the inherentl. forward looking nature of human language use$ In the following section9 I will reflect on this characteristic of language use$ T%e In%erently +or#ard Loo$ing Nat re o" - !an Lang age Use It is obvious that in using language we rel. on what we have learnt in the 5ast$ /owever9 the e=tent to which we rel. on the 5ast9 and the nature of what it is we rel. on are both o5en to Auestion$ !he reliance on what we have learnt in the 5ast cannot be e=clusive9 because e=clusive attention to 5ast 5erformance could not enable us to co5e with the une=5ected in linguistic encounters9 as we must so freAuentl. do$ And what we bring to each new encounter9 however su55lemented as the encounter 5rogresses9 cannot be a highl. elaborated9 fi=ed s.stem which mature9 adult s5eakers have acAuired and which the. then a55l. to each and ever. case thenceforth$ 2efore ever. linguistic encounter9 we ad@ust our e=5ectations of what is to ha55en in light of what we know about the 5artici5ants in the encounter and the circumstances in which it occurs$ !his understanding of the nature of linguistic interaction derives from onald avidson 316G04B it can be formalised in ,igure ($1 3cf$ #almk@=r9 166%4:
Prior Theory S5eaker 'hat the S5eaker believes Passing Theory
!he theor. the S5eaker intends the /earer to use to inter5ret the S5eaker
the /earer*s Prior !heor. to be
/earer /ow the /earer is 5re5ared !he theor. the /earer in advance to inter5ret the actuall. ends u5 using S5eaker to inter5ret the S5eaker
(igure ).1 ,igure ($1 illustrates that for each different s5eech encounter9 a 5artici5ant 3interchangeabl. s5eaker and hearer4 has two sets of e=5ectations9
here called theories to highlight the s.stematic interrelatedness of the different com5onents of language$ !he s5eaker has e=5ectations about how the hearer is 5re5ared in advance to inter5ret himJherB and the hearer has e=5ectations about how heJshe is to inter5ret the s5eaker$ !hese are the so-called Prior !heories held b. s5eaker and hearer$ !o restate the inherentl. variable nature of these9 using avidson*s words: It is Auite clear that in general the 5rior theor. is neither shared b. s5eaker and inter5reter nor is it what we would normall. call a language$ ,or the 5rior theor. has in it all the features s5ecial to the idiolect of the s5eaker that the inter5reter is in a 5osition to take into account before the utterance begins $$$ an inter5reter must be e=5ected to have Auite different 5rior theories for different s5eakers$ 3 avidson9 16G0:118-14 In addition9 each 5artici5ant ma. intend the other to use a somewhat different theor. than the one the. e=5ect the other to be 5re5ared to use$ !his 5henomenon can be ver. visible in translational situations9 when for e=am5le a translator carefull. 5re5ares a reader of a translation to understand a 5hrase which the. might not be 5re5ared in advance to com5rehend full.$ !he following e=am5le comes from /eeg 316624 3S!4 and the translations b. !una "unall. 3;S4 and ,$ avid 3;<4: S! 5$ 28: :n gang lEner @eg Rasmus Klum/ /( in(lan(sisen. &loss: -ne time I borrow Rasmus Klum/ on the <ce :a/. ;S 5$ 1(: -ne time I borrow the children*s book Rasmus Klum/ on the <ce
:a/.
;< 5$ 12: -n one occasion I borrow the children*s book Rasmus Klum/ on the
<ce :a/.
/ere9 the 5hrase9 used in both the translations9 *the children*s book*9 enables the reader to inter5ret the book title as the title of a chil(ren+s book9 information which the translator 5robabl. assumed not to be 5art of the reader*s 5rior theor.9 but which sJhe intended them to have in their 5assing theor. for the term and which the use of italics alone would not 5rovide$ ,inall.9 each 5artici5ant will end u5 using a theor. to actuall. inter5ret$ !hese last two theories are the so-called Passing !heories and of them avidson has the following to sa.: A 5assing theor. is not a theor. of what an.one 3e=ce5t 5erha5s a 5hiloso5her4 would call an actual natural language$ *#aster.* of such a language would be useless9 since knowing a 5assing theor. is onl. knowing how to inter5ret a 5articular utterance on a 5articular occasion$ "or could such a language9 if we want to call it that9 be said
7oo5in/ 8or4ard to the Translation 7&
to have been learned9 or to be governed b. conventions$ -f course things 5reviousl. learned were essential to arriving at the 5assing theor.9 but what was learned could not have been the 5assing theor.$ 3 avidson9 16G0:1064 'hat enables communication to succeed is the 5artici5ants* abilit. to converge on 5assing theories: communication succeeds when the hearer uses that theor. to inter5ret the
s5eaker which the s5eaker intended him or her to use$ !his does not reAuire the two to share a language9 merel. to share an understanding of current utterances9 and we should *give u5 the idea of a clearl. defined shared structure which language-users acAuire and then a55l. to cases* 3 avidson9 16G0: 11)4$ !his view ma. be less controversial than might at first a55ear$ Consider that even the most insistent believer in the e=istence in the minds of mature language users of a stead. state called *grammar* which has been arrived at on the basis of a geneticall. determined initial state called *;niversal &rammar* 3;&49 after 5assing through a series of states in earl. childhood 3Chomsk.9 166(: 1)49 now limits ;& to determining a set of *5rinci5les*9 or 5ossible forms of human language and a set of *5arameters* within which it is 5ossible for them to var. 3Chomsk.916G14$ In this conce5tion9 *the theor. of language acAuisition will be concerned with acAuisition of le=ical items9 fi=ing of 5arameters9 and 5erha5s maturation of 5rinci5les* 3Chomsk.9 166(: 2G4$ 'hatever model will do for this will be some wa. from whatever is recorded in .our average grammar and dictionar. of :nglish9 Swahili9 Inuktitut9 or whatever9 and it seems 5rett. clear that whatever t.5e of realit. we might care to assign to language s.stems9 as recorded in dictionaries and grammar books9 however 5ragmaticall. oriented and alive to issues of language in use the. ma. be9 we would be mistaken if we were to consider them sole or even significant guides9 however im5licit or subliminal their 5resence9 in actual situations of language use$ 'hat might ha55en in actual s5eech encounters can be theorised or modelled using the rather formal notion of the function9 or the softer notion of the relationshi5$ 'e might sa.9 with +ewis 316G%4 that meaning is a function having as its integers the s5eaker9 the hearer9 a time9 a 5lace9 and a more e=tensive set of circumstancesB or we can sa. that meaning is a relationshi5 that e=ists9 momentaril. of course9 between all of these$ In this view9 meaning is used deferentiall. to future users9 not to 5ast users9 and 5ast usage becomes a background against which linguistic items 5artici5ate in meaning relationshi5s formed b. the momentar. fusion of s5eaker9 hearer9 and situation$ Since these are ever new9 language use is ever and inherentl. forward looking$ "otice that ramifications of this critiAue of the conce5t of the language s.stem e=tend into cor5us linguistics$ /owever extensive the evidential
8*9999999999999999999999999999999Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es
base for a descri5tion has been and .#+e)er accuratel. and thoroughl. the base has been anal.sed9 the anal.sis is still of 5ast usage: ne=t week*s or tomorrow*s or the ne=t minute*s usage9 which is the one that s5eakers are actuall. faced with and which therefore matters for the moment9 can ne)er have been taken account of in the descri5tion$ "ot that this in an. wa. invalidates cor5us linguistics or the stud. of grammar and le=isB it merel. invites us to reconsider the ontological status of their ob@ects and 5roducts 3cf$ #almk@aer9 forthcoming 3a44$ 'hat we need to know now is how all of this im5acts on the theor. of translation$
T%e I!pact on t%e T%eory o" Translation
#ost obviousl.9 the view of human linguistic communication @ust 5ro5ounded has im5lications for the notion of eAuivalence$ If each instance of meaning is uniAue because it results from all of the features of the momentar. s5eech situation9 then it cannot be re5licated whether in the same or another language$ 'hen we s5eak of translational eAuivalence9 therefore9 we cannot mean the kind of ideal notion which !our. 316G84 in an. case dismissed as unobtainable more than 28 .ears ago$ Rather9 something like his alternative notion of the actual relationshi5 between target te=t 3!!4 and S! must be at issue$ ,or !our.9 the !! oriented a55roach to eAuivalence is argued mainl. on 5ragmatic grounds$ ;nless we view eAuivalence thus9 he contends9 descri5tive studies will end u5 having no ob@ects to describe 3if the ideal eAuivalence9 which becomes the defining feature
of translation9 is unobtainable9 then what we call translations are never real e=am5les of the kind4$ In fact9 since ever. instance of language use is uniAue and defiant of re5lication9 the ideal view of eAuivalence gives wa. to !our.*s !! oriented conce5tion of eAuivalence on theoretical grounds also$ ,urther9 whereas !our. 316G84 insists that his !! oriented view of !ranslation !heor. is not intended for a55lication in translation 5edagog.9 I would suggest that it must be9 if 5edagog. is to 5re5are future 5ractitioners safel. for realit.$ !he difficult.9 of course9 lies in devising e=ercises to 5re5are students for what we do not know the. will meetB but we ma. at least assume that an em5hasis on strategies rather than on 5attern 5ractice is more likel. to be beneficial and that we should strive9 for e=am5le9 to use cor5ora to hel5 students become creative translators rather than tell them that the. will find in cor5ora 5atterns for emulation 3cf$ #almk@aer9 forthcoming 3b44$ And we might tr. to create learning situations such as those described b. >ienne 3166)a9b4 in which students 5ractice situation anal.sis9 research strategies9 Auestion asking9 and other activities which are essential to translation and which might *e expected to hel5 them, as translators,
7oo5in/ 8or4ard to the Translation 81
to formulate Prior !heories for te=ts which the. know the. will need to translate$ ,inall. 3for now49 the conce5tion of translation @ust outlined obviates the need for a !ransfer Postulate 3cf$ !our.9 166(: %)-(4 and this is desirable given the e=treme difficult. associated with the transfer meta5hor a55lied to linguistic studies 3cf$ Redd.9 16164$ "o such difficulties beset the Relationshi5 Postulate ?our9 166(: %(4 according to which *there are accountable relationshi5s which tie Za translationR to its assumed original*B for the 3assumed4 original is clearl. a factor in the function from intention to translation$ 'e might9 however9 consider ne=t how to understand these accountable relationshi5s in light of 3i4 the forward looking nature of human communication and 3ii4 the relationshi5 between translational communication and communication using what bothJall 5artici5ants consider one and the same language$ In avidson*s conce5tion of language use that I relied on in a 5revious section9 no distinction in kind is made between translation 3or inter5retation9 as avidson terms it4 and nontranslation: !he 5roblem of inter5retation is domestic as well as foreign: it sur faces for s5eakers of the same language in the form of the Auestion9 how can it be determined that the language is the sameI S5eakers of the same language can go on the assum5tion that for them the same e=5ressions are to be inter5reted in the same wa.9 but this does not indicate what @ustifies the assum5tion$ 3 avidson9 161%J16G):12(4 In avidson*s writings on 5hiloso5hical semantics 3theor. of meaning49 the case of inter5retation is used to remind us that there is an assum5tion of sameness which needs @ustification and which is less easil. forgotten in cases where two languages are overtl. at 5la.$ In !ranslation Studies 5ro5er9 too9 there e=ists a long tradition of considering translation to be different not in kind but merel. in degree of com5le=it. from non-translational cases of language use$ ,or e=am5le9 fairl. earl. on9 "ida 3160): 0G-64 sees translation as a 5rocess of *decom5osition and recom5osition* in which a *sim5le model of one-language communication* is com5licated with a *transfer mechanism* 3160): 1)04$ Somewhat later9 2ell 31661: 1(4 considers translation *a 5articular instance of a more general 5henomenon 3the e=change of information b. means of language4*$ It seems to me 5erfectl. legitimate to 5roceed in this manner9 to describe translation as a s5ecial case of something elseB onl. some effort ought then also to be e=5ended in tr.ing to establish e=actl. what it is that makes the translational case s5ecial9 and here we have not done
T%e Relations%ip bet#een Translation and Non1translation
82
particularl! "ell so far in Translation 3tudies =at least not in descriptive4 speculative studiesC the more experimentall! minded researchers "ho use Thin Aloud #rotocols have done some"hat better>. $or% "e might add% is the philosophical literature an! help in this respect.
2%at Ma$es Translation Special

+hen it comes to discussing the transfer mechanism "ith "hich decomposition and recomposition are amplified to become translation% $ida has relativel! little to sa!F If "e understood more precisel! "hat happens in this transfer mechanism% "e should be better able to pinpoint some sources of the difficult! persons have in interpreting from one language to another. &ne thing "e do no"% ho"ever 9 that the translator must not onl! discover corresponding s!mbols "ith "hich to communicate the message in Tthe target language =T.>U% but must also organi@e these s!mbols in the form re:uired b! the TT.U. 8asicall!% "e ma! describe translating as a process in "hich the concept is transferred% possibl! in essentiall! ) ernel) form% and then the corresponding utterance in Tthe T.U is generated. =$ida% 1'6GF1G6>
Advances in ps!cholinguistics and discourse and text anal!sis offer 8ell =1''1> a more sophisticated vocabular! and more elaborate models than "ere available to $ida =1'6G>C but the basic understanding of "hat translation has that monolingual language comprehension and language production do not have has not altered. +hat distinguishes translation from other instances of =bilingual> information exchange is that% in translation% )the representation of a text) that is the original is replaced )b! a representation of an e:uivalent text in a second language) =8ell% 1''1F 6% :uoting Meetham V *udson% 1'6'F Q1?>. 8ell =1''1F GG962> models the translation process as a con0unction of text anal!sis and text s!nthesis. The anal!sis of the 3T results in a semantic representation of the text% "hich constitutes )the information to reverse the process) =1''1F 6I>. In this process% 8ell =1''1F Q1> identifies as crucial )the abilit! to recogni@e the alternatives Tof interpretationU that are available in the original% the choices that can be found in the T. and the reali@ation that choices foreclose others). *e is of course a"are that if some information re:uired b! the T. is missing from the 3T% the translator must exercise inventiveness. 8ut% that aside% the translator)s activit! mirrors the processes engaged in b! an! reader4"riter in the t"o languages involved 9 though% in the case of a translator% one individual has the s ills for both languages4 cultures. 8ell =1''1F ?5> :uotes $e"mar (19>9? I5>F )an! old fool can learn a language .... but it ta es an intelligent person to become a translator)% and there is no doubt that this is true. 8ut I "ould li e to
7oo5in/ 8or4ard to the Translation
8#
thin that it ta es more !et than simple intelligenceF that there is a special collection of s ills and abilities "hich are specific to translators. M! o"n efforts to highlight factors shared b! ever! translational situation =Malm 0aLr%1''G>% neither shared b! cases of monolingual communication or monolingual cases of overhearing nor arising directl! from the nature of communication% managed to produce t"oF =i> the influences of the 3T on the TT and =ii> the translator)s no"ledge of the aim4purpose4 function of the translation% "hich is often not the translator)s o"n% but t!picall! more explicitl! stated than those aims "hich inspire a "riter of an original text. $eedless to sa! these t"o factors are often in mutual conflict% and part of the translator)s s ill must reside in achieving a balance bet"een the t"o. I no" thin that there is a third factor that is probabl! uni:ue to the translational case% namel! the need for the translator to control the interaction bet"een the t"o sets of language habits he or she has formed in the past. &bviousl!% there is such interaction in the language9mind of ever! bilingual person in ever! linguistic encounter that the! have. 8ut in the translational case% the existence of a text in one language "hich has to serve as the basis for the creation of a text in the other language considerabl! increases the prominence in the translator)s mind of one set of language habits over another. This prominence must be simultaneousl! exploited so that the fact of the other set does not inhibit understanding of the 3TC and controlled so that it does not exert a detrimental influence on the creation of the TT. I assume that this abilit! can be enhanced b! translator training and education. It should come as no surprise that the fact of the 3T is considered significant b! man! "riters on translation "hen that activit! is discussed in relation to non9translation% and indeed none of the efforts at accounting for "hat is special to translation discussed in this section is spectacular nor are the findings startling. In the next and final section I "ould li e to consider "hether the for"ard
loo ing focus of "hich I have been extolling the virtues in the sections above "ill ta e us an! further.
Loo$ing +or#ard to t%e Translation

I thin the speculations discussed in the previous section stress insufficientl! the clear difference bet"een language production as a result of an intention to communicate )from scratch)% and language production as a result of an intention to communicate on the basis of a pre9existing text. +hen I sat do"n to "rite this paper% I had onl! a fairl! inexplicit idea of "hat exactl! I "anted to sa! in it. I had neither a series of clear concepts "ith clear relationships bet"een them in mind% read! for expression% nor a full representation of a text readil! available as information to reate m! paper ="ould that academic "riting happened li e thatO>.
8$ Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es In fact% it is highl! unli el! that in man! cases of
translation a translator has such a clearl! defined structure available% read!9made for the entire text. 8ut a 3T ma! provide the translator "ith a clearer discourse frame"or and a clearer set of expectations of "hat is to come in the TT than the some"hat vague stirrings of intent that guide a "riter of an originalC and it is possible that this frame"or and these expectations are ver! clearl!% if momentaril!% elaborated for those chun s of the 3T "hich the translator processes as translation units. The imposing presence that is the 3T is obviousl! both liberating and constrictingC but some past contemplation overemphasises the constriction and under9elaborates the liberation "hich the 3T provides for the translator. In enabling the translator to save on invention% the 3T frees his or her creative abilities to "rite "ith the future in mind. The translator is given the luxur! of being able to contemplate at some length the 3T "ith all its levels and la!ers of significance and impact. This is a ma0or advantage that the translator has over the original "riter% and it ma! go some "a! to"ards compensating for the man! difficulties involved in the control of language habits I discussed above. The 3T is an important and particularl! clearl! defined aspect of the past that contributes to the creation of a prior theor! for the language encounter to comeF the creation of the TT for the future co9participants in that encounter. +hen a translator W exploits this luxur! to the full% a TT reader "ho also no"s the 3T often discovers aspects of it that past readings had not made available. This phenomenon% in turn% illustrates the for"ard loo ing nature of language ) use "ith particular poignanc!. I thin that this aspect of translation should be emphasised more to students% readers% and critics of translation as a phenomenon "hich ma es it "orth"hile% al"a!s and repeatedl!% to loo for"ard to the translation as a particularl! d!namic% revealing reflection of and on an aspect of human activit!. $e+eren es , 8ell% ,=1''1> Translation and Translating Theory and !ractice. .ondon and $e" Nor F .ongman. Choms !% $. =1'I1> Lectures on ?overnment and <inding. -ordrechtF <oris. Choms !% $. =1''5> The @inimalist !rogram. Cambridge% MAF The MIT #ress. -avidson% -. =1'Q?> ,adical interpretation. ,eprinted from 7ialectica 1QO ?1?91I in )C8L, InDuiries into Truth and Inter"retation =pp. 1159?'>. &xfordF Clarendon #ress. -avidson% 7. +)C8./ A nice derangement of epitaphs. In ,.E. (rand! and ,. +arner =eds> !hiloso"hical ?rounds o$ Rationality <ntentions> 6ategories, Inds =pp. 15Q9QG>. &xfordF Clarendon #ress. *taeg% l). +)CC9/ I r#rR5rn &millas $ornernmelse $or sne. CopenhagenF Mun sgaard4 ,osinante. Translated b! TII$A $unall! as &milla#s &ense R $ &now +)CC*/, $e" Nor F <arrar% 3trauss V (iroux in=9. and b! < -avid as Miss 6milla+s Feeling $or &now +)CC*/, .ondonFThe *arvill #ress.
7oo5in/ 8or4ard to the Translation
8%
.e"is% -. =1'I?> !hiloso"hical !a"ers 4olume I. $e" Nor and &xfordF &xford 5niversit! #ress. Malm 0"r% 6. =1''?> 5nderpinning translation theor!. Target ;=9> 1??9GI. Malm 0oer% 6. =forthcoming =a>> ,eversing a common notionF Translation and examples in contrastive linguistics. !roceedings o$ the )Lth &ym"osium on Theoretical and A""lied Linguistics 9:-99 A"ril, 9:::. -epartment of Theoretical and Applied .inguistics% 3chool of English% Aristotle 5niversit! of Thessaloni i. Malm 0xr% 6. =forthcoming =b>> &n a pseudo9subversive use of corpora in trans lator training. !roceedings o$ 61LT 9::: 6or"us 1se and Learning to Translate. Meetham% A.,. and *udson% ,.A. =1'6'> Incyclo"aedia in Linguistics, In$ormation and 6ontrol. &xfordF #ergamon. $e"mar % #=1'6'> 3ome notes on translation and translators. Incor"orated Linguist I4G%Q'9I5. $ida% E.A. =1'6G> Towards a &cience o$ Translating With &"ecial Re$erence to !rinci"les and !rocedures Involved in <ible Translating. .eidenF E./. 8rill. ,edd!% M./. =1'Q'> The conduit metaphorF A case of frame conflict in our language about language. In A. &rton! =ed.> @eta"hor and Thought =pp. 1IG9?1G>. CambridgeF Cambridge 5niversit! #ress. Tour!% (. =1'I2> Translated literatureF 3!stem% norm% performanceF To"ard a TToriented approach to literar! translation. In In &earch o$ a Theory o$ Translation =pp. ?5952>. Tel AvivF Tel Aviv 5niversit!% The #orter Institute for #oetics and 3emiotics. ,eprinted in !oetics Today =1'I1> 14G% '91Q. Tour!% (. =1''5> 7escri"tive Translation &tudies and <eyond. Amsterdam and #hiladelphiaF /ohn 8en0amins. 7ienne% /. =1''Ga> To"ards a pedagog! of )Translation is 3ituation). !ers"ectives &tudies in Translatology ), 519'. 7ienne% /. =1''Gb> #our une pDdagogie de la traduction en situation. In <. #Bchhac er and 6. 6aindl =eds> Translation &tudies An Interdisci"line. Amsterdam and #hiladelphiaF /ohn 8en0amins.
$apter 6
With Translation in Mind

MARS"A M#RRIS Introd ction
In "hat follo"s% I "ould li e to share "ith !ou some of the insights that I have found helpful as I have read and thought about translation. The! are not% for the most part% m' thoughts% and the! "ere not "ritten about translation as such. The! are instead about human communication% or language% or thin ing% but the! all bear on translation% particularl! on understanding. 3ome things are more basic than others. I consider those "hich are discussed here :uite basic to the intellectual life of a translator. The! "ere also :uite exciting to me "hen I encountered them% and the! still are. The! "ere% in a sense% unexpected discoveries. I read and tal ed and listened "ith translation in mind% and it has been both stimulating and profitable to do so. I should perhaps sa! that the relevance of the thoughts "hich I am presenting ma! not be immediatel! apparent. Consider them. 3ee if the! do not help !ou to get the process and the "or of translation into perspective. And add to them. It is :uite possible that the insights !ou have ac:uired from the practice of translation% and also from eeping translation in mind as !ou move through !our da!s% "ill fill in some basic part of this picture.
*o!! nication Precedes Lang age

In his inaugural lecture as #rofessor of .inguistics at &xford 5niversit!% ,o! *arris made the claim that )Communication precedes language) =*arris %1'QI>. It seems obvious enough% no"% but "hen he said it% it "as something of a shoc for a particular communit! Though he "as addressing the scholarl! communit! of &xford 5niversit!% he had in mind the much larger and more dispersed communit! of linguists% "ho attempt to stud! language scientificall!. *e
felt that in their concern to have something measurable to deal "ith% scientific linguists had lost trac of or had forgotten something fundamental% that language is part of a larger process in "hich human beings relate to one another% and that X. ,-
3ith Translation in :ind
87
language forms shift and move according to human interests. This led him and others of similar intellectual disposition to consider the fluid% changing "a! language is used b! people% consciousl! and unconsciousl!% to achieve their ends.
0eyond t%e In"or!ation Given

/erome 8runer is associated% in m! experience% "ith the idea that people bring :uite complex theories of human behaviour and human values to all their interactions "ith others. *e began "ith the stud! of babies learning language. The! "ere not supposed to have an!thing in their heads 9 the! had 0ust arrived% after all 9 but the! do. According to 8runer% their !oung minds are read! to receive and organise information about the "orld% and "ithin a ver! short time the! begin to develop strategies for understanding and manipulating experience. 8runer coined the term )be!ond the information given) 9 an earl! essa! bears that title =8runer% 1'Q?> 9 and it has served him% and others in the field of cognitive ps!cholog!% in thin ing about the "hole process of communication% of "hich% I might sa! again% language is but one part and translation a smaller part still% but all elements form part of a process in "hich individuals thin not onl! about "hat others sa! but "hat the! mean and "hat the! intend.
*l es
To m! mind% Carlo (in@burg% the Italian historian of the Middle Ages% has rendered an enormous service b! sho"ing ho" to focus on and thin about minuscule clues to human meaning 9 mar s% if !ou "ill 9 "hich people leave unintentionall! on the things the! do and sa! and "rite. *e argues =(in@burg% 1'I'> that certain ancient habits of human practice and thought 9 "hich he calls venatic =after the .atin venari, )hunt)> 9 are still central to the problem of ma ing sense of experience% "hich consists of pic ing up the clues that the hunted animals leave behind% and ma ing sense of the clues. The capacit! "hich man ind developed to read the clues the animals unintentionall! leave% he argues% has provided us "ith the abilit! to interpret man! forms of human experience% specificall! human experience% that "e cannot ourselves have had or have observed first handF "hat historians stud!% "hat paleontologists stud!% "hat ps!chologists stud!% and even "hat detectives stud! 9 experiences be!ond our direct no"ledge but accessible to us if "e ma e use of both the clues unintentionall! left in the record and our venatic% sense9ma ing s ills b! "hich "e can piece together again the elements into a stor! that ma es human sense to us. 1
88
3 estions and Ans#ers

,.(. Colling"ood% the philosopher of histor!% "as ver! concerned to learn ho" to discover "hat reall! "ent on at historical moments that "ere onl! ascertainable% apparentl!% from the bro en and dispersed remains of archaeological artefacts. *e devised "hat he called a )logic of :uestion and ans"er) =Colling"ood% 1'?'> to "or out the human experience that such artefacts record in fragmentar! fashion. The idea is that "hatever people "ere doing then% the! "ere doing it "ith the same ind of minds and the same inds of human needs and concerns that "e "ould have had and still have toda!. That means that if !ou can 0ust recreate the :uestion or concern that "as in the minds of the people of that moment and experience% if !ou can 0ust get an idea of "hat the! "ere tr!ing to achieve% !ou can then ma e a sensible estimation of "hat the! "ere doing "ith the resources at their disposal and "hat strategies the! brought to bear on the problems the! confronted. The artefacts ta e on meaning% then% in terms of the human issues of the moment. If !ou "ill% this is the argument against literalism in historical interpretation and in translation.
Reciprocity
The <rench sociologist% Marcel Mauss% "hose "or is considered fundamental toda! in the field of social anthropolog!% captured a universal of human relations% "hich is that human interaction is reciprocal =Mauss% 1'6Q>. It is not al"a!s that !ou give a gift if !ou are given one% but that someho"% some "a!% sometime% !ou find a "a! to reciprocate for the things done for !ou or to !ou 9 that is% for both positive things and negative things.1 Mauss "as spea ing of the formal% ritual giving of gifts b! one island people to another% and the eventual response% carried out across vast stretches of the #acific &cean% but the practice and its understanding applies to all s!mbolic acts and acts of communication% to language and to translation 9 a fundamental of human societ!. %
Translation o" * lt re
E.E. Evans9#ritchard is a crucial figure in the development of social anthropolog! in the English9spea ing "orld. *e coined the term )translation of culture) =1'Q1>? to mean something li eF ma ing the experience of other peoples understandable to us% understandable "ithout domesticating that experience or ma ing it into something other than it reall! is for the people "ho live it =Evans9#ritchard% 1'65>. A great deal has happened in the field of social anthropolog! since Evans9#ritchard% but the fact that he struggled to onve* the e.perien e of the other people
8&
in "a!s that made grounded% human sense "as reall! :uite ne" and surprising. 8efore% much of the "riting about other peoples "as simpl! a collection of unexplained exoticaF shoc ing rituals% strange practices% irrational behaviour of creatures not full! human. 3ince Evans9#ritchard there has been a concerted attempt to understand these same rituals% practices% and behaviour in such a "a! as to grasp the human experience% to see the human problems and perplexities% to reduce the false exoticism that prevents us from understanding people "ho are fundamentall! li e ourselves% but "hose lives are shaped 9 both facilitated and constrained 9 b! circumstances different from ours.
Translating T%o g%t

I should perhaps tr! to sho" ho" these insights% from such diverse fields as linguistics% ps!cholog!% histor!% philosoph!% sociolog! and anthropolog!% bear on translating. As )communication precedes language)% !ou need al"a!s to thin that the text !ou are reading in order to translate is onl! part of a larger issue of human communication. It sa!s onl! part of "hat is meant. It Epoints to) the rest =as Manuel Alvar has also saidG>. Nou have to remember that !ou are reading a necessaril! incomplete and imperfect rendering 9 and this onl! in language 9 of something that someone "anted to sa! to someone else% and probabl! did sa! in the man! complex "a!s human communication is achieved. Nou translate the "ords and the text% but !our "ords must point to the human experience to "hich the original "ords and text point. Nou are brilliantl! fitted for understanding% and for the "or of translating% b! !our fundamental biological disposition to"ard experience. Nou naturall! go )be!ond the information given). Nou do so% of course% in terms of !our o"n language and societ!% so !ou must ta e care not to introduce that distortion into the translation% but if !ou exercise discipline and reason carefull! about !our o"n responses to "hat !ou see and read and to the texts !ou translate% !ou "ill come closer to the human truth of the experience on "hich the texts are based. Nou must still translate the "ords.
#eople leave clues to their habits of mind% their concerns% and their intentions in ever!thing the! do% including in the texts "hich !ou find !ourself translating. .oo for those clues% see "hat patterns the! form% and ma e use of them in !our translation. Much that seems not to ma e sense on first reading can be resolved b! pa!ing close attention to the detail 9 "hat is included% "hat is left out% "h! this rather than that "ord "as chosen. Nou leave such clues !ourself. Ma e sensible use of those others leave(
&*
Texts are in a sense ans"ers to :uestions that someone had% :uestions formulated in the language of some other person in some other societ!% perhaps at some other time. If !ou can
grasp the human :uestion or concern or need in the "riter)s mind% !ou can follo" his logic and understand the sense his text ma es% including much of "hat is assumed% and so not stated% but still present in his mind "hen he "rote. Nou "ill "ant these things to be present in !our mind as !ou "or % and if possible in the mind of the reader of !our translation.
It "ill help to remember that the text is one part of an ongoing% reciprocal relationship% in "hich someone is being addressed and someone "ill repl! or respond. In the context of the original% there "as something before and there "ill be something after the text !ou have in !our hands. Nou are translating one step in something that stretches bac in time and for"ard in time and "hat !ou do should suggest that ind of human continuit!% "here people are spea ing to other people about things that% for some reason% the! have cared about.
The text !ou are translating "as "ritten b! people fundamentall! li e !ourself% but "hose experience of life is different and "hose imaginative experiences and resources for expressing themselves ma! be ver! different indeed.5 Their thin ing should not come across as more exotic or more absurd than the! are% or than !ou and !our thin ing "ould be% translated into their language and expressive forms.>
*oncl sion
#ractitioners of translation% perhaps more than most% live and breathe their profession. The! live in language% the! live "ith texts% and the! live through human expression of all inds. Translators must remain mentall!% and I thin also ph!sicall!% alert to their o"n experience and expression as "ell as to that of others. This applies to all that the! experience and hear and read. It is true that their "or is in some senses normative 9 the! must find translation solutions to the problems such that their readership "ill understand 9 but their disposition% I thin % must be fundamentall! receptive% empirical% integrative. If translators reflect on these experiences% eeping translation in mind% I believe the! "ill find that their understanding is sufficient for the tas % and their experience of translating abundant and deepl! satisf!ing.
&1 Notes
1. It is% of course% not the case that all spea ers and "riters strain to spea trul! or ob0ectivel!. The translator fre:uentl! must ascertain not onl! "hat is said but the )spin) the author has given the text. I have dealt "ith some aspects of this issue in Morris =1''1>. 1. ,.(. .ienhardt =1'Q5> provides a memorable example of negative reciprocit! in his essa! )(etting !our o"n bac F Themes in $ilotic m!th). ?. The epigraph to T.&. 8eidelman =ed.> The Translation o$ 6ulture Issays to ,I.I. Ivans-!ritchard is ta en from Evans9#ritchard)s Theories o$ !rimitive Religion. G. )$o transmitimos realidades sino sonidos :ue nos permiten descubrirlas !% en ocasiones% identificarlas.) =Alvar% 1'Q'F I?>. 5. Illustrative of these differences is )7ivito ! coleandoF Alive and 6ic ing. Animals in the <igurative .anguage of #uerto ,ico)% a collection of expressive resources in #uerto ,ican 3panish "ith their translations into both 5nited 3tates and 8ritish +est Indian English% the product of research b! Amanda 8urr% Margarita ,. -el .lano% Ivonne M. (Yme@% Marshall Morris% *Dctor &rti@ and 8ernice ,obertson. =A second volume% )ZHuD 7ainaO #lants and <oods in the <igurative .anguage of #uerto ,ico)% has been produced b! +end! 8un er de ,ui@% $!dia .. Castillo% Nudit de <erdinand!% ,olando -el ,Ko% Marshall Morris% *Dctor &rti@ and Illar! Huinteros MelDnde@.> 6. #rofessor /an #ou"er)s inaugural address on assuming the professorship at +ellington 5niversit! "as entitled )Translation at 3ight) and discussed the sense made b! the people being studied of the anthropologists stud!ing them.
Re"erences
Alvar% Manuel =1'Q'> -el glosario al diccionario automati@ado. <oletin de la Academia !uertorriDueSa
de la Lengua Is"aSola, 4IITI.
8eidelman% T.&. =ed.> =1'Q1> The Translation o$ 6ulture Issays to I.I. Ivans-!ritchard. .ondonF Tavistoc .
8runer% /erome =1'Q?> <eyond the In$ormation ?iven &tudies in the !sychology o$ 2nowing, /erem! M. Anglin =ed.>. $e" Nor F +.+. $orton. Colling"ood% ,obin (eorge =1'?'> An Autobiogra"hy. .ondonF &xford 5niversit! #ress. Evans9#ritchard% Ed"ard Evan% =1'65> Theories o$ !rimitive Religion. &xfordF Clarendon #ress. (in@burg% Carlo =1'I'> CluesF ,oots of an evidential paradigm. In 6lues @yths, and the 8istorical @ethod, translated b! /ohn and Anne Tedeschi. 8altimoreF /ohns *op ins. *arris% ,o! =1'QI> 6ommunication and Language. An Inaugural Lecture delivered be$ore the 1niversity o$ Mx$ord on 9L February )C-8 by Roy 8arris. &xfordF Clarendon #ress. .ienhardt% ,. (odfre! =1'Q5> (etting !our o"n bac F Themes in $ilotic m!th. In /.*.M. 8eattie and ,.(. .ienhardt =eds> &tudies in &ocial Anthro"ology Issays in @emory o$ I.I. Ivans-!ritchard by his Former Mx$ord 6olleagues. &xfordF The Clarendon #ress of &xford 5niversit! #ress. Mauss% Marcel +)C.-/ The ?i$t Forms and Functions o$ Ixchange in Archaic &ocieties. $e" Nor F +.+. $orton. Morris% Mm9shall =I''1> +hat problemsL &n learning to translate. In (eorge +olf =ed.> New &e/artures in 4in!uistics. $e" $or% and ondon& 'arland(
Cha5ter 1 !racing 2ack 3in Awe4 a /undred.ear /istor. of S5anish !ranslations: 'ashington Irving*s !he Alhambra
RAX;:+ #:RI"$$$ there are $$$ two views Zon translationR$ !he first is relative: descri5tive9 historical9 socio-cultural9 it sees translat$on as a 5roduct of its culture and its time9 as a com5onent of another - the !+ literature - written to meet the reAuirements of new readers $$$ !he second view of the 5roduct is critical and evaluative9 and reAuires a continuous com5arison of the translation with the original and a verification of corres5ondences$ 3Peter "ewmark9 1661: (4 Introduction In this contribution I would like to recall m. e=5erience as a targeteer and a sourcerer 3*targeteers lean towards ends9 sourcerers towards means*9 "ewmark9 1661: )4 in relation to 'ashington Irving*s 311G%-1G(64 !he Alhambra9 one of the most widel.-5ublished books after the 2ible9 on Xui=ote9 or /amlet according to some 5ublishers 3Irving9 166G: 64$ 2oth in its original :nglish versions9 and its numerous translations9 !he Alhambra 3or !ales of the Alhambra9 or +egends of the Alhambra4l has been re5eatedl. 5ublished for over a centur. in com5lete or abridged fragmentar. editions$ Xuite a feat9 and Auite a challenge for translation studies 3!S4 targeteers and sourcerers alike$ In 166( the S5anish 5ublisher :ditorial CEtedra commissioned a retranslation of Irving*s book 3Irving9 166049 on the grounds that a new S5anish version of his widel.-known collection of tales was necessar.$ 2oth the 5ublishers and the author of the introduction insisted that the 1G(1 Putnam edition9 the last revision of the tales signed b. Irving before his death9 be the source te=t 3S!4 for this new
translation$ ,or ?$#$ Santamar[a and m.self9 in our role as translators9 the S! had been chosen9 and the resulting target te=t 3!!4 would no doubt have to derive from it$ -ur source-oriented task was then clear: to render the revised edition of a book which has an *im5act on S5anish self-awareness to this da.* 32radbur.9 1661: 6)4$
A /undred-.ear /istor. of S5anish !ranslations
6%
Although not at all unfamiliar as a conce5t9 the mere reference to more than one :nglish S! was to me9 a targeteer of sorts9 intriguing$ #ainl. because it o5ened u5 the 5ath for m.riad editions and translations9 all bearing the same title but 5otentiall. different9 or so one was led to assume$ Alread. in m. disguise as a targeteer9 I immediatel. started looking for different editions of the S!9 with a view to com5aring them with our given S!$ In 5arallel to this9 I searched for S5anish editions and discovered a never-ending stor.$ ,or ever. .ear 3if not month4 consulted in the various databases9 new editions cro55ed u5$ !racing back 5revious translations9 and tr.ing to find out where it all had started and how9 was from then on m. goal$ In what follows9 I re5ort on this work in 5rogress9 showing how man. of the S5anish *translations* turn out to be reworkings or ada5tations of other !!s9 b.-5assing the various versions of the S!$ All the original te=ts which were identified were considered im5ortant in the surve.9 sim5l. because the diversit. and varied t.5olog. of e=isting translations into S5anish was a reflection of the variet. of originals9 onl. am5lified and heightened$ Source !e=ts: 3!ales of4 the Alhambra Irving*s collection of tales was first 5ublished in 1G%2 in +ondon 3Colburn V 2entle.49 Philadel5hia 3Care. V +ea4 and Paris 3&alignani4$ !he first American edition differed in the seAuence of tales9 but the second American edition of 1G%0 re5roduced the order of tales of the first 2ritish 5ublication$ !he 1G%2 +ondon and Paris editions 3source te=t 1: S!14 included %1 tales and legends$ !he number and order of the stories9 together with the .ear of 5ublication9 are from the first edition*s basic criteria to discern which version one is confronted with$ !his first S!9 with minor changes9 has been re5rinted for over a centur.$ Irving revised his works to be 5ublished b. Putnam of "ew Dork in 1G(1 and decided to change once more the title from !ales of the Alhambra to !he Alhambra$ /e revised9 enlarged9 and reorganised the book that would finall. consist of fort.one tales$ #ost tales were rewritten9 and onl. ten of them seem to have been re5roduced with no changes with res5ect to the first edition 3cf$ A55endi= 1$14$ I will refer to this revised Putnam edition as S!2$ In 1G609 #acmillan of +ondon 5ublished an edition of tales9 differing in order and number from S!I and S!29 with illustrations b. ?ose5h Pennell and an introduction b. :liCabeth Robins Pennell 3S!%4$ In the introduction to this edition
we are told that the *historical cha5ters* have been omitted antici5ating *the reader in the act of ski55ing* 3Irving9 16G0: =ii4$ !he %8 tales that were selected seem to have drawn both their order and their structure from S!2$
&$ Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es
!hese three com5lete editions of the tales have coe=isted for over a centur. and have been bought and read along with multi5le fragmentar. editions: ada5tations for children and .oung 5eo5le or for tourists$ Sometimes @ust one tale has been re5rinted9 and often some Auotations from the tales have been used in books of 5hotogra5hs about S5ain or &ranada$ And at times a selection of te=ts b. 'ashington Irving has been used for !> films or videos$ A long tradition of ada5tations of Irving*s The Alhambra, different in range and sco5e9 can certainl. be recorded and traced back$ It seems that rather than re5lacing the first %1 tale edition 3S!149 S!2 and S!% had o5ened u5 the wa. for a new 5rogen. of their own9 deriving from either matri=$ ;nlike the more com5lete versions9 the :nglish ada5tations9 or fragmentar. editions9 have onl. rarel. become sources for translations$
7
Target Te'ts4 (Cuentos de* la 'lhambra !he diversit. of translated te=ts cannot be accounted for onl. in relation to the variet. of originals$ Xuite the o55osite$ -nce translated9 the S! is no longer that influential in the target culture$ In the 5resent stud. it is the com5ilation of translations of The Alhambra that leads us time and again to seek different originals9 not the other wa. round$ !he first te=ts in S5anish of Irving*s book date back to the late 1G%8s and were 5roduced through intermediar. ,rench versions9 still the main wa. of im5orting literature in nineteenth-centur. S5ain$ !he. are fragmentar. editions9 often selections of tales$ !he first com5lete edition of Irving*s tales 3S!14 was e=5licitl. 5resented as such through the translation in 1GGG b. ?osF >entura !raveset9 Professor at the ;niversit. of &ranada$ !his I shall refer to as !arget !e=t 13!!I94$ !o all intents and 5ur5oses this translation is9 as the translator 5oints out9 a rendering of the first +ondon edition 31G%24$ It has been 5ublished and re5rinted until toda.9 virtuall. unchanged$2 ?osF #FndeC-/errera*s translation9 first 5ublished b. Aguilar 3%rd 9 edition in 161849 is our third target te=t 3!!24$ As the translator9 Auite a 5owerful literar. figure at the time9 clearl. states in the introduction9 he is 5resenting Putnam*s 1G(1 revised edition to a S5anishs5eaking audience$ 2ut since he has also chosen to re5roduce Pennell*s illustrations 3from S!%4 and the dedication to 'ilkie 3from S!l49 it ma. well be considered a h.brid edition$ #FndeC-/errera*s translation consists of %1 tales9 four fewer than Putnam*s 1G(1 edition9 but follows the order and structure of the tales in S!2$ !his translation has often been re5rinted and on occasion offered to the 5ublic in e=Auisite e=5ensive collector*s editions$% In 16(19 Padre SuEreC9 a 5ublishing house based in &ranada9 5ublished Irving*s work in :nglish) and S5anish$ In the introduction to both
A .undred(year .istory of Spanish Translations &%
editions9 the translator9 Ricardo >illa-Real9 a universit. 5rofessor9 confirms that he has used Putnam*s 1G(1 revised edition as the basis for his rendering into S5anish$ !his !!% consists of %) tales9 but neither the seAuence nor the structure of the tales reflects that of its declared original 3S!24$ It seems that !!% is a translation of an as .et unidentified :nglish edition - if indeed it is a translation$ In 1601 a commerciall.-oriented firm9 2ruguera9 5ublished another translation of The Alhambra 3!!)49 also bearing the name of a ;niversit. of &ranada Professor9 ,ernando
Serrano->alverde$ Again the Putnam 1G(1 revised edition is e=5licitl. Auoted as the source for the translation$ And again @ust %) tales are re5roduced with minor changes with res5ect to the seAuence of the Putnam revised edition$ In 161%9 another mainstream commercial 5ublishing house9 :verest9 issued a )1 tale te=t 3!!(4 of The Alhambra in S5anish in an edition clearl. intended for tourists 3soon afterwards followed b. editions in :nglish9 &erman and ,rench4$ A55arentl. this was the first time that Irving*s revised )1 tale te=t had been made available in S5anish$ !he CEtedra edition 3Irving 16604 and the161% :verest edition can then be taken as the onl. com5lete renderings into S5anish of the revised edition9 at least as regards the total number of tales and their seAuence$ As we have seen9 a5art from hundreds of com5lete editions of The Alhambra in S5anish9 there is a long tradition of fragmentar. editions 3selections of tales4 which dates back to the late 1G%8s and continues until toda.$ !he first translations from ,rench intermediar. versions9 which were re5rinted and made available for a few decades 31G%8s1GG8s49 gave wa. to numerous ada5tations of the com5lete editions available at the time 3!!1 from 1GGG9 !!2 from 16189 etc$4$ !his 5lethora of fragmentar. editions in S5anish ranges from one-tale editions to e=cer5ts and ada5tations for s5ecific targeted audiences: children9 tourists or biblio5hiles$ T%e *atalog e o" Spanis% Translations o" Irving5s The 'lhambra As during m. four-.ear search the number of S5anish editions of Irving*s book found grew9 it became clear that some kind of bibliogra5hic catalogue9 in database form9 needed to be com5iled$ As a result9 a database of a55ro=imatel. )88 entries is now available9 each entr. corres5onding to an edition of the te=t in S5anish$ !he main sources used are: l*alau 3an inventor. of S5anish editions of books49 Inde= !ranslationum 3since 16)2 in book form9 and from the 1668s in C -Rom49 S5anish IS2"9 S5anish Public Iibraries9 and two 5revious com5ilations of S5anish editions 3'illiams9 16%8B &allego +orell, 1,!-.. (or the 16%G-16G( 5eriod9
&6
which corres5onds roughl. with the 5eriod of ,ranco*s regime9 I have searched the official S5anish censorshi5 archives and found 1(8 records relating to Irving*s The Alhambra which have been integrated into a database of censored translations from that 5eriod$( !he information found was organised in such a wa. that a record for each given edition contains cross-references to the sources in which it was mentioned$ ;sing bibliogra5hical information 35ublishing house9 5lace and date of 5ublication9 title9 translator9 label9 etc$4 a link was established between te=ts that had been 5ublished in different 5laces at different times$ Also a distinction was 5rovisionall. drawn between com5lete and fragmentar. editions$ +ro! *atalog e to *orp s 6 Although bibliogra5hical information has its obvious uses it also has e its limits and access to the te=t itself is of 5aramount im5ortance$ At an earl. stage it became obvious that locating ever. single te=t was not onl. difficult but a virtuall. im5ossible taskB onl. some editions can be found in libraries9 most of them having been lost$ /ard as it ma. seem9 the effort of tr.ing to find the te=ts of those editions which a55ear to have had some im5act9 and thus have survived throughout the .ears9 is certainl. worth the trouble$ -n the other hand9 an. edition that now lends itself to eas. access9 including te=ts re5rinted and currentl. available to the reading 5ublic9 has also been considered a candidate for being a re5rint of an old translation although seemingl. a new te=t$ /aving access to as man. te=ts as 5ossible 3S!s as well as !!s49 enabled us to move from catalogue to cor5us9 for9 once consulted9 those 5ublished te=ts could be com5ared and their
sources established9 if onl. to confirm available information$ /ere the number and structure of tales was im5ortant9 not onl. in deciding from which S! the translation derived9 but also in establishing relationshi5s between !!s$ In actual fact no 5otential relationshi5 can be ruled out as unlikel.9 as we shall see later$ 9 In A55endi= 1$19 I have re5roduced the title and structure of the main S!s and !!s mentioned here$ +ooking back at this histor. of The Alhambra in S5anish stretching back a centur.9 we can clearl. see that older translations 3!!19 !!24 have been re5rinted regularl. ever. decade and that the. have coe=isted with new editions9 sometimes even new translations$ 'e can also observe that com5lete editions a55eared as well as fragmentar. editions9 inde5endent of earlier !!s$ >arious t.5es of editions seem to have emerged to meet the needs and 5references of different t.5es of readers 3children9 tourists9 biblio5hiles4$ In addition9 h.brid editions 3blending characteristics of different source editions in one. have *een 5ublished$ ,inall.9 there is also9
A .undred(year .istory of Spanish Translations &7
in the case of S!s as well as !!s9 both an American as well as a :uro5ean te=tual-editorial tradition$0 Establis%ing *o!parable Pairs4 *orp s 7 2efore I 5roceed9 it should be 5ointed out that te=ts 3S!s and !!s4 have been com5ared on re5eated occasions from the start9 ever. time an a55arentl. new te=t was found$ Such com5arisons have not been left @ust for the last stages of the stud.9 nor have the. been restricted to S!-!! 5airs onl.$ !he larger the number of editions of The Alhambra anal.sed9 and the more in de5th the stud. of the different translations9 the fewer are found to be com5letel. distinct or inde5endent of 5revious !!s$ -urs is an o5en catalogue9 which will alwa.s remain so9 if onl. because ever. .ear new editions are entering the market 3some allegedl. new translations9 some re5rints of old !!s4$ As regards the te=tual cor5us deriving from the anal.sis of the catalogue9 some chains of te=ts have been established and 5otential 5airs of com5arable te=ts 5osited$ 'hen outlining both the S! and !! te=tual cor5us certain kinds of 5airs 3S!-S!9 S!-!!9 !!!!4 and chains of te=ts a55ear$ !he. are highlighted b. similarities and differences that grou5 them together9 or drasticall. change the course of the com5arative stud.$ "o doubt9 the first wa. of a55roaching a te=t such as The Alhambra, be.ond bibliogra5hical and editorial data9 is b. contrasting structure9 number of tales9 and final com5osition or make-u5 of those revised b. Irving9 without failing to consider te=tual com5arisons of com5lete tales or fragments$ -nl. b. 5roceeding in this wa. is it 5ossible to decide what t.5e3s4 of te=t3s4 is 3are4 being studied and all 5otential relationshi5s that ma. 5rovisionall. be established$ !hus9 after the first com5arisons between S!s9 guided b. references and make-u5 of !!s9 S!1 and S!2 1 were identified as the main9 more often 5ublished and re5roduced te=ts in :nglish9 and also as the more freAuentl. mentioned sources for translations9 and S!% as an alternative intermediate 2ritish version of the tales$ After a thorough com5arison9 !!1 was immediatel. and undoubtedl. cou5led with S!l 3!!1S!14$ !he second obvious 5air 3des5ite the fact that both te=ts differed in a number of tales49 is !!2-S!2$ After random com5arative sam5ling of fragments of !!l and !!29 one further 5air was established: !!2-!!1$ !!%9 although different in seAuence and number of tales from !!I and !!29 seems to have drawn on both9 and the most 5roductive com5arison seems to be !!%-!!I and !!%-!!29 rather than directl. with an. source 3!!%-S!29 or !1%-S!%4$ \fhis is also the case with *I]!( with res5ect to !!I and !!2$
&8 Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es
Another 5air which has been firml. established is !!)-S!29 again in s5ite of the fact that individuall. the. do not contain the same number of tales$ ,ragmentar. editions have not been dealt with in detail as .et9 since the. are likel. to have been drawn mostl. from S5anish com5lete editions 3rather than deriving indirectl. through translation from source fragmentar. editions4 and these9 as we have seen9 have not .et been full. e=5lored$ ,inall.9 it should be stressed that all other 5otential 5airs have been 5rovisionall. studied as the. manifested themselves$ 2ut for now clear cases of outright 5lagiarism or misa55ro5riation9G almost a te=tual tradition as regards this te=t9 have been left out$
*o!paring Pairs4 Preli!inary Res lts
As far as S!s are concerned I have thoroughl. com5ared9 consulted9 and anal.sed S!1 and S!2$!he seAuence and order of tales of both first and revised editions is reflected in A55endi= 1$1$ !he #acmillan edition9 not located9 has not been integrated into the com5arison as .et9 but its seAuence and number of tales9 together with e=trate=tual references9 have led us to establish S!% as a 5otential indirect source for some of our !!s$ Xuite a literar. rendering of S!19 !!l9 the translation b. >entura !raveset9 has been re5roduced 3re5rinted9 5ublished once and again9 and even co5ied4 virtuall. unchanged for over a centur.$ !!1 can be described9 in a fairl. evaluative tone9 as a close rendering of the original9 an adeAuate and successful version into S5anish of Irving*s te=t$ !o our ear toda. it ma. sound old-fashioned9 but no less and no more outdated than the original$ !!1 has been re5rinted and issued under the name of >entura !raveset b. over 28 different 5ublishing houses9 from the more local firms in &ranada to mainstream 5ublishers such as :s5asa$ Sometime in the 16(8s it entered the world of 5o5ular literature9 both for adults and children9 and was re5roduced mostl. in fragmentar. editions ranging from selections of half of the tales or legends to @ust a few 3even one4 famous tale3s4$ ;suall.9 in these fragmentar. editions >entura !raveset*s authorshi5 was not acknowledged and man. times a new target author using labels such as *translator*9 *ada5tor*9 or even *author of the version* would take over the translator*s intellectual 5ro5ert.$ !his translation has also been re5roduced full. under other translators* names 3Irving9 16(64 and such cases of 5irac.9 including word-for-word unacknowledged co5.9 have traditionall. coe=isted with re5rints of !!I acknowledging the translator*s co5.right$ Another translation which has freAuentl. been 5rinted since its first 5ublication in the 1618s is #FndeC /errera*s 3!!24$ In the introduction
A .undred(year .istory of Spanish Translations &&
the translator states that he has chosen to translate the revised 1G(1 edition in order for the te=t rewritten b. Irving to be known in S5anish$ /e also acknowledges inserting a few characteristics from other editions 3dedication to 'ilkie9 Pennell*s illustrations9 etc$4$ +ike !!19 !!2 has been re5rinted and used as the source for further editions of The Alhambra since it was first 5ublished$ +ike that of >entura !raveset9 #FndeC /errera*s S5anish version has not been revised or changed9 resulting in modern editions still retaining the flavour of the language used at the beginning of the twentieth centur.$ ;nlike !!19 this second full translation has not 5roved to be the source of fragmentar. editions or of cases of e=treme 5lagiarism$ As is shown in A55endi= 1$29 there are other te=ts which are found somewhere in the middle of the cline between acknowledged and unacknowledged target authorshi5$ !his seems to be the case with the translation bearing the name of Ricardo >illa-Real9 a55arentl. a new version in S5anish of the tales$ >illa-Real adds some notes and an introduction to >entura !raveset*s te=t9 ada5ts it9 and makes it his own9 but the source for his translation 3most likel. !!14 remains unknown9 since >illa-Real e=5licitl. Auotes the 1G(1 revised edition as his immediate source$ -bviousl. >illa-Real was aware of the e=istence of different :nglish editions and tried to build
u5 his te=t starting from !!19 resorting to !!2 where he knew Irving had introduced changes 3*!he &eneralife* as a com5letel. new tale4$ After thorough com5arative sam5ling I decided to treat this te=t as an ada5tation9 a secondar. derivation of Irving*s :nglish te=t9 that is9 through 5revious translations into S5anish 3both !!1 and !!249 rather than as a direct transfer 35rimar. derivation4 from the original$ In similar fashion9 some com5lete editions in S5anish of S!2 seem to have drawn heavil. on 5revious 5ublished translations$ !hat seems to be the case with !!( 3:verest edition4 in relation to !!29 as can be observed briefl. in A55endi= 2$ !he fragments chosen for the te=tual a55endi= 3first 5aragra5h of one of the most freAuentl. re5rinted tales that remained unchanged in both S!1 and S!29 and first 5aragra5h of a new tale4 are as re5resentative as a short random fragment can be9 and the. therefore ma. not seem to be enough 5roof of a combined h.5othesis of 5lagiarism-ada5tation$ "evertheless a more e=tensive com5arative stud. of !!1-!!2 3and !!2-S!24 shows that it is more than 5robable that #FndeC /errera consulted !!I randoml.$ It seems clear that >illa-Real used !!1 as the basis for his te=t9 and occasionall. !!2 for those tales which did not a55ear in the first :nglish editions or those that had been revised$ In the same vein9 !!( seems to derive directl. from !!29 but also uses other S5anish sources$
1** Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es
8! the ver! nature of the intralingual process% "e can thus see "hat I "ould ver! provisionall! call "rimary derivations =a TT from a 3T> and secondary derivations =TT from TT>% or adaptations% including in this latter categor! extreme cases of plagiarism "hich hardl! sho" an! traces of adaptations and are better classified under unlaw$ul re"roduction. A not !et finished stud! such as this% "hich "ill not be complete until all traceable texts have been found and submitted to close comparison% cannot lead so far to a set of final conclusions. 3till% it can and must expose the complexit! and diversit! of descriptive studies% as "ell as sho" that there is a long "a! to go before retrieving translations and originals% coupling and comparing them.
*oncl ding Re!ar$s4 To#ards t%e 8T%ird Re!ove5

<urther research still remains to be done. More comparisons of texts must be carried out% as man! as there are existing texts% but% more importantl!% the anal!sis of "hat has been studied so far has not !et been full! completed. If I ma! borro" #eter $e"mar )s successful coinage% the )third remove) lies ahead and "e hope to resume it soon% at least for most 3panish texts of The Alhambra, :uite a representative guided tour of the histor! of translations in t"entieth9centur! 3pain. &ther corpora a"ait compilation and anal!sis% but that is another stor! 9 the histor! of translations into 3panish% or parcels thereof% "hich some of us are tr!ing to map out and have some time ago set out to uncover.9 I remain impressed "itnessing ho" a centenar! translation =7entura Traveset)s 1III> is succeeding in ma ing its "a! into a ne" millennium% 10 dragging along its progen!. I hope to have outlined here ho" the first 3panish version of the unrevised English edition has become the most "idespread and used text of Irving)s Alhambra, and ho" a blend of fragments of secondar! or tertiar! texts are presented and read under the title Tales o$ The AlhambraT6uentos
de la Alhambra.
*aving compared a large number of texts% I have been able to trace bac interdependencies% ac no"ledged and unac no"ledged relationships% even cases of outright plagiarism% or unla"ful editorial practices. 3till I prefer to loo at it all in a"e and "ith curiosit! rather than in anger% for nothing can be done to change the past. 8ut I certainl! believe that better insight into the histor! of translations "ill help to avoid repeating "hat happened in the past. Although useful sometimes% labels and tags on people)s hats do not help al"a!s% for I ma! be "earing m! targeteer disguise toda! =and I)ll be )leaning to"ards ends) thenL>% and m! sourcerer outP tomorro" =)leaning to"ards means) onl!L>% and "ould still be handling the same text=s> on both occasions. Net this is not necessaril! a contradiction% and should not be ta en as such. There
A .undred(year .istory of Spanish Translations
1*1
is% and indeed has to be% an obvious lin % )a sliding scale "hich eliminates an! dividing line bet"een the t"o contrasted approaches) =$e"mar % 1''1F G>%11 a necessar! bridge to ma e our efforts meaningful and useful.
Appendi' 9:6
&T) +)8*9 edition/
1. The /ourne! 1. (overnment of the Alhambra ?. Interior of the Alhambra G. The to"er of Comares 5. ,eflections on the Moslem -omination in 3pain 6. The household Q. The truant I. The Author)s Chamber '. The Alhambra b! Moonlight 12. Inhabitants of the Alhambra 11. The Court of .ions 11. 8oabdil el Chico 1?. Mementos of 8oabdil
TT) )888 +Is"asa 6al"e, )CC)/

El via0e (obierno de la Alhambra Interior de la Alhambra .a Torre de Comares Consideraciones sobre la dominaciYn musulmana en Espa[a .a familia de la casa El truh\n .a habitaciYn del autor .a Alhambra a la lu@ de la luna *abitantes de la Alhambra El #atio de los .eones 8oabdil el Chico ,ecuerdos de 8oabdil El balcYn .a aventura del alba[il 5n paseo por las colinas Tradiciones .ocales .a casa del gallo de viento .e!enda del AstrYlogo ]rabe .a torre de las infantas .e!enda de las tres hermosas princesas 11. 7isitors to the Alhambra
14 )he 8alcon! 15. The Adventure of the Mason ).. A Ramble among the 8ills
1Q. .ocal Traditions O 1I. The *ouse of the +eathercoc /0( 1egend o+ the Arabian Astrologer % 12. The tower o+ 1as 2n+antas
I
9). Legend o$ the Three <eauti$ul !rincesses
7isitadores dc la Alhambra
1*2
&)#) +)8*9 edition/ 2%$ +egend of the Prince Ahmed al <amel9 or the 5ilgrim of 2/. 0egend of the #oor*s +egac. 2($ +egend of the Rose of the
TT) )888 +Is"asa 6al"e, )CC)/ +e.enda del 5r[nci5e Ahmed Al <amel o el 5eregrino de amor +ove +e.enda del legado del moro +e.enda de la rosa de la Alhambra o
Alhambra9 or the 5age and 20$ !he >eteran 21$ !he &overnor and the "otar. 2G$ &overnor #anco and the Soldier 26$ +egend of the !wo iscreet Statues %8$ #uhamed Abu Alahmar9 the founder of the Alhambra
el 5a@e . el halc^n the ger-falcon :l veterano +e.enda del gobernador . el escribano +e.enda del gobernador manco . el soldado +e.enda de las dos discretas estatuas #ohamed Abu Alahmar9 el fundador de la Alhambra
%1$ Dusef Abul /agig9 the finisher of Dusef Abul /agig9 el finaliCador de the Alhambra la Alhambra
1*6
Translation Today.6 Trends and Perspe ti!es
A&&endi' ()*
Legend o$ the !rince Ahmed Al 2amel, or the !rince o$ Love &T) )998 and &T9 9:9 !here was once a #oorish king of &ranada who had but one son9 whom he named Ahmed9 to which his courtiers added the surname of al <amel9 or the 5erfect9 from the indubitable signs of su5ere=cellence which the. 5erceived in him in his ver. infanc. !he astrologers countenanced them in their foresight9 5redicting ever. thing in his favor that could make a 5erfect 5rince9 and a 5ros5erous sovereign$ -ne cloud onl. rested u5on his destin.9 and even that was of roseate hueB he would be of an amorous tem5erament9 and run great 5erils from the tender 5assion$ If9 however9 he could be ke5t from the allurements of love until of mature age9 these dangers would be averted9 and his life thereafter be one uninterru5ted course of felicit.$
Leyenda del !rUnci"e Ahmed Al 2amel o el !eregrino de Amor +V &TI/ TT), )888 )L: /ab[a en otros tiem5os un re. moro de &ranada Aue s^lo ten[a un hi@o9 llamado Ahmed9 a Auien los cortesanos le 5usieron el nombre de Al <amel o :l Perfecto9 5or las ineAu[vocas se_ales de su5erioridad Aue notaron en Fl desde su tierna infancia$ +os astr^logos hicieron acerca de Fl felices 5ron^sticos9 anunciando en su favor toda clase de dones suficientes 5ara Aue fuese un 5r[nci5e dichoso . un afortunado soberano$ ;na sola nube oscurec[a su destino9 aunAue era de color de rosa: *YXue ser[a mu. dado a los amores . Aue correr[a grandes 5eligros 5or esta irresistible 5asi^nB 5ero Aue9 si 5od[a evadir los laCos del amor hasta llegar a la edad madura9 Auedar[an con@urados todos los 5eligros . su vida ser[a una sucesi^n no interrum5ida de felicidadesL*
Leyenda del !rUnci"e Ahmed Al 2amel o el !eregrino del Amor +V &T9/ TT9, )C): 9.)-9 /ab[a una veC un re. moro de &ranada Aue solo ten[a un hi@o9 llamado Ahmed9 al Aue sus cortesanos a_ad[an el sobrenombre de al <amel9 o el Perfecto9 5or las ineAu[vocas muestras de su5erioridad Aue observaran en Fl desde su infancia$ +os astr^logos las corroboraron con sus 5rediciones9 vaticinando en su favor todo cuanto era susce5tible de hacer de Fl un 5r[nci5e 5erfecto . un 5r^s5ero soberano$ Solo una nube velaba su destino9 . aun esta era de rosado color: ser[a de amoroso tem5eramento . correr[a grandes 5eligros 5or causa de tan tierna 5asi^n$ Sin embargo9 si lograba guardarse de la a_agaCas del amor hasta la edad madura9 am@urar[anse otros riesgos9 . su vida ser[a desde entonces una serie ininterrum5ida de felicidades$
A .undred(year .istory of Spanish Translations Leyenda del !rUnci"e Ahmed Al 2amel o el !eregrino de Amor +V &T9/ TTL, )C.-
1*7
/ab[a una veC un re. moro en &ranada Aue ten[a un hi@o `nico9 llamado Ahmed9 . a Auien los cortesanos a_adieron el a5odo de Al <amel o el Perfecto9 a causa de las indudables muestras de dotes e=traordinarias Aue hab[an 5odido observar en Fl desde su misma infancia$ +os astr^logos los secundaron en su 5revisi^n augurEndole todo aAuello Aue 5odr[a hacer de Fl un 5erfecto 5r[nci5e . un soberano 5r^s5ero$ !an s^lo una nube 5esaba sobre su destino . aun esa era de un tono rosado$ Ser[a de tem5eramento amoroso . so5ortar[a grandes 5eligros debido a esa tierna 5asi^n$ Pero si consegu[a verse a5artado de las tentaciones amorosas hasta la edad madura9 estos 5eligros se evitar[an . su vida9 a 5artir de entonces9 ser[a una ininterrum5ida serie de felicidades$
Leyenda del !rUnci"e Ahmed Al !amel o el Peregrino de Amor +V TTl/ TT*, )C,) /ab[a en otro tiem5o un re. moro de &ranada Aue s^lo ten[a un hi@o llamado Ahmed9 a Auien sus cortesanos dieron el nombre de al <amel o el Perfecto9 5or las ineAu[vocas se_ales de su5erioridad Aue observaron en Fl desde su mEs tierna infancia$ +os astr^logos las confirmaron con sus 5ron^sticos9 vaticinando en su favor todos los dones necesarios 5ara ser 5r[nci5e 5erfecto . un dichoso soberano$ !an s^lo una nube oscurec[a su destino9 aunAue era de color de rosa: Aue tendr[a un tem5eramento amoroso . Aue correr[a grandes 5eligros 5or esta tierna 5asi^nB 5ero Aue si lograba evadirse de sus halagos . seducciones hasta llegar a la edad madura9 todos los 5eligros ser[an con@urados . su vida resultar[a una serie ininterrum5ida de felicidades 12
Leyenda del !rUnci"e Ahmed Al 2amel o el !eregrino del Amor +V TT9/ TT,, )C-* /ab[a una veC un re. moro de &ranada Aue solo ten[a un hi@o9 al Aue llam^ Ahmed9 . al Aue los cortesanos le a_adieron el sobrenombre de al 2amel, o el Perfecto9 5or las ineAu[vocas se_ales de su5erioridad Aue observaron en Fl desde su misma infancia$ +os astr^logos las corroboraron con sus 5redicciones9 vaticinando en su favor todo cuanto 5uede hacer un 5r[nci5e 5erfecto . un 5r^s5ero soberano$ S^lo una nube oscurec[a su destino9 . aun Fsta era de color de rosa: ser[a de tem5eramento amoroso . correr[a grandes 5eligros a causa de tan tierna 5asi^n$ Sin embargo9 si se le 5udiera guardar de los halagos del amor r hasta llegar a la edad madura9 estos 5eligros desa5arecer[an . su vida ser[a desde entone e! una tieri" ininterrum5ida de t3licidades$
1*8 Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es The ?enerali$e +&T9/ /igh above the Alhambra on the breast of the mountain9 amidst embowered gardens and statel. terraces9 rise the loft. towers and white walls of the &eneralifeB a fair. 5alace9 full of storied recollections$ /ere is still to be seen the famous c.5resses of enormous siCe which florished in the time of the #oors9 and which tradition has connected with the fabulous stor. of 2oabdil and his sultana$ Il ?enerali$e +&T9V/ TT9, 1"1#: 9,AlCEndose sobre la Alhambra9 en el seno de la monta_a9 entre los em5arrados @ardines . suntuosas terraCas9 se elevan las altas torres . los blancos muros del I &eneralife9 un 5alacio de ensue_o re5leto de historiados recuerdos$ AAu[ se ven @ a`n los famosos ci5reses de enorme tama_o Aue crecieran en tiem5o de los a9 moros9 . Aue la tradici^n ha relacionado con la fabulosa historia de 2oabdil . su sultana$ Il ?enerali$e +&T9V/ TTL, )C.- )9L Por encima de la Alhambra . en el coraC^n del monte entre @ardines floridos . suntuosas terraCas9 asoman las altas torres . blancos muros del &eneralifeB lugar mEgico9 lleno de recuerdos hist^ricos$ AAu[ todav[a se 5ueden contem5lar los enormes ci5reses Aue florecieron en los tiem5os de los moros . a los Aue la tradici^n ha relacionado con una historia fabulosa de 2oabdil . su sultana$ Il ?enerali$e +TT9V/ TT*, )C,) ),. Por encima de la Alhambra . en el seno de la monta_a9 entre floridos @ardines . suntuosas terrraCas9 se elevan las altas torres . los blancos muros del &eneralife9 5alacio de ensue_o9 cargado de recuerdos hist^ricos$ !odav[a 5ueden verse en Fl los famosos grandes ci5reses Aue florecieron en tiem5o de los Erabes9 relacionados
5or la tradici^n con la fabulosa historia de 2oabdil . la sultana9 su es5osa$ 9 Il ?enerali$e +TT9V/ -T,,)C-* )L* #u. 5or encima de la Alhambra9 en el seno de la monta_a9 entre 5oblados @ardines . suntuosas terraCas9 se alCan las altas torres . los blancos muros del &eneralife9 un 5alacio de ensue_o lleno de anecd^ticos recuerdos$ AAu[ se ven a`n los famosos ci5reses de enorme tama_o Aue crecieran en tiem5o de los 9 moros9 . Aue la tradici^n ha relacionado con la fabulosa historia de t%oabdil .*9* su sultana$
A .undred(year .istory of Spanish Translations
1*&
1$ Irving*s book a55eared under various titles in :nglish9 but soon Tales o$ the Alhambra 5revailed9 so much so that the title he finall. chose for the Putnam 1G(1 edition +The Alhambra/ has been used9 if at all9 as a secondar. title$ In S5anish9 both 6uentos 3*!ales*4 de la Alhambra and Leyendas 3*+egends*4 de la Alhambra have coe=isted at times9 being used alternatel. in re5rints of the same translated te=t$ 2$ After the Civil 'ar9 this translation was 5ublished9 as so man. S5anish books9 in Argentina b. the same 5ublishing house which had 5rinted it in S5ain before the war 3:s5asa4$ !his 5ublisher had established a branch in Argentina due to the 5olitical and economic situation$ 2ooks were usuall. im5orted from South America in the 16)8s and earl. 16(8s$ %$ #FndeC /errera*s translation was also 5ublished in Argentina$ -ne of the most sought-after editions is that of 16)1 b. +uis $ AlvareC 3editor49 with 5rints b. :$ elacroi= and 2) colour illustrations b. ?ohn ,rederik +ewis9 bound in leather$ )$ !he Padre SuEreC :nglish edition re5roduces S!19 with an introduction b. >illa-Real$ ($ !RAC: 3!RAnslations C:nsored4 is the core name of a research 5ro@ect and its database which com5rises the catalogues of censored translations 3of narrative9 theatre and cinema4 under ,ranco$ ?ointl. develo5ed at the ;niversit. of +e^n9 su5ervised b. Rosa RabadEn9 and at the ;niversit. of the 2asAue Countr.9 under m. su5ervision9 the !RAC: 5ro@ect grou5 now has a doCen researchers$ Cf$ RabadEn 3editor4 2888 for 5reliminar. results$ !RAC: has been funded b. the ;niversit. of the 2asAue Countr. under 5ro@ects ;P> 18%$1%8-/A 1)1J619 ;P> 18%$1%8-/A 88%J6G9 and ;P> 18%$1%8/A 8G%J66$ 0$ !his tradition seems to be shared b. virtuall. an. kind of 5ublication$ !hus9 if we look at the wa. theatre translations into S5anish have been 5roduced9 5ublished and distributed in the last centur.9 5articularl. after the Civil 'ar9 we can observe a ver. strong trend to im5ort translations from South America9 legall. and illegall. 35lagiarism4$ Cf$ #erino9 166) and #erino9 1660$ 1$ Although Putnam*s first edition of the revised te=t was 5ublished in 1G(19 in most translated te=ts we find 1G(1 Auoted as the .ear of 5ublication of the source edition used for the translation$ !he search for original :nglish te=ts has 5roved to be much more difficult than locating the translations9 and no 1G(1 edition has been found so far$ G$ !wo e=am5les will suffice$ A fragmentar. edition 3Irving9 16(149 #$ Rossell*s ada5tation is but a re5roduction of 1% tales taken word for word from S!1$ And a com5lete edition 3Irving9 16(649 the translation b. +eclu.se and del Castillo is @ust a literal co5. of S!1$ 6$ ;nder !RAC: 3translations censored4 we have embedded ongoing studies like Irving*s Alhambra. 'e have chosen to look at translations into S5anish in 28th-centur. S5ain from the vantage 5oint of ,ranco*s censorshi59 a filter which was a55lied to all cultural 5roducts for half a centur.9 and naturall. left masses of conte=tual information and clear traces of the intermediar. te=tual 5rocesses which took 5lace before a te=t reached the 5ublic$ 18$ !he Irving 166G edition of lose >entura !raveset*s translation is 5resented b. the 5ublisher as a*@ewrl* dubB u5 from dust. shelves in forgotten libraries$ #his edition iN 5resented with a selection of 5rints b. :ugene 1 h9rtt on S5ain$ 11* Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es
Notes
ifficult to acce5t as a *@ewel* since this translation has alwa.s been available in booksho5s in one edition or another9 it is nevertheless s.m5tomatic that it is considered so b. the 5ublishers and that the. have selected ore*s 5rints to give their edition an antiAue air$ 11$ !he full Auotation is: *targeteers lean towards ends9 sourcerers towards means $$$ m. 5ro5osition is a sliding scale which eliminates an. dividing line between the two contrasted a55roaches* 3"ewmark9 1661: )4$ 12$ /ab[a una veC en &ranada un Re. #oro Aue no ten[a mEs Aue un hi@o al Aue llam^ Ahmed9 . al Aue sus cortesanos le 5usieron el sobrenombre de al <amel9 o el Perfecto9 debido a las se_ales ineAu[vocas de mE=ima e=celencia Aue en Fl vieron desde su infancia$ +os astr^logos con sus 5redicciones corroboraron Aue tendr[an a su favor todo aAuello Aue 5udiera 5edirse de un 5r[nci5e
5erfecto . de un 5r^s5ero soberano$ S^lo una nube ensombrec[a su destino9 e incluso Fsta ten[a un tinte rosEceo: ser[a de tem5eramento amoroso . correr[a grandes 5eligros 5or cul5a de aAuella tierna 5asi^n$ Pero si se le 5udiera ale@ar de las tentaciones del amor hasta la edad madura9 estos 5eligros 5odr[an evitarse9 . su vida ser[a en adelante un interminable camino de rosas$ 3Irving9 1660: %289 CEtedra edition$4
Re"erences ;secondary<
2radbur.9 #$ 316614 'ashington Irving*s :uro5e$ In S$ &onCEleC D ,ernEndeCCorugedo et al. 3eds4 &tudia !atriciae &haw Mblata, 4ol. III 355$ G8-6(4$ -viedo: ;niversit. of -viedo$ &allego #orell9 A$ 316084 *!he Alhambra* de 'ashington Irving . sus traducciones es5a_olas$ In Revista 8is"Wnica @oderna, XX4I 355$ 1%G-)24$ "ew Dork$ #erino9 R$ 3166)4 Traducci=n, tradici=n y mani"ulaci=n. Il teatro ingl%s en Is"aSa 16(8-1668$ +e^n: ;niversit. of +e^nJ;niversit. of the 2asAue Countr.$ #erino9 R316604 +a traducci^n del teatro inglFs en :s5a_a: cuarenta a_os de 5lagios$ In P$ ,ernEndeC"istal and ?$#$ 2ravo-&oCalo 3eds4 !ers"ectivas de la Traducci=n ingl%sTes"aSol +"". 1(-G64$ >alladolid: I$C$:$-;niversit. of >alladolid$ #erino9 R$ 316614 Com5le@idad . diversidad en los :studios escri5tivos de !raducci^n: La Alhambra de 'ashington Irving en :s5a_a$ In P ,ernEndeC"istal and ?$#$ 2ravo-&oCalo 3eds4 A"roximaciones a los Istudios de Traducci=n 355$ (1-184$ >alladolid: S$A$:$9 ;niversit. of >alladolid$ #erino9 R328884 :l teatro inglFs traducido desde 1608: censura9 ordenaci^n9 calificaci^n$ In R$ RabadEn 3ed$4 6ensura y traducci=n Ungl%s-es"aSol )C*C-)C8,. Istudio !reliminar +"". 121-(14$ +e^n: ;niversit. of +e^n$ "ewmark9 P$ P316614 About Translation. Clevedon: #ultilingual #atters$ RabadEn9 R3ed$4 328884 6ensura y traducci=n ingl%s-es"aSol 16%6-16G($ Istudio !reliminar. +e^n: ;niversit. of +e^n$ 'illiams9 Stanle. !$ 316%84 !he first version of the writings of 'ashington Irving in S5anish$ In @odern !hilology, XX4II +"". 1G(-2814$ Chicago$
Re"erences ;pri!ary<
Inglish source texts
Irving9 '$ 31G%24 Tales o$ the Alhambra. Paris: &alignani 3+ondon: Colbum V 2entle.B Philadel5hia: +ea V Care.4$ S!I
A .undred(year .istory of Spanish Translations 111
Irving9 '$ 31G(14 The Alhambra The Wor5s o$ Washington Irving, 4ol. 1($ "ew Dork: Putnam$ 31G604 The Alhambra. Introduction b. :liCabeth Robins Pennell and illustrations b. ?ose5h Pennell$ +ondon: arf$
&"anish target texts
S!2 Irving9 '$ 316G04 S!%
Irving9 '$ 316(14 6uentos de la Alhambra. Ada5ted b. #anuel Rossell$ 2arcelona: #ateu$ Irving9 '$ 316(64 Leyendas de la Alhambra. !ranslated b. #a ?osefa +eclu.se and ,rancisco 2$ del Castillo$ 2arcelona: :ditorial Iberia$ Irving9 '$ 316024 31618%4 6uentos de la Alhambra 31th edn4$ !ranslated b. ?osF #FndeC-/errera$ #adrid: Aguilar$ !!2 Irving9 '$ 3161)4 3160114 6uentos de la Alhambra 32ruguera edition4$ !rans lated b. ,ernando Serrano->alverde$ 2arcelona: Ram^n So5ena$ !!) Irving9 '$ 316614 31GGG14 6uentos de la Alhambra. !ranslated b. ?osF >entura !raveset$ #adrid: :s5asa Cal5e$ !!1 Irving9 '$ 316614 316(114 6uentos de la Alhambra. !ranslated b. Ricardo >illa Real$ &ranada: #iguel SEncheC :ditor$ !!% Irving9 '$ 3166(4 3161%i4 6uentos de la Alhambra. +e^n: :verest$ !!( Irving9 '316604 6uentos de la Alhambra. !ranslated b. ?osF-#iguel Santamar[a and RaAuel #erino$ #adrid: CEtedra$ Irving9 '$ 3166G4 6uentos de la Alhambra. !ranslated b. ?osF >entura !raveset$ &ranada: Comares$
Chapter 8
The Troubled Identit( of "iterar( Translation

PI#TR K)"IWC*AK
A valid te=t must be elegantl. written$ 3Peter "ewmark4

Establis%ing an Identity
Although translating ma. not have as long a histor. as writing9 its tradition goes back at least 2888 .ears$ !ranslation scholars em5hasise this fact Auite often9 es5eciall. when the. ha55en to be on the defensive$ 2ut the activit. which has such old and noble origins has onl. recentl. been established as an academic field in a conscious wa.9 and its 5osition is b. no means universall. acknowledged$ !his discre5anc. between its good historical 5edigree and the short career of literar. translation as an autonomous disci5line raises a number of Auestions$ !he first one is9 of course9 wh. has the disci5line emerged so late9 the second one - more relevant9 I su55ose - is how have we managed to do without it for such a long time9 that is at least 16(8 .earsI Considering its short career in the academic environment9 translation or rather !ranslation Studies has been doing rather well$ 'ithin a 5eriod of onl. three decades or so9 translation has managed to establish its theoretical foundations9 or 5erha5s one should sa. a whole gamut of theories with smaller and greater claims to universalit. It has also develo5ed its methodologies: some of which read like the ten commandments9 while others are more anal.tical than 5rescri5tive$ -n to5 of these achievements translation has managed to enter academia and assume res5ectable institutional characteristics - and this has been ha55ening ver. fast even if9 some would sa.9 not fast enough$ !here are research 5ro@ects in translation9 de5artments of translation9 translation centres9 academic degrees9 5ublishing ventures9 translators* associations9 and a lot of more or less regular seminars9 conferences9 @ournals9 and international networks$ And last9 but not least9 there are schisms$ !ile
112 _
The Troubled "dentity of 7iterary Translation 11#
biggest one is between 5ractitioners and theoreticians$ 2ut there are minor ones9 as well: linguists fighting off culturalists9 *literalists*9 5atronising *non-literalists* and 5hiloso5hers of translation showing contem5t for the whole lot$ !he disci5line has also 5roduced a lot of its own buCCwords$ So far we have had *a mani5ulation school*9 followers of a Sko5os theor.9 *5ostcolonialists*9 a translation and gender grou59 and what I can onl. call *visibilists*9 that is those concerned about the fact that translators are not visible enough either in the te=t or outside it$ -ne cannot den. that this is Auite a lot for a recentl.-hatched academic disci5line$ And .et9 all these achievements have not 5roduced a feeling of warm satisfaction$ 'hile listening to the man. voices re5resenting the field9 one 5redominantl. senses rather a melanchol. sadness and frustration$ !his mood9 one must admit9 is much more cons5icuous in the :nglish-s5eaking world than an.where else$ *!here are not enough translations* - the. sa.$ *And those that a55ear9 conform too much to the domestic taste* - goes another com5laint$ *!ranslation Studies are not
recognised9 and translators are not as visible as the. should be* - add frustrated academics$ 'hat is rarel. discussed is how this lack of recognition is measured9 and against whatI 'hat are the other activities and the other disci5lines which literar. translation and !ranslation Studies are using as a .ardstickI -ne answer would be +inguistics9 since this is where translation has often been located$ 2ut this coe=istence has never been ver. comfortable since linguistics tends to view language in general terms while translation is 5articular and alwa.s lies on the border between languages$ :ven if linguists get down to s5ecific languages9 the. tend to look more for what unites them rather than divides$ Shifts from one language to another9 and investigations of what ha55ens in between9 have never been central 5reoccu5ations in linguistics$ It is fair to sa. that A55lied +inguistics has been marginall. more o5en to translation9 but it seems to me that too often a55lied linguists turn to translation onl. if the. have e=hausted their thoughts on language teaching9 language acAuisition and bilingualism$ !his ma. e=5lain wh. translation has never been acknowledged as one of the basic language skills9 and still has a marginal status in man. modern language de5artments$ l I believe that activities which are more relevant to literar. translation and !ranslation Studies are creative writing and the stud. of literature$ If we take this view on board at least for a while9 we shall better understand where the 5resent an=ieties about literar. translation come from$
Translation and Literary St dies
,or 5artl. irrational9 and 5artl. @ustified reasons9 the inferiorit. com5le= of literar. translation originates from the fact that man. translation
scholars com5are themselves to literar. critics9 and some translators to writers$ I am using the term *irrational* here9 because the noisiest arguments often have least @ustification$ +et us look at some as5ects of this com5arison between the two activities and disci5lines$ !he first one and the easiest to dis5rove is institutional res5ectabilit.$ As we have @ust seen9 literar. translation is a relative newcomer to academia9 and as such feels like the .ounger 5artner of literar. studies$ Xuite often this 5artnershi5 is not ver. clear either at a formal or institutional level and the boundaries between the disci5lines are either ver. strict or ver. fluid9 but e=aggeration9 as we know9 never hel5s to alleviate an=iet.$ It is understandable that in countries where literar. studies have had a long and res5ectable histor.9 often embroiled in social res5onsibilities and nationalist feelings9 translation9 as a newcomer to academia9 ma. be viewed as a bit of an u5start$ Det9 in :ngland and other :nglish-s5eaking countries9 the stor. is entirel. different$ :nglish as an academic sub@ect took off onl. earl. in the twentieth centur.9 because u5 till then :nglish literature was not seen to be taken seriousl.9 com5ared with classics$ Cambridge and -=ford did all the. could to kee5 :nglish and modern languages at ba.9 and the first chair in :nglish was established as late as 1628$ Perha5s it would not be an e=aggeration to sa. that :nglish is like a volcano which has onl. @ust become e=tinct and still emanates a lot of residual heat$2 2ut what :nglish has done effectivel.9 and literar. translation has not9 is acAuire the signs of outward res5ectabilit.$ In @ust a centur. :nglish has succeeded both in creating and subseAuentl. challenging its own literar. canon9 and not onl. students but man. scholars believe9 I sus5ect9 that the institutional habit of stud.ing literature in :ngland is at least as old as Shakes5eare if not Chaucer$ -ne could argue that :nglish as a sub@ect has benefited ver. much from that and the im5ortance of the language itself and its status as a lingua franca9 but there is no doubt that both critics and scholars have known how to e=5loit this good fortune$
Translation and *reative 2riting
!he other com5arison9 which 5uts both translators and translation scholars on the defensive9 is that of translation and writing with res5ect to the ve=ed Auestion of originalit.$
!here is no need to Auote here the man. self-defeating o5inions of translators themselves$ ?ust a few sam5les of common wisdom ma. suffice$ Italians hel5ed b. their own language alwa.s wheel out the 5hrase *traduttore-tradittore*$ -thers 5refer to argue whether translation is art or craft9 as if it could not be viewed as a mi=ture of both$ Agonising dis5utes about faithfulness9 or the lack of it9 are still high on the agenda 3cf$ Snell-/orub.9 16GGB 2assnett9 1661B
The Troubled "dentity of 7iterary Translation 11%
&entCler9 166%4$ !he com5arisons of translation to women who are either beautiful and unfaithful9 or ugl. and faithful9 are b. no means limited to students* essa.s$ !o be or not to be source-oriented or target-oriented is also livel. and well as a debate$ 'hat these binar. divisions betra. is the an=iet. that a translated te=t9 alwa.s having its other against which it ma. be com5ared9 ma. be held u5 as a 5roof that translation is a 5arasitic activit.$ -n a few occasions9 the 5resence of the original te=ts has disturbed some translators so much that the. have tried to obliterate the source te=ts b. marketing their translations as the originals 3cf$ 2assnett V +efevere9 16689 166G4$ 2ut the o55osite movement is not unknown either$ AndrF #akine*s novel Le Testament Fran'ais, for instance9 was believed to be acce5ted b. the 5ublishers onl. because it was 5resented as a translation 3cf$ !olsto.a9 16614$ !hese ambiguous attitudes towards translation are not unlike the nineteenth-centur. :uro5ean 5henomenon of actuall. inventing relics of ancient 5oetr. 3cf$ &askill9 1661B Stafford 166G4$ It is not a coincidence that9 at the same time9 during the Romantic Period9 the conce5t of genius and originalit. acAuired overwhelming 5restige9 and the formerl. 5roductive classical notion of imitation was given a 5e@orative meaning$ /ere is a telling Auotation from Coleridge: In the course of m. lectures I had occasion to 5oint out almost faultless 5osition and choice of words in #r Po5e*s original com5osition9 5articularl. in his satires and moral essa.s9 for the 5ur5ose of com5aring them with his translation of /omer9 which I do not stand alone in regarding as the main source of our 5seudo-5oetic diction$ And this9 b. the b.e9 is an additional confirmation of a remark made9 I believe9 b. Sir ?oshua Re.nolds9 that ne=t to the man who formed and elevated the taste of the 5ublic9 he that corru5ted it is commonl. the greatest genius$ 3Coleridge9 1681: 204 !his statement has been much discussed9 and there is a convincing argument wh. Coleridge*s @udgement of 5articular lines from Po5e*s Iliad should not be acce5ted without serious reservations 3cf$ Shankman9 16G%4$ 2ut the damage the Romantics have done b. 5ro5osing a schism between what is original and unoriginal9 or what originates in genius and what is mere talent9 has had far-reaching conseAuences for us all$ 'hat we have inherited from the Romantic Age is a belief that creative writing is alwa.s original and better than an. other kind of writing like criticism or translation9 which we instantl. link to imitation and classif. as a secondar. activit.$ It is Auite astonishing to see how Auickl. this relativel. new cultural construct has won the da. in the teeth of our e=5erience9 which tells us there is 5lent. of creative writing based on crude imitation9 if not 5lagiarism$ !he whole categor. of what we call
*5o5ular literature*9 for instance9 is little more than a dissemination of worn-out formulas9 and the fact that this writing is in huge demand ever.where9 tells us something im5ortant about the nature of 5o5ular taste - not about the difference between originalit. and imitation$ Again9 translators9 unlike critics9 have never been ver. effective in dem.stif.ing the su55osedl. s5ecial character of creative writing$ 2ut9 5erha5s9 this is to their credit9 since when more than two decades ago literar. critics began to s5read the news about the *death of the author*9 it was clear that their intention was not to dem.stif. creative writing9 but to elevate the status of
literar. criticism to that of creative writing - to 5rove that criticism could also generate its ontological m.ster.$% Instead of liberating the te=t9 as had been initiall. intended9 structuralist and 5oststructuralist critics did not establish a kingdom of all writing without binar. o55ositions9 but attem5ted to re5lace a monument to an *original writer* with a monument to an *original critic*$ T%e Translator as 2riter and *ritic 'hat we ma. ask at this 5oint is9 wh. should literar. translators be concerned with all thisI After all there are more urgent issues waiting to be solved: low fees9 no ro.alties9 and dishonest 5ublishers$ And Auite often man. readers do not reall. care that much whether the book the. are reading is a translation or not$ 2ut even if the. do9 the. have no choice but to assess the translation in the light of what the. have read before in their native language9 since in most cases readers of translations are monolingual9 and will not com5are the translation with the original$ :Cra Pound is re5orted to have said that there was no more thorough form of literar. criticism than translation$ 'hat he did not sa. e=5licitl. is that9 unlike most of literar. criticism9 translation gets instantl. tested b. its readers in the same wa. so-called *original* writing is tested$ !his means that translation combines the characteristic features of both creative writing and literar. criticism$ 'hat follows from this is that translators are res5onsible for the Aualit. of the te=ts both as writers and as critics$ If we listen to translators carefull. though the. are not ver. often listened to - we shall find that the best of them tell us that in order to translate well one needs to be both knowledgeable and ins5ired9 meticulous and s.m5athetic$ -ne needs to 5ossess the critical as well as the creative facult.$ A trul. 5rofessional translator needs to know languages9 but also the social norms9 reading habits9 and st.listic 5references of the culture from which he takes9 as well as of the one to which he contributes$ 2ut even if these skills and talents have been built9 there are still un5redictable factors which determine whether a trans5lanted te=t will be acce5ted at all$ -ne of those factors is sim5l. individual taste9 which rarel.
The Troubled "dentity of 7iterary Translation 117
gets discussed9 either b. critics or translation scholars$ 'hile talking about translation9 we often forget that *translation* is not a 5ile of homogeneous te=ts9 but a collection of individual works with their dis5arate characteristics$ !his diversit. means that literar. translation will alwa.s remain a challenging task9 5erha5s sometimes more challenging than writing$ Teac%ing Literary Translation If literar. translation is so difficult and un5redictable9 then how can we begin to understand its nature9 and how can we teach it to studentsI !here is no shortage of theories and models that describe literar. translation9 but the. do not give us too man. insights into what actuall. ha55ens when a literar. te=t is translated from one language into another$ -n the other hand9 translators* own accounts of what the. do are so diverse that it is difficult to draw from them an. general conclusions$ As a result the teaching of literar. translation is firml. based on the stud. of individual cases9 and it is hard to 5rove the link between this a55roach and the students* abilit. to translate well$ !o m. knowledge9 so far there has been$onl. one attem5t to look at the nature of literar. translation in the conte=t of teaching$ !he model has been develo5ed b. +aura Salmon<ovarsk. of 2ologna ;niversit.$ It is based on the work of Russian and CCech structuralists9 and it takes the te=t t.5olog. as its theoretical foundation$) Salmon-<ovarsk. looks at a variet. of te=ts in relation to their translatabilit. taking into account the degree of their st.listic as well as aesthetic com5le=it.$ 'hat is so refreshing about this model is the assum5tion that9 although te=ts dis5la. an infinite number of st.listic 5ossibilities9 the. can be organised hierarchicall.$
Salmon-<ovarsk. arrives at this conclusion b. means of adhering to formalist 5rinci5les of modelling codes9 .et her message is clear: in the world of te=ts there is no democrac.$ Some of them are much more accom5lished and are better than others$ Although this model9 as outlined in ,igure G$19 does not e=5lain what ha55ens when we translate9 it tells us that the difficult. of translating is directl. linked to the com5le=it. of the te=t$ !he advantage of using a structuralist a55roach is that it hel5s us to understand that te=tual com5le=it. is not onl. a linguistic issue but also an aesthetic and social one$ ?an #ukarovsk. 316114 made this ver. clear when he argued that onl. the assum5tion of ob@ective aesthetic value gives meaning to the historical evolution of art$( ;nfortunatel.9 5resent-da. literar. theor. is allergic both to ob@ectivit. and hierarch.9 and not at all for ideological reasons9 I sus5ect9 but because it is much more difficult to establish the aesthetic value of the te=t than to fit it into some eas. abstract formula$ 'ut what looks unacce5table to critics is 5robabl. obvious to translators$
118 Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es (99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
#12# #3P14 567 #H1I$ )$A&S1A)23212)4

A( Highl* spe i+i te.ts
@ain characteristics
importance of information high proportion of specialised lexical items conventional form and expression
!edagogic im"lications
#ossible to teach and learn b! means of extensive practice. 3( 1iterar* te.ts / 5written in literar* language6
contain some information that needs to be conve!ed contain little or no specialised lexical items
high degree of conventional form and expression =imitation and intertextualit!>
!edagogic im"lications
Teaching and learning difficult% but not impossible. 3( 1iterar* te.ts 7 5written in the #language o+ literature#6
based on the linguistic invention +ostranenieTestrangement effect> st!listicall! complex information not important novelt! value
Peda/o/i al im"lications
Impossible to teach. Each time a ne" approach to the translation of the text is re:uired. C( H*brid te.ts 5 ombination o+ A and 36 Main characteristics as in A and 8
Peda/o/i al im"lications
Translation difficult to teach and learn. %
8igure ,(/ Text t!pes as related to translation approach and pedagog!
The Troubled "dentity of 7iterary Translation
11&
It is hardl! ne"s to sa! that it is much easier to translate 9 let us sa! 9 /effre! Archer than Italo Calvino. There is no reason% of course% not to do both% and man! translators do it in order to survive. *o"ever% the profession as a "hole is :uite straightfor"ard and clear about "hat is one)s life)s "or and "hat is a hac 0ob. It seems to me that neither critics nor "riters have a comparable clarit! about "hat the! are doing. At least% I have !et to meet either a "riter or a critic "ho "ould admit that she or he produces pages of dire prose% not for personal satisfaction but for mone!. 8ut ho" can these assumptions% as "ell as .aura 3almon96ovars !)s h!pothesis be provedL &f course% to prove something li e this properl!% one needs to anal!se a representative sample of texts. *ere I can onl! loo at a fe" illustrations. The first example I "ant to loo at briefl! relates to 3almon96ovars !)s texts under categor! 81 9 that is texts "ritten in the )language of literature). The examples I have chosen represent a peculiar genre 9 aphorisms 9 "hich the #olish poet and translator 3tanisla" 8aranc@a described as the richest possible contents pac ed in the smallest possible form. As it happens% one of the best aphorists of this centur!% and this is not onl! m! opinion% is the #olish "riter 3tanisla" /er@! .ec. *e has been so "idel! translated that he is a household name in man! countries. .et us loo at some of his aphorisms and their (erman translations b! 6arl -edecius =1'I6>F =1> Co ule0e 9 id@ie. Was hin5t -geht. =1>
9!c 0est bard@o nie@dro"o. 6to @!0e ten umiera. 7as Leben ist ge$Nhrlich.
Wer lebt, stirbt.
=?> Ciemne o na s: c@asem bard@o 0asn!m do"odem. 7Bnstere Fenster sind o$t
ein 5larer <eweis.

=G> Regar t! a. +s@!st ich. 7ie 1hr schlNgt. Alles. The English translations suggested b! m! students give some idea "h! the translation of these texts is so difficultF =1> +hat limps gets there. =1> .ife is unhealth!. +ho lives% dies. =?> -ar "indo"s can give clear evidence. =G> The cloc stri es. All. 3impl!% the English language cannot suppl! a form "hich could gracefull! contain the rich meaning of the original% and "hen the form is too elaborate% an aphorism loses its aphoristic nature. Each translation is a ne" linguistic as "ell as a logistic problem% ="en if an approximate cultural e:uivalent is easil! available.
12*
+iterature in Translation
2ut not all literar. te=ts9 even good ones9 are as st.listicall. com5le= as Stanislaw ?erC. +ec*s$ #ore often translators o5erate within a categor. of what Salmon-<ovarsk. calls *literar. te=ts l*9 i$e$ those which are highl. conventionalised$ +et us look at the inherent 5ossibilities and difficulties here9 because this categor. com5rises te=ts that most often land on the desks of 5rofessional literar. translators$ A 5eculiar feature of translation is the fact that a foreign re5utation of a translated te=t is either higher or lower than the re5utation of the original at home$ Some translation scholars tend to investigate the cases when the te=t acclaimed at home remains unnoticed abroad$ Successful cases are seen as self-evident and nit-5icking is rarel. encouraged$ 2ut how do books earn their hardcurrenc. re5utations9 and what is the role of translation in these advantageous transactionsI I su55ose each stor. is differentB here is @ust one e=am5le$ A Polish @ournalist and writer9 author of a book about :thio5ia9 called %.e @mper#r 3<a5uscinski9 16G%49 scored another success with his travelogue about the colla5se of the Soviet ;nion$ <a5uscinsk[ s Polish re5utation as a @ournalist has alwa.s been high9 but the Poles know that9 although his books are fascinating9 their st.le is
somewhat @ournalistic and not be.ond re5roach$ So9 a 5edantic reader could easil. 5oint to a number of st.listic blunders in his books including direct translations of :nglish e=5ressions into Polish$ !he Auestion is what ha55ens when the te=t is translated$ 2elow is a short e=cer5t from 4mperium 3<a5uscinski9 166)4 and its :nglish translation$ !he scene takes 5lace in the earl. 1668s during the war between ACerbai@an and Armenia$ A Russian 5arliamentar. de5ut. - #rs Starovo.tova - a55ears suddenl. in the front-line Cone of "agorno <arabach with an intention to negotiate between the warring factions$ 2.la CmAcCona i s5igta9 choF starala siA CachowaF s5ok^@ i stworC.F 5ogodn.9 beCchmurn. nastr^@$ -5owiedCiala nam swo@A historiA$ -t^C ledwie w.sCta C samolotu9 Costala aresCtowana 5rCeC kilku oficer^w - w.slannik^w glFwnego komendanta wo@skowego &Frnego <arabachu$ -cwiadcC.li @e@9 Ce nie miala 5rawa +le iee do Ste5anakartu9 i usitowali nakloniF @A ab. wr^cila do :rewaniu$ 3<a5uscinski9 166%: 2)G4 She a55eared tired and tense9 but attem5ted to remain calm and create a cheerful9 cloudless atmos5here$ She told us her stor.$ She had barel. left the 5lane when she was arrested b. several officers - envo.s of the militar. commander in chief of "agorno <arabach$ !he. declared that she had no right to fl. int# Ste5anakert and tried to 5ersuade her to return to Derevan$ 3<a5uscinski 9166): 22)0-14
The Troubled "dentity of 7iterary Translation 121
!here is one 5oint in this 5assage that deserves our s5ecial attention - the Polish +le iee and the :nglish 2l' int#. A careful Polish reader will certainl. stumble over this word9 because the usage is unusual$ "ormall.9 one would sa. here either prz'le ie -*arrive*9 or more likel. +'l;d#+aA : *land*$ !here is a standard Polish e=5ression p#z+#lenie na lad#+anie : the *right or 5ermission to land*$ !he choice of +le iee is sim5l. incorrect$ -ne can +le iee into something a bird can +le iee into the nest9 that is into a restricted s5ace or9 sta.ing with aero5lanes9 one can +le iee + przestrzeB p#+ietrzn; : *enter someone*s airs5ace*$ 'hat the translator has done here9 and in man. other 5laces9 is a real service to the author$ !o 72l' int# Ste5anakart* is a 5erfectl. acce5table 5hrase9 so the :nglish reader will not 5ause here wondering whether the choice of the word is a55ro5riate or not$ !hus9 the net result is that the :nglish <a5uscinski is a better writer than his Polish alter ego$ !o cheer u5 the Poles9 we can sa. that if the :nglish readers get 4mperium written in a better literar. language9 the. lose in other wa.s$ And here is the 5roof$ "ow we are in Siberia$ S5ring has arrived9 the ground is thawing and mud is a ma@or element of the landsca5e$ 'alking down the street9 one afternoon <a5uscinski meets a woman cleaning the 5orch$ ?uC dochodCAc do ulic. <ru5skie@9 s5otkalicm. 5rC. @akimg domku babciA9 kt^ra dCiarskimi ruchami 5r^bowala miotlA CatrC.maF 5otok w.5elCa@Acego na ganek blota$ * CiACka 5raca9 5owiedCialem9 Ceb. CacCK roCmow3a$ A9 od5arla wCrusCa@Ac ramionami9 CawsCe wiosna taka strasCna$
"sz'st/# p2'nie.
Wa5anowalo milcCenie$ ?ak si3a C.@eI9 Wadaiem na@bardCie@ banalne i idiot.cCne 5.tanie9 ot9 Ceb. @ako*s 5odtrC.mac roCmowA$ 2abcia w.5rostowala si3a9 ws5arla riace na trConku miotl.9 s5o@rCata na mnie9 ucmiechnAla siA nawet i 5owiedCiala rCecC9 kt^ra @est sam.m sednem ros.@skie@ filoCofii C.cia: Ca/ z'+i#m9$ 5owt^rC.la . nam.stem i dodala glosem9 w ktFr.m b.la duma i determinac@a9 i cier5ienie9 i radosc - 1'sz'mD 3<a5uscinski9 166%: 1G64
"earing <ru5ska Street9 we encounter an old woman outside a little house who is tr.ing with energetic strokes of a broom to halt the mudd. deluge crawling into the 5orch$ */ard work*9 I sa.9 to start a conversation$ *Ah*9 she re5lies9 shrugging her shoulders9 *s5ring is alwa.s terrible$
;4ryfhiu/ flo4s.6
122
Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es 3ilence falls.
)*o")s lifeL) I as the most banal and idiotic :uestion% 0ust to eep the conversation going someho". The grann! straightens up% leans her hand on the broom handle% loo s at me% smiles even. #2a5 Jyviom(# she repeats thoughtfull!% and then in a voice full of pride and determination and suffering and 0o! she offers in repl! "hat is the crux of the ,ussian philosoph! of life 9 #7ysJym# +We breatheY/ =6apuscins i% 1''GF 1I5> The obvious thing "e notice here is% of course% the use of ,ussian in both the #olish and the English text. That English readers need to be helped "ith ,ussian% is obvious% and there is probabl! no better "a! of coping "ith this problem than a translation put in brac ets. The #oles have the advantage here% since the! understand the ,ussian phrase% and get the final point "ith much more poignanc! than the English reader. )8ut there is something else in this passage "hich a seasoned #olish reader "ill not miss. This is a phraseF WsJyst5o "lynie. 3ome readers "ill :uic l! translate this seemingl! innocuous phrase into the *eraclitan )panta rhei)% but others "ill go even further because the! "ill remember an excellent novel about life in post93talinist ,ussia "ritten in the 1'62s b! 7asilii (rossman. The title of the novel is precisel! WsJyst5o "lynie +4sio techot/ and its #olish translation sold in thousands of copies in the earl! 1''2s.Y +e shall never no" "hether 6apuscins i)s translator% 6lara (lo"c@e"s a% decided to drop these associations consciousl!% or "hether the allusions "ere lost on her. (rossman)s novel appeared in English under the title Forever Flowing, and% :uite surprisingl!% had three print runsF in 1'Q?% 1'I6 and 1'II. 8ut I suspect% that even so% one should not assume that (rossman)s name "ould be recognised b! more than a handful of readers here. <or m! o"n part% I "ould certainl! hesitate before tr!ing to replicate the cultural associations possible in the #olish context% so I "ould not li e to 0udge the translator.
*oncl sion
&ne "onders "hether this last example illustrates the problem of translation at all. It all depends% of course% on "hat is meant b! the term. M! intention has been to sho" that translation% at least of literar! texts% is a serious enterprise% not inherentl! less important than creative "riting or literar! criticism. If one accepts this point of vie"% the problem of translation)s modern identit! becomes irrelevant. 8ut one ma! still as 9
The Troubled "dentity of 7iterary Translation 12# )+hat is exactl! happening "hen "e translateL) I "ould repl! via an analog!F our interest in ho" electricit! is generated is onl! usuall! activated "hen there is a po"er cut. The moment the po"er comes bac % "e en0o! the "armth and light. +e forget the technical details% telling ourselves that the m!ster! of electricit! does not go further bac than the light s"itch. Notes
1. .inguistics is much less problematic in relation to translation and interpreting training. *o"ever% the ob0ectives of these courses is not so much to reflect on translation% but suppl! the students "ith practical s ills. 1. T"o issues have been dividing English literature scholarsF <.,. .eavis) legac! and the attitude to literar! theor!. Cf. 8ell% 1'IIC Tallis% 1'IIC The :ambri(!e Zuarterly, 1''6. ?. The idea of the )death of the author) "as central to post9structural criticism in <rance and
the 5nited 3tates =cf. ,oland 8arthes% 1'I1>. G. .aura 3almon96ovars ! proposed the model in 1''5 at a translation seminar held at the 5niversit! of +ar"ic . 5. &nl! a relativel! small part of Mu arovs !)s "or has been translated into English. 6. The boo is listed in the bibliograph! to the #olish edition of <m/erium. There is no bibliograph! in the English translation
Re"erences
8assnett% 3usan% =1''1> Translation &tudies =1nd edn>. .ondonF ,outledge. 8assnett% 3usan and .efevere% AndrD =eds> =1''2> Translation, 8istory and 6ulture. .ondonF #inter. 8assnett% 3usan and .efevere% AndrD =eds> =1''I> 6onstructing 6ultures. ClevedonF Multilingual Matters. 8ell% Michael =1''I> B.R. 4ea'is. .ondonF ,outledge. In -. (ervais% ,.-. (ooder and *.A. Mason =eds> The 6ambridge Zuarterly =1''6>% <.,. .eavis 3pecial Issue 154G. Coleridge% 3amuel Ta!lor =1'2Q> 2io!ra/hia 4iteraria =1 vols>% /. 3ha"cross =ed.>. &xfordF Clarendon #ress. (as ill% *o"ard =1''1> Mssian Revisited. EdinburghF Edinburgh 5niversit! #ress. (ent@ler% Ed"in =1''?> 6ontem"orary Translation Theories. .ondonF ,outledge. (rossman% 7asilii =1'II> Forever Flowing. .ondonF *arvill. (rossman% 7asilM =1''2> WsJyst5o !lynie. +ars@a"aF +spolpraca. 6apuscins i% ,!s@ard =1'I?> The Im"eror. .ondonF Huartet 8oo s. 6apuscins i% ,!s@ard =1''?> <m/erium. +ars@a"aF C@!telni . 6apuscins i% ,!s@ard =1''G> <m/erium. .ondonF (ranta 8oo s. l.ec% 3tanisla" /er@! =1'I1> Alle 1n$riesierten ?edan5en. MMnchen9+ien. Ma ine% AndrD +)CC-/ Le Testament Fran'ais. .ondonF *odder and 3toughton. Mu aros i% /an +)C--/ &tructure, &ign and Function &elected Issays. $e" *avenF Nale 5nivcrsit! #ress. $e"mar % #eter =1=$>1> $o global communication "ithout translation. In (. Andrrman and M. ,oger. =eds> Translation toda! Trends and !ers"ectives =this volume pp% 5Q9Q2>. =Elevcdun% Multilingual Matters.
#$%
3han man% 3teven 5#78,8 Poe/e+s +<lia(. #rincetonF #rinceton 5niversit! #ress. 3nell9 *ornb!% Mar! 5#7888 Translation 6tu(ies. An <nte!rate( A//roach. AmsterdamF /ohn 8en0amins. 3ontag% 3usan 5#7898 A 2arthes Rea(er. $e" Nor F *ill and +ang. 3tafford% <iona =ed.> 5#7788 Brom aelic to Romantic- 3ssianic Translations. AmsterdamF ,odopi. Tallis% ,a!mond 5#7888 Not 6aussure- A :ritique o0 Post?6aussurean Theor.. 8asingsto eF Macmillan. Tolsto!a% Tat!ana 5#77A8 4o'e 6tor.. New Hork Re'iew o0 2ooks> $ovember 9%> G96.
$apter %
$nterlinear Translation and %iscourse & la Mar' T(ain

')NNAR MA'N)SS#N Introd ction
+hen Mar T"ain set foot upon (erman soil in April 1IQI% the author% holding the reputation of having an unusuall! in:uiring mind% had alread! devoted some nine full "ee s to stud!ing the (erman language. *e had ample opportunit! to deepen his no"ledge "hen
travelling in the ,hine area round <ran furt and *eidelberg "ith his friend Mr *arris. T"airK s ethnological observations during this 0ourne!% "hich later also included 3"it@erland and Ital!% are 0ust as amusing as his "ell9 no"n vie"s on the (erman language. The local people appear to him to be )"arm9hearted% emotional% impulsive% enthusiastic)% )their tears come at the mildest touch and it is not hard to move them to laughter). The author marvels at their behaviour% ho" the! )hug and iss and cr! and shout and dance and sing). These characterisations are given in A Tram/ Abroa( 5Dol. . Q6>% t"o volumes about his travels in the &ld +orld =1II2>. In part t"o "e find T"ain)s most famous philological essa!% )The A"ful (erman .anguage)% an item :uietl! tuc ed a"a! in an appendix =->. This circumstance does not diminish its importance% ho"ever% if "e are to believe the author)s o"n "ords% referring to *erodotusF )$othing gives such "eight and dignit! to a boo as an Appendix). This essa! should not be confused% ho"ever% "ith the lecture he gave some 12 !ears later "ith an almost identical title% )The *orrors of the (erman .anguage) =in Mark Twain+s 6/eecIres> 1'12>% less no"n but e:uall! pointed and humorous. *o" relevant are T"ain)s vie"s on the (erman language from toda!)s perspectiveL In this article I revie" his observations% suggestions% and plans for reform% not onl! in the light of our current no"ledge of (erman but also of English. Although (erman is the focus of T"ain)s anal!ses% his native tongue% English% is the bac ground against "hich he models his observations( /79
126
A recurrent issue in the assessment of contrastive 5henomena is the relative weight of determining ty"ological $actors, on the one hand9 and stylistic ideals, on the other$ Current t.5ological studies describe &erman as a *#ischs5rache* 3Askeda191660: %069 'urCel9 1660: )624 where synthetic, i$e$ in$lectional 35redominantl.4 and agglutinating, characteristics are found side b. side with analytical ones$ :nglish is indis5utabl. an analytical language$ !he foremost 5ur5ose of this 5a5er is9 with !wain*s views as a starting 5oint9 to discuss the effects of t.5ological differences on :nglish and &erman st.le and discourse9 res5ectivel. In seeking to obtain interesting results in this contrastive field9 translation ma. normall. be trusted to 5rovide an e=cellent tool$ !wain makes freAuent use of it to illustrate his ideas$ !he mode he has chosen is word-for-word translation in its most striking subs5ecies: interlinear translation. !his *method* has been a55ro5riatel. described b. Peter "ewmark: *!he Source +anguage 3S+4 word-order is 5reserved and the words translated singl. b. their most common meanings9 out of conte=t$ Cultural words are translated literall.$* 3"ewmark9 16GG: )(-0$4 "ewmark*s claim that *the use of word-for-word translation is to understand the mechanics of the S+* 316GG: )0B m. italics4 is full. congruent with !wairi s 5ur5ose in e=amining the two languages in Auestion$ !wain*s ideas have remained remarkabl. u5-to-date9 thus @ustif.ing9 as I see it9 the sub@ect of the 5resent 5a5erB the. also testif. to the well-known notion that writers and artists have a seismogra5hic ca5acit. for registering com5le= matters9 ver. often intuitivel.$ * iscourse* in our title 5rimaril. refers to the micro"ers"ective, i$e$ the anal.sis of *natural s5oken or written language in conte=t* +6ollins 6obuild/, es5eciall. the relation of successive utterances$ In a macro"ers"ective, I also take into consideration how te=ts are organised and how arguments are negotiated in a 5ur5osive fashion 3cf$ Cl.ne9 16G14$ Another macro5ers5ective9 es5eciall. 5rominent in the humanities in ,rance and &erman. 3,oucault9 /abermas49 is not at issue here$ An e=am5le of the latter would be the discourse anal.sis concerned with 3delimited4 5roblem com5le=es such as the 8istori5erstreit 3*/istorians* Controvers.*4 about the /olocaust$ l I have rearranged the order of !wain*s observations in order to adhere to the traditional division into mor5holog. and s.nta=9 choosing to conclude the discussion with such core discourse matters as information structure9 5arentheses9 and digressions$ Accordingl.9 gender9 case9 and the inflections of ad@ectives are treated first9 with word formation ( #mp#unds( and se5arable verbs forming the transition to s.nta=B the concluding
section un the organisation of te=ts also takes u5 contrastivit. in le&is$ including !wain*s
"nterlinear Translation and )is ourse 127
notion of overdescri"tion and over"recision as distinctive characteristics of &erman$ !wain ends his essa. *!he Awful &erman +anguage* b. suggesting reform 5lans for the language$ In m. e5ilogue9 I will venture a radical remed. of m. own9 the abolition of ca5ital letters with common nouns$
Gender
#. rather e=tensive remarks on gender in &erman and :nglish below ma. be @ustified b. the em5hasis it is given b. !wain in *Awful* - it occu5ies one si=th of the entire essa. - but also b. more recent increase in scholarl. interest in the sub@ect 3see9 for e=am5le9 <U5cke9 16G2B <U5cke-Wubin9 16G)B Corbett9 16614$ An easil. 5redictable target of !wain*s criticism of the &erman mor5hological s.stem is of course the animate gender s.stem: der Regen - er 3the rain -*he*49 die /and - sie 3the hand -*she*49 das 2ein - es 3the leg - *it*4$ /is illustration of this9 the 5oem 7as Fischweib 3author unknown to me49 reveals9 however9 more than the author*s ridicule$ "otice the 5oetic tenor of the e=cer5t from his :nglish version of the 5oem$ !o someone with Swedish as their mother tongue !wain*s faithful 3*se=ualised*4 translations of the &erman 5ronouns are reminiscent of the animate gender 5ractice of medieval Swedish 5oetr.: It is a bleak a.$ /ear the Rain9 how he 5ours9 and the /ail9 how he rattlesB and see the Snow9 how he drifts along9 and oh9 the #ud9 how dee5 he is$ Ah9 the 5oor ,ishwife9 it is stuck fast in the #ireB it has dro55ed its 2asket of ,ishes $$$ Anal.sing this 5oem9 !wain draws our attention to the foreign learner*s well-known difficult. in *5ersuading his tongue to refer to things as \he\9 \she\9 \him\ and \her\9 which it has been accustomed to refer to as \it\*$ ,urthermore9 this e=cer5t from !wain*s 3full-length4 rendering of 7as Fischweib illustrates two 5rominent issues in current &erman gender discussion$
Gender and %eneric reference
!he e=em5lified &erman mode of reference is9 as we know9 e=tended to the entire 5ronominal s.stem: der !isch9 der +ehrer V er +#he#/, sein +#his#/, dessen +#his#, *the latter*s*49 derAenige 3*that*9 *the*49 dieser 3*this*9 *this one*4$ !he strong connotations of male gender in instances like the use of 7der +ehrer* for all teachers9 com5lete with masculine ana5horic 5ronouns has led to a claim - and not onl. from feminists - that the socalled gender-neutral9 *generic* use of such occu5ational titles should be revised$ An e=am5le to illustrate the pro*lematic use of the generic masculine is given Ix8low.
)98 Translation Today Trends and !ers"ectives
!he S5okesman +sic/ of the &erman Parliament9 Rita SMssmuth9 refused to sign a regulation with the following wording 3note the 5ronoun referenceL4: *'enn der ArCt im Praktikum schwanger wird9 hat er ;rlaub nach den Regelungen des #utterschutCgesetCesB nach Inans5ruchnahme des :rCiehungsurlaubs kann er seine Ausbildung fortfMhren*$2 /er motivation9 here cited directl. from the Proceedings of the 2undestag9 was as follows: Ich fragte9 ob ich das wirklich unterschreiben sollte$ #an sagte mir9 #ArJt im !ra5ti5um ist eine geschlechtsneutrale 2eCeichnungB das ist eine Institution* EAllgemeine 8eiter5eit[. Ich antwortete: *Aber Institutionen werden aller :rfahrung nach nicht schwanger$* E8eiter5eit und <ei$all bei allen Fra5tionen[ amit war es endlich geschafft9 diese Regelung auder <raft Cu setCen und auch von \rJtinnen im !ra5ti5um Cu s5rechen$% A more general awareness of this 5roblem has led to a significant increase in $eminisation,
5rimaril. achieved b. derivation 3*erCtin* etc$4$ In fact9 there is nowada.s a strong tendenc. towards a grammaticalisation of the moved form as a com5ulsor. agreement marker 3?obin9 forthcoming4$ Another solution in combating masculine bias is the use of ad@ectival nouns9 die Lehrenden 3*the teaching staff*4 instead of die Lehrer 3*the teachers*49 or9 when 5ossible9 formations with neutral second 5arts of a com5ound: Lehr5ra$t, Schreibkraft9 !utJ5ra$t 3*cleaner*B -5ra$t literall. *5ower9 force*4 3cf$ #agnusson V ?obin9 16614$ !here is9 however9 one decided advantage of the &erman gender s.stem9 namel. its e=5licit reference-tracking ca5acit.$ In :; documents for e=am5le9 the agentive reference with regard to committees9 officials9 etc$ is clearer in &erman 3signalled b. er, sie, es/ than in the corres5onding Swedish ones 3and 5resumabl. the :nglish ones9 too49 where the indefinite 5ronoun man +#one#/ is used freAuentl. 3?obin9 forthcoming4$ &erman shares with :nglish9 however9 the 5roblem of generic reference with 5ronouns like everybody, anyone, no one. !he st.listicall. somewhat awkward :nglish solutions *he or she*9 *she or he*9 *3s4he* have the counter5arts *er oder sie*9 *sie oder er*9 but these are onl. infreAuentl. used$ !he freAuenc. of avoidance devices like recast sentences involving nominalisations9 5assives9 or infinitive clauses in the res5ective languages has .et to be researched$ In :nglish9 some non-fiction writers use she throughout for generic reference to occu5ational titles etc$ 3'illiams9 1668B :llis9 16684$Ot !his is hardl. a viable solution in &erman9 owing to the strict grammatical rules of agreement addressed b. !wain9 commenting on the *,ishwife*$ !he
Interlinear Translation and 7iscourse )9C
teacher - she - is not a 5roblem in :nglish9 whereas der +ehrer - sie - is an anomal. in &erman$ A consistent s"litting in *der +ehrer und die +ehrerin* with ana5horic double 5ronoun reference is clums.9 to sa. the least$
Gra!!atical and se!antic gender
A weakness of the rigid s.stem of gender assignment in &erman9 5articularl. of 5ronominal gender9 can be illustrated b. the grou5 of nouns where grammatical and semantic agreement demands are in conflict$ !wain draws our attention to this when Weib in the 5oem is referentiall. reactivated b. it In the &erman it is true that9 b. some oversight of the inventor of the language9 a woman is a female9 but a *wife* +Weib/ is not - which is unfortunate$ A wife has no se=$ She is neuter*$ 3*Awful*: 2084 A *'eib* ma. well have *no se=* designated b. its le=ical gender9 but there is a 5ronounced tendenc. toda. towards semantic referential agreement for nouns like Weib and @Ndchen> the further awa. we move from the noun in the referential chain9 the more likel. is animate agreement$
*ase
A ma@or stumbling block for all foreigners attem5ting to learn &erman is its com5licated case s.stem9 another of !wain*s 5oints of attack$ As /awkins 316G)4 has em5hasised9 case s.ncretism in :nglish 3seen as earl. as the ninth centur.4 is the 5ervasive force that has moulded this language in a thoroughl. different manner from &erman$ !he canonical S>word order for all clause t.5es that emerged from this develo5ment9 with its rigid order necessar. for reasons of clarit. as to sub@ect and ob@ect functions9 favoured 3or enforced4: 3a4 a reanal.sis of im5ersonal structures as in: 6am cunge licoden 5earen
I" IR:C! -2?:C! to the king
>:R2 a55ealed
S;2?:C! 5ears
*the king liked 5ears* 3b4 a restructuring of the field of transitivit. and intransitivit.$ /ere lie the foundations for the astounding fle=ibilit. of verbal usage in :nglish9 com5ared with its continental cousins9 including nonagentive su*9ects: 'the *oo sold 1---- copies, this hotel for*ids
1#* Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es
dogs9 m. guitar broke a string* 3e=am5les from /awkins9 16G0: 069 124$ !he fairl. uniAue formal unders5ecification of :nglish s.nta=9 the decoding of which relies considerabl. on 5ragmatic and conte=tual clues9 was of course almost certainl. unknown to !wain9 as the overs5ecified &erman s.stem comes under his shar5 attack$ Contrar. to the case of the s.nta= of its overseas cousin9 the s.ntactic formulas of &erman were never blurred b. the im5act of 'illiam the ConAueror9 &erman having retained a t.5icall. &ermanic four-case s.stem$ In all essentials9 in #odern &erman we still behold the -ld /igh &erman 5aradigm 3cf$ Askedal9 1660: %1G4$ !wain criticises the *su5erfluous* dative singular :e in masculine and neuter nouns$ /is reAuest to do awa. with it has largel. been granted$ Its use toda. is dwindlingB onl. in fi=ed combinations like na . Hause (7.#me7($ Ju -2erde 3*on horseback*4 is it at all freAuent9 but we no longer sa. *im /ause* or *mit dem Pferde*9 as was the case in !wain*s da.$ 'urCel 31660: (1)4 5redicts the death of all case 2le&i)es in &erman 3L49 which would include the dative :n/:en in the 5lural (mit den MEnnern8 *with the men*4 and the :n /:en in the obliAue cases of the weak nouns: den
Spezialisten F den Spezialist$ am Ga.r/artenaut#maten F am Ga.r/artenaut#mat.
!his change is slowl.9 but clearl.9 under wa.$ Communicativel. unnecessar. endings such as the above characterise the inflections of the &erman adHe ti)e in 5articular$ It is eas. for us to share !wain*s resignation: *I heard a Californian student in /eidelberg sa.9 in one of his calmest moods9 that he would rather decline two drinks than one &erman ad@ective* 3*Awful*: 2(G4$ /ad he listened carefull. to how 5eo5le tal/ed in the Rhine area9 however9 he would have noticed an almost total neglect of ad@ective endings$ -n the whole9 &erman dialects are considerabl. less inflectional than the standard language9 and case s.ncretism is ver. cons5icuous indeed$
Compounds
In a 5aragra5h in Mar/ %+ain7s Spee .es entitled *A "ew &erman 'ord* 31618: ((4 the author 5resents us with a *veritable @ewel* in a telegram from +inC9 Austria:
-ers#nalein/#mmensteuerse.Etzungs/#mmissi#nsmitgliedsreise/#s: tenree.nungsergEnzungsre)isi#ns2und
'hen !wain comes across such words9 he adds them to his collection of rare items9 *5utting them in his museum* +A Tram" Tl broad, 1G66-1688: 20)49 commenting: *If I could get a similar word engraved u5on m. tombstone 1 should slee5 beneath it in 5eace$*
"nterlinear Translation and )is ourse 1#1
Among the &ermanic languages9 &erman is considered to be the most fle=ible in com5ounding$ ,urther illustrations that !wain 5rovides9 Stadt )er#rdneten)ersammlungen 3*town councils*4 and Greunds .a2tsbezeigungen 3*tokens of friendshi5*4 are b. no means sur5rising$
-bviousl.9 there is no weakening tendenc. in this t.5e of word formationB freAuenc. data 3Augst9 forthcoming4 show a continuall. rising curve from 1688 to the 5resent$ According to Augst9 the increase is onl. slightl. offset b. a r#n'ms. /e illustrates the stages of s.ntactic com5ression humorousl.: &efahr durch lange und kurCe 'UrterI f ie +ang- und <urCwortgefahr f +<'-&efahr 3&efahr g *risk*9 +<' g *truck*4$ Interestingl.9 com5ounds are still a to5ical issue9 not onl. among &erman linguists but also among @ournalists$ !he following title of a new law9 issued b. the ministr. of agriculture in the federal government of #ecklenburg->or5ommern caused a stir in the &erman 5ress:
1as 3inder/ennzei .nungs: und 3ind2leise.eti/ettierungs=ber+a .ungsau2gaben=bertragungsgesetz
-bviousl.9 2S: causes linguistic 5roblems9 as well$ -f course9 these *and+urm+Irter 3*ta5eworm words*4 let the reader do the inter5retive @obB the. are less reader-friendl. than their e=5licit s.ntactic counter5arts and9 in the view of language critics9 undemocratic$ Corres5onding unh.5henated constructions in :nglish are9 for the same reason9 the target of st.listic criticism9 too: @arl' .ild.##d t.#ug.t dis#rder misdiagn#sis often occurs $$$ !his 5a5er reviews seven recent studies of 5articular relevance to preteen .'pera ti)it' diagn#sis and to treatment modalities involving medi a
ti#n maintenan e le)el e)aluati#n pr# edures.
3'illiams9 1668: L9> my italics4 !his t.5e of s.ntactic com5ression is increasing in scientific 5rose according to 'illiams9 but it is also found in headlines9 for e=am5le *!ri5le love-snatch bo. is hunted*9 *!orment of a lovetug mum* 3+@ung9 1661:1%04$ !he last word goes to !wain9 his fifth reform suggestion for &erman9 which obviousl. has some relevance for :nglish as well: I would do awa. with those great long com5ounded words9 or reAuire the s5eaker to deliver them in sections9 with intermissions for refreshments$ !o wholl. do awa. with them would be best9 for ideas are more easil. received and digested when the. come one at a time than when the. corne in bulk$ Intellectual food is like an. otherB it is 5icatiantrr and more beneficial to take it with a s5oon than with a shovel.
1#2 Verbs
Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es Separable
In his introduction to the volume 7eutsch ty"ologisch, E"ald .ang recommends )The A"ful (erman .anguage) as a "ell9tried appetiser to arouse students) interest in t!polog! =1''6F '>. The e!note for the discussion is often struc b! the follo"ing :uotation from T"ain =un no"n source>F +henever the literar! (erman dives into a sentence that)s the last !ou are going to see of him until he emerges on the other side of the Atlantic "ith a verb in his mouth. The ad0ective literary can be seen as an indication that T"ain has noticed that verb9final does not appl! e:uall! strictl! to spo en language% "here exbraciation =)Aus lammerung)> is :uite conspicuous. In principle% (erman has retained the (ermanic verb9final "ord order =37& in declarative sentences% though>% "hereas English s"itched to 37& in the course of the Middle English period. The role of case s!ncretism in this change has been discussed above. The ne" paradigm also affected pre9 and post9modification in English. 3&7 versus 37& "ord order in (erman is still debated among scholars% ho"ever =As eda1%1''6F ?Q1C Eisenberg% 1''1F ?I1f>. A nice little example% :uoted b! 8ut@ amm illustrates ho" primordial the 3&7 "ord order still is in (erman. T"o9!ear9old $atalie is being taught a children)s rh!me b! her mother. $ot even an easil! memorised rh!me and rh!thm ma es $atalie abandon "hat she obviousl! perceives as the )normal) verb placement in (ermanF
@other
0atalie
Au schreit der 8auer Aua aua 8aua schreit die ^pfel sind sauer ^pfel sauer sind die 8irnen sind sM_ 8irnen sM_ morgen gibt)s (emMs. morgen (emMs gibt. =&"% cries the peasant% the apples are sour% the pears are s"eet% tomorro" "e)ll have veg.> =8ut@ amm% 1''?F11Q> Another T"ain metaphor for the )tension) of (erman clauses is that of a bridge, e:uall! as potent a characterisation as the famous )Atlantic simile)% as "ill be apparent from the follo"ing confession of the author in an address to the 7ienna #ress Club in $ovember 1I'QF Meine hAufige An"esenheit auf den 8rMc en T+iensU hat einen gan@ unschuldigen (rund. -ort giebt)s den nBthigen ,aum. -ort ann man einen edlen% langen deutschen 3at@ ausdehnen% die 8r`c engelAnder entlang% und seinen gan@en Inhalt mit einem 8lic Mbersehen.
"nterlinear Translation and )is ourse
1##
Auf das eine Ende des (elAnders lebe ich das erste (lied eines trennbaren Reit"ortes und das 3chlus@glied lebe ich an )s andere Ende 9 dann breite ich den .eib des 3at@es da@"ischen aus. +@ar5 Twain#s &"eeches, 1'12F GI>5 The bridge metaphor also occurs in modern (erman grammars for the brace in subordinate clausesF &"annsatJ =)span clause)C cf. 5lrich% 1'I1F Q?>. <or this address in ?erman the author provided an amusing parallel English interlinear version =)a literal translation) in T"airK s o"n "ords =)*orrors)>>% "here he disclosed his reform plans for (erman "ord orderF I might gladl! the separable verb also a little bit reform. I might none do let "hat 3chiller didF he has the "hole histor! of the Thirt! Nears) +ar bet"een the t"o members of a separable verb inpushed. That has even (erman! itself aroused% and one has 3chiller the permission refused the *istor! of the *undred Nears) +ar to compose 9 (od be it than edO After all these reforms established be "ill% "ill the (erman language the noblest and the prettiest on the "orld be. =pp. GQ% G'>
German and English Style

A difference bet"een (erman and English% determined b! traditions but also b! t!polog!% is le$t-branching and right-branching, respectivel!% or in a more modern terminolog!% "re- and
"ost-modi$ication
W (ermanF -ie von den $achbarn Mbernommenen und "eiterent"ic elten 8rAuche left9branching EnglishF The customs adapted and further developed b! their neighbours right9branching 8igure 0(/ #re9 and post9modification in (erman and English $ominal bloc s and extensive pre9modification have been a gro"ing tendenc! in "ritten (erman since the age of *umanism =von #olen@% 1''5F ?51>. Toda! these features are especiall! prominent in elaborate 0ournalistic prose and scientific 0argon% being a distinctive integral part of the so9called Im"onierstil +LC,/. The h!dra e&panded attribute (see <igure '.1> does not escape T"ain)s een observation. I le does not no" the term% of course% but lie has recognised its features% apparent in the follo"ing parod!ing interlinear translation into :nglish o+ a noti e in a "annheim newspaper;
1#$
In the da.before .esterda. shortl. aftereleven o*clock "ight9 the inthistownstanding tavern called *!he 'agoner* was downburnt$ 'hen the ,ire to the onthedownburning resting Stork*s "est reached9 flew the 5arent Stork awa.$ 2ut when the b.theraging9 fire surrounded "est itsel0 caught ,ire9 straightawa. 5lunged the Auickreturning #other-Stork into the ,lames and died9 her 'ings over the .oung ones outs5read$ 3*Awful*: 2004 !wain*s ca5italisation of the nouns is a nice gesture to his readers$ In the discussion of &erman st.le he makes the following im5ortant remark: *In &erman all the "ouns begin with a ca5ital letter$ "ow that is a good idea$* /ow could we otherwise manage our wa. through the lab.rinth of a 5iece of elaborate &erman 5roseI An.one tr.ing to decode a com5le= nominal chain must rel. heavil. on what I would like to call the hi!h an( noble /ines> i$e$ the ca5italised nouns:
-ie von den
achbarn Mbernommenen% leicht modifi@ierten und "eiterent"ic elten
8rAuche
-ther st.listic features that strike !wain9 the amateur linguist9 are Pandora*s bo=sentences 3*SchachtelsQtCe*49 5arentheses9 and digressions: I have heard that sometimes after stringing along on e=citing 5reliminaries and 5arentheses for a column or two9 the. get in a hurr. and have to go to 5ress without getting to the verb at all$ 3*Awful*: 2((B about @ournalistic 5rose4 !his descri5tion still holds for certain genres$ Cl.ne 316G14 looked at :nglish and &erman te=ts on linguistics and sociolog. /e found that9 in general9 the first were linear and s.mmetrical9 the latter digressive and as.mmetrical$ !he :nglish te=ts were more reader-friendl. and 5ersonal9 aiming at a dialogue on the sub@ect matter9 whereas the &erman ones were more theor.-bound9 deductive9 and intended to im5ress$ !hese differences9 including the above addressed 5roblem of 5re- and 5ost-modification9 are re5eatedl. focused on in the newl. 5ublished *an(buch Translation 3see9 for e=am5le9 Snell-/ornb. et al.> 166G: 01-G4$ An e=am5le from a &erman school book on histor. is a good illustration of these 5henomena$0 !he author o5ens a cha5ter on 2ismarck*s <am5f gegen das Wentrum 3*2ismarck*s struggle against the Wentrum 5art.*4 with the following heavil. 5remodified sentence: ie 'eichen9 die ihn Zso far uns5ecifiedR am :nde in die 5artei5olitische Ausweglosigkeit geraten lieden9 stellte 2ismarck Zthank .ouR bereits unmittelbar nach der ReichsgrMndung9 als er versuchte9 in einem *<ulturkam5f* gegen den ;ltramontanismus das Wentrum als 5olitische <raft in eutschland ausCuschalten$1
"nterlinear Translation and )is ourse 1#%
!wain summarises his views on &erman discourse 5ractice: $$$ with the &ermans it is doubtless the mark and sign of a 5ractised 5en and of the 5resence of that sort of luminous intellectual 0o! which stands for clearness among these 5eo5le$ 3*Awful*: 2((9 m. italics4 And .et9 this would definitel. be an un@ust general descri5tion of how &ermans look at standards of st.le and discourse toda.$ #. 5ersonal view is that &erman *5ractised 5ens* in @ournalism and scientific domains write as clearl. and elegantl. as their :nglish colleagues$ In fact9 there is no reason to Auestion :rich <Qstner*s well-known words when he describes himself in the conte=t of &erman 5hiloso5hic tradition:
A sworn o55onent of the false de5ths that never fall out of fashion in the land of 5oets and thinkers9 he Z:$<$R is a great-grandson of the &erman :nlightenment9 bound to and enamoured of the three inalienable demands: sincerit. of sentiment9 clarit. of thought and sim5licit. in word and sentence$G 3<Qstner9 16(6: %8)4 In conclusion9 !wain com5lains of the over5recision and overdescri5tion of the &erman language 3*Awful*: 2084$ /e e=em5lifies over5recision with mor5holog. - (ie 1n!lJn(erin ? but this characteristic is eAuall. 5rominent in le=is9 s.nta= and discourse$ <Unig 31660: (84 contrasts the o5en ob@ect s5ecification of :nglish /ut on 5? @acket9 glasses9 tie9 ring4 with the diversification of verbs in &erman with regard to t.5e of ob@ect: (ie )acke anziehen> (ie 2rille au0setzen> eine Krawatte umbin(en> einen Rin! anstecken. !his is 5articularl. a55arent in selection restrictions9 for e=am5le for mei(en> 'ermei(en> ausweichen versus a'oi( 3/awkins9 16G0: %249 and in man. other near-s.non.ms in &erman9 which corres5ond to one :nglish verb: Jn(ern> abJn(ern> 'erJn(ern for chan!e. In general9 &erman verbs have more selection restrictions$ In bad &erman discourse9 notabl. in sociolog. and linguistics9 overdescri5tion is cons5icuous$ In a conte=t where *the use of these words* would be a sufficient summarising e=5ression9 one might come across *die 5aradigmatische9 s.ntagmatische9 5ragmatische Realisierung von diesen ,ormativen*$ Readers are not trusted to infer information from the conte=t9 the. are invariabl. given all 5articulars$
*oncl sion As has been shown above9 t.5ological conditions as well as st.listic conventions are given pride of 5lace in !wain*s consideration of the
1#6 Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es
differences bet"een (erman and English. The t!pological differences are particularl! apparent as regards gender% case% compounding% and the structure of the verb s!stem% "ith case being the most prominent factor. +hile st!listic conventions are admittedl! hard to brea % the! do not steer discourse phenomena such as attribution% parentheses% digressions% overprecision% and overdescription to the same extent as t!pological restrictions. In his summar!% T"ain recapitulates in eight points his reform plans for the (erman language =)A"ful)F 16'9Q1>. Those that have been discussed in this article areF leave out the dative case% move the verb further up to the front% reorganise the sexes% do a"a! "ith the long compounded "ords% discard the parentheses. T"o of T"ain)s re:uests have been grantedF the communicativel! irrelevant -e in the dative case has no" been discarded% apart from fixed phrasesC the verb% b! "a! of exbraciation =)Aus lammerung)>% is fre:uentl! moved further up the sentence% especiall! in spo en language. The problems of sex remain% as "ell as those of compounding. The use or non9use of parentheses depends largel! on the proficienc! and s ill of those producing the texts. <inall!% I "ould li e to launch a reform plan of m! o"n% one hinted at earlier. Mar T"ain in a splendid insight noticed that )all the T(ermanU nouns begin "ith a capital letter. $o" that is a good idea) =)A"ful)F 15I>. *e intuitivel! realised our ris of other"ise getting lost in the depths of (erman s!ntax. +ithout the nouns 9 )the high and noble pines) 9 "e "ould soon go astra! in toda!)s forest9li e s!ntax in certain genres. +e "ould not see the "ood for the trees. -oing a"a! "ith the capitalised nouns =b! la"O> "ould probabl! mean that text producers in (erman "ould be forced to form sentences that are easier to grasp and absorb% a spelling reform =(ermanF Rechtschreibre$orm/ "orth! of its name. The result "ould probabl! be shorter sentences and more relative clauses% ma ing it easier for us to steer a correct course through the (erman s!ntactic landscape. Is m! reform plan for (erman nouns an impossible dreamL 8! no means. .oo at the -anes.
To m! no"ledge% their capitalisation reform of 1'GI has not led to a cultural decline and fall of the -anish language. T"ain concludes his essa! "ith a sigh of resignation that his philosophical studies have convinced him that a gifted person needs ?2 !ears to learn the (erman language. M! suggestion for the abolition of capitalised nouns "ould reduce this period considerabl!. And (erman "ould avoid the gloom! destin! prophesied b! T"ainF
"nterlinear Translation and )is ourse

If it is to remain as it is% it ought to be gentl! and reverentl! set aside among the dead languages% for onl! the dead have time to learn it. =)A"ful)F 1Q1>
1#7
Notes
1. This branch of stud! is appropriatel! described b! 8usse% *ermanns and Teubert +)CCL )L> m! translation>F )A discourse consists of all texts that concern an! ob0ect% theme% scientific problem complex or concept chosen as an ob0ect of research% "hich exhibit mutual semantic connections and4or involve a mutual declarator!% communicative% functional or purposive relation.) 1. )If the doctor becomes pregnant "hile serving as a *ouseman% he is granted leave of absence in accordance "ith the regulations of the Maternit! ActC after completion of maternit! leave he ma! complete his training.) ?. )I as ed "hether I reall! should sign it. I "as toldF ;doctor ... serving as a 8ouseman is a gender9 neutral designation% it is an institution.; E?eneral amusement.[ I repliedF ;8ut all experience indicates that institutions do not become pregnant.; EAmusement and a""lause all round.[ And thus "e "ere finall! able to eliminate this rule and spea of $emale 8ousemen, as "ell.) L. Ellis has a note on pronouns in his prefaceF )In this boo I have used ;she; and ;her; to refer genericall! to learners% teachers% researchers etc. ... I have come to realise that the choice of pronouns is an important issue to man! "omen and that% overall% less offence is li el! to be caused b! the choice of the female gender.) 5. T"airi s interlinear translationF )M! fre:uent presence on the bridges Tof 7iennaU has an entirel! innocent ground. Nonder gives it the necessar! space% !onder can one a noble long (erman sentence elaborate% the bridge9railing along% and his "hole contents "ith one glance overloo . &n the one end of the railing pasted I the first member of a separable verb and the final member cleave I to the other end 9 then spread the bod! of the sentence bet"een it outO) 6. (Brtema er% Manfred +)C8./ 7eutschland im )C. 3ahrhundert. &pladen. Q. )Immediatel! after the ,eich "as founded% 8ismarc chose the trac s "hich ultimatel! led him into a political cul9de9sac% as he sought to shunt the Center #art! aside as a political force% b! means of a ;cultural battle; against the ultramontane forces of papist centralisation.) 8. )Er TE.6.U ist ein 5ren el der deutschen Auf lArung% spinnefeind der unechten Tiefe% die im .ande der -ichter und -en er nie aus der Mode ommt% untertan und @ugetan den drei unverAu_erlichen <orderungenF nach der Aufrichtig eit des Empfindens% nach der 6larheit des -en ens und nach der Einfachheit in +ort und 3at@.) =6Astner% )C,C *:L/.
Re"erences
+)/ <y and on @ar5 Twain
T+ain, M( -1.//-1/001 A Tram" Abroad +4ols. I-B/. .eip@igF Tauchnit@. T+ain, M( -1.//-1/001 T2e A+ful 'er3an an4ua4e( In A Tram" Abroad +4ol. II, A55endi6 71 -55( 898-:;1( @ar5 Twain#s &"eeches +IC):// Wit2 an introdu<tion by Willia3 7ean "o+ell=( Ne# $or% > ondon? "ar5er V 0rot%ers= 1#8 Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es
!wain9 #$ 316184 !he horrors of the &erman language$ In @ar5 Twain#s &"eeches 355$ )%-(14$ Illustrated Wor5s o$ @ar5 Twain 316164 Selections and an introduction b. #ichael Patrick /earn$ "ew Dork: Avenel books$
Askedal9 ?$-$ 316604 Pberlegungen Cum eutschen als s5racht.5ologischem *#ischt.5*$ In :$ +ang and &$ Wifonun 3eds4 7eutsch ty"ologisch +"". %06-G%4$ 2erlin V "ew Dork: de &ru.ter$ Augst9 &$ 3forthcoming4 &efahr durch lange und kurCe 'UrterI ie +ang- und <urCwort-&efahrI ie +<'-&efahrI !o be 5ublished in the series 3ahrbBcher
des Instituts $Br deutsche &"rache.
+9/ Mther
2usse9
$9 /ermanns9 ,$ and !eubert9 '$ 3eds4 3166)4 <egri$$sgeschichte und 7is5ursgeschichte. @ethoden$ragen und Forschungsergebnisse der historischen &emanti5. -5laden: 'estdeutsher >erlag$ 2utCkamm9 '$ 3166%4 !sycholinguisti5 des Fremds"rachenunterrichts. 0atBrliche 2Bnstlich5eit 4on der @utters"rache Jur Fremds"rache. !Mbingen and 2asel: ,rancke$ Cl.ne9 #$ 316G14 Cultural differences in the organiCation of academic discourse$ 3ournal o$ !ragmatics )), 211-)1$ Corbett9 &$ 316614 ?ender. Cambridge$ :isenberg9 P316614 ?rundriP der deutschen ?rammati5. Stuttgart$ :llis9 R$ 316684 Instructed &econd Language AcDuisition. Learning in the 6lassroom. -=ford V Cambridge: 2lackwell$ &Urtemaker9 #$ 316G04 7eutschland im )C. 3ahrhundert. -5laden$ /awkins9 ?$A$ 316G04 A 6om"arative Ty"ology o$ Inglish and ?erman. 1ni$ying the 6ontrasts. +ondon V S.dne.$ ?obin9 2$ 3forthcoming4 Referentiellt eller le=ikaliskt genus - om 5ronomenbruk i t.ska och svenska :;-dokument$ !o a55ear in *!he Problem of Reference in !ranslation* 3working title4$ Re"orts $rom the Research !rogramme Translation and Inter"reting as a @eeting between 6ultures. Stockholm-;55sala$ <Qstner9 :$ 316(64 <Qstner Mber <Qstner$ In 7ie 5leine Freiheit. &esammelte Schriften in sieben 2Qnden$ 2and >$ >ermischte 2eitrQge$ <Unig9 :$ 316604 <ontrastive &rammatik und !.5ologie$ In :$ +ang and &$ Wifonun 3eds4 7eutsch ty"ologisch +"". %1-()4$ 2erlin V "ew Dork: de &ru.ter$ <U5cke9 <$-#$ 316G24 1ntersuchungen Jum ?enussystem der deutschen ?egenwartss"rache. !Mbingen: "arr$ <U5cke9 <$-#$ and Wubin9 $A$ 316G)4 Sechs PrinCi5ien fMr die &enusCuweisung im eutschen: ein 2eitrag Cur natMrlichen <lassifikation$ Linguistische <erichte 6%920-(8$ +ang9 :$ 316604 as eutsche im t.5ologischen S5ektrum$ In :$ +ang and &$ Wifonun 3eds4 7eutsch ty"ologisch +"". --),/. 2erlin V "ew Dork: de &ru.ter$ +@ung9 #$ 316614 !he :nglish of 2ritish tabloids and heavies: ifferences and similarities$ In ?$ ,alk9 &$ #agnusson9 &$ #elchers and 2$ "ilsson 3eds4 0orm, 4ariation and 6hange in Language +"". 1%%-)G4$ Stockholm Studies in #odern Philolog.9 "ew Series 11$ #agnusson9 &$ and ?obin9 2$ 316614 &ender and se= in &erman and Swedish$ In ?$ ,alk9 &$ #agnusson9 &$ #elchers and 2$ "ilsson 3eds4 0orm, 4ariation and 6hange in Language +"". 1)%-1)4$ Stockholm Studies in #odern Philolog.9 "ew Series 11$
"nterlinear Translation and )is ourse 1#&
"ewmark9 P316GG4 A Textboo5 o$ Translation. "ew Dork V +ondon: Prentice /all$ Snell-/ornb.9 #$9 /Unig9 /$&$9 <ussmaul9 P and Schmitt9 PA$ 3eds4 3166G4 8andbuch Translation. !Mbingen: Stauffenburg$ ;lrich9 '$ 316G14 WQrterbuch Linguistische ?rundbegri$$e. 2iel /irt$ >on PolenC9 P316664 7eutsche &"rachgeschichte vom &"Ntmittelalter bis Jur ?egenwart, 2and III9 16 und 28$ ?ahrhundert$ 2erlin V "ew Dork: de &ru.ter$ 'illiams9 ?$#$ 316684 &tyle. Toward 6larity and ?race. Chicago: !he ;niversit. of Chicago Press$ 'urCel9 '$;$ 316604 #or5hologischer Strukturwandel: !.5ologische :ntwick lungen des eutschen$ In :$ +ang and &$ Wifonun 3eds4 7eutsch ty"ologisch +"". )62-(2)4$ 2erlin V "ew Dork: de &ru.ter$
Chapter 1*
Meaning) Truth and Morality in Translation

MARTIN WEST#N 1 Introd ction +et me sa. at the outset that I .ield to no one in m. admiration for the sco5e9 scholarliness and sheer 5racticalit. of what Peter "ewmark has written - and9 ha55il.9 continues to write - on translation$ /e ma. 5erha5s take it as a 5articular com5liment9 coming as it does from a 5ractising translator9 if I add that throughout m. 5rofessional career9 alread. s5anning over a Auarter of a centur.9 I have encountered no other theorist writing in :nglish who has dealt so insightfull. and hel5full. with the real 5roblems of da.-to-da. non-literar.9 informational translation$ !hat achievement is in 5art due to his insistence on alwa.s illustrating the theoretical and 5edagogical 5oints he makes with concrete e=am5les9 the lack of which he rightl. criticises in so man. other writers 3I ho5e he will forgive that lack in this 5a5er9 which is uncharacteristicall. abstract and 5hiloso5hical4$ !hat he is also a kind man makes it all the greater a 5leasure to 5a. tribute to him$ Against that background9 and acknowledging m. intellectual indebtedness to him9 I ma. 5erha5s be 5ardoned for discussing in the second 5art of this contribution on *meaning* a to5ic - 5robabl. the onl. one - on which it would seem we 5rofoundl. disagree9 namel. truth and moralit. in translation$ I have done so because9 like him9 I regard it as a vital Auestion both of 5rinci5le and of 5ractice and it is one to which he has re5eatedl. and insistentl. returned of late since first addressing it onl. 3I think4 com5arativel. recentl.$ ,irst9 however9 let us consider attem5ts to view meaning 5urel. ob@ectivel. as the material of translation$ 8T%e Snag ;#it% De"ining Translation< is in t%e *oncept o" Meaning5 !o sa. that *it is generall. agreed that meaning is im5ortant in translation* 3Catford9 160(: %(9 italics in the original4 ma. be thought to be something of an understatement$ !here is a long-held and wides5read 1/,
u
@eaning, Truth and @orality
)L)
view that effective translation 3written and oral4 5resu55oses a 5rocess of *deverbalisation*: e=tracting the meaning of the original - what the author intended to sa. - from the source language 3S+4 in which it is *clothed* and *reclothing* it in the target language 3!+4$ T%e Paris Sc%ool !odel !his view has been 5ro5ounded most consistentl. and freAuentl. 3but not e=clusivel.4 b. the *Paris School* of theorists founded b. anica Seleskovitch at the hcole Su5Frieure d*Inter5rHtes et de !raducteurs$ ,rom the 5ractitioner*s 5oint of view9 I would not hesitate to sa. that she and her disci5les have9 like Peter "ewmark9 made some of the most substantial academic contributions to the 5ractical understanding and teaching of translation9 notwithstanding ?ean elisle*s reservations 316G2: (84 as to whether the. strictl. constitute *theor.* 3does that matterI4B and elisle*s own book L#Analyse du discours comme m%thode de traduction is a monument b. an. standard$ All these writings take the above three-term model
3S+ f disembodied meaning f !+4 as a=iomatic$ !he model is 5ostulated in Seleskovitch*s ver. first ma@or 5ublication L#Inter"r]te dans les con$%rences internationales, where she sa.s 3160G: G)4 that inter5reting is a triangular 5rocess and not a direct 5rocess from language to language: *+*information reiue est rFduite 7 son sens 3stade de la com5rFhension4 5uis ce sens est e=5rimF dans une autre forme linguistiAue 3stade de l*e=5ression4$* !he image she then uses b. wa. of illustration is a little subtler than the classic clothing image9 since it would at least seem to allow for the 5ossibilit. of conscious or unconscious com5onential anal.sis: Pour 5arler de maniHre imagFe nous dirons9 si l*inter5rHte travaille de franiais en anglais9 Au*il rFduit en chiffons le vTtement franiais9 le carde 5uis reconstitue 7 5artir de la laine ainsi obtenue un vTtement anglais$ :n d*autres termes9 avant de rFe=5rimer ce Au*il entend9 l*inter5rHte transforme en 5ensFe non formulFe9 la 5ensFe formulFe 5ar autrui$ Cela fait9 rien ne s*o55ose 5lus 7 ce Au*il e=5rime cette 5ensFe Aui est devenue sienne9 aussi s5ontanFment Au*il e=5rime ses 5ro5res idFes en dehors de l*e=ercice de son mFtier$2 !he trouble with the com5arison9 of course9 is that whereas the wool could be anal.sed and a good deal said about it9 nothing whatever can be said about the baffling *5ensFe non formulFe*9 let alone how and under what conditions it could be related either to an S+ e=5ression or to a !+ one$ 'riting at almost e=actl. the same time9 :ugene "ida was more careful in his choice of imager. to describe the transfer of meaning: In transferring the referential content of the message9 one is not concerned 5rimaril. with the precise words or exocentric units :i.e.
1$2 Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es
the idioms49 but with the sets of com5onents$ In fact9 one does not reall. translate words but bundles of com5onential features$ !he words ma. be regarded essentiall. as vehicles for carr.ing the com5onents of meaning$ In fact the words ma. be likened to suitcases used for carr.ing various articles of clothing$ It does not reall. make much difference which articles are 5acked in which suitcase$ 'hat counts is that the clothes arrive at the destination in the best 5ossible condition9 i$e$ with the least damage$ !he same is true in the communication of referential structures$ 'hat counts is not the 5articular words which carr. the com5onential features9 but the fact that the correct com5onential features are le=icall. trans5orted$ 3"ida9 1606: )624 Det Seleskovitch too recognises in the same section of her book 3160G: )(4 that9 *Serviteur du sens9 le langage oral est aussi 5orteur de ce sens*9 a statement seemingl. of the blindingl. obvious9 but one which surel. im5lies that the meaning of an utterance is not severable from the language that conve.s it9 contrar. to the model she 5ro5oses$ In her 160G work she is dealing9 of course9 with inter5reters and inter5reting9 and it has been said 3b. her9 among others4 that the model 5ut forward in it is obviousl. influenced b. and suited to oral rather than written translationB clearl. the circumstances of inter5reting 3or at least simultaneous inter5reting4 make the content of the message more im5ortant to conve. than its form$ 2ut if in "ractice oral translation differs a55reciabl. from written translation in the circumstances in which it is carried out and9 accordingl.9 in its demands on the 5ractitioner9 it is not a different activit. in "rinci"le 3and I have never seen an.one tr. to maintain that it is4: in both cases the meaning of a communication is being transferred as accuratel. as 5ossible from one language to another$ !hat being so9 and des5ite the different in5ut and out5ut media9 the translation 5rocess - what actuall. ha""ens 3but not necessaril. either the 5ractical or the 5s.chological methods whereb. the 5rocess is achieved4 - must surel. be describable in identical terms in both casesB in other words9 a model 5ostulated for one ought to a55l. eAuall. to the other$ And indeed9 at most eight .ears later9 we find that Seleskovitch has9 like her followers9 a55lied the model to written translation too:
Le sch%ma ex"licati$ Aue @*ai avancF 7 5artir de mes observations 5ratiAues est
e=trTmement sim5le : au lieu des deu= seuls FlFments Aue 5ose toute thForie linguistiAue de la traduction : la langue de dF5art et la langue d*arrivFe9 et de l*o5Fration de transformation de l*une en l*autre Au*elle 5ostule9 @e vois trois FlFments: le discours en langue j9 la saisie du sens hors langue de ce discours9 et la rFe=5ression de ce sens dans la langue D$$$% :4eles ovitch, 1610: 0(4
:eanin/, Truth and :orality 1$#
:ven elisle9 who is 5erha5s9 rightl.9 sus5icious of such e=treme sim5licit. and certainl. more char. of overtl. committing himself to such a clear-cut three-stage model9 nevertheless states by way of 35ossibl. inaccurate4 reca5itulation in the second9 5ractical 5art of his aforementioned book 316G2: 1)04: *"ous avons vu Au*avant de rFe=5rimer un message9 il faut en e=traire le sens et Aue celui-ci est saisi sous une forme dFverbalisFe9 c*est-7-dire libFrFe des signes linguistiAues$ +a com5rFhension est un 5rocessus intellectuel non-verbal9 les mots n*Ftant Aue les trem5lins de la communication$*
The fallacy
+et it be admitted straight awa.9 the three-stage model is at first sight intuitivel. attractive and 5s.chologicall. ver. 5lausible$ Illustrations to suggest that it is right are not lacking$ 'hat habitual user of two languages in ever.da. life and work9 for e=am5le9 has not e=5erienced being unable to remember in which of the two he or she first heard or read a 5iece of informationI 'hat remains in the memor. is the information alone$ 32ut then that is 5erha5s as much or more a Auestion of the nature of memor. and information retrieval as of the nature of 5rocessing information and language$4 Seleskovitch herself refers convincingl. 3160G: )G4 to essentiall. the same 5henomenon9 though she is9 it should be remembered9 talking here of inter5reting and inter5reters onl.: +e souvenir Aui reste Zd*un discours de trois minutesR est celui du sens9 dFtaillF et 5rFcisF 5arce Au*FnoncF9 mais redevenu en grande 5artie informe dans la mFmoire$ Celle-ci Flimine la ma@eure 5artie des mots 5rononcFs et la totalitF des sons Aui formaient le ton9 5our ne retenir Aue le sens dont ils Ftaient 5orteurs$ $$$ Com5arFe 7 la 5erce5tion visuelle du te=te Fcrit9 forcFment rF5Ftitive et ok 5ar consFAuent la forme reste aussi rFmanente Aue le sens9 la 5erce5tion auditive 5rFsente ainsi la 5articularitF de dissocier le sens de son e=5ression $$$) "o doubt9 too9 the model is - sub@ect to the 5ro5er warning as to its validit.9 which I fear is not given - ver. useful and hel5ful as a teaching toolB as teachers of translation often 5oint out9 it is e=traordinaril. difficult to 5ersuade students that it is not the individual words in isolation that have to be translated but the meaning of the whole sentence in its conte=t - a view9 however9 that itself needs Aualif.ing9 as Peter "ewmark has often em5hasised$( 2ut the 5lain fact is - and I claim no originalit. in asserting it9 though the few that have done so in the 5ast seem to have gone unheeded9 at least b. the Paris School - that it cannot stand u5 to scrutin.$ Indeed9 a moment*s reflection shows it to be 5atentl. false$
1$$ Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es
A 5ro5osition of the kind 5ostulated in this translation model 3that linguistic meaning e=ists disembodied9 inde5endentl. of the language that conve.s it4 must in 5rinci5le be a55licable to an. unit of translationB at all events9 its validit. is not e=5ressl. stated to be limited in an. wa.$ Det it is9 if at all9 5ersuasive onl. at the level of a com5lete utterance 3t.5icall. a
sentence49 where it seems 5lausible to sa. that one has *got the idea or the 3content of the4 message* without too much attention being 5aid to the form$ 2ut one has onl. to consider the case of an individual word - mais#n$ sa. - to see at once that there cannot 5ossibl. be a single *deverbalised* conce5t that corres5onds e=actl. to a single word (.#use9 .#me9 Haus9 Heim9( in other languages$ :ven if one allows that in a conte=tualised utterance - an instance of par#le$ such as all reallife translation is concerned with9 as o55osed to langue : the reference or denotation of the word mais#n +ill usuall. be unambiguous9 it is still not 5ossible to sa. that a single conce5t underlies the two words mais#n and9 as the case ma. be9 .#use or .#me$ Haus or Heim$ since our knowledge of the language s.stems (langues( concerned tells us that the conce5ts of seemingl. corres5onding terms in different languages are never full. congruent 3unless9 like scientific terms9 defined in advance to be so4 and this must remain true even in instances of the actual use of the terms in conte=t$ Similarl.9 to take another e=am5le9 used b. Catford 3160(: )8-149 there is no common underl.ing conce5t corres5onding to :nglish 'es and ,rench oui and si$ !o suggest the o55osite b. 5ro5osing the three-term model is in fact not onl. wrong in 5rinci5le but 5otentiall. 5ernicious in 5ractice as it ma. reinforce another wides5read misconce5tion on the 5art of man. language students 3due9 5resumabl.9 to general ignorance about language and languages9 which school curricula do lamentabl. little to remed.49 namel. that there is a one-to-one corres5ondence of semantic eAuivalence between the words of different languages$ Haas's criti&ue At the ver. least9 then9 one would have to 5ostulate a four-stage translation 5rocess: S+ f S+ meaning f !+ meaning f !+$ 2ut in fact9 this will not do either 3and it leaves us where we were at the outset9 with a still une=5lained switch from S+ conce5t to !+ conce5t4$ 'hatever it is9 linguistic meaning is not something *out there*9 detached or detachable from the words that conve. it9 but a 5ro5ert. of language itselfB and9 moreover9 the meanings of words are9 as +.ons 31611: 2%G4 em5hasises9 and as we have @ust seen9 internal to the language to which the. belong$ /aas 3160G: 684 is *concerned to show that the \of\ in \meaning of\ ann#t be inter5reted as a relation of corres5ondence between two orders
:eanin/, Truth and :orality 1$%
of fact9 and that translation is n#t an o5eration with three terms*$ /e 5oints out that if there are such entities as are 5ostulated in a dualist theor. of sign and a triadic theor. of translation 5ure meanings or 5ure e=ternal facts - there is certainl. nothing we can sa. about them$ /e thus directl. addresses Seleskovitch*s 5ostulate a)ant la lettre. 3In this connection9 one ma. wonder9 mindful of the charge of 5arochialit. sometimes levelled against Parisian intellectuals9 whether Seleskovitch ever read /aas or even - as elisle certainl. seems to have done Catford9 who similarl. sa.s that9 in terms of the ,irthian theor. of meaning he a55lies9 the view that S+ and !+ te=ts *have the same meaning* or that *transference of meaning* occurs in translation is untenableB an S+ te=t has an S+ meaning9 and a !+ te=t has a !+ meaning$ -ddl. enough9 there is no bibliogra5h. in Seleskovitch*s 160G workB but then9 eAuall. oddl.9 neither is there in Catford*s 160( book$4 /aas goes on to sa. that *what an e=5ression means* cannot be found as a se5arate entit. beside the e=5ression$ #eanings are the use of e=5ressions9 the work that e=5ressions do$ #eaning includes and transcends the utterance9 @ust as walking includes and transcends the legs$ !his instrumental view of meaning does not entail den.ing the e=istence of 5urel. mental events$ In this conte=t9 /aas interestingl. refers to memor.$ !here must9 he sa.s9 be organised memories9 since no single use of a word can establish it as significant - meaning9 like skill9 being an acAuired 5ro5ert. - and clearl. the organised memories of a word*s uses are what would ordinaril. be described as mental events$ 'hat an inert 5h.sical e=5ression ma. remind
us of is not an. unverbalised 5ure ideaB what we remember is that same e=5ression in 5ast em5lo.ments9 both among other e=5ressions and in contrast to other e=5ressions$ 'hat an e=5ression conve.s is not a 5assenger from another world$ Its meaning9 a beAuest from its 5ast9 is related to a given word in some such wa. as .esterda.*s walk is related to one*s legs here and now$ ;ltimatel.9 he concedes9 it is9 of course9 some relation of linguistic e=5ressions to other things that constitutes their meaningsB but the Auestion is9 what sort of relationI It cannot9 he re5eats9 be one between two distinct orders of thing: *If we divide language from other things in this dualist fashion9 both are dissolved in a general blur$ It is onl. in their active inter5la. with one another that either assumes determinate sha5eB and it is this interpla' : this active coo5eration of utterances with things - that constitutes the meaning of utterances* 3160G: 1824$ -f more direct interest for translation is the following observation: !he meaning of different e=5ressions is the same if9 and onl. if9 there is a corres5ondence between their uses$ 'hat we abstract from different e=5ressions as *similarit. of sense* is a corres5ondence between
1$6
their functions$ ;nless we succeed in thus e=5laining translation9 the m.ster. of bare and neutral fact will continue to haunt us$ 3/aas9 160G:18)4 And9 lastl.9 of more 5articular relevance to Seleskovitch*s a55roach9 he 5oints out that the sounds and words of different languages 3b. definition4 do not9 on the whole9 occur in a relation of one-to-one corres5ondence$ &enerall. the onl. kind of unit which 5ermits interlingual matching is the whole sentenceB but as these are unlimited in number9 we tend to des5air of the task of e=5laining the actual o5eration of translation and are inclined to fall back on the intervention of m.thological entities and 5rocesses to hel5 us out$ !he translator9 however9 aware that he has no list of corres5ondences to refer to9 nonetheless *o5erates with e=5ressions9 not with wordless ideas*$
T%e . estion le"t open
A number of similar logical ob@ections to Seleskovitch*s model are also 5ut forward in a much later 316G(4 article b. P$A$ ?ensen9 who9 however9 takes as his basis a &erman version of an article b. Seleskovitch collected in > <a55*s 161) reader ObersetJer und 7olmetscher. Strangel.9 the earliest reservations about Seleskovitch*s acce5tance of the idea of disembodied meaning are e=5ressed in her ver. own 160G book - b. the author of the introduction to it9 C$ Andronikof9 a former inter5reter at the ,rench ,oreign #inistr.$ /e sa.s 3Seleskovitch9 160G: 10-14: *+a seule critiAue Aue @e me 5ermettrais de formuler 7 l*encontre de $ Seleskovitch 5orte sur son affirmation sans nuance Au*initialement9 dans l*es5rit de celui Aui 5ense9 âvant d#_tre $ormul%e la "ens%e est non verbale^.# To be fair to Seleskovitch9 she arguabl. e=5resses at least some o5enness to doubt in her conclusion9 where she sa.s 3160G: 2)%4: *ZIR1 reste 7 faire un vaste travail de recherche ob@ective et d*anal.se s.stFmatiAue des mFcanismes mentau= et en 5articulier des ra55orts 5ensFe5arole$* And Peter "ewmark re5orted in 166% 3re5rinted 166G: )149 without giving details9 that *the dubious theor. of deverbalisation $$$ a55ears to have been modifiedB according to anica Seleskovitch9 les mots Dui $ra""ent in the source language te=t 3the ke.wordsI4 remain*$ So much 3in both senses4 for the ob@ective a55roach to meaning$ !he nature of meaning remains the most intractable and surel. the most fascinating of the unresolved issues in translation theor.$ It is a regrettable - and9 all things considered9 odd - fact that none of the great figures in the histor. of linguistics seems to have made a serious stud. of translation9 although it is one of the more obvious and im5ortant a55lications of semantics$ Sir ?ohn +.ons9 the author of several ma@or works on linguistics in general and semantics in
5articular9 made
:eanin/, Truth and :orality 1$7
some interesting incidental remarks on translation in his 16G1 book Language and Linguistics, but the. served mainl. to whet the a55etite and in so doing underlined the 5otential e=tent of the loss to translation studies$
Translation= t%e Tr t% and 8Et%ical So ndness5
I turn now9 and more briefl. because the issue is a matter not of research but of o5inion9 to a more sub@ective a55roach to meaning in the sha5e of the translator*s right to interfere with meaning in the interests of the truth or of certain 5rinci5les$ &iven m. 5lace of work9 I ho5e at least that in disagreeing with Peter "ewmark*s views on this sub@ect9 which9 while the. ma. be regarded as being no more than9 in m. o5inion9 harmlessl. eccentric when held b. him9 are 5otentiall. dangerous if ado5ted uncriticall. b. others with a hidden agenda9 I shall be immune from an. charge of ignoring or belittling human rights$
&alidity
In the third section of his 5a5er we are introduced to the - to m. mind - ver. strange idea of a *valid* te=t for translation9 which he sa.s can onl. be an a55ro=imate one but in 5rinci5le *ob@ective* 3though *sub@ective factors do lie on the edges of moral and aesthetic 5rinci5les*B ah9 .es4$ !o me the conce5t is wholl. baffling$ Cannot in 5rinci5le an. intelligible te=t be translated9 regardless of its Aualit. and contentI A *valid* te=t is defined as: *a te=t that is Z1R 5rima facie logical9 Z2R factuall. accurate9 Z%R ethicall. sound9 and Z)R elegantl. written*$ "ow9 can we s5ot the odd one outI Assuming for the moment that it is 5racticable in a real working environment to la. down an. conditions at all on what one will regard as an acce5table 3*valid*4 te=t for translation 3and most translators surel. have to translate what*s there9 over which the. have no control49 one could certainl. agree that a translator faced with a (ra0t original could9 and in im5ortant documents should9 suggest the correction of demonstrable errors and infelicities coming underl Z1R9 Z2R and Z)R above$ S5eaking from e=5erience at the :uro5ean Court of /uman Rights 3where9 /ace Susan aarcevic 31661: G149 a degree of co-drafting has been with us for a long time49 I can sa. that such a 5rocedure is standard 5ractice as between translators and law.ers9 it being acce5ted that one of the benefits of the translation 5rocess is that it shows u5 like no other form of scrutin. an. linguistic and logical weaknesses in a te=t 3but not 5erha5s errors of fact as o55osed to those of consistenc.4$ :ven here9 though9 there are limits$ +et me take another mundane real-life e=am5le$ 4uppose that one of the @udges of the 1uropean ;ourt of /uman Rights
1@.
dissents from an otherwise unanimous @udgment that the res5ondent State has been res5onsible for a gross breach of the /uman Rights Convention and writes a dissenting o5inion that has to be translated for 5ublication with the @udgment in Auestion$ Is it seriousl. to be suggested that if I 5ersonall. ha55ened to disagree with the dissenting @udge*s argument and found it illogicall. reasoned 3as o55osed9 sa.9 to merel. containing a factual error49 I could or should9 ;ua translator9 challenge the @udge on the matter9 let alone add a translator*s note to that effectI
Morals and the issue of inter#ention, or the need for a nanny
2ut what are we to make of Z%R above9 i$e$ that a te=t should be *ethicall. sound*I It seems to be of a 5iece with an earlier statement b. Peter "ewmark in 16619 now collected in M#re -aragrap.s #n %ranslati#n
3166G: 28)49 that when the occasion arises9 when the truth is threatened9 *the translator*s first lo.alt. is neither to the writer nor to the reader but to the truth*9 the latter being rather oddl. defined to include *social and 5ersonal moralit.*$ !his strikes me as absolutel. wrong and indefensible: a translator*s dut. is e=clusivel. to the cause of communication9 in other words eAuall. to the te=t and to the reader9 to whom he owes it to re5roduce +.at t.e te&t sa's. At least on that occasion an admission was made that such a declaration was *at variance with the ideas of most modern currents of thought about translation9 which are c.nical and deterministicB the. assume that translators are alwa.s the slaves of the linguistic norms of their time and the servants of their 5ublishers9 formerl. their 5atrons9 the commissioners of their @obs9 etc$*$ #. own conviction9 however9 is not in the slightest c.nical or deterministic$ I sim5l. believe that the function of a translator is to re5roduce in the !+ as accurate as 5ossible an eAuivalent of the content and form of the S+ te=t9 having regard9 where legitimate choices of nomenclature or st.le arise9 to the function of the original9 the 5ur5ose of translating it and the translation*s intended readershi5$ !o do an.thing else is to la. oneself wide o5en to the charge of tradutt#re$ tradit#re. All other factors are strictl. e=traneous to the actual business of 5roducing a translation$0 In his 5resent 5a5er9 as on other occasions9 Peter "ewmark makes it clear that he considers it the translator*s dut. to *intervene* e=trate=tuall. or intrate=tuall. to correct 35resumabl. in the translation4 not onl. deficiencies in areas Z1R to Z)R above where the. are likel. *to 5rovoke or mislead* the reader1 but also breaches of 5olitical correctness and e=5ressions that the translator considers ethicall. unsound9 ostensibl. in reliance on international conventions and uns5ecified *national statements*$ 3I would be ver. sur5rised to learn that it has *een agreed internationally
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1@/
that it is morall. offensive or in some other wa. *wrong* to describe someone as *small*9 *big* or *lower class* and accordingl. unacce5table to translate foreign eAuivalents of those e5ithets accuratel.B if true9 it is going to reAuire radical rewriting of a lot of classical literature$4 It seems to me that there is a fundamental confusion of ideas and categories here9 and I for one can also recognise the thin end of a large wedge when I see it$ /uman rights have no more to do with the pr# ess of translating than the. have with the 5rocess of 5eeling 5otatoes 3e=cluding9 that is9 e=traneous factors such as working conditions and forced labour4$ ;nlike wholl. creative writing9 that is to sa. the 5roduction of an original te=t9 translating is morall. neutral9 the translator*s @ob being to translate +.at is t.ere. An. dut. to the truth that there ma. be is to the truth of translating what is in the te=t - for otherwise one is guilt. of misre5resentation9 whereas it is in the interests of the reader that the true content and form of e=5ression should be known$ It is no 5art of the translator*s function to e=5urgate his or her translations of language or 5ro5ositions that would be regarded as offensive9 even b. a large ma@orit.9 if the. are in the original9 or even to annotate them unless a critical edition is being 5roduced or the. raise a genuine difficult. of translation$ /owever strong the urge to be a 5rig 3and this too seems to be something of an occu5ational haCard9 the desire to dis5la. intellectualJ moral su5eriorit. 5ossibl. stemming not onl. from 5oorl. written originals but also from what is 5erceived b. some translators as their inferior 5osition of being de5endent on someone else*s te=t9 however 5oor9 and onl. being able to e=5ress someone else*s ideas9 usuall. anon.mousl.49 it should be resisted$ At all events9 one cannot 5roceed on the assum5tion that readers reAuire a nann. to make sure the. are not fooled or offended$ And translators - at an. rate9 freelance ones - are not normall. com5elled to undertake the translation of a given te=t and can 3at whatever risk to 5ocket or @ob4 decline to do so if the. find a te=t distasteful$ 'hat Peter "ewmark is in fact contem5lating here is but a ste5 awa. from censorshi59 and that notoriousl. serves to #n eal truth$ !here are two fundamental ob@ections to his a55roach$ ,irst9 the 5ragmatic consideration that we want and need to know 5recisel. what an. new /itler
has in mind as a 5olitical 5rogramme and what his attitudes are if he is unwise or bold enough to set these down in writingB we do not wish to read some edulcorated version$ Secondl.9 the consideration of 5rinci5le that the interest in u5holding *ethical soundness* will - other9 obviousl.9 than in blatant cases of incitement to genocide9 racial hatred9 murder9 etc$ - usuall. be outweighed b. the interest in u5holding freedom of e=5ressionB and that is one of the most basic freedoms enshrined in international instruments.
1%* Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es Notes
1$ /ead of :nglish !ranslation9 Registr. of the :uro5ean Court of /uman Rights$ !he views e=5ressed in this 5a5er are the 5ersonal views of the author$ 2$ *!o use a meta5hor9 .ou could sa. of a 5rofessional inter5reter working from ,rench into :nglish that he reduces the ,rench garment to rags9 cards it and then9 using the wool thus obtained9 reconstitutes an :nglish garment$ In other words9 before re-e=5ressing what he hears9 the inter5reter transforms into a non-formulated thought the thought formulated b. others$ !hat done9 there is nothing to sto5 him e=5ressing that thought9 which has become his own9 as s5ontaneousl. as he e=5resses his own ideas when not on dut.* 3!he translation here and those in subseAuent footnotes are m. own$4 *. #The ex"lanatory model that I have 5ut forward on the basis of m. own observations of 5ractice is e=tremel. sim5le$ In the 5lace of the two terms assumed b. all linguistic theories of translation - the source language and the target language - and of the 5ostulated o5eration of transforming one into the other9 I would see three terms: the discourse in language j9 the e=tralinguistic assimilation of the meaning of that discourse and the re-e=5ression of that meaning in language D $$$* )$ *!he recollection that remains Zof a three-minute s5eechR is that of the meaning - a meaning which is detailed and e=5licit because it has been uttered9 but which has become largel. formless in the memor.$ !he memor. eliminates most of the words uttered and all the sounds which make u5 the tone9 retaining onl. the meaning the. conve.ed$ $$$ Com5ared with the visual 5erce5tion of a written te=t - a necessaril. re5etitive act9 in which the form conseAuentl. remains as vivid as the meaning - auditor. 5erce5tion thus 5ossesses the distinctive 5ro5ert. of se5arating meaning from its e=5ression ($ "ot being able to see the wood for the trees seems to be the ma@or occu5ational haCard of the translation 5rofession$ It somehow seemed a55ro5riate9 albeit distressing9 when some time ago9 sitting at breakfast in an Austrian hotel9 I could not hel5 overhearing a kindl. and venerabl. learnedlooking :nglishman9 who I soon realised was a fellow translator9 e=5lain 5atientl. to an earnest .oung Austrian colleague that the :nglish for den Wald vor lauter <Numen nicht sehen was not to see the trees $or the $orest +sic/, thereb. offending simultaneousl. against logic9 truth and standards of 5rofessional com5etence$ In antici5ation of the later 5art of this essa.9 one might wonder where one*s moral dut. la. in such a situation$ ,or those that ma. wonder what I in fact did9 I have to admit that tact ultimatel. 5revailed and I remained silent$ 0$ !his does not necessaril. run counter to Simon Chau*s 5ertinent remarks about translation in the service of a cause 31666: 2%(49 though I would have no hesitation in sa.ing that if the commitment of the *subversive cultural transformers* he calls *Information !ransfer Activists* actuall. leads them to distort the content or form of their original te=ts in what the. claim to be translations9 then what the. are subverting is the truth9 for what the. are doing9 however constructivel. and valuabl.9 is ada5tation of one kind or another and not 3or not onl.4 translation$ 2ut since Chau does not give an. e=am5les of what he means b. these translators* *other modes of o5eration* 31666: 2%)49 the Auestion must remain o5en$ 1$ Since when must an author not 5rovoke a readerI Is not Peter himself9 blessedl.9 a 5ast master of the artI
:eanin/, Truth and :orality 1%1
Re"erences
Anderman9 &unilla and Rogers9 #argaret 3eds4 316664 Word, Text, Translation. Clevedon: #ultilingual #atters$ Catford9 ?$C$ 3160(4 A Linguistic Theory o$ Translation. +ondon: -=ford ;niversit. Press$ Chau9 Simon 316664 ,rom anon.mous 5arasites to transformation agents - a *!hird 'orld* vision of translation for the new millennium$ In &$ Anderman and #$ Rogers 3eds4 355$ 2%%-(4$ elisle9 ?ean 316G24 L#Analyse du discours comme m%thode de traduction 32nd edn4$ -ttawa: hditions de l*;niversitF d*-ttawa$ /aas9 'illiam 316024 !he theor. of translation$ !hiloso"hy *-, 28G-2G$ ?ensen9 P$A$ 316G(4 SI: A note on error t.5ologies and the 5ossibilit. of gaining insight in mental 5rocesses$ @eta %8J19 180-1%$ +.ons9 ?ohn 316114 &emantics +4ol. )/. Cambridge: Cambridge ;niversit. Press$ +.ons9 ?ohn 316G14 Language and Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge ;niversit. Press$
"ewmark9 Peter P3166G4 @ore !aragra"hs on Translation. Clevedon: #ultilingual #atters$ "ida9 :ugene A$ 316064 !he science of translation$ Language L,, )G%-6G$ SarceviC Susan 316614 0ew A""roach to Legal Translation. !he /ague: <luwer +aw International$ Seleskovitch9 anica 3160G4 L#Inter"r]te dans les con$%rences internationales. Paris: +ettres #odernes9 #inard$ Seleskovitch9 anica 316104 !raduire: de l*e=5Frience au= conce5ts$ Htudes de linguistiDue a""liDu%e 2)9 0)-61$
Chapter 11
The Decline of the Nati!e S+eaker

:5%': 2"5::.L The Demo%ra&hic "#idence
-iscussion of the place of English in the "orld often centres on numbers% particularl! estimates of the gro"ing numbers of people "ho spea English. This numerological tradition% li e so much of our understanding of the histor! of English% "as largel! shaped in the nineteenth centur! 9 a centur! obsessed b! numbers and accounting practices re:uired b! the ne" industries% the formation of public companies and the administration of empire. At this time% there also emerged a rivalr! bet"een three European languages% particularl! <rench and English but also to some extent (erman% as languages of international communication. <rench had been the undisputed international language of diplomac! during a period in "hich diplomac! formed the basis for international affairs. 8ut in the second half of the nineteenth centur!% English challenged the status of <rench as an international language. The combination of industrial development and the 8ritish empire helped position English as the language of global trade% at a time "hen trade "as ta ing over from diplomac! as the basis for international affairs. <rench "as the catholic language of ideas and diplomac!. Its promoters made much of its beaut!% literature and civilised cultural values. English "as the protestant% "or ing language of commerce. Its supporters promoted its virtues "ith fre:uent reference to numbers relating to its si@e and global reach. The industrial revolution had created a commercial culture "hich routinel! dealt in numbersF ne" t!pographic st!les and printing techni:ues "ere developed to handle ne" informational genres such as rail"a! timetables and shareholder accounts. $umbers became an important component of persuasive rhetoric 9 and the larger the numbers "ere% the better. It is not surprising that contemporar! commentators promoting the place of English emplo!ed such rhetoric. 8aile! =1''1> :uotes.;)% for example% the estimates of native spea ers made b! a 3"iss s ientist, Alphonse de Candolle in 1IQ2F .
A ((BB
159
(B(((B= W((
The )e line of the 1ati!e Spea5er
1%#
In England it doubles in 52 !earsC therefore% in a centur! =in 1'Q2> it "ill be 11G%222%222. In the 5nited 3tates% in Canada% in Australia% it doubles in t"ent!9fiveC therefore it "ill be Q?6%222%222. #robable total of English9spea ing race in 1'Q2% I62%222%222. =8aile!% 1''1F 111> &ne can detect% even a centur! or so later% the sheer exhilaration in all those @eros. <igure 11.1 sho"s the logarithmic algorithm emplo!ed b! Candolle% and pro0ects the numbers of English spea ers a centur! before and after the 1229!ear period he describes. It suggests that in 1QQ2 there "ere onl! about seven million spea ers of English% but b! 12Q2 the pro0ected
number "ould be nearl! 12 billionF rather more than the expected total population of the planet.
8igure //(/ Candolle)s 1IQ2 prediction Candolle assumed a logarithmic gro"th of English spea ers. Extrapolating a centur! before and after% using his calculations% sho"s that there should be over a billion native spea ers of English toda!. +e ma! no" smile at nineteenth centur! confidence in forecasts for English% but there undoubtedl! remains a fascination "ith spea er numbers 9 despite the fact that there are man! other aspects of global English "hich might better capture its gro"ing importance in the "orld. The issue of )*o" man! spea ersL) remains% for example% top of the list of fre:uentl! as ed :uestions about global English% according to the 8ritish Council)s <AH%1 This paper examines "hat "e no" about trends in <nglish language usage and provides a principled basis for esti!ating and "orecasting t%e n !bers of 5eo5le spea$ing Englis% in t%e #orld:
1%$
+on%-term Gro!th of "n%lish
Although languages arise and evolve in fluid wa.s which 5revent an. straightforward location on a time-line9 :nglish 5rovides an unusuall. clear starting 5oint of origin in time and s5ace because of a combination of factors: it arose from migrationB that migration was to an island territor. with well-defined bordersB and the 5re-e=isting languages with which the immigrants came into contact 3Celtic9 +atin4 were not close linguistic relatives$ -f course9 the first boat-loads of immigrants to 2ritain in the fifth centur. did not arrive s5eaking :nglish$ !he. are likel. to have s5oken various &ermanic varieties which ma. have been mutuall. intelligible$ /ere the official histories which tell of three tribes - Angles9 Sa=ons and ?utes - are clearer than the evidence 5ro5erl. allows$ 2ut -ld :nglish somehow emerged from the mi=9 at least two or three generations after substantial settlement$ !his 5rovides a credible starting 5oint of around A 1889 at which time the numbers of s5eakers must have been in the low thousands$ 2efore the :uro5ean colonisation of "orth America in the seventeenth centur.9 the number of first language :nglish s5eakers could not have e=ceeded about seven million9 almost all in the 2ritish Isles$ uring the nineteenth centur.9 numbers of :nglish s5eakers in "orth America overtook those in the 2ritish Isles9 but numbers of native :nglish s5eakers worldwide are unlikel. to have 5assed the 188 million mark until the end of the nineteenth centur.$ ,igure 11$2 5rovides an overview of the long-term growth of :nglish native-s5eakers$ It is fairl. eas. to see where Candolle9 and others with similarl. e=travagant forecasts about the numbers of native :nglish s5eakers9 went wrong$ ,irst9 it was assumed that the growth of
:nglish s5eakers could be 5ro@ected from the 5o5ulation trends in "orth America
The )e line of the 1ati!e Spea5er 1%%
and 2ritain9 although these were at a historic height because of largescale emigration from :uro5e to the ;S and ra5id industrialisation and urbanisation of the late nineteenth centur.$ In the event9 5o5ulation growth in the industrialised world has fallen shar5l. in the twentieth centur. - in some :uro5ean countries it has not onl. stabilised but is actuall. falling$ Second9 Candolle*s estimates did not allow for the wa. that :nglish has s5read to man. more countries - in 5articular those forming what <achru 316G)4 calls the *outer circle*$ In The Future o$ Inglish(, a research document 5ublished b. the 2ritish Council 3&raddol9 161149 I 5ut forward a model for the growth of native s5eakers of :nglish which 5rovides a basis for 5ro@ecting future trends$ !he model relies on two kinds of data: full demogra5hic forecasts for 5o5ulations of countries in which :nglish is s5oken as a first language and estimates of the 5ro5ortion of those 5o5ulations for whom :nglish is a mother tongue$ In 5rinci5le9 all the ma@or world languages can be modelled in this wa.9 but :nglish is 5erha5s the most difficult$ #cArthur 3166G: )24 lists 11% territories which *currentl. use :nglish on a wides5read9 sustained basis*$ !he Ithnologue9 database of world languages maintained b. the Summer Institute of +inguistics lists G% countries and territories in which :nglish is s5oken$ Ideall.9 an. model forecasting numbers of s5eakers reAuires data for each of these countries$ Countr. b. countr. 5o5ulation data is available from the ;nited "ations Po5ulation ivision$ !he figures re5orted in this article draw on the &ex and Age ZuinDuennial dataset for 16(8-28(8 3166G revision4$ !his dataset 5rovides detailed 5o5ulation forecasts9 including numbers for males and females in each of 21 age-bands9 at five-.ear intervals through to 28(8$ Such detailed 5o5ulation forecasts are insufficient on their own$ 'e also need to know the 5ro5ortion of each countr.*s 5o5ulation who s5eak :nglish as their mother tongue$ !his is a sur5risingl. difficult statistic to obtain$ It raises some of the most 5roblematical issues in linguistic surve.s9 such as *'hat counts as a native s5eakerI\/ow do .ou collect such information s.stematicall. in man. countriesI\/ow do 5eo5le inter5ret Auestions about language usageI\ o 5eo5le answer such Auestions honestl.I* :ven in those countries such as 2ritain and the ;S where the linguistic culture is often described as monolingual9 it is clear that a significant 5ro5ortion of the 5o5ulation s5eak languages other than :nglish as their first language$ ,urthermore9 the assum5tion of low linguistic diversit. in such countries means that language Auestions are rarel. included in national census returns$ 'e are left with an unsatisfactor. rag-bag of sources from 5artial studies in different .ears9 often based on ver. different criteria$ !he 5roblem is demonstrated b. the l ahn4lo/ui itself which estimates tile global number of ,9nbBlish first-language s5eakers at %22 million$ *l*he. cite two sources for this c8timah: a 16G) stud. of the ;<9 and the "orl( Almanac
1%6 Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es
3166(4$ !he latter 5rovides a half-5age table of language statistics below a list of *5en names of famous writers*$ !he language data are com5iled b. a retired 5rofessor of 5s.cholog. with an interest in :s5eranto9 but there a55ears to be no 5ublished account of how the figures were arrived at$ es5ite the 5roblems associated with estimating native s5eaker numbers9 a55ro=imate figures for 5resent-da. usage can be derived$ avid Cr.stal 3166149 for e=am5le9 5rovides estimates of +l s5eakers in (0 countries9 arriving at a total of over %%1 million s5eakers worldwide$ !hese figures can 5rovide a starting 5oint for modelling long-term trends$ Since the siCe of 5o5ulation of each countr. in 166( is known9 we can estimate the 5ro5ortion of
the 5o5ulation who9 according to avid Cr.stal*s estimates9 s5eak :nglish as their first language$ In 5ractice9 we can model onl. 2) of the (0 countries in this wa. - these are the ones with large enough 5o5ulations to be included in the ;" dataset$ !he areas e=cluded from the model are mainl. island territories9 such as St <itts and "evis 3with an estimated %69888 s5eakers4 and &uam 3(098884$ It is clearl. im5ortant to include these areas in an. com5rehensive descri5tion of :nglish in the world9 but their e=clusion from the statistical model makes almost no difference to global estimates$ ,igure 11$% shows the 5ro@ections 5rovided b. the model for native s5eaker numbers during the centur. 16(8-28(8$ It shows that the growth of +1 s5eakers will slow in about 28 .ears time9 leading to a likel. total 5o5ulation of around )%% million in 28(8$
'n 1340, over GN of the world*s 5o5ulation s5oke :nglish as their first languageB b. 28(8 it
will be less than (N$
es5ite the continued gradual growth in absolute numbers of native s5eakers9 the /ro/ortion of the world*s 5o5ulation who s5eak :nglish as their first language has9 in fact9 declined shar5l.$ ,igure 11$) shows the same numbers as ,igure 11$%9 but e=5ressed as a 5ro5ortion of the world*s 5o5ulation calculated .ear-on-.ear$ It shows the im5act on :nglish of the ra5id 5o5ulation increase in 5arts of the world where :nglish is not s5oken as a first language$ !his re5resents a significant demogra5hic shift awa. from :nglish to other9 non:uro5ean languages$
Second Language Speakers
!he a55arent decline in the 5osition of :nglish native s5eakers does not necessaril. herald a decline in the im5ortance of the :nglish language$ !he future status of :nglish will be determined less b. the number and economic 5ower of its native s5eakers than b. the trends in the use of :nglish as a second language$ uring the twentieth centur.9 the number of 5eo5le using :nglish as a second language has steadil. grown$ In his @n ' l#pAdie #2 2lit @nglis. 0anguage 3Cr.stal9 166(4 avid Cr.stal estimates that onl. 6G million +2 s5eakers of :nglish can be identified with confidence9 though he suggests that making reasonable assu ''' 5t ions a*out 0.2 use in countries where
$
there are also significant 5ro5ortions of

1%8 Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es
.l users could bring this to about 1I2 million "orld"ide. This figure is broadl! in line "ith the estimate provided b! the +orld Almanac% "hich suggests 16Q million =+A% 1'''>. 8oth these figures% ho"ever% suggest that the use of English in the "orld is much less than is generall! assumed. Cr!stal =1''Q> provides a detailed table of estimated .1 usage in 66 countries% giving a grand total of 1?5 million .1 spea ers "orld"ide. This seems a good starting point for modelling .1 usage over time. .ine 8 on <igure 11.5 sho"s the pro0ections of .1 numbers over the centur! 1'5291252% based on the assumption that Cr!stal)s figures provide an accurate snapshop of .1 demograph! in 1''5% and using the proportions of national populations "hich are implied b! these figures. 3ome 52 countries are included in this model. These pro0ections suggest that% based solel! on expected population changes% the number of people using English as their second language "ill gro" from 1?5 million to around G61 million during the next 52 !ears. This indicates that the balance bet"een .l and .1 spea ers "ill criticall! change% "ith .1 spea ers eventuall! overta ing .l spea ers. &ne problem "ith these calculations is that 1?5 million .1 English spea ers must also be an underestimate 9 much lo"er than the figure of ?529G22 million spea ers that regularl! appears in the literature. Cr!stal himself dra"s attention to the gap bet"een his tabulated figures and this consensus total. The problem is not that the number of .1 spea ers of
1%&
English in the "orld has been grossl! over9stated. ,ather% there are man! countries in "hich English is used extensivel!% but for "hich there exist no statistics other than those provided b! educated guess"or . In several African% .atin American and Asian countries% for example% undocumented numbers of people spea English as a second language. &ne "a! for"ard% in terms of modelling% is to ma e a notional allo"ance of 1P of populations in 3ub93aharan Africa% in the no"ledge that this figure ma! be on the high side for some countries% but an underestimate for others. This brings the total population of second language spea ers in 1''5 to 1QI million. A similar allo"ance can be made for .atin America% particularl! Argentina% Costa ,ica% *onduras% $icaragua and #anama. This addition brings the estimated total of .1 spea ers "orld"ide in 1''5 to ?51 millions. 8! 1252 this ma! have gro"n to 66I millions =<igure 11.5% .ine C>.
"n%lish S&eakers in .ndia

India contains a significant proportion of the "orld)s spea ers of Eng lish as a second language% but estimating the number of .1 spea ers of English there is difficult. Agnihotri and 6hanna =1''QF ?6>% in a recent report on English usage in India% tell usF The over"helming importance of English in several important domains of Indian societ! and the vested interests of the English language industr! have understandabl! produced a considerable amount of confusion in the description and interpretation of data on English bilingualism. *o" man! Indians no" EnglishL *o" man! of these no" it fluentl! and use it regularl! in their da!9do9da! affairsL +hat percentage of Indian bilinguals are English9 spea ingL +e do not have ver! reliable ans"ers to these :uestions. Collecting and publishing such statistics in India is% as in man! other countries% politicall! sensitive. The unreliabilit! of census data is highlighted b! the "a! in "hich English bilingualism appeared to drop dramaticall!% according to census data% bet"een 1'Q1 and 1'I1 9 from 15 million to ? million. This reflected a change in the census :uestions on language rather than actual patterns of English usage. Mahapatra =1''2F '> suggests that there has been a )deliberate suppression of linguistic data on the extent of Indian multilingualism). Certainl!% there seems to be a tradition of )tal ing do"n) the extent of Indian English usage. Traditionall!% almost no Indians are regarded as using English as their first language =a notion "hich "ill undoubtedl! come under further scrutin! in the future>. Cr!stal =1''Q> suggests a figure of around 2.2?P of the population. 3rivastava =1''2F 52> claims )English is spo en and understood b! onl! 1P% of the population). Most linguist% ho"ever% seem to agree that around <= of the Indian population spea s English as a se ond
16*
language. 6achru =1'IG>% for example% suggests GP as a conservative estimateC Cr!stal =1''Q> presents a similar figure. This suggests there "ere a little more than ?Q million .1 users in 1''5. This figure is represented in .ine 8 of <igure 11.5. There is evidence% ho"ever% that the number of English spea ers in India is higher than this. The maga@ine <n(ia To(a.> commissioned a surve! in mid 1''Q "hich claimedF )contrar! to the census m!th that English is the language of a microscopic minorit!% the poll indicates that almost one in three Indians claims to understand English% although less than 12 per cent are confident of spea ing it.) 5<n(ia To(a.> August 1I% 1''Q>. If the figure of 12P is accurate then there must be around 1I6 million English spea ers in India. &f course% it is unli el! that India is the onl! countr! in "hich data is inaccurate. The global number of .1 spea ers of English "ould be significantl! affected if similar revisions "ere made to estimates in 8angladesh and #a istan. .ine - on <igure 11.5 sho"s the effect of upgrading the numbers for India and #a istan to 12P% and 8angladesh to 12P. This tra0ector! assumes there "ere around G1I million .1 spea ers "orld"ide in 1''5 and indicates that b! 1252 there ma! be Q'2 million .1 spea ers. Although this pro0ection is higher than .ine 8% the starting point =of G1I million spea ers in 1''5> is not much higher than the consensus figures. The model allo"s us to understand better the different pro0ections "hich result from ta ing the lo"er or higher estimates.
T%e Place o" Englis% in E rope

&utside of the 56 and the Irish ,epublic% English is traditionall! regarded as a foreign% rather than second% language in Europe. This vie" ma! be out of date. Europe is rapidl! integrating and reinventing itself as a multilingual area in "hich English pla!s an increasingl! important role as a second language. In effect% it is becoming more li e India as a geolinguistic space. Eurobarometer surve!s of the populations of European 5nion =E5> countries have collected data about language usage for some !ears% and it is clear that in some countries English is no" "idel! spo enF QQP of -anish adults and Q5P of 3"edish adults for example% sa! the! can ta e part in a conversation in English. Eurobarometer 52% based on a surve! made in late 1''I% concludes that nearl! one third of the citi@ens of the 1? )non English9spea ing) countries in the E5 )can spea English "ell enough to ta e part in a conversation). <urthermore% it seems that the function of English is changingF European citi@ens learn and use English in order to communicate "ith European nationals from all countries and not 0ust "ith native spea ers. English% in other "ords% is fast becoming a second language in Europe. Eurobarometer G1% based on data collected at the end of 1''G and anal!sed b! .abrie and Huell =1''Q>% found large countr! variations in English
161
usage% ranging from 3pain ="ith 1?P of adults able to hold a conversation in English> to the northern European countries such as 3"eden =Q5P> and The $etherlands =Q1P>. <igure 11.6% .ine E sho"s the pro0ections for European .1 use% based on the 1? relevant member countries% together "ith estimates for $or"a! and 3"it@erland. These suggest that in 1''5 there "ere around '5 million English spea ers in these 15 countries. The relativel! static population figures for Europe mean that this number "ill soon pea % and then graduall! reduce during the next 52 !ears.
Modelling Lang age S%i"t

The European case9stud! dra"s attention to another "ea ness of forecasts of language usage based on population figures alone. It is clear that the use of English in Europe has gro"n faster than can be accounted for b! population gro"th. There has been a language shift to"ards EnglishF a higher proportion of the populations of European countries no" spea English than "as true in previous generations. In modelling pro0ections of second language use of English% "e need to ta e into account such patterns of language shift. The Eurobarometer surve!s provide some evidence of trends in Europe. <or example% in 1''2% 1=%)P% of the <rench population claimed the! could easil! engage in a onversation in :nglish( 8! 1''I that figure had in reased to ?1)P%.
162
An anal!sis of the surve! data from 1''G% the mid9point of this period% also sho"ed a significant difference bet"een the language proficienc! of older and !ounger people =.abrie and Huell% 1''Q>. There is evidence of language shift% therefore% both from trend data arising from surve!s made at different points in time and from intergenerational data =<igure 11.Q>.
The shift in Europe to"ards English 9 "hich reflects increased biand multilingualism rather than abandonment of other languages 9 undoubtedl! has several causes% including significant changes to language curriculums in schoolC exchange programmes encouraging !oung people to move bet"een E5 member countriesC the gro"ing importance and utilit! of English as a second language in EuropeC and greater exposure to English cultural products. The problem in modelling such shifts is that the rate of shift itself changes =<igure 11.I>. .ine < of <igure 11.6 sho"s the conse:uences of ma ing conservative assumptions about the rate of shift in Europe. It assumes that ongoing shifts% as estimated from successive Eurobarometer surve!s% are no" at their most rapid point of development% and that in the future the rate of change "ill decline according to the curve sho"n in <igure 11.I. .ine < should therefore safel! underestimate the future trend to"ards .1 English usage in Europe. Throughout the E5 as a "hole% the increase in the number of people spea ing English seems no" to be in the region of 0ust over ?P per !ear.
=3o% if ?1P of the E5 population spo e English as a second language in 1''I% "e "ould expect that to increase to ?1.'P in 1''' and ?1.'P in the !ear 1222.> It is clear% ho"ever% that the trend to"ards English is occurring more rapidl! in some countries than others. Eurobarometer surve!s suggest that of all E5 countries% shift is slo"est in #ortugal and fastest in 3pain. The pro0ections in .ine < suggest that the present one third of the E5 population "ho spea English "ill gro" to roughl! t"o thirds b! 1252. 8ut the E5 is li el! to ac:uire ne" members during this time% such as *ungar! and #oland. This "ill alter the relative positions of ma0or European languages "ithin the E5 in less predictable "a!s. A similar modelling of language shift can be applied to all countries in the "orld "here English is spo en as an .1. <igure 11.'% .ine ( sho"s the effect of adding the European numbers of .1 spea ers to the global figure =i.e. .ines - and E added together>. This provides a grand total of 51I million .1 spea ers in 1''5% rising to II2 million b! 1252. .ine * includes conservative estimates of language shift in all countries "ith significant numbers of .1 spea ers. This starts from the same point of 51I million spea ers in 1''5% but pro0ects 1.1 billion spea ers b! 1252. <igure 11.12 compares the lo"est estimates in this paper =.ine 8> and the highest =.ine 11>.The future is li el! to lie somewhere between these two e.tremes(
16%
Chan%in% Discourses of "n%lish of definition
roblems
!here are two a55roaches to defining a second language user9 both of which focus on the status of :nglish in the s5eaker*s s5eech communit.$ !he first identifies *+2 countries*: countries where :nglish serves a role in intranational communication - the language ma. be officiall. recognised for such 5ur5oses although onl. a minorit. of the 5o5ulation actuall. understand and use :nglish$ !he second a55roach defines an +2 s5eech communit. as one which is *norm creating* - that is9 develo5ing its own institutionalised variet. of :nglish$ !hese are the so-called *"ew :nglishes*: mainl. in former 2ritish colonial territories$ Problems of definition are becoming acute9 as :nglish takes on a role as a global lingua franca9 and as *s5eech communities* redefine themselves as cross-border affiliation grou5s rather than as geogra5hic grou5s in national boundaries$ :uro5e is a case in 5oint9 containing an increasing number of fluent s5eakers of :nglish who do not conform to the traditional definition of +2 s5eaker and who are e=cluded from most estimates of +2 usage$
The status of the nati#e s&eaker
!he decline of the native s5eaker in numerical terms is likel. to be associated with changing ideas about the centralit. of the native s5eaker to norms of usage$ !here has been a livel. debate about the *cult* of the native s5eaker: do native s5eakers have 5rivileged access to an understanding of the language9 and are the. therefore more reliable informants and teachersI !he s5ecial status accorded to native s5eakers is long standing$ In theoretical linguistics9 it is associated with the rise of Chomsk.an linguistics and the s5ecial role assigned to intros5ection and intuition in theor.-building$ !he native s5eaker is claimed to have access to a much richer source of data 3in @udgements of grammaticalit.9 for e=am5le4 than a researcher could discover b. stud.ing a s5eaker*s actual utterances$ !his theoretical turn has had 5olitical re5ercussions$ As the ;S was the centre of research and 5ublishing in the new 5aradigm9 :nglish became a 5rivileged ob@ect of stud.$ !heoretical linguistic studies of other languages lagged behind those of :nglish$ Although it was maintained that the 5ro@ect with !ransformational &enerative &rammar was a universalist one 3more interested in universal 5ro5erties of the human mind than the characteristics of 5articular languages49 :nglish remained the centre of attention$ It would be wrong9 however9 to think that the im5ortance of native s5eakers began with Chomsk.$ !raditional dialectologists9 as well as anthro5ologists9 drew on similar ideas of *good spea ers' :often old, mile,
16%
Chan%in% Discourses of "n%lish of definition
roblems
!here are two a55roaches to defining a second language user9 both of which focus on the status of :nglish in the s5eaker*s s5eech communit.$ !he first identifies *+2 countries*: countries where :nglish serves a role in intranational communication - the language ma. be officiall. recognised for such 5ur5oses although onl. a minorit. of the 5o5ulation actuall. understand and use :nglish$ !he second a55roach defines an +2 s5eech communit. as one which is *norm creating* - that is9 develo5ing its own institutionalised variet. of :nglish$ !hese are the so-called *"ew :nglishes*: mainl. in former 2ritish colonial territories$ Problems of definition are becoming acute9 as :nglish takes on a role as a global lingua franca9 and as *s5eech communities* redefine themselves as cross-border affiliation grou5s rather than as geogra5hic grou5s in national boundaries$ :uro5e is a case in 5oint9 containing an increasing number of fluent s5eakers of :nglish who do not conform to the traditional definition of +2 s5eaker and who are e=cluded from most estimates of +2 usage$
The status of the nati#e s&eaker
!he decline of the native s5eaker in numerical terms is likel. to be associated with changing ideas about the centralit. of the native s5eaker to norms of usage$ !here has been a livel. debate about the *cult* of the native s5eaker: do native s5eakers have 5rivileged access to an understanding of the language9 and are the. therefore more reliable informants and teachersI !he s5ecial status accorded to native s5eakers is long standing$ In theoretical linguistics9 it is associated with the rise of Chomsk.an linguistics and the s5ecial role assigned to intros5ection and intuition in theor.-building$ !he native s5eaker is claimed to have access to a much richer source of data 3in @udgements of grammaticalit.9 for e=am5le4 than a researcher could discover b. stud.ing a s5eaker*s actual utterances$ !his theoretical turn has had 5olitical re5ercussions$ As the ;S was the centre of research and 5ublishing in the new 5aradigm9 :nglish became a 5rivileged ob@ect of stud.$ !heoretical linguistic studies of other languages lagged behind those of :nglish$ Although it was maintained that the 5ro@ect with !ransformational &enerative &rammar was a universalist one 3more interested in universal 5ro5erties of the human mind than the characteristics of 5articular languages49 :nglish remained the centre of attention$ It would be wrong9 however9 to think that the im5ortance of native s5eakers began with Chomsk.$ !raditional dialectologists9 as well as anthro5ologists9 drew on similar ideas of *good spea ers' :often old, mile,
166 Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es non9mobile>. 8ut the discourse of the native
spea er is even older 9 it is a product of modernit!. 3ince the European ,enaissance% identities have been constructed according to a particular model of perfectionF unified% singular% "ell9ordered. .anguage has pla!ed a ma0or role in the construction of modern European identities 9 from the level of nation states and standard languages% to the sub0ectivities of individual spea ers. Multilingualism% both in individual and social terms% does not fit "ell "ith concepts of modernit!F multilingual spea ers and societies have long been regarded "ith suspicion% and have caused problems for public polic!. -uring the late t"entieth centur!% much of the modernit! pro0ect has unravelled. The construction of a ne" Europe has resulted in ne" formations of identit!C greater mobilit!C and a ne" hierarch! of languages "hich places most European citi@ens in a plurilingual context. In man! countries in "hich English is learned and spo en as a second or foreign language% the centralit! of the native spea er is being challenged. At one time% the most important :uestion regarding global English seemed to be )"ill 53 English or 8ritish English provide the "orld
modelL) Alread! that :uestion is loo ing dated% "ith the emergence of )$e" Englishes)% and dictionaries and grammars that codif! ne" norms. 8ut the tantalising :uestion still remains. .arge numbers of people "ill learn English as a foreign language in the t"ent!9first centur! and the! "ill need teachers% dictionaries and grammar boo s. 8ut "ill the! continue to loo to"ards the native spea er for authoritative norms of usageL
Notes
1. httpF44""".britishcouncil.org4english4engfa:s.htm 1. httpF44""".sil.org4Ethnologue4
Re"erences
Agnihotri% ,.6. and 6hanna% A... 5#7AA8 Problematizin! 1n!lish in <n(ia. $e" -elhiF 3age. 8aile!% ,.+. 5#7798 <ma!es o0 1n!lish- A :ultural *istor. o0 the 4an!ua!e. Cam9 bridgeF Cambridge 5niversit! #ress. Cr!stal% -. 5#77;8 1nc.clo/e(ia o0 the 1n!lish 4an!ua!e. CambridgeF Cambridge 5niversit! #ress. Cr!stal% -. 5#77A8 1n!lish as a lobal 4an!ua!e. CambridgeF Cambridge 5niversit! #ress. (raddol% -. 5#77A8 The Buture o0 1n!lishK .ondonF The 8ritish Council. 6achru% 8.8. 5#78$8 3tandards% codification and sociolinguistic realismF The Eng lish language in the outer circle. In ,. Huir and *.(. +iddo"son
5e( s8 1n!lish in the "orl(- Teachin! an( 4earnin! the 4an!ua!e an( 4iteratures. :ambri(!eCambridge 5niversit! #ress for The 8ritish Council.
167
.abrie% $. and Huell% C. 5#77A8 Nour language% m! language or EnglishL The potential language choice in communication among nationals of the European 5nion. "orl( McArthur% T. 5#7788 The 1n!lish 4an!ua!es. CambridgeF Cambridge 5niversit! #ress. Mahapatra% 8.#. 5#77%8 Multilingualism in IndiaF A demographic appraisal. In -.#. #attana!a =ed.> Multilin!ualism in <n(ia. ClevedonF Multilingual Matters. 3rivastava% A.6. 5#77%8 Multilingualism and school education in IndiaF 3pecial features% problems and prospects. In -.#. #attana!a =ed.> Multilin!ualism in <n(ia. ClevedonF Multilingual Matters.
1n!lishes #6- ,?96.
Chapter 12
English as Lingua Franca and its Influence on Discourse Norms in Other Languages'
!) IANE "#)SE ((( in fact a translation can be an inde5endent9 autonomous te=t and still contain inroads of interference$ /istoricall. countries have benefited from interference in translation as from other effects of language contact9 though the. have also suffered a55reciabl. from translationese$ -ne has to balance one argument against another$ 3"ewmark9 1661: G04 Overvie# o" t%e Pro>ect 5&erdec$tes ?berset)en 1 *overt Translation5
!he 5ro@ect Jerde /tes Kbersetzen : C#)ert %ranslati#n$ which is financed b. the eutsche ,orschungsgemeinschaft as 5art of its Sonderforschungsbereich #ehrs5rachigkeit9 investigates how9 :nglish as a global lingua franca influences &erman 3later also ,rench and S5anish4 te=ts via 5rocesses of translation and multilingual te=t 5roduction$ -ur work is based on s.stemic-functional theor.B it involves reconstructing the cognitive 5rocesses involved in 5roducing translations and 5arallel te=ts and describing the embeddedness of these te=ts in their sociocultural conte=ts$ -ne of the conseAuences of toda.*s revolutionar. advances in information technolog. and the ensuing globalisation of communication 5rocesses is a stead. increase in the demand for te=ts which simultaneousl. address members of different linguistic and cultural communities$ Such te=ts are either *5arallel te=ts* 5roduced inde5endentl. in several languages9 or te=ts first 5resented in one language - most freAuentl. :nglish - and later translated *covertl.* into other languages9 i$e$ in such a wa. as to maintain in the translated te=t the original te=t*s function via the a55lication of a *cultural filter*$ !his filter is a construct with which those changes in te=tual norms9 which become necessar. in covert translation as the te=tual material travels through
;n/lish as 7in/ua 8ran a 16&
time and s5ace9 can be conce5tualised9 described9 and e=5lained$ ,or the language 5air :nglish&erman9 with which the 5ro@ect is initiall. concerned9 this filter has been given substance through the results of a number of &erman-:nglish contrastive 5ragmatic anal.ses 3for a summar.9 cf$ /ouse9 1660B 288849 which can be dis5la.ed as a set of dimensions along which s5eakers of the two languages differ in terms of their habituated communicative choices$ &iven the dominance of the :nglish language in man. domains of contem5orar. life9 it is 5lausible to h.5othesise9 as we do in this 5ro@ect9 that translations from :nglish into &erman 3,rench9 S5anish4 no longer em5lo. a cultural filter to account for local communicative conventions$ Rather9 translations from :nglish will reflect anglo5hone norms$ !he result of this non-filtering is then a shift from cross-cultural difference to similarit. in te=tual norms and te=t construction9 which ma. eventuall. result in similar 5rocesses of *thinking for writing* 3Slobin9 16604$ -ver and above the well-documented9 massive influ= of :nglish le=ical items and routines into &erman 3,rench and S5anish49 and the influence of their *shadow meanings* 3Chafe9 28884 on non-:nglish s5eakers9 we thus assume in this 5ro@ect that there is an increasing influence of the :nglish language on the less obvious *dee5er* levels of te=t construction$ In 5articular9 we have set u5 the following ma@or working h.5otheses 3formulated on the basis of &erman:nglish contrastive work b. ,abricius-/ansen9 1660B /ouse9 1660B Cl.ne9 16G1B von Stutterheim9 1661B ohert.9 1666B and others4: 314 a shift from a conventionall. strong em5hasis in &erman te=ts on the ideational function of language to an anglo5hone inter5ersonal orientation focusing on addressee involvementB 324 a shift from a conventionall. strong em5hasis on informational e=5licitness in &erman te=ts to anglo5hone inference-inducing im5licitness and 5ro5ositional o5aAuenessB 3%4 a shift in information structure from 5acking le=ical information integrativel.9 densel.9 and hierarchicall. in &erman te=ts to 5resenting information in a more loosel. linearised9 *sentential* wa.B 3)4 a shift in word order such that the &erman Satz/lammer with its two discontinuous left and right 5arts gives wa. to more continuous9 @u=ta5osed 5ositions of the two 5arts$ !hese h.5otheses are tested using a cor5us of :nglish te=ts and their &erman 3,rench9 S5anish4 translations from three different genres: 5o5ular science te=ts9 economic te=ts from globalised firms9 and software manuals$ !he te=ts in these genres 3initiall. ten te=tual 5airs 5er genre4 are anal.sed and com5ared using a s.stemic-functional model which links original te=ta anal their translations to their socio-cognitive conte=ts of 5roduction 5lti
17*
and reception =*ouse% 1'QQC 1''Q>. This primar! corpus is supplemented b! t"o additional corporaF a corpus of parallel English and (erman =<rench% 3panish> texts from the same three genres% and a validation corpus comprising translations from the three genres in the )opposite direction)% i.e. from (erman =<rench% 3panish> to English% as "ell as various bac ground documents and intervie"s "ith translators and editors and other persons connected "ith text production and reception. To further enrich our anal!ses% "e have collected (erman and English texts appearing in =ne"l! established> parallel editions of ne"spapers such as the Fran5$urter Allgemeine èitung and the International 8erald Tribune, or the Financial Times and Financial Times 7eutschland =for a detailed description of our corpus% cf. 8aumgarten et al., 9::)/. The corpus can be represented graphicall! as in <igure )9.). 8efore describing some of the first tentative results of this pro0ect% it is necessar! to expatiate on the method of anal!sis used% and to reflect on the legitimac! and usefulness of this method.
;n/lish as 7in/ua 8ran a
171
Analytic Proced re
The method of anal!sis is a case stud! approach in "hich an in9depth investigation of a text from both a macro9 and a micro perspective is carried out% i.e. in the anal!sis one constantl! moves bac and forth bet"een "ord% phrase and clause levels and on to larger linguistic units% such as paragraphs and the entire text =for a detailed description of the anal!tic procedure% cf. *ouse% 1'QQC and particularl! 1''Q>. Initiall!% the English original text is anal!sed in detail using =a some"hat simplified> *allida!an anal!tic methodolog! for describing the function of lexico9grammatical patterns. The ultimate goal of the anal!sis is to reconstruct the t!pes of motivated choices a text producer has made in order to create this particular text for a particular effect in the context of the situation enveloping a text. *allida! =1''G> posits three parameters of the )context of situation) "hich have linguistic conse:uencesF Field, Tenor and @ode, and he assumes that these three parameters reflect the three inds of meaning language is structured to ma e. The aim of s!stemic9functional anal!sis is then to sho" ho" these contextual parameters affect language use% and to identif! parts of the language s!stem that realise each t!pe of the contextual information. The underl!ing claim is that the ver! structure of language is functionall! motivated% and that language is organised so as to ma e meanings about Field, Tenor and @ode, because these are the meanings humans need to ma e in interactions "ith the "orld and "ith each other. Field is realised through a particular part of the lexico9grammar% namel! processes =verbs>% participants =nouns> and circumstances =prepositional phrases of time% place% manner% etc.>. The! express )"ho is doing "hat to "hom "hen "here "h! and ho")% and the! can be collectivel! expressed as the )Transitivit! #atterns) realising experiential meaning. Tenor realises interpersonal meaning of particular stances and roles reflected in patterns of Mood =t!pes and varieties of clauses> and Modalit! =degrees of certaint! or obligation% etc. expressed> as "ell as gambits% upgraders and do"ngraders% politeness mar ers% and the s!stem of personal pronouns as indicators of the division bet"een actants) roles as participants or non9 participants in the enveloping communicative situation. @ode is realised through textual patterns that organise information inside the clause for spo en and "ritten mediums. ,elevant continua for assessing degrees of oral9 and "rittenness include involved versus informative text production% explicit versus situation9dependent reference% abstract versus non9abstract presentation of information =8iber% 1'IIC 8iber V <inegan% 1''G>. &ther textual phenomena captured under @ode include various devices for creating cohesion and coherence such as parallel and se:uential theme9 rheme progression% iconic lin age% lexical repetition% use of =near>s!non!ms% con0unctions% substitution% as "ell as various phoric and deictic procedures.
1Q1 Translation Today Trends and !ers"ectives Apart from correlating the three context parameters Field, Tenor and @ode "ith lexico9 grammatical patterns% the anal!sis also lin s text and context on the discourse9semantic level% the claim being that language is designed to fulfil three particular metafunctionsF the ideational +$or relating experience>% the inter"ersonal =for creating interpersonal relations>% and the textual metafunction =for organising information>% and each of these metafunctions can be associated "ith one of the context parameters% thus Field is expressed through patterns of ideational meaning% Tenor through interpersonal meaning% @ode through textual meanings. In s!stemic9 functional theor!% then% a text is al"a!s seen as expressing simultaneousl! these three meaning t!pes. 3ince the anal!sis of a text using these variables lin s the text primaril! "ith its situational micro9context% another concept for lin ing it "ith other texts and "ith the larger macro9context of culture and societ! is needed. This is ?enre, a concept used to capture the impact of the cultural macrocontext on language b! exploring the staged structures "hich cultures institutionalise as "a!s of achieving goals. (enre reflects language usersF shared no"ledge about the nature of texts of the )same ind). 6no"ledge of genres enables spea ers to refer an! single textual exemplar to the class of texts "ith "hich that exemplar shares a communicative purpose. The operation of the model and the anal!tic procedure can be represented graphicall! as in <igure 11.1. I" I>I ;A+ !:j!;A+ ,;"C!I-" $ lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll. R:&IS!:R
A $ $
&:"R: 3generic 5ur5ose4 $
,I:+ Sub@ect matter and social action
!:"-R Partici5ant relationshi5: author*s 5rovenance and stance
#- :
medium
3sim5leJcom5le=4
5artici5ation
social role relationshi5 3sim5leJcom5le=4 social attitude

.
+A"&;A&:J!:j! <igure 11.1 A scheme for anal!sing and comparing original and translation texts
Inglish as Lingua Franca
1Q?
<ollo"ing the anal!sis of the English original text according to this scheme% an anal!sis of the (erman translation is underta en using the same scheme% and a comparison is made =triangulated b! intervie"s and bac ground documents> in order to find out "hether the "or ing h!potheses can be confirmed or disconfirmed =for details of the anal!ses% cf. 8aumgarten et al., 1221C 8oettger% 1222C 8oettger V 8uehrig% 1222C 8oettger V #robst% 1222C 1221C #robst% 1222a%b>. +hile a categorial scheme such as the one outlined above is clearl! beneficial for conducting textual comparisons% "e have in the course of our pro0ect "or also become a"are of its dangersF a categorial scheme can easil! deteriorate into a sort of strait0ac et prefiguring results and tempting anal!sts to see confirmation of the theor! behind it. <ruitful methodological discussions inside the research centre on multilingualism% as "ell as cumulative experience in the course of our anal!tic "or % have convinced us of the importance of remaining flexible in our textual anal!sis allo"ing further understanding to arise from the textual material itself. In other "ords% "hile still using the *allida!an scheme as an overarching )&rdnungsschema)% "e are tr!ing
at the same time to loo be!ond it% integrating insights and descriptive tools from other sources.
Selected Res lts and Disc ssion

Tentative results of the anal!ses of some 12 English and (erman textual pairs and a fe" authentic% )monolingual) (erman texts from the same genres suggest that cultural filtering is still prevalent in covert translation from English to (erman in the selected genres% and that the "idespread borro"ing of English lexical items and routines has not =!et> been accompanied b! changes in the ma e9up of (erman texts. In other "ords% our h!potheses have not been confirmedF cross9cultural difference still prevails over similarit! in textual norms. *o"ever% "ith respect to concepts such as )interpersonal orientation)% )reader involvement)% )ideational or content orientation) and )informational explicitness)% "hich underl! our "or % several not uninteresting insights have emerged. There seem to be s!stematic differences in the "a! )involvement) or )interpersonal orientation) is achieved in the English and (erman texts studied. &ur anal!ses have revealed that the (erman texts% "hile clearl! not sho"ing imported anglophone reader involvement strategies% also can not be categorised easil! as star l! )content9oriented). ,ather% (erman texts displa! their ver! o"n% i.e. not immediatel! )comparable)% often more subtle means of realising the interpersonal metafunction. <urther% not onl! is an interpersonal focus achieved through different linguistic mechanisms% it also )=)=ms to be the cast9 that the ver! concepts Ci
17$
*inter5ersonal orientation* and *reader involvement* mean something different9 or are inter5reted differentl.9 in the tradition of the three &erman genres we have e=amined$ !his observation can be substantiated b. the following five 5oints outlining the nature of addressee involvement in &erman and :nglish te=ts$
Didactic &resentation of information in German te'ts
-ne of the means with which an *inter5ersonal orientation* is achieved in the &erman te=ts is what I would want to call a *didactic wa. of information 5resentation* - reflected most 5rominentl. in e=5lanator.9 inference 5re-em5ting inter5retations of information undertaken for the benefit of the addressee$ Such a didactic e=egesis9 which is es5eciall. marked in the &erman 5o5ular science te=ts9 can be inter5reted9 I would suggest9 as having an inter5ersonal function9 and it can be related to the ubiAuitous e=5lication and e=5ansion of information found in man. of the 5o5ular science te=ts$ So what was originall. inter5reted9 for e=am5le b. Cl.ne or /ouse9 as *content-orientedness* of &erman te=ts ma. need to be reinter5reted9 in the sense that the *content-focus* can be inter5reted as serving *ulterior 5ur5oses*9 i$e$ inter5ersonal ones of addressee involvement$ Consider9 for e=am5le9 the following :nglish-&erman e=cer5ts taken from the sub-lines of 5o5ular science te=ts in S ienti2i Ameri an and Spe/trum der "issens .a2t res5ectivel.: 314 2uchbinder9 S$9 Avoiding Infection after /I>-:=5osure 3?ul. 166G4 -9 PrQvention nach /I><ontakt 3-ktober 166G4
%reatment ma' redu e t.e .an e #2 #ntra ting H4J in2e ti#n a2ter a ris/' en #unter. @ine s#2#rtige *e.andlung na . C#nta/t mit einer Anste /ungs;uelle )erringert unter UmstEnden die Ge2a.r$ dass si . das Human4mmuns .+E .e:Jirus im CIrper 2estsetzt. Ge+E.r gibt es /eine$ zudem er+a .sen eigene 3isi/en.
324 &aCCaniga9 #$9 !he S5lit 2rain Revisited 3?ul. 166G4 - Rechtes und linkes &ehirn: S5lit-2rain und 2ewudtsein 3 eCember 166G4
Gr#undbrea/ing +#r/ t.at began m#re t.an a ;uarter #2 a entur' ag# .as led t# #ng#ing insig.ts ab#ut brain #rganisati#n and #ns i#usness. <a.rze.ntelange Studien an -atienten mit .irurgis . getrennten Gr#L.irn.El2ten .aben das JerstEndnis2=r den 2un/ti#nellen Au2bau des Ge.irns und das "esen des *e+uLtseins )ertie2t.
Com5aring the :nglish and &erman e=cer5ts in 314 and 3249 we can see how9 in both cases9 the &erman te=t 5roducer elaborates the information given in the :nglish te=t answering
imaginar. reader Auestions about s5ecific circumstantial elements of e=tent9 location in time and 5lace9
;n/lish as 7in/ua 8ran a 17%
manner9 cause9 conditions9 conseAuences9 etc$ 3treatment whenI9 can the treatment guarantee successI studies involving whomI and so on4$ In so doing9 the te=t 5roducer attem5ts to ensure understanding b. antici5ating com5rehension 5roblems and removing 5otential 5oints of ambiguit. and vagueness in advance$ In other words9 there is a subtle inter5ersonal focus in the te=tual 5lanning which the writer had undertaken on the basis of a kind of mental interaction with his imaginar. readers$
Cohesi#e measures in German te'ts
Addressee involvement is further achieved b. means of s5ecific &erman deictic and 5horic 5rocedures 3for e=am5le9 daran$ da)#n$ darau2$ .ierbei$ .ierdur .$ etc$4 liberall. em5lo.ed in most of our te=ts as com5le= *sign5osts* directing readers backwards and forwards in the te=t and skilfull. refocusing readers* te=tual knowledge andJor summarising 5ro5ositional content for them 3cf$ Rehbein9 166(4$ !he em5lo.ment of these 5rocedures9 with which writers manage to firml. direct addressees* attention and ensure acAuisition and maintenance of relevant cumulative te=tual knowledge9 results in strong local and global cohesion 35hraseand clause-internall. as well as across clauses and 5aragra5hs4$ -ne of the reasons for the freAuent use of these cohesive devices is that the. become necessar. when 5aragra5h-long :nglish clauses are s5lit u5 in the &erman translation9 as is the case in the following e=am5le 3taken from a global 5la.er*s self-5resentation4$ In the e=cer5ts in 3%4 we can also see how the two *>erweiswUrter* darau2 and .ierbei in the two &erman clauses function either to direct readers* attention to ensuing new in5ut or to com5ress 5revious in5ut for them as a ste55ing stone for further information$ 3%4 +ultisyn's ;orporate Purpose
Mur -urp#se in Multis'n is t# meet t.e e)er'da' needs #2 t.e pe#ple e)er'+.ere : t# anti ipate t.e aspirati#ns #2 #ur #nsumers and ust#mers and t# resp#nd reati)el' and #mpetiti)el' +it. branded pr#du ts and ser)i es +.i . raise t.e ;ualit' #2 li2e.
+ultisyn's <nternehmensphilosophie
"ir als Multis'n /#nzentrieren unsere Anstrengungen +elt+eit darau2$ den tEgli .en *edar2 der Mens .en zu be2riedigen. Hierbei ist es +i .tig$ die /=n2tigen "=ns .e unserer Jerbrau .er und Cunden zu er/ennen$ um /reati) mit +ettbe+erbs2E.igen Mar/en: und Ser)i e/#nzepten i.re 0ebens;ualitEt zu )erbessern.
Achie#in% cohesion in "n%lish te'ts
!he :nglish texts we e=amined achieve cohesion-related addressee involvement through different te=tual means: first9 through what one
might call *aesthetic a55eal* via the use of such rhetorical devices as figurative language9 routines9 alliteration9 h.5erbole and emotive and intensified le=ical items9 and9 secondl.9 through the strategic em5lo.ment of le=ical re5etition and grammatical 5arallelism both micro- and macrostructurall. 3cf$ for e=am5le9 e=cer5t 3%4 above for the use of some of these devices4$
Genre mi'in% in "n%lish te'ts
!here is a tendenc. in the :nglish te=ts towards *genre mi=ing*$ In the 5o5ular science te=ts9 we find mechanisms that readers know from @ournalism 3news5a5ers9 magaCines4 and advertising9 and the economic te=ts show traces of religious sermons9 advertising9 and other 5er-
suasivel.-oriented genres$ !he effect of this h.bridisation can be seen in the 5resence of overt *addressee involvement* and *human interest* achieved most 5rominentl. b. offering readers 5ossibilities of identification9 for e=am5le b. drawing them into the institutional conte=t in which the writer-researcher o5erates$ In the 5o5ular science te=ts9 this is routinel. achieved b. using mental 5rocess im5eratives in the initial 5aragra5h of a te=t9 which function as a frame for the entire te=t$ 'itness the following first lines of the te=t described in e=am5le 314 above:
&u""ose you are a doctor in an emergency room and a "atient tells# you she was ra"ed two hours earlier ... In der 0ot$allau$nahme eines 2ran5enhauses berichtet eine !atientin ...
!his t.5e of :nglish reader involvement is not co5ied$ In the :nglish 5o5ular science te=ts we also find that hearer and s5eaker dei=is as well as alternations of declarative9 im5erative9 and interrogative clauses are 5ur5osefull. used in order to simulate a dialogue between reader and writer$ -ther *oralising* means of faking co-5resence of writer and reader and their interaction include contact 5arentheses and gambits of various kinds$ It is onl. after the *attention getting* first 5aragra5hs that the :nglish 5o5ular science te=ts move on to a more sober e=5osition of scientific findings$ Such a structure - anecdotal9 *human interest* lead-in followed b. information transmission - is9 of course9 a device commonl. used in advertising and @ournalism - both in Anglo-Sa=on and &erman conte=ts$ &erman 5o5ular science te=ts9 however9 do not 3.etI4 show such genre mi=ing9 the. are still conventionall. less *5o5ularised*$ Similarl.9 &erman economic te=ts 3globalised firms* self-5resentations and letters to the shareholders4 cons5icuousl. lack the :nglish originals* *missionising*9 religious undertone9 our h.5othesis being that for historical reasons such genre mi=ing is taboo in a &erman conte=t$
;n/lish as 7in/ua 8ran a 177
Addressee in#ol#ement in German and "n%lish te'ts/ Differin% &ers&ecti#es
In the :nglish 5o5ular science te=ts9 the tendenc. towards *humanising* te=tual material increases the emotional im5act the te=t has on its readers$ In the &erman te=ts9 a more rational a55eal seems to 5revail$ !his ma. be due to differences in cultural traditions generating different t.5es of genres and9 with these9 different t.5es of genre knowledge and e=5ectation norms 3&raefen9 16614$ And in &erman 5o5ular science te=ts it is often not the individual researcher in her im5ressive singularit.9 but rather her role as disseminator of knowledge which is considered im5ortant$ ,ocusing on the writer either as an individual human being or as knowledge transmitter must9 however9 not be confused with a global difference between *inter5ersonal* focus and *content focus* in :nglish and &erman te=ts res5ectivel.$
Conclusion
!hese tentative results9 leading 5erha5s to a more differentiated view of the global dimensions inter5ersonal versus content orientation and e=5licit versus im5licit 5resentation of information9 must not onl. be tested with a larger cor5us both of translation te=ts and authentic *monolingual* &erman te=ts9 it is also necessar. to look at a wider range of language-s5ecific 5henomena and their divergent functions in the te=ts to be anal.sed$
Note
1. This chapter is for m! dear friend #eter% in memor! of the Exeter Conference on Translation 15 !ears ago% "hen "e discovered that "e had ver! similar ideas. I thin "e still share man! thoughts about translation.
References
8aumgarten% $. et al. =1221> 5ntersuchungen @um Einflu_ des Englischen in verdec ter `berset@ungF Theoretischer *intergrund% +eiterent"ic lung des Anal!severfahrens und erste Ergebnisse. In Arbeiten Jur @ehrs"achig5eit $o. 12. *amburgF 3<8 Mehrsprachig eit. 8iber% -. =1'II> 4ariations Across &"eech and Writing. CambridgeF Cambridge 5niversit! #ress.
8iber% -. and <inegan% E. =eds> =1''G> &ociolinguistic !ers"ectives on Register. &xfordF &xford 5niversit! #ress. 8oettger% C=1222> 7erdec tes `berset@en und h!bride Texte in der +irtschafts ommuni ation. #aper given at the internationaler (ermanisten ongress% +ien% 3eptember 1222.To appear in the proceedings. 8oettger% C( and lMihrilC% 6. =1222> (ren@@iehungen und (ren@Mberschreitungen. Rum lMnflull des <.naClisrhcn als lingua $ranca auf deutschsprachige Texte. paper given et the 4ahn;)l.rgrrnaC der =ltiterrvirhisrhrn =Crmrlltichaft fMr (ermanrstrh% I%iuhllen.1% /une 1222. 16 appear in the proceeding
178
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;n/lish as 7in/ua 8ran a
17&
Rehbein9 ?$ 3166(4 Pber CusammengesetCte >erweiswUrter und ihre Rolle in argumentierender Rede$ In /$ 'ohlra55 3ed4 Wege der Argumentations$orschung 355$ 100-6G4$ Stuttgart: ,rommannholCboog$ Slobin9 $ 316604 ,rom *thought and language* to *thinking for s5eaking*$ In ?$ &um5erC and S$ +evinson 3eds4 Rethin5ing Linguistic Relativity +"". 18-604$ Cambridge: Cambridge ;niversit.$ >on Stutterheim9 C$ 316614 Wum Ausdruck von Weit- und RaumkonCe5ten in deutschen und englischen !e=ten$ èitschri$t $Br ?ermanistische Linguisti5 2(9 1)1-00$
Chapter 1#
Inter+retin and Translation in the ,Public Ser!ices$ The Pursuit of ./cellence !ersus0 and !ia0 ./+edienc(
ANN C#RSE IS, #BE Introd ction Peter "ewmark is one of those rare 5eo5le who can 5erceive the larger 5icture9 without losing attention to detail$ !he relationshi5 of languages to social change is of central interest to him$ /e was one of the first e=5erienced linguists to take seriousl. the need for reliable inter5reting and translation in the 5ublic services$ !hrough the last 28 .ears of develo5ment in this field9 he has been an ever 5resent su55ort$ !here is an increasing movement of 5eo5le between countries$ As an e=am5le9 %8N of +ondon schoolchildren s5eak at home one of %88 :uro5ean9 Asian9 and African languages$ !here are similar language 5rofiles in other ma@or cities in the ;< and in :uro5e$ !hose who can neither communicate with the 5ublic services9 nor understand their s.stems9 can find themselves de5rived of access to what is essential to Aualit. of life: health care9 legal 5rocess and 5ersonal social services$ !he develo5ment of solutions to meet the situation has lagged behind the need$ !he results have been costl.9 in both human and financial terms9 for both the s5eakers of other languages and the 5ublic services$ In 2ritain there are re5orts of increased infant mortalit. rates among other-language s5eaking grou5s9 of miscarriages of @ustice9 of Asian women selling their little remaining @eweller. to obtain the services of an inde5endent inter5reter for hearings about the custod. of their children$ In South Africa9 it is estimated that there is a 0)N non-com5liance rate with medication9 thought to be language related9 in the middle of an AI S e5idemic$ #uch of the damage9 however9 is being done b. not having the facilities necessar. to deal with the ordinar. events9 such as visits to housing de5artments and school 5arents* evenings$ !hose working in the 1"4nterpreting and %ranslati#n in t.e UC -ubli Ser)i es 1!1
5ublic services are also at risk$ In the ;< the. are reAuired9 b. law and b. their own standards of good 5ractice9 to 5rovide their services eAuall.9 irres5ective of race9 gender and language$ !he. are being obliged to make decisions9 for which the. are 5rofessionall. res5onsible9 u5on information which ma. be unreliable where the. do not share full. a common language with their interlocutors$ A sim5le stor. illustrates the 5oint$ A 5oliceman attended a road traffic accident involving a mother9 father9 and two small children on a visit to the ;<$ !he father9 who was the onl. member of the famil. who s5oke :nglish9 was in@ured and taken to hos5ital$ !he 5oliceman was left to comfort as best he could the distraught mother and children9 with whom he could not communicate because the. onl. s5oke &erman$ !he event does not seem im5ortant9 e=ce5t to those involved9 but it was 5otentiall. dangerous and the distress caused to all of them was unnecessar.$ If the father had been accused of a motoring offence9 it would have been necessar. to observe both Article 0 of the :uro5ean Convention of /uman Rights and9 in domestic law9 the case of R$ u 4;bal *egum 316614 6% Criminal A55eal Re5orts 60$
+inguists are9 .et again9 reAuired to be the catal.sts for the workable im5lementation of inevitable social change$ !he same standards of e=cellence9 in inter5reting and translation9 are needed in the conte=t of the 5ublic services as in conference and other fields$ !he fact that the. are not alwa.s available is another matter$ !he fundamental Auestion is9 wh. are matters not moving forward more Auickl.I !his te=t looks at the wider 5icture within which inter5reting and translation are develo5ing in the 5ublic services$ #ore 5articularl.9 it seeks to e=5lore wh. establishing language standards in the 5ublic services is 5roving such an u5hill struggle9 for 5rogress is easier when obstacles are identified$ ,ollowing a 5reliminar. look at what is needed9 three relevant main 5rocesses of social change are outlined$ :ach 5rocess has no doubt been authoritativel. e=amined on its own in detail elsewhere9 but it is the relationshi5 between them which is likel. to 5rovide the solution$ Establis%ing Needs An. com5etent linguist could Auickl. work out what is needed$ It would include sufficient9 adeAuatel. trained9 and ob@ectivel. assessed: inter5reters and translators in the languages reAuiredB bilingual 5rofessionals9 es5eciall. in counselling9 5s.chiatr. and s5eech thera5. where working through inter5reters is im5racticableB publi service 5ersonnel ca5able of working across cultures and with linguistsB
managers ca5able of 5lanning and organising deliver. of services to multilingual and multicultural constituencies$ All these skills are needed9 at each stage of the deliver. of 5ublic services across language and culture$ !he stages include: finding out about the client9 for e=am5le language9 educational9 and social background9 needs9 5erce5tion of and attitudes to those needsB ada5ting the service to meet the client*s needsB informing the client about the 5ublic serviceB negotiating and delivering the 5ublic serviceB ensuring Aualit. assuranceB researching and develo5ing the service deliver.$ !he alternative to doing things 5ro5erl. is not onl. morall. unacce5table but also a 5ractical danger to a cohesive social infrastructure$ Pilot solution strategies have 5roved to be both 5ossible and cost-effective$ evelo5ment work in 2ritain and elsewhere has resulted in considerable success$ 2ritain9 for e=am5le9 now has a "ational Register of Public Service Inter5reters 3"RPSI4$ !he "RPSI +td is a non-5rofit making subsidiar. of the Institute of +inguists9 of which Peter "ewmark is a former President$ ,or full membershi5 of the register9 inter5reters are reAuired to hold the institute*s di5loma in 5ublic service inter5reting9 or the eAuivalent and have gained relevant e=5erience$ All must agree to abide b. the code of conduct$ !here are alread. some 1888 inter5reter entries on the register in 188 languages and more a55l. each .ear$ !he register itself is available for a modest subscri5tion on hard co5. and on C R-#$ Public service 5ersonnel can @ust consult it when a non-:nglish s5eaker a55ears9 to obtain the details of the nearest inter5reter with the right language combination and s5ecialist e=5ertise$ !here is an abundance of good will9 com5etence9 and a desire to get things right$ #atters can9 however9 be more com5le= than the. at first a55ear$ !he situation in the ;< is described
below9 although it is 5ossible to recognise similarities in other countries$ !here are three main 5arallel 5rocesses of change which are taking 5lace over time$ !he best chances of a successful outcome seem to occur onl. where there is an o5timum horiContal match between these three *vertical* 5rocesses$ As with a onearmed bandit9 there is 5rofit when 5oints of develo5ment in the vertical bands coincide to show9 horiContall.9 three cherries$
Process A4 T%e P blic Services
:ach of the 5ublic services a55ear to go through most of these stages at var.ing s5eeds and in different wa.s$ :=am5les are given b. wa. of illustration$
"nterpretin/ and Translation in the -< Publi Ser!i es 18#
6: Una#areness o" t%e need
In 16G% there was a social services de5artment which stated that it had no clients who did not s5eak :nglish9 although its area included a large 5ro5ortion of 5eo5le from non-:nglish language grou5s$ !he service had not realised that non-:nglish clients could not gain access to it9 if the. did not know of its e=istence and 5ur5ose or how to communicate with its staff$ In fact9 the manager of the Commission for Racial :Aualit.9 across the road9 felt obliged to do the work with the hel5 of bilingual staff9 who were often un5aid and unAualified$
7: Denial and rationalisation
'here an organisation is alread. under-resourced and stretched be.ond reasonable limits it is 5erha5s an understandable knee-@erk reaction to den. the 5resence of another 5otential *5roblem*$ +evels of an=iet. and guilt over 5erceived e=isting under5erformance can 5roduce irrational res5onses to additional demands$ Short-term management and budgeting com5ound the situation$ Sometimes9 a service a55ears to block out the need9 not because staff do not see it9 but because the. do see it9 and its im5lications9 all too well and know the. cannot accommodate it$ Res5onses have ranged from *we co5e with the few we get* to *the. can alwa.s s5eak enough :nglish to collect their benefits* and 3a favourite4 *we @ust send down to the kitchens if we need an inter5reter*$ Solutions have included: the use as inter5reters and translators in medical and other situations9 of children9 famil. members9 and neighbours - and of fellow inmates in 5risons9 and even fellow defendants in the dockB the cosmetic em5lo.ment of staff in a local authorit. housing de5artment because the. were obviousl. of Asian origin but without an. testing of their language or other relevant skillsB ina55ro5riate management 5ractices9 such as the allocation of eight minutes 5er 5atient for a medical consultation9 irres5ective of the double time reAuired if inter5reting and additional information e=change were neededB ina55ro5riate service 5rovision such as culturall. unacce5table food or 5ink 5rostheses for 5eo5le with non-5ink skin colours$
@: Acceptance
Acce5tance can take some courage because9 once the need is recognised and acce5ted9 the service then has to take its own ste5s to deal with it$ It can be more useful to su55ort this stage of the 5rocess b. acknowledging the difficulties faced b. the service and b. suggesting incremental ste5s forward$ It is rarel. hel5ful for outsiders to take holierthan8thou stances.
!he outstanding e=am5le of acce5tance is the 1661 "ational Agreement between the legal
agencies which com5rise the criminal @ustice s.stem$ !he. agreed that the. would aim9 b. the end of 28819 to em5lo. onl. inter5reters from the "ational Register or the eAuivalent$ !he health and other services are still dodging the issue of a similar national commitment to adeAuate language standards$ Peo5le can be told what best to do but the. will onl. carr. out tasks well if the. are trained for the 5ur5ose9 assessed9 and have their good 5ractice su55orted and su5ervised$ -ften little9 or no9 training is given to those working in the 5ublic services on the 5racticalities of working across languages and cultures - a5art from some ver. variable sessions on *race awareness*$ es5ite the e=hortations to follow good business 5ractice9 the high level of e=5ertise available to su55ort the e=5ort of services across languages and culture-9 has never transferred to the 5ublic services for intra-national a55lication$ :=5orters do not have sessions on race awareness9 the. focus on what is needed to deliver a cost-effective9 Aualit.-assured service which res5onds to client need$ As a conseAuence9 the 5ublic services are largel. staffed b. goodhearted9 hard-working 5eo5le who rarel. have either the necessar. skills or structures to deliver a com5etent service across languages and cultures$ -ften the. have onl. been made to feel an=ious and guilt. about inter-cultural service 5rovision and have not been enabled to see it as an * interesting and en@o.able 5rofessional challenge$ !he 5ublic service disci5lines have to take res5onsibilit. for training9 assessing9 and su5ervising their own staff$ An e=am5le of this is the #idlands !raining9 Assessment and evelo5ment Consortium of the Probation Service$ It has develo5ed a series of clear com5etences on working with linguists and working across cultures which it 5lans to include in the service*s assessment framework$ It ho5es to move on to what is needed for bilingual staff and the additional skills needed for managing a service with a diverse clientele$ It is ho5ed that these standards 3based on the national vocational Aualifications formatl4 will s5read into other services$ #eanwhile9 we live as best we ma. with attem5ted short cuts or alternative strategies$
B: Areas o" local gro#t% 1 t%ro g% $ey ent% siasts A: E'periential learning c rve
Change usuall. begins through local activities initiated b. individuals or grou5s$ !here are encouraging develo5ments in sur5rising 5laces$ !hese include the better non-5rofit making 5ublic service inter5reting
"nterpretin/ and Translation in the -< Publi Ser!i es 18%
and translation agencies9 usuall. under the aus5ices of local authorities9 which use the "ational Register and also9 inter alia, act as -ne-Sto5 inter5reter contact s.stems for all t.5es of 5ublic services with whom the. have service level agreements$ -ne of Peter "ewmark*s former students9 who also holds a law degree9 is de5ut. head of the +inguistic and ,orensic #edical Services at Scotland Dard$ /er work leads the field and is much admired b. colleagues in :uro5e$
C: Instit tionalisation at national level
Social change takes 5lace differentl. in different cultures$ In some the to5-down legislation is 5ut in 5lace first and local im5lementation follows or not$ In the ;< change normall. starts bottom-u5$ 'hen local activities reach a certain critical mass9 there is a national endorsement where a55ro5riate$ -therwise9 lone local enthusiasts find it difficult to maintain what the. have achieved and to sustain further develo5ment$ Institutionalisation leads to national incremental 5lanning9 structures9 and resources to achieve the final 5hase$
9: Local consistency #it%in a national "ra!e#or$
A good e=am5le is the "ational Agreement within the criminal @ustice s.stem9 alread.
referred to9 which arose from local initiatives$ In the legal field9 there is now a national subcommittee of the !rials Issues &rou5 to 5romote local consistenc.$ Since the health services were devolved to local health trusts9 such a national consistenc. in this area of work is more difficult to achieve9 nor does there a55ear to be the will to achieve it$
Process 04 T%e Ling ists 6: Una#areness o" t%e need
!here can be few linguists who have not9 at some 5oint in their lives9 been involved in inter5reting or translating on an informal basis within the 5ublic services9 for friends in hos5ital or for strangers in difficulties$ 'ork in this conte=t was never seen as a formal branch of the language 5rofessions but rather as something of lower status one did as a kindness if one felt like it$ #ost 5rofessional linguists in the ;< have traditionall. been involved in commerce9 international work9 and the arts$ Professional grou5s mainl. consist of those working in :uro5ean languages$ !went. .ears ago man. working linguists in the ;< would still refer to non-'estern :uro5ean languages as *e=otic* languages$ !he notion that work in the 5ublic service conte=t demands the same standards of e=cellence as an. other was onl. slowl. recognised$ !his may or may not have *een connected with the low standards of 5a. and
working conditions9 the high 5ro5ortion of *e=otic* languages involved9 and the numbers of 5eo5le working in those languages who had never had an o55ortunit. to gain Aualifications$ +inguists never went through the denial 5hase$ 'hen the situation was 5ointed out to them carefull.9 the. could recognise what was needed$ !he. were not9 however9 in an immediate 5osition to hel59 other than b. giving encouragement9 for reasons such as the following: most working linguists are freelance or staff em5lo.ees$ ,ew are well 5aid$ !he. do not have s5are ca5acit. in terms of energ.9 time9 or finance to su55ort ill-5aid work$ Some notable e=ce5tions were able to find all theseB there were not man. Aualified linguists in the languQges most neededB linguists are traditionall. not a coherent 5rofession in the acce5ted sense but rather voluntar. grou5ings9 in var.ing constellations$ #an. of these grou5ings contained within them the beginnings of tighter9 more formal structures in an effort to 5roduce Aualit. assurance9 selection criteria for @oining9 and codes of conduct$
@: T%e process o" pro"essional reg lation 7: Acceptance and responses
A 5rofession com5rises a grou5 of 5eo5le with a 5articular e=5ertise9 who 5rofess to a common code of values or ethics for the 5rotection of their clients9 their colleagues and their bod. of knowledge$ A 5rofession usuall. comes into e=istence where there is a need for trust9 in the absence of other means of assessing com5etence at the 5oint of deliver.$ -ne does not9 for e=am5le9 trust someone to remove one*s a55endi= because he sa.s he could do it and his mother agrees with him$ 2. definition9 linguists are needed because others do not understand a language and therefore there has to be a means to establish trust$ In order to reach the standards set out in its code of values9 a 5rofession regulates itself b. establishing the following elements in wa.s which are nationall. regulated9 recognised9 trans5arent and accountable: selectionB
trainingB initial 5rofessional assessmentB initial su5ervised work e=5erienceB registrationB disci5linar. 5rocedures to enforce its codeB monitoring and mentoring s.stemsB continuous 5rofessional develo5ment$
"nterpretin/ and Translation in the -< Publi Ser!i es 187
Public service 5rofessions and vocations are regulated$ !heir members train and 5ractice together in wa.s which recognise and res5ect each other*s roles and e=5ertise$ !he hard shoulder of the motorwa. at midnight9 the courtroom door9 and the school gates are no time to have a chat about who is going to do what9 when and wh.$ !he. know 5recisel. and will com5lement each other*s work$ So the fire and rescue officer will hold the bag of intravenous fluid but not insert the canula into the 5atientB the housing officer will not give advice on education$ -nce the scale of res5onsibilit. of linguists in such situations was recognised9 it became clear that the same regulated framework was e=5ected of them too$ !rust had to be established$ In addition9 status cannot be given$ It has to be earned$ If linguists were to be taken seriousl. among the front-line 5ublic service 5rofessionals9 the. had to demonstrate res5onsibilit. as a grou5$ Pa. is related to Aualifications$ !he hard-nosed9 cash-stra55ed 5ublic service managers were understandabl. not going to 5a. reasonable fees to those who could not demonstrate Aualifications to merit them$ 'ithout Aualifications9 whatever their talents9 linguists were 5aid the same as cleaners$ Indeed9 there have been sus5icions that some services will deliberatel. em5lo. the under-Aualified for @ust that reason and the rationalisations for doing so are haircurling$ 'hen this a55roach combines with the unAualified *inter5reters* afraid of losing their source of income and colleges an=ious to fill 5laces with low-level courses9 there is a 5owerful negative collusion long known as the unhol. trinit.$ As a result there are *inter5reters* who are not literate in one or both of their languages9 so that the translation of vital o5eration consent forms and 5rescri5tions are overlooked and children are still sight translating their school re5orts to their 5arents 3mostl. in glowing terms4$ !he regulation 5rocess has begun for linguists working in the 5ublic service conte=t$ It is length. and reAuires both 5atience and nerves of steel$ >ested interests and am#ur pr#pre are threatened$ ,uCC. frameworks felicitate fudges and man. individuals and cultures 5refer to o5erate in them$ It can be tiresome and inconvenient not to be allowed to send a cousin to an inter5reting assignment one has acce5ted9 if one has something better to do$ Progress has necessitated long hours of consultation and negotiation$ !aking the ;< as an e=am5le9 where much was learnt from the Swedes and Australians who had started earlier9 since 16G% the following have been achieved: 5ublished selection criteria for trainingB 5art-time training courses at some 28 centres, spread nationally, leading to 8
the Institute of +inguists i5loma in Public Service Inter5reting 3 PSI49 which is offered
in four s5ecialised o5tions: health care9 :nglish law9 Scottish law9 and +ocal &overnment$ !he last includes environmental health9 housing9 education welfare9 and social services$ It
is 5lanned to integrate the PSI into the national vocational Aualification 3">X4 framework at level (B 5ublished criteria for registration at full and interim levelsB four advisor. grou5s to the "RPSI drawn from the 5ublic services9 linguists9 and their trainersB a code of conduct and disci5linar. 5rocedures for the "RPSI$ Parts of the above are still fragile and all the elements are constantl. being looked at with a view to im5rovement$ Still to be addressed are national: O #A 5rogrammes in Public Service Inter5reting and !ranslationB mentoring and monitoring s.stemsB training for trainersB continuous 5rofessional develo5ment frameworks$ Progress is starting toward international 5rofessional consistenc.$ !he third Critical +ink international conference in inter5reting for the 5ublic services was held in #ontreal in #a. 2881$ #ainl. 5owered b. a grou5 of indefatigable and Auietl. com5etent Canadians9 these conferences have Auickl. become the focal 5oint in a growing international network in this field$ Critical +ink ,our is to be held in Sweden in 288)$ -ther e=am5les include a 5ro@ect9 funded b. the :; &rotius 5rogramme9 to establish eAuivalencies of standards for legal inter5reting and translation in :uro5ean member states 3com5leted in 28814$ !he 5artici5ant organisations were: the +essius /ogeschool of Antwer59 the Institut +ibre #arie /a5s of 2russels9 the Aarhus School of 2usiness9 #alaga ;niversit.9 and the Institute of +inguists which was the lead bod. 3a second grant has been awarded for a dissemination 5hase9 to be led b. the +essius /ogeschool4$ An :; #A in 5ublic service inter5reting and translation is being discussed$ It took doctors and law.ers hundreds of .ears to develo5 regulated 5rofessions$ +inguists ma. .et do it in %8 .ears for work in the 5ublic services$ It will be interesting to see whether the. will regulate 5rofessional activities in other conte=ts$ 'here the linguists* regulation 5rocess and the 5ublic services* develo5ment 5rocess are in alignment benefits have accrued$ Xualified and registered inter5reters9 working in the criminal @ustice s.stem9 now earn reasonable fees$ 'here legal services are beginning to be trained to work with them9 the Aualit. of service 5rovision to non-:nglish s5eakers is rising and9 most im5ortantl.9 the 5roviders are beginning to en@o.
"nterpretin/ and Translation in the -< Publi Ser!i es 18&
the 5rofessional challenges$ ,iner 5oints9 such as how to conduct cross e=aminations in court across cultures9 will come$ Conversel.9 where the two develo5ment 5rocesses are not in alignment9 difficulties still arise$
Process *4 T%ose #%o do not spea$ t%e lang age o" t%e co ntry or service
,reedom of movement within :uro5e9 inward migration and as.lum seekers are 5roducing an increasing diversit. of languages and cultures in ever. countr.$ r Philida Schellekens9 in her recent re5ort for the e5artment for :ducation and :m5lo.ment 92 sa.s: *'e can assume that between one and one and a half million 5eo5le need to im5rove their :nglish language skills if the. are to be able to 5artici5ate in education9 work and societ.$* !he develo5ment 5rocess over time9 in res5ect of non-:nglish s5eakers9 a55lies not to a grou5 but to individuals$ :ach individual is uniAue in terms of life e=5erience9 educational and social background9 language skills9 and knowledge of the world around him or her$ It is individuals9 at different stages of the acAuisition of language and understanding of the structures and s.stems of the countr. the. find themselves in9 who make u5 a never-ending range of variables$ !herefore9 one cannot even begin to suggest a 5rocess relating to a grou59 but onl. the range of factors
which ma. affect an individual*s abilit. to communicate with those working in the 5ublic services in a second language9 with full understanding$ !hese factors include:
6: 0e"ore !igration
educational o55ortunities$ 'ar9 cultural traditions and economic and social conditions ma. all 5la. a 5art in whether or not individuals are9 for e=am5le9 literate in their first language$ A full command of a first language affects the abilit. to acAuire a full command of a second oneB control of da.-to-da. 5ersonal affairs$ ,unctional abilit. and attitudes to 5ublic services are related to access to information about structures and s.stems9 and about whether the. are 5redictable and reliable$ !hose coming from9 for e=am5le9 a countr. with an arbitrar. and corru5t legal s.stem will not easil. trust the legal s.stem of another countr.$
7: Migration process a for<ed or 5ainful 3i4ration?
planned !igration= per%aps to take u+ a 1ob or for educational p rposes:

1&* @: Recovery "ro! !igration Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es
degree of post9migration trauma% "hich is li el! to affect learningC
extent of earnings and economic stabilit!% "hich affect the time% energ!% and resources for learning language and ac:uiring informa tion about s!stems and structures of the ne" countr!C range of social support% including reliable in and friendship net "or s.
A: Generation responses
erosion of first language% language shift% and language mixingC
the loss of second9language s ills in old ageC
a second generation "hich ma! or ma! not ac:uire a full command % of the heritage language and the second language.
*oncl sion
+e 8ritish tend to pride ourselves on )muddling through). +e have done reasonabl! "ell in this field thus far% not as "ell as some other countries such as Australia% but "ell enough. +e cannot% ho"ever% go on pretending it "ill be )all right on the night) because it "ill not be. Multilingualism is not a problem. It is a fact. It onl! becomes a problem "hen it is not responded to effectivel!. The first t"o processes of change% in the public service and language professions% have to be promoted and supported in order to reach effective functional completion because the third% relating to those "ho do not spea the language of the countr! "here the! find themselves% is unpredictable b! definition and d!sfunctional to some degree. $o one "ho has been involved in this field should have to continue "ithout ade:uate s ills and structuresC not onl! in the ever!da! context but also to prepare for the unforeseen such as the .oc erbie crash and the sudden influx of refugees from Eastern Europe. It is suggested that the relationships bet"een these three central processes of social change% among others% should be more clearl! explored% understood and disseminated if "or manli e% cost9effective solutions are to be found.
Notes
1. The central feature of $ational 7ocational Hualifications =$7Hs> is the $ational &ccupational 3tandards =$&3> on Hualifications and Curriculum Authorit! =HCA> on "hich
the! are based. $&3 are statements of performance standards "hich describe "hat competent people in a particular occupation are expected
"nterpretin/ and Translation in the -< Publi Ser!i es
1&1
to be able to do. The! cover all the main aspects of -efinitions of an occupation% including current best practice% the abilit! to adapt to future $7H43cottish 7ocational Hualification =37H> .evels re:uirements% and the no"ledge and understanding "hich underpins competent performance +htt" TTwww.d$ee.gov. u5TnvDT, site visited 9) Ma! 9::)/. 1. 3chelle ens% #hilida =March 9::)/ Inglish Language as a <arrier to Im"loyment, Training and Iducation. -epartment for Education and Emplo!ment. &btainable fromF .ttp?//+++.d2ee.g#).u//resear ./re brie $TR<X*:).doc =site visited 99 Ma! 9::)/.
Chapter 1$
'udio!isual Translation in the Third Millennium

!#R'E 7CA* CINTAS Introd ction
In the opening paragraph of her introduction to the 3#utledge @n ' l#pedia #2 %ranslati#n Studies$ 8a er =1221F xxiii> comments that in the earl! 1''2s man! had begun to see Translation 3tudies )as an exciting ne" discipline% perhaps t.e discipline of the 1''2s). There have indeed been numerous national and international conferences on the sub0ect% and "e have "itnessed an explosion in publications in the field% including several academic best sellers% an occurrence unimaginable some !ears agoC and translation courses are developing% both at postgraduate and at undergraduate level. Countries such as 3pain have experienced a proliferation of courses at undergraduate level "ithin faculties of translation and interpreting% and in other countries% such as the 5nited 6ingdom% degree courses in translation continue to develop. As part of this =r>evolution% fe" can den! that one of the branches that has received the greatest impetus is audiovisual translation. <rom a tentative start involving some"hat superficial contributions in the late 1'52s and the earl! 1'62s% follo"ed b! a couple of decades of relative letharg! in the 1'Q2s and 1'I2s% "e have entered a period of vigorous activit!% dating bac to the earl! 1''2s and pointing to a ver! promising future in decades to come. Toda! it "ould be hard to 0ustif! beginning a paper% as <a"cett did in 1''6% b! listing articles that had appeared in the mainstream 0ournals of Translation 3tudies in order to bemoan ho" little "or had been carried out on this sub0ect. In a forthcoming compilation of bibliographical references on subtitling% *enri (ottlieb has traced more than 1?22 titles dating from 1'?? to 1222% the ma0orit! of "hich have appeared in recent !ears. All of these items cover interlingual subtitling% although also included are "or s on other screen translation modes% for example dubbing and voice9over% "hich devote chapters or ma0or sections to subtitling. Clearl! :uantit! cannot be a measure of :ualit!% and it is true that there is a tendenc! to"ards compartmentalised 1'1
Audio!isual Translation in the Third :illenniu+
1&#
contributions% "hich has led to the call in some :uarters for the publication of "or s of greater scope and academic substance% a trend "hich can alread! be discerned. As Ma!oral =in press> notes% in terms of fre:uenc! of use audiovisual translation has been
undergoing a revolution% "hich is evident in the significant rise in the demand for audiovisual products as "ell as in their availabilit!. This up"ard trend is due to factors such as the explosion in the number of international% national% regional% and local television channelsC the diversification of televisual products% through digital pac ages and television on demandC the diversification of transmission means =cable and satellite>C a greater demand for distance learningC technological progress% such as the -7- =-igital 7ersatile -isc>C and the presence of multimedia products in our dail! lives. All these factors have coincided "ith a period of consolidation of the household video 9 ho"ever% no"ada!s clearl! losing ground to the -7- 9 and "ith an increase in film produc9 tion throghout the "orld. 9 Translation carried out in the audiovisual field currentl! accounts for an increasingl! large proportion of translation activit!. This is for t"o reasonsF firstl!% audiovisual products reach a large number of people because reception is eas!% primaril! via the televisionC secondl!% a large :uantit! of translated material is transferred to other culturesF documentaries% intervie"s% films% ne"s% discussion programmes% sho"s% series% cartoons% and so on. The gro"th is particularl! noticeable in those countries "here English is not the official language. According to information compiled b! Nvane =1''5>% Co9ordinator of the 8A8E. #rogramme =8roadcasting Across the 8arriers of European .anguages>% the vast ma0orit! of European countries purchase a large proportion of their audiovisual products from outside Europe% predominantl! from the 5nited 3tates. )able /<(/ #roportion of audiovisual products imported from nonEuropean countries =after Nvane% 1''5F G51>. 3pain '5P $etherlands '2P (reece 'GP
5nited 6ingdom IIP .uxembourg '1P Ital! I2P -enmar '2P Ireland Q5P <rance '2)P. #ortugal Q2P (erman! '2)P%
1&$
Cinema and audiovisual products% in the most general sense of the term% are part of an industr! "ith an obvious cultural dimension and% given 9that the! reach the vast ma0orit! of a countr!)s population% the! have significant manipulative po"er. It is therefore unsurprising that the European 5nion and% more particularl!% countries such as <rance have reacted negativel! "hen faced "ith liberalising the global audiovisual mar et.
Translation or AdaptationD
In the light of the man! media constraints that shape linguistic transfer in the audiovisual field% some translation theorists have chosen to consider these transfers as examples of adaptation rather than of translation. This vie"% "hich I consider puristic and outdated% lies behind the relative 9 lac of interest in this professional activit! on the part of translation scholarsC instead% the! have favoured the stud! of more traditional and prestigious sub0ect matters such as the 8ible% literature and poetr!%;A definition of translation that excludes large areas of professional activit! is clearl! too narro". +e live in a *eraclitean societ!% in constant evolution. The "a!s in "hich "e communicate change% as do our needs% and in this sense the spectacular development of technolog! has an unavoidable impact. *ence it is necessar! to vie" translation from a more flexible and heterogeneous perspective% one "hich allo"s for a broad range of empirical realities and "hich is able to subsume ne" and potential translation activities "ithin its boundaries. This changing nature of the field is also reflected in a certain amount of indecision "ith respect to terminolog!. The first studies carried out tended to refer t# $ilm translation, but% as the field of stud! extended to include television and video releases% the term audiovisual translation "as introduced. Another term in fre:uent use in the field is 3creen translation, "hich is designed to encompass all products distributed via a screen% be it a television% cinema% or computer screen. This term opens the door for inclusion of the translation of products that until no" had escaped more precise categorisation% such as computer games% "eb pages and C-,&Ms. <inall!% another concept that is gaining ground is @ultimedia translation,) resulting from the multitude of media and channels through) W+hich the message is transmitted. The use of this terminolog! further blurs the boundaries of the discipline% and also establishes a much closer lin "ith the localisation of Information and Communication Technolog! =ICT> products and the translation of products available on the Internet. This form of terminological variation is a clear indication of changing times. *o"ever% far from placing an obstacle in the "a! of communication% it can instead be vie"ed as a clear sign that man!
scholars "ish to
1&%
maintain an open and accommodating approach% enabling them to assimilate and ac no"ledge ne" developments in translation praxis.
A diovis al Translation
Even for those "ith an ade:uate command of the foreign language% ever! audiovisual product brings "ith it a range of additional obstacles to comprehensionF dialectal and sociolectal variation% lac of access to explanator! feedbac % external and environmental sound level% overlapping speech% etc.% ma ing translation of the product crucial for the ma0orit! of users. *abit and custom have made dubbing and subtitling the most common modes of translation in this field% although this does 99not exclude other possibilities. The t!pologies established b! (ambier =1''6>% .u! en =1''1> and -Ka@)Cintas =1'''a> distinguish as man! as ten t!pes of multilingual transfer in the field of audiovisual communication. This contribution "ill focus on dubbing% voice9over% and% more particularl!% subtitling. .et us consider a brief definition of each of these modesF
7ubbing involves replacing the original soundtrac containing the actors) dialogue "ith a
target language =T.> recording that reproduces the original message% "hile at the same time ensuring that the T. sounds and the actors) lip movements are more or less s!nch9 ronised.
4oice-over involves reducing the volume of the original soundtrac completel!% or to a

minimal auditor! level% in order to ensure that the translation% "hich is superimposed on the original soundtrac % can be easil! heard. It is common practice to allo" a fe" seconds of the original speech before reducing the volume and superimposing the translation. The reading of the translation finishes a fe" seconds before the end of the original speech% allo"ing the audience to listen to the voice of the person on the screen at a normal volume once again.
&ubtitling involves displa!ing "ritten text% usuall! at the bottom of the screen% giving an
account of the actors) dialogue and other linguistic information "hich form part of the visual image =letters% graffiti% and captions> or of the soundtrac =songs>.
Pre"erences
In terms of geograph!, a lear dichotom! has emerged in "estern Europe bet"een the large countries% "hich prefer dubbing =<rance% Ger!any= Italy and 3pain>% and s!aller co ntries= "hich have sho"n
1&6
a 5reference for subtitles 3&reece9 !he "etherlands9 Portugal and the Scandinavian countries9 among others4$ -wing to its inclusion in the huge anglo5hone audiovisual market9 the case of the ;nited <ingdom can be described as a s5ecial one: neither dubbing nor subtitling is common9 although a certain degree of bias for subtitled 5roducts can be observed$ 'ith regard to central and eastern :uro5ean countries9 the division a55ears not to be so clearl. defined$ Romania and Slovenia 5refer subtitling9 whereas the CCech Re5ublic9 /ungar.9 Slovakia and 2ulgaria tend towards dubbing$ As far as Poland9 the three 2altic States and some members of the Commonwealth of Inde5endent States are concerned9 there seems to be an inclination towards voice-over$ !hese distinctions are far from absolute9 and in 5ractice different translation modes often coe=ist9 the choice between them de5ending on the genre of the 5rogramme and the audience 5rofile and whether the 5roduct is shown on television or at a cinema$ ,rom a historical 5ers5ective9 there have been numerous reasons for ado5ting one mode or another$2 Countries with high levels of illiterac. have tended to 5refer dubbing$ In times of 5olitical re5ression and curtailment of freedom of e=5ression9 countries such as &erman.9 Ital. and S5ain have been biased in favour of dubbing$ :conomics has also 5la.ed an im5ortant role9
since subtitling is some ten to 28 times less e=5ensive than dubbing$ /abit and custom must also be taken into account$ According to +u.ken et al. +)CC) 1124 #audience "re$erence is, in the $irst "lace, determined by $amiliarity and conditioning to either of the two main methods* 3italics are from the original49 which im5lies that the 5ublic will be more rece5tive to the mode with which the. are most familiar9 although the authors 3ibid$4 also suggest that *5references ma. not be unalterable and that the. might be transformed b. familiarisation with other alternatives*$ #oreover9 5erha5s one of the most visible develo5ments at the 5resent time is the coe=istence of both modes even in countries and societies where it was thought that customs were alread. so dee5-rooted that an. kind of change was unlikel.$ Changes In S5ain9 traditionall. a countr. with a clear 5reference for dubbing9 the number of films screened in their original version with S5anish subtitles has grown significantl. over the last 2( .ears 3,ernEndeCSantos9 16614$ "owada.s9 cinema audiences in big cities such as 2arcelona9 #adrid and >alencia can choose between seeing a film in its dubbed version or with subtitles9 as the. 5refer$ A similar situation e=ists in neighbouring countries such as ,rance9 where dubbing has long been the mode "ar excellence.
Audio!isual Translation in the Third :illenniu+ 1&7
Countries with a 5reference for subtitling are not above change9 and the case of &reece is an e=am5le of change in the o55osite direction$ A countr. traditionall. inclined towards subtitling9 &reece has moved towards dubbing9 starting with +atin American soa5 o5eras$ !his has 5roved to be ver. successful9 as audiences ma. be able to follow9 for instance9 the 5lot of a soa5 o5era without having to look at the screen in order to read the subtitles$ A staunch 5ro-subtitling countr.9 enmark has reacted in a sur5rising wa. to the commercialisation of films9 5articularl. American famil. films$ -n the home video market9 blockbusters such as Flubber 3+es #a.field9 )CC-/, 7r. 7olittle 32ett. !homas9 166G4 and AntJ 3:ric arnell V +awrence &uterman9 )CC8/, for instance9 can be bought on a >/S 3>ideo /ome S.stem4 ta5e containing both the dubbed and subtitled versions into anish9 and for the same 5rice as the ta5e with onl. one version$ In terms of a commercial hothouse such as the ;nited States9 the 5owerhouse of the western film industr. and9 as such9 a countr. that does not often make use of translation into :nglish9 it is 5articularl. encouraging to think that the situation ma. change in the not too distant future$ In control of one of the largest film markets in the world9 the ;SA is reticent about making use of 5roducts originating from other cultures and in other languages: remakes have alwa.s dominated$ !hus9 the change to which some have referred is indeed thought-5rovoking$ !he first academ. awards9 the -scars9 of the third millennium seem to herald an o5ening u5 of the ;nited States to foreign cinema9 as evidenced b. the huge audience and bo= office success of the film Wo hu cang long +6rouching Tiger, 8idden 7ragon, Ang +ee9 28884$% ,or some9 this !aiwanese film ma. have shattered the m.th that a subtitled film could never be 5o5ular in the ;SA$ According to the Chairman of the 5roduction and distribution com5an. Son. Pictures Classics9 e-mail and chat rooms are teaching .oung 5eo5le to communicate through subtitles$ #an. have become accustomed to reading short te=ts a55earing in a window on their com5uters 3>alenCuela9 28814 or on their mobile tele5hone screens$ Should this trend develo59 there is little doubt that translation into :nglish would e=5erience a significant boom and greater visibilit.$ Clearl.9 this greater acce5tance of subtitling could also come about in countries where9 until now9 the use of subtitling has not been ver. 5rominent$ -ther interesting attem5ts at 5romoting audiovisual translation have been made in the ;nited <ingdom9 where films such as ?aJon @audit +French Twist, ?osiane 2alasko9 166(4 have been both dubbed and subtitled in a bid to establish which of the two versions is more readil. acce5ted b. audiences$ !wo observation-9 tan *e made from these changes and develo5ments9 (irst, the world of
audiovisual production is Constantl. ;hanging, and

1&8
translation modes are not as set in stone as some would like to believe$ Secondl.9 this diversification of modes creates the need for translation and generates more work in the field$ A further im5ortant technological change that is influencing the world of audiovisual translation and our 5erce5tion of this world9 to a greater or lesser degree sha5ed b. the media9 is the advent of the > $ !his new film distribution format can hold u5 to eight versions of the same film dubbed into different languages and some %2 different 5ossibilities for subtitles$ !his new wa. of watching films is creating a class of 5rivileged viewers who have greater control over how to use the translation9 as the. are able to com5are the original dialogue with the subtitled version in their own or other languages that the. know9 or the translation for the dubbed version with the translation for the subtitled version in their own language$ !his9 in turn9 has im5lications for 5rofessional 5ractice9 because the new situation brought about b. this advent of the > is changing the wa. in which translators work$ Com5anies are starting to ask for *literal* translations which hardl. move awa. from the original9 even at the risk of the final translation being devoid of meaning in the !+$ !he other visible change is the s.nchronisation of the dubbed and subtitled translations$ 'ith the aim of avoiding criticism from viewers of 5ossible discre5ancies between the two versions - even though such discre5ancies are entirel. @ustifiable given the dissimilarit. of the modes - there is a tendenc. to end u5 with two !+ te=ts that are ver. similar in their reformulation of the original dialogue9 sometimes unnecessaril. so$ 'ith regard to the increased volume of translations9 it is clear that technological 5rogress has led to more films being released onto the market in both versions$ In this wa.9 films which until a few .ears ago would onl. have been released after having been dubbed into S5anish or &erman are now marketed on > in both the dubbed and subtitled versions$ According to one of Columbia !ristar*s subtitling and dubbing e=ecutives9 a55ro=imatel. 68N to 6(N of its films are now dubbed and subtitled$ Similarl.9 classic films9 which were once onl. distributed in their dubbed version owing to a lack of demand for subtitled films9 are now being subtitled in 5re5aration for their release on > $ /owever9 growth has not been as s5ectacular as e=5ected since9 5rimaril. in the case of dubbing9 those films that were dubbed man. .ears ago and would have benefited from being brought u5 to date linguisticall. have not been retranslated$ !his is certainl. the situation in S5ain9 and it is 5articularl. 5oignant with regard to films where dialogue was censored in the 5ast and which we continue to watch toda.9 with the same censored dialogue9 although now under a democratic regime$ -f the three modes mentioned9 dubbing is 5erha5s the one e=5eriencing least international growth9 des5ite recent develo5ments in 7enmar ,
1&&
&reece and the ;nited <ingdom$ /igher costs are undoubtabl. one of the greatest obstacles to its further advancement9 although there are sur5rising e=am5les of dubbing$ As well as the subtitled version9 the > format of :rouchin! Ti!er> *i((en &ra!on contains a version dubbed into :nglish9 which ma. seem unnecessar. as the film had alread. been a success9 the subtitled version having been received e=tremel. favourabl. at the cinema$ ,urthermore9 the use of dubbing is limited to film translation9 whereas the other two modes are used for a wider range of 5roducts$ !he future 5ros5ects for voice-over are ver. encouraging as it is less e=5ensive than dubbing9 making it a much more attractive translation mode for man. com5anies$ It is also a more
immediate and seductive form of transmitting information than the written word$ Increasingl. immersed in the world of the image9 it is not sur5rising that man. com5anies choose to communicate im5ortant information b. means of commercials and cor5orate videos9 which are usuall. translated through the use of voice-over or narration$ In line with these changes9 one of the world*s largest consumers of translation9 the :uro5ean ;nion9 is e=amining the 5ossibilit. of diversif.ing the 5roduction of its information material9 5lacing greater em5hasis on the 5roduction and distribution of audiovisual material in all the eleven official languages$ It goes without sa.ing that changes on this scale will e=5onentiall. increase the demand for voice-over9 narration and 5erha5s subtitling$ "evertheless9 the mode that has undergone the greatest growth9 and that will continue to grow in the foreseeable future9 is subtitling$ Its man. advantages have led to it becoming the most favoured mode of the audiovisual world9 but two in 5articular are crucial: it is the Auickest method9 and also9 the most economical to im5lement$ #oreover9 it can be used to translate all audiovisual 5roducts: films9 news9 interviews9 series9 etc$ I have alread. made reference to the 5ositive im5act that the > is having in terms of increasing the number of subtitle tracks$ "ot onl. is there an increase in Auantit. but there has also been a demand for more literal translation since com5arison with the original is easier$ !he classical t.5olog. of subtitling is also under constant review$ !raditionall.9 and !rosso mo(o> two t.5es of subtitles have come to the fore: interlin!ual subtitles9 which im5l. transfer from a source language 3S+4 to a !+ and * intralin!ual subtitles 3also known as ca/tionin!8 where there is no change of language and9 as far as television is concerned9 where transmission is b. means of an inde5endent signal activated b. accessing 5age GGG of telete=t$) Intralingual subtitling is intended to meet the needs of the deaf and hard of hearing9 and involves turning the oral content of actors* dialogues into written s5eech9 without loss of all the 5arate=tual informa tion which contri*utes to the development of the 5lot or to setting the
2** Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es
scene9 which deaf 5eo5le are unable to access from the soundtrack9 for e=am5le tele5hones ringing9 knocks on the door9 and the like$( /owever9 this classification fails to account for a 5rofessional 5ractice in e=istence9 which is achieving greater visibilit. thanks to the > 9 namel. interlingual subtitling aimed at the deaf and hard of hearing from an. !+ communit.$ ,ailing to account for this t.5e of subtitling would im5l. a tacit acce5tance of the fallac. that the deaf and hard of hearing onl. watch 5rogrammes originall. 5roduced in their mother tongue9 when there is no doubt that the. also watch 5rogrammes originating in other languages and cultures$ !his in turn would mean that the. are forced to use the same interlingual subtitles as hearing 5eo5le9 when these subtitles are9 to all intents and 5ur5oses9 ina55ro5riate for their needs$ It is hardl. sur5rising9 therefore9 that this *new* t.5e of subtitling is graduall. gaining groundB we can alread. bu. films on > such as Thelma a Louise 3Ridle. Scott9 16614 which incor5orate two subtitle tracks in &erman - one for the ma@orit. audience and the other for the hard of hearing$
Challenges
/owever 5romising the 5icture looks for the audiovisual translation field9 we must not fall into the tra5 of com5lacenc.$ !here are challenges at man. different levels - educational9 academic9 5rofessional9 social9 cultural9 etc$ - of which we must be aware$ At times these challenges also a55l. to the world of translation in general9 at other times the. are s5ecificall. a55licable to the field of audiovisual translation$ 'hile the stud. and teaching of translation as a general disci5line has become fairl. well established in the universit. sector9 the same cannot be said for audiovisual translation$
es5ite the im5ortance of this area in our dail. lives9 ver. few educational institutions around the globe have taken u5 the challenge to teach dedicated modules on an. of the translation modes in general use in the world of audiovisual 5roducts9 whether subtitling9 dubbing9 or voice-over$ ;ntil ver. recentl.9 and with few e=ce5tions9 knowledge of the 5rofession was acAuired in situ, inde5endentl. of educational establishments$ 2ut while the role of a universit. is clearl. to broaden knowledge and learning9 it must also meet the needs of the societ. that sustains it$ It is for this reason that audiovisual translation has to be taught in universities in the same wa. as other areas of translation$ Some institutions have alread. woken u5 to this fact9 others are beginning to become aware of the situation$0 /owever9 this kind of develo5ment is alwa.s beset b. one 5ractical 5roblem: financial cost$ "ot onl. is it ver. difficult for universities to find the funds necessar. for the 5urchase of eAui5ment and software 5ackages s5ecificall. designed to
Audio!isual Translation in the Third :illenniu+ 2*1
carr. out this kind of translation9 technolog. in the field is also evolving ra5idl.9 necessitating further investment in technological know-how and eAui5ment$ It is of little use to bu. subtitling software if there are no inhouse technicians 5re5ared to familiarise themselves with it9 or if there is no commitment on the 5art of the institution to u5grade software on a regular basis$ !he degreel of invisibilit. surrounding audiovisual translation in the world of higher education might be one of the reasons wh. this field of translation has not received the academic attention that it deserves$ I have alread. mentioned that the situation is changing ver. Auickl. and that the number of 5ublications in the sub@ect is increasingB however9 care should be taken to avoid overl. su5erficial a55roaches and unnecessar. re5etition$ !he debate on the relative advantages of dubbing versus subtitling has been the sub@ect of e=cessive academic interest but has not made an. significant contribution to 5rogress in the field 3 [aC Cintas9 m O 1666b4$ !hus there is a-need- for more detailed work of greater sco5e9 tackling the sub@ect matter from more diverse and varied 5ers5ectives: 9-$ O\ em5irical studies on $o8; subtitles are received b. viewers9 based on EMdience reaction and not solel. on researchers* iristinctsB descri5tive Ostudies of what is actuall. done9 and not what should be doneB anal.sisl ll of translation 5ra=is from diachronic 5ers5ectivesB work on the state of the art of the 5rofessionB or detailed studies of s5ecific 5roblems in the field9 such as the translation of strong and colloAuial language$ \ 'orking 5ractices are also e=5eriencing change$ !he different stages in dubbing or subtitling a 5roduct are constantl. being read@usted9 and what was common working 5ractice some 18 or 12 .ears ago is now clearl. outdated$ !he move from chemical and o5tical to laser subtitling9 the advent of digital imaging9 and the marketing of 5rogrammes s5ecificall. designed for subtitling are @ust some of the milestones that have led to change$ !he traditionall. se5arate 5osts of translator and dubbing director9 and translator and subtitle technician - the 5erson res5onsible for s.nchronising sound and subtitle content - are converging in the sha5e of a single 5rofessional the subtitler - who knows about9 and is able to carr. out9 all o5erations$ 'ith this change in mind9 universities must 5la. an essential role in training these new 5rofessionals$ Students must be able to work in grou5s and under 5ressure9 with ver. stringent deadlinesB the. must be familiar with software 5ackages and the InternetB and the. must have an insight into the inner workings of the 5rofessional world9 not onl. view it from inside the academic cocoon$ !o this end9 universities need more resources and must show more initiative in curricular develo5ment and research carried out in the field9 while bearing in mind that isolation can he detrimental and that fostering links with private companies is essential.
2*2 Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es
&ne of the immediate conse:uences of the much cited phenomenon of globalisation is that the professional "orld of translation is increasingl! homogeneous and less sub0ect to geographical boundaries. Conventions such as translating exclusivel! into the mother tongue% or onl! translating in and for a particular countr! of residence% are no longer necessaril! adhered to. The nerve centres of audiovisual translation are beginning to emerge in places that are also home to large international production and distribution companies% such as .os Angeles and .ondon. This development is at the root of serious problems in terms of balancing languages and cultures% because no"ada!s the products are created and translation decisions made in the countr! of origin% after having passed through the filter of English. It is becoming increasingl! common% "hen subtitling an American film% for example% for the subtitler to be forced to "or "ith a dialogue list for "hich the s"otting has alread! been done in English. In other "ords% the segmentation and the duration of the subtitles have alread! been decided b! the film distributor% irrespective of the characteristics and the nature of the T.. There can be no doubt that the re:uirement to replicate the English master titles in (erman or 6orean only detracts from the creativit! and independence J)(erman the
subtitler.99
(ottlieb has dedicated a significant amount of research to the
influence of English on the -anish language. &ne of the advantages generall! attributed to subtitling is that this mode respects the original% as it ensures that the product remains intact% "ith the "ritten T. text simpl! being added. *earing the original and being able to contrast "hat "e are hearing "ith "hat "e are reading in our o"n language encourages the learning of foreign languages% particularl! English. It is% for instance% often assumed that people living in countries "ith a strong tradition of subtitling tend to have a better no"ledge of English than those living in countries "ith a preference for dubbing. This% together "ith the fact that man! of these languages are being )anglicised)% both on a semantic and a s!ntactic level% means that "e are running the ris of arriving at "hat could be called Translation èro. In the case of the -anish language and audience (ottlieb =1221F 15I> is of the opinion that this appears to be more than 0ust a theoretical ris F <or future subtitling% the conse:uences of this international discussion could be that in several minor speech communities% "e "ould not have to "aste time subtitling from English. Most vie"ers "ould simpl! argueF )All the people "ho can read subtitles no" English an!"a!% and besides% our language is not that different from English an!more% so "h! botherL)
2*#
Conclusion
3ome of the developments that I have mentioned are currentl! in progress% others are merel! trends that ma! or ma! not be confirmed% or ma! even be too visionar!. +hat is be!ond doubt% ho"ever% is that this area of translation is set to undergo further changes in coming !ears. At the same time% our perception of translation as consumers "ill also change. Toda!% audiovisual translation is in vogue and% than s to its inherent lin s "ith technolog! and the omnipresence of audiovisual products in our societies% it appears to have a promising future. *o"ever% "e must not be blinded b! positive omensF "e should be a"are of the challenges that exist and no" ho" to tac le them. Although (ottlieb)s negativist vie" has a certain raison d#_tre, particularl! in terms of a"a ening audiences and maintaining a critical attitude to"ards the influence of English% I do not believe that translation in the audiovisual field "ill disappear% at least not for the time being. &n the contrar!% all current indicators point onl! to the buo!anc! of the field at all levelsF educational% research% professional and social. +e might even speculate that audiovisual4multimedia translation "ill be the translation sub9discipline of this brand ne" millennium.N &otes 1. The conceptual instabilit! of this term is evident in the "a! that (ambier and (ottlieb =1221> use it% deliberatel! inserting brac ets into their boo titleF +@ulti/ @edia Translation.
1. A more detailed account than is possible here can be found in -Ka@ Cintas =1221a>. ?. This film received 12 &scar nominations and "on G% including 8est <oreign .anguage <ilm. G. Although this is the most extensivel! used form of intralingual subtitling% other examples include arao e captions and the captions used to represent dialogue bet"een actors or people on screen "hose accents are difficult to understand for an audience "hich% in principle% shares the same language. An amusing example of this is the 8ritish film Trains"otting =-ann! 8o!le% 1''6> in "hich the actors spea English "ith a strong 3cottish accentF the film "as distributed "ith subtitles in the 5nited 3tates. 5. This is another of the fastest developing forms of audiovisual communication toda!% than s to the success of pressure groups promoting the interests of these members of the audience. Their efforts have secured the commitment of television channels% such as the 88C% to broadcast a high percentage of their programmes "ith this form of linguistic support. The present percentage of programmes4hours that are subtitled for the hard of hearing is ..#b.,, "ith a pledge b! the 8_C to subtitle I2P b! 122G and 122P soon after"ards. .. Ma!oral =1221> offers an exhaustive list of training courses available in this field in 3pain. I>1%v = mlas =1221> offers a mon% international panorama. Q. )ranslated b! 2A6wrnna Anr"911% ,evie"ed b! /orge l>fai Cintas.
2*$
Re"erences
8a er% M. =ed.> =1221> Routledge Incyclo"edia o$ Translation &tudies. .ondon V $e" Nor F ,outledge. -Ka@ Cintas% /. =1'''a> Modalidades traductoras en los medios de comunicaciYn audiovisual. In M. Ale@a et al. =eds> Il contacto lingBUstico en el desarrollo de las lenguas occidentales =pp. I59''>. 7alSnciaF Huaderns de <ilologKa% Estudis .ingMKstics I7 -Ka@ Cintas% /. =1'''b> -ubbing or subtitlingF The eternal dilemma. !ers"ectives &tudies in Translatology Q41% ?19G2. -Ka@ Cintas% /. =1221a> La traducci=n audiovisual el subtitulado. 3alamancaF Ediciones Almar. -Ka@ Cintas% /. =1221b> Teaching subtitling at 5niversit!. In 3. Cunico =ed.> Training Translators and Inter"reters in the 0ew @illennium =pp. 1'9GG>. #ortsmouthF 5niversit! of #ortsmouth. =Also to be published b! the Educational ,esources Information Centre =E,IC> of the 53 -epartment of Education.> <a"cett% #=1''6> Translating film. In (.T. *arris =ed.> Mn Translating French Literature and Film =pp. 659II>. Amsterdam V AtlantaF ,odopi. <ern\nde@93antos% A. =1''Q> &tra forma de ver cine. Il !aUs, 1G $ovember. (ambier% N. =1''6> IntroductionF la traduction audiovisuelle un genre nouveauL In N. (ambier =ed.> Les trans$erts linguistiDues dans les m%dias audiovisuels +"". Q911>. 7illeneuve d)Asc: =$ord>F #resses 5niversitaires du 3eptentrion. (ambier% N. and (ottlieb% *. =eds> =1221> +@ulti/@edia Translation. Amsterdam V #hiladelphiaF /ohn 8en0amins #ublishing. (ottlieb% *. =1221> Anglicisms and T7 subtitles in an anglified "orld. In N. (ambier and *. (ottlieb =eds> +@ulti/@edia Translation =pp. 1G'95I>. Amsterdam V #hiladelphiaF /ohn 8en0amins #ublishing. .u! en% (. "ith Thomas% *.% .angham98ro"n% /.% ,eid% *. and 3pinhof% *. =1''1> Mvercoming Language <arriers in Television. ManchesterF European Institute for the Media. Ma!oral% ,=1221> Campos de estudio ! traba0o en traducciYn audiovisual. In M. -uro =ed.> La traducci=n "ara el doblaAe y la subtitulaci=n =pp. 1'9G5>. MadridF C\tedra% 3igno e Imagen. Ma!oral% ,. =forthcoming> $uevas perspectivas para la traducciYn audiovisual. &endebar 1?. 7alen@uela% /. =1221> *oll!"ood se lan@a a difundir pelKculas desde el ciberespacio. Il !aUs, 15 March. Nvane% /. =1''5> 8abelF un soutien actif aux transferts linguisti:ues. Translatio, 0ouvelles de la FITFIT 0ewsletter bI74?9G% G51962.
Chapter 1%
Translation and Inter+retin
'ssessment in the Conte/t of .ducational Measurement

ST)ART CAMPBE and SAN7RA "A E Introd ction
Translator and interpreter education is no" "idel! practised around the "orld and is supported b! an increasingl! sophisticated bod! of research and scholarship. Much of this "or is concerned "ith identif!ing the components of competence and proposing curriculum models that incorporate these components and suitable teaching strategies. The scholarship supporting translation and interpreting education necessaril! entails discussions of assessment and there has been some encouraging "or in this area. *o"ever% there has been little recognition in translation and interpreting circles that educational measurement as a broader field has its o"n tradition of scholarship% a "idel! accepted bod! of no"ledge and terminolog!% and a range of approaches. $otions li e reliabilit! and validit! are part of the basic architecture of educational measurement. Test designers need to ensure that test results are reliable% for example% !ielding the same results "ith different groups of candidates and at different points in timeC and the! need to construct tests that are valid in that the!% for instance% reflect the model of learning that underpins the curriculum and are relevant to the professional behaviour taught in the curriculum. A ma0or issue in educational measurement of relevance to translation and interpreting assessment is the fundamental difference of approach bet"een norm9 and criterion9 referenced testing. $ormreferenced tests are designed to ran candidates against each otherC criterion9referenced tests re:uire candidates to demonstrate that the! have satisfied a set criterion. These fundamental issues are comprehensivel! dealt "ith in standard "or s on educational measurement such as Ebcl =1'Q1> and )rhorntli e et al. =1'G1>. Closer to our o"n discipline% 7>-
2*6
2achmann 316614 re5resents a com5rehensive discussion on language testing9 firml. grounded in measurement theor.$ !he discussion in this contribution sets itself outside a current and vital issue in !ranslation Studies 3and to a much lesser e=tent in work on inter5reting4 - the instabilit. of notions such as Duality, value and assessment. A recent volume of The Translator was dedicated to this issue9 with an introduction b. Carol #aier that 5oints out the difficult. of defining these conce5ts on the basis of theories about the nature of translation$ #aier observes that *one sees a shared em5hasis on defining and assessing Aualit. in the conte=t of s5ecific situations9 es5eciall. 5edagogical ones* 3#aier9 2888: 1)84$ 'hile we acknowledge the com5le=it. and im5ortance of defining these notions9 we confess that we sideste5 the issue and @um5 straight into #aier*s 5edagogical conte=tB our a55roach has been to scrutinise translation and inter5reting assessment with the broader 5ers5ective of educational measurement$ ;sing some fundamental criteria from educational measurement as a framework9 we ask how current translation and inter5reting assessment 5ractice stands u5 to broader scrutin.9 and what directions we need to take in the future$
'asic 5pproach
-ur basic a55roach has been to 5ro5ose a checklist of criteria against which an assessment 5rocedure might be measured$ 'e have then e=amined a selection of 5ublished works that deal with translation and inter5reting assessment 5rocedures in some fashion9 and weighed their findings against some of the criteria on the checklist$ !he works were collected through a search of the +inguistics and +anguage 2ehavior Abstracts 3++2A4 and #odern +anguage Association 3#+A4 databases9 as well as our 5rivate collections$1 It
is im5ortant to note that we limited our choice of works to those that deal s5ecificall. with assessment 5rocedures in an educational conte=t 3including accreditation49 for which reason the absence of seminal works like /ouse 316G14 should come as no sur5rise$ 'e concede that the 5ublished works e=amined are b. no means a com5rehensive collection9 but we maintain that the. are a fair re5resentation of the state of the art over the last few decades9 as 5ublishedB however9 there is no doubt a good deal of interesting 5ractice locked awa. in the internal documentation of teaching institutions$ !he checklist is not intended as a definitive ta=onom. of the characteristics of assessment 5rocedures9 and we acknowledge that there are overla5s between some of the items$ ,or e=am5le9 a 5rocedure that aims at summative assessment ma. generate information that can be used for credit transfer 3cf$ item 2 below4B but of course credit transfer information reAuires the additional 5otential for translatabilit. between education
Translation and "nterpretin/ Assess+ent 2*7
s.stems or institutions$ In an Australian educational institution9 for instance9 test 5rocedures can have the 5ur5ose of 5roducing 3a4 summative information so that the institution can award grades9 3b4 information that will allow accreditation b. the e=ternal accrediting authorit.9 and 3c4 information that will allow another institution to calculate the amount of credit to be granted$ A single 5rogramme might include units whose assessment 5rocedures do one of these things or several at once$ Similarl.9 items 0 and G below overla5 to an e=tent9 but differ in their focusB item 0 is oriented towards the institution and its assessment 5olicies while item G is oriented towards the broader constituenc. of stakeholders in the assessment 5rocess$ !he checklist follows: 314 'hat broad area is being assessedI ,or e=am5le9 inter5reting9 translation9 subtitling9 s5ecific language combinations9 etc$ 324 'hat is the 5ur5ose of the assessment instrumentI ,or e=am5le9 is it aimed at: #easuring a5titude 3e$g$ to enter a training course4B etermining 5lacement 3e$g$ at a 5articular starting 5oint in a training course4B Providing formative assessment 3i$e$ the skills and knowledge attained at 5oints during a training course4B Providing summative assessment 3i$e$ the skills and knowledge attained at the end of a training course4B Accreditation 3e$g$ for entr. into a 5rofessional bod.4B Credit transfer 3e$g$ to allow student mobilit. between univer sities4I 3%4 'hat com5etencies are assessed9 e$g$ language 1 and language 2 knowledge9 transfer com5etence9 s5eed9 accurac.9 memor.9 terminolog.9 cultural knowledge9 etc$I 3)4 'hat is the form of the assessment instrumentI ,or e=am5le9 a timed translation9 an inter5reting role 5la.9 a multi5le choice test9 etc$ 3(4 'hat is the basic a55roach of the instrumentI ,or e=am5le9 is it norm-referenced9 i$e$ ranking candidates from best to worstB or is it criterion-referenced9 i$e$ measuring 5erformance against a known criterionI -r does it assess skills learned on the @obI 304 'hat kind of results does the instrument generateI ,or e=am5le9 does it generate a Aualitative descri5tion of 5erformance9 a numerical score based on ob@ective items9 a 5assJfail result9 etc$I 314 /ow well does a norm-referenced instrument discriminate among candidatesI n
2*8
3G4 'hat are the re5orting mechanismsI ,or e=am5le: 'ho receives feedback 3e$g$ candidate9 instructor9 institution4I 'hen does feedback occur 3e$g$ immediatel.9 months later4I /ow is feedback given 3e$g$ Aualitativel.9 Auantitativel.4I 364 /ow valid is the assessment instrumentI 3184 /ow reliable is the assessment instrumentI 'e note in advance of the discussion that some of the items in the list are sim5l. not discussed in the materials that we e=amined$ 'e will return to these ga5s later in this cha5ter$
Translation Assessment
'orks on assessment in translation can be divided into two broad categories of assessment 5ur5ose: a reditati#n and pedag#g'$ reflecting the two broad constituencies of recruitment and training$ In the accreditation area9 SchQffner 3166G4 5rovides a critiAue of the Institute of +inguists s.llabus in &erman$ A ;" accreditation 5ers5ective from 2ei@ing is 5rovided b. 'u 3166)49 while 2ell 3166149 #artin 316614 and -Colins 3166G4 discuss national accreditation in Australia$ !he offerings from 2ei@ing and Australia each deal with both inter5reting and translation9 while all the works deal in some fashion with tests that bestow a 5ublic validation of com5etence$ !he 5edagog. area in translation is less clear cut in terms of 5ur5ose: 2runette 328884 makes some reference to translation didactics in her attem5t to establish a terminolog. for translation Aualit. assessment9 but is not clear about 5ur5ose9 for e=am5le9 diagnostic9 formative9 or summative assessment$ olleru5 3166%49 <ussmaul 3166(4 and SainC 3166%4 are clearl. concerned about formative assessment9 while ,arahCad 316624 and Ivanova 3166G4 discuss summative assessment in the form of final translation e=aminations at universit.$ ?ames et al. 3166(4 is the onl. work in our selection to e=amine credit transfer 3in the area of screen translation49 while Cam5bell 316614 makes some small inroads into diagnostic assessment$ Interestingl.9 we came across ver. little discussion of a5titude testing for translator education9 although Cestac 316G14 describes selection tests for recruitment at ;" /eadAuartersB conversel. there is a good deal of discussion of a5titude for inter5reter education 3cf$ below4$ 'hat is also interesting is that a number of writers discussed translation assessment without making an. reference to 5ur5ose 3for e=am5le9 2owker9 28884$ Something of a h.brid is the Institute of +inguists "ew i5loma in :nglish and Chinese described b. -starhild 3166)49 which a55ears to be an attem5t to move an accreditation instrument from an earlier test of bilingualism to one that also tests translation9
Translation and "nterpretin/ Assess+ent 2*&
!he t.5es of translation com5etencies discussed range widel.9 but a crucial factor seems to be the e=tent to which translation is integrated into a socio-communicative framework$ 'here translation is not linked to such a framework9 a default 5osition seems to o5erate9 in which com5etencies are largel. target language 2# used. An e=am5le of this t.5e is olleru5*s 3166%4 assessment scheme for translation in the framework of language stud.9 which works em5iricall. from target language 3!+4 error anal.sis in order to construct a student feedback form that assesses detailed com 5etencies grou5ed under te&t$ spelling$ pun tuati#n$ +#rds/+#rd /n#+ledge$ s'nta&/grammar and e&pressi#n. SainC 3166%4 develo5s a similar feedback chart that allows students to critiAue their own work9 but does not s5ecif. the com5etencies9 other than to suggest that teachers can com5ile a *chart of \!.5es of #istakes\*B she suggests that for a 5articular te=t it might include #nne t#rs$ grammar$ le&i al items$ misunderstanding$ n#uns (agreement($ #missi#n$
prep#siti#ns$ pun tuati#n$ st'le$ register$ s'nta& and tenses. ,arahCad*s
316624 list is somewhat different: a ura '$ appr#priateness$ naturalness$ 3166G4 tells us a little about translation assessment at the ;niversit. of So5hiaB although she 5rovides a review of literature on translation com5etence9 the final e=amination marking scheme described sim5l. deals with le&i al in2eli ities$ le&i al err#r$ grammati al mista/e and st'listi inappr#priateness. Scholars working within a communicative framework grounded in theor. tend to go be.ond the classification of !+ errors$ An e=am5le is the a55roach taken b. /atim and 'illiams 3166G49 who9 although the. do not mention assessment in their discussion of a universit. translation 5rogramme in #orocco9 do outline a s.llabus based on a so5histicated model of communication which aims to have students Onegotiate the transaction and e=5loit the signs $$$ which surround them*$ >er. detailed ob@ectives - 5resumabl. reflecting the com5etencies to be assessed - cascade from these broad aims$ Similar is the a55roach of <ussmaul 3166(49 who lists a number of *categories of evaluation* of te=ts9 which seem to us to reflect com5etencies 3he is after all dealing with translator education4$ !hese are: ultural ade;ua '$ situati#nal ade;ua '$ spee . a ts$ meaning #2 +#rds$ 7language err#rs7 3<ussmaul*s Auotation marks4$ Integrated into a 5rofessional conte=t is the scheme of ?ames et al. 3166(49 where a blend of linguisti and te .ni al com5etencies is achieved in a discussion of screen translation assessment$ !he grou5s of com5etencies are p#rtra'al$ language ;ualit'$ grammar$ spelling$ pun tuati#n and time: #ding$ s'n .r#nisati#n$ p#siti#ning$ #l#ur$ brea/s bet+een subtitles res5ectivel.$ A 5rofes sional framework also informs the com5etencies assessed b. Australia*s "ational Accreditation Authorit. for !ranslators and Inter5reters 3"AA!I4 32ell9 I6614$ An a55roach to com5etencies be.ond the mere listing of '1'0 criteria is also found in the findings of e=5erimental tests re5orted
#.esi#n$ st'le #2 dis #urseO.#iee #2 +#rds. Ivanova
21*
b! $ied@iels i and Chernovat! =1''?> =dealing "ith both translation and interpreting in technical fields>. The authors claimed =1''?F 1?'> that )maturit! and experience in some technical field=s>) and )original and creative thin ing) "ere )factors found to achieve success in translating)% on the basis of measuring information errors% lexical errors% grammatical errors% referential errors% st!le mista es% and other criteria =cf. 1''?F Tables 195%1GG96>. The translation of a text appears to be the standard form for translation assessment% although &starhild =1''G> describes such tas s as s imming and scanning material in English and Chinese and producing )"ritten commentaries in the other language) =1''GF 5?>. The test described 9 the Institute of .inguists $e" -iploma in English and Chinese 9 is% as mentioned above% a ind of h!brid test of translation and bilingualism. 3urprisingl! there seems to be ver! little discussion of the ideal length of translation tests or the time allo"ed for their completion% let alone an! theoreticall! or empiricall! based findings on the sub0ect. In the accreditation area% $AATI follo"s the curious practice of a strict time constraint on examinations at the basic #rofessional level =522 "ords in t"o hours>% but a much more generous allo"ance at the Advanced level. -ollerup =1''?> uses texts ranging from 52 to Q22 "ords in his classroombased model% presumabl! on the basis that students can handle longer texts as s ill increases. <arah@ad =1''1> is braver% describing a range of test t!pes including single sentences for translation and "hole texts of 122 "ords. Cestac =1'IQ> describes the various 5$ examination papers% "hich include a Q229"ord general translation in three hours% a 12229"ord summar! in t"o hours% t"o G229"ord specialised translations in three hours% and t"o ?229"ord translations from the candidates non9main language in t"o hours. <arah@ad stands out in suggesting )limited response) items% "here students are faced "ith% for example% several translations of a sentence and are as ed to select the error9free version. .ittle is "ritten about the basic approaches of test instruments% and it is difficult to ascertain "hether norm9referenced or criterion9referenced approaches are generall! favoured. The upside9do"n mar ing scheme that seems to be commonl! used =error mar s being deducted from a perfect score> is so odd as to def! categorisation. Admittedl! it is possible to establish a ran order of candidates using error mar ing =i.e. the top candidate is the one "ith
the least errors>% 0ust as one can establish criteria for passing =i.e. ever! candidate "ith less than n errors passes>. 8ut the fundamental mathematics are so peculiar that "e "ould have to be careful in determining "hether it reflects a norm9referenced or criterionreferenced approach. Error mar ing "or s ver! "ell for T7 :ui@ sho"s% because the number of correct responses e:uals the perfect score. 8ut for translation the number of correct responses is infinite =on the rec oning
Translation and "nterpretin/ Assess+ent
211
that an! translation can be done in an infinite number of "a!s> or ver! large =on the rec oning that there is a ver! large number of possible errors in an! translation>. The theoretical conse:uence is a ran ed scale "ith an infinitel! long tail. .et us sa! that the )perfect score) is 122% and that the t"o top candidates score '2 and '5. $o" if the bottom candidate scores 2 and there is a normal distribution of scores in the candidature% "e have some sense of the relativities and "e can compute means% standard deviations% @9scores% and the li e 9 the tools of the trade in normreferenced assessment. The problem comes "hen poor candidates score belo" @ero =even though the mar er ma! report the result as @ero> 9 perhaps minus 12% minus ?2% minus I2% or minus an!thing at all. 8ecause there is no bottom to the scale% "e have no "a! to assess the relative achievement of the top scoring candidatesC depending on "here the bottom of the scale finds itself% one ma! be ver! good and one exceptional% or perhaps the! are separated b! a "his er. In fact the balance of evidence sho"s that error deduction mar ing is reall! a criterion9 referenced s!stem% in "hich the number of mar s in a perfect score is arbitrar! and bears no relation to the possible number of errors. A pass mar =i.e. the perfect score less the maximum number of errors tolerated> is simpl! an indication of a criterion. If this is true% then a list of ran ed scores based on error deduction is no more than a ind of statistical "indo" dressing. Teague =1'IQ>% in describing the accreditation mar ing scheme of the American Translators Association% confirms this. Although )the grader ... totals up the errors% and applies a final scale to get a final mar )% the result is simpl! )fail) or )pass) =1'IQF 11>. As a postscript% 8astin =1222> emphasises that )trainees must be taught ho" to do things right rather than being punished for "hat the! have done "rong) =1222F 1?6>C as both universit! teachers and accreditation examiners% the present authors are deepl! unhapp! about the practice of importing error deduction techni:ues into the educational context.
.nter&retin% Assessment
There is ver! little "ritten on interpreting assessment =*atim V Mason% 1''Q>. This ma! be partl! due to the relativel! fe" formal courses in the field "orld"ide% to the limited research in the area% and to the intuitive nature of test design and assessment criteria. The little literature that exists on interpreting assessment is dominated b! discussions on aptitude tests for entr! to conference interpreting courses =6eiser% 1'QIC (erver et al., 1'IGC (erver et al., 1'I'C .ongle!% 1'I'C 8o"en V 8o"en% 1'I'C .ambert% 1''1C Moser9Mercer% 1''GC Ar0ona9Tseng% 1''G>. The other categories includeF accreditation or certification examinations to enter the profession% in parti ular ommunit* 2nterpreting and ourt interpreting
818
=8ell% 1''QC (entile% 1''QC 3ch"eda $icholson V Martinsen% 1''QC MiguDle@% 1'''C 7idal% 1222>C testing that is related to interpreter training courses% most of "hich train conference interpreters =.ongle!% 1'QIC Macintosh% 1''5C 3ch0oldager% 1''5>C and :ualit! assessment of interpreting performance% mainl! of professional conference interpreters =#Bchhac er% 1''?C 8Mhler% 1'I6C 6opc@!ns i% 1''1C -e0ean .efeal% 1''2C 6alina% 1221>. The last categor! "ill not be discussed here given our focus on educational contexts. Common to all aptitude tests described in the literature are the competencies the tests aim to assess% the sub0ective mar ing criteria% and the high failure rate. There is general agreement on the s ills and abilities necessar! of a trainee interpreter to succeed in a conference interpreting course or in the profession =.ambert% 1''1>% although this is not based on an! empirical data% but rather on intuitive 0udgements b! trainers "ho are mostl! practising interpreters. These competencies includeF good no"ledge of the relevant languages% speed of comprehension and production% good general no"ledge of the "orld% good public spea ing s ills% good memor!% stress tolerance% and abilit! to "or as a team. The tests tend to be criterion referenced% "ith candidates re:uired to reach each criterion in order to pass the test. In some of the tests% the
initial components act as eliminator! components% "here a candidate cannot progress to the next phase of the examination if he or she fails an! of the preceding phases. The forms of the assessment instruments are also shared b! most entrance4aptitude tests. These includeF shado"ing% clo@e tests =both oral and "ritten>% "ritten translation% sight translation% memor! tests% and intervie"s. The rigour of these entrance tests and their high failure rates have led some to :uestion the appropriateness of these assessment instruments "hich seem to expect applicants to perform almost at the level of professional interpreters before the! even commence the training course =(erver et al.$ 1'IG>. The predictive po"er of the tests and the lac of ob0ective assessment criteria used have also been criticised b! some% "ho advocate research to correct these deficiencies =(erver et a1.%1'I'C Ar0onaTseng% 1''GC Moser9 Mercer% 1''G>. The reliabilit! of the test results is ver! difficult to ascertain. As MoserMercer =1''G> points out% there are no standardised interpreting aptitude tests. In spite of the advances made in language testing% little of that no"ledge has been adopted b! interpreter educators in the design of their testing =Moser9Mercer% 1''GC *atim V Mason% 1''Q>. 8o"en and 8o"en =1'I'F 111> state that their aptitude tests are based on ),obert .ado% then -ean of (eorgeto"n 5niversit!)s 3chool of .anguages and .inguistics and his criteria of validit! ... reliabilit! ... scoreabilit! ... econom! ... and administrabilit!) but% apart from mentioning a standardised
11?
English terminolog! test recommended b! the 5niversit!)s #s!cholog! Counselling Center% there is no other mention of ho" the tests are assessed for validit! and reliabilit! Moser9Mercer =1''GF 65> comments that 8o"en and 8o"en)s standardisation )in no "a! meets the criteria for true standardi@ation). T"o apparentl! "ell9motivated testing procedures are reported in the literature% b! (erver et al. =1'IGC 1'I'> and Ar0ona9Tseng =1''G>. (erver et al. =1'IGC 1'I'> report the results of a research pro0ect "hich developed and assessed a set of ps!chometric aptitude tests. The aim of the stud! "as to lead to the establishment of ob0ective criteria for the entrance tests used for the postgraduate conference interpreting course run b! the #ol!technic of Central .ondon. At the time of the stud!% onl! t"o thirds of students "ho passed the initial aptitude test successfull! completed the intensive six9month course. The final examination comprised language specific interpreting tests in both the consecutive and simultaneous modes. The stud! loo ed at three t!pes of testsF text9based% dra"ing on "or done in the area of text processing =6intsch% 1'QG>C sub9s ill9based% dra"ing on the "or on cognitive tests =Ec strom et al.$ 1'Q6>C and stressbased% dra"ing on the "or done on speed testing =<urneaux% 1'56>. 3ubtests "ere conducted under each of these broad categories. 5nder the text9based test there "ere the follo"ing sub9testsF recall9text memor!% recall9logical memor!% completion4deletion 9 clo@e% completion4deletion 9 error detection. 5nder the sub9s ill9based test there "ereF a s!non!ms test% an expressional fluenc! test "here candidates had to re"rite a text% and a verbal comprehension test. <or the stress9based test% the team used an existing instrument% the $ufferno test =<urneaux%1'65>% "hich measures the effect of speed stress on a cognitive tas . The results of these tests "ere compared "ith the results of the final examinations. The stud! found that candidates "ho passed the final interpreting examination had scored higher on all the entrance tests than those "ho failed. The researchers conclude that )the tests appear to have been successful in reflecting generall! the abilities re:uired for interpreting) =(erver et al.$ 1'IGF 1Q>. Ar0ona9Tseng emphasises the dearth of literature on )rater9training issues% decision9ma ing rules% reliabilit! and validit! issues% scaling% scoring% and test9e:uating procedures) =1''GF 6'>. 3he attempts to address this need b! providing a ps!chometricall!9based approach to the development of entrance tests% "ith a standardised set of administration procedures% a tighter set of assessment criteria% appropriate rater training% and pilot testing. These ne" tests have been used at the (raduate Institute of Translation and Interpretation 3tudies at <u /en Catholic 5niversit! "ith a'1;P% success rate for those selected to complete the course. Ar0onaTseng stresses the need fur valid and reliable aptitude tests for admission to interpreter training ourses(
21$
Although a5titude testing dominates the inter5reting assessment literature9 a small literature e=ists on accreditation or certification e=aminations for 5rofessional recognition$ #ost accreditation or certification e=aminations are conducted in the area of communit. inter5reting in
general9 or s5ecificall. for court inter5reting$ ,ew countries train inter5reters in communit. inter5reting or use universit. courses as the onl. entr. 5ath to the 5rofession$ -n the contrar.9 however9 entr. to the conference inter5reting 5rofession normall. de5ends on successful com5letion of a universit. course$ !he "ational Accreditation Authorit. for !ranslators and Inter5reters is the accrediting bod. in Australia$ Although there is accreditation for conference inter5reting9 e=aminations are not available for this skill9 and conference inter5reters gain accreditation on the basis of recognition of Aualifications$ !he bulk of e=aminations is at the Professional level 3formerl. +evel !hree4 and the Para5rofessional level 3formerl. +evel !wo4$ Courses in Australia that are a55roved b. "AA!I must adhere to "AA!I guidelines when conducting their students* final e=aminations9 which must reflect the "AA!I format9 content9 and assessment criteria$ 2ell 31661: 6G4 describes "AA!I e=aminations as *skills-based 35erformance assessments4*$ !he Para5rofessional e=amination contains two dialogues of a55ro=imatel. %88 words in length each9 and four Auestions on ethics of the 5rofession and sociocultural as5ects of inter5reting$ !hese e=aminations aim to assess the candidates* abilit. to 5ractice as *5ara5rofessional* inter5reters9 mainl. in the areas of welfare and education$ !he Professional inter5reter e=amination com5rises two dialogues of a55ro=imatel. )(8 words each in length9 with Auestions on ethics of the 5rofession and sociocultural as5ects of inter5reting9 and two %88-%8 word 5assages9 normall. s5eeches9 to be used for consecutive inter5retation$ !hese e=aminations aim to accredit inter5reters to work in all areas of communit. inter5reting9 including medical and legal settings$ Candidates must 5ass each com5onent with a minimum sevent. marks out of one hundred9 although9 because of the error deduction marking scheme used9 this cannot be inter5reted as a 5ercentage 3cf$ the discussion of error deduction marking earlier in this cha5ter4$ All e=aminations are marked b. two e=aminers using "AA!I*s marking guidelines9 which allow a good deal of sub@ective latitude$ 'hen discussing issues of accreditation for communit. inter5reters9 &entile 316614 makes the 5oint that evaluation criteria are usuall. vague9 with s5ecific meanings being left to the inter5retation of each individual$ /e also comments on the difficult. of achieving standardisation across language 5airs$ !hese e=aminations have never been s.stematicall. scrutinised from the 5oint of view of validit. and reliabilit.9 although 2ell states that: *Ln
Translation and "nterpretin/ Assess+ent 21%
order to conduct valid and reliable tests9 "AA!I contracts more than 2(8 e=aminers on )0 different :=aminers* Panels $$$ In order to kee5 the e=aminations relevant to the develo5ment of the 5rofession and the reAuirements of the em5lo.ers9 "AA!I consults regularl. with related individuals and organiCations* 31661: 6G4$ -ur assum5tion is that these measures are intended to generate debate between the 5rofession and "AA!I which will hel5 it to im5rove the general Aualit. of its testsB but this is of course a far cr. from s.stematic scrutin. of the testing regime$ !he validit. of the e=aminations has been Auestioned b. ue_as &onCaleC9 who criticised their ca5acit. to assess the skills and com5etencies reAuired b. court inter5reters9 stating that: the test should not be used to e=amine court inter5reters for three reasons: 314 it does not reflect the rigorous demands of the three modes used in @udicial inter5reting: simultaneous 3unseen or s5ontaneous49 legal consecutive and sight translationB 324 it does not test for master. of all the linguistic registers encountered in the legal conte=t9 $$$ and 3%4 it would not be a valid instrument to determine abilit. in @udicial inter5retation because its format9 content9 and assessment methods are not sufficientl. refined to measure the uniAue elements of court inter5reting$ 3 ue_as &onCaleC et al.$ 1661: 614 Anecdotal evidence shows that most 5ractitioners are also dissatisfied with the tests* validit. in other areas of communit. inter5reting9 es5eciall. with regard to the long consecutive 5assages which do not reflect the 5ractice$ In res5onse to such criticism9 "AA!I is currentl.
conducting a com5lete review of its e=aminations9 the results of which will not be available for some time$ ;nfortunatel. we were unable to access an. literature on the California Court certification e=amination and cannot re5ort on it$ Such information would have allowed for a useful com5arison with accreditationJ certification e=aminations in other countries$ !he court inter5reter e=amination conducted b. the #inistr. of ?ustice in S5ain com5rises two main com5onents: the translation of two te=ts9 one into each language9 without the use of dictionaries and with a onehour time limit$ !hose who 5ass this 5hase with at least (8N can take the second com5onent9 a one-hour written e=amination on the government9 the #inistr. of ?ustice9 the court s.stem9 and the laws and regulations surrounding workers* rights$ !here is no e=amination of an. inter5reting skill whatsoever9 or of inter5reter role or ethics$ !he onl. 5rereAuisite for sitting the e=amination is a secondar. school certificate$ #igueleC strongl. criticises this e=amination on the basis of lack of reliabilit. and validity :+iguele=e., 1,,,: 2.. #he certification examination which sworn
216
inter5reters take has currentl. been modified$ !he old e=amination consisted of two timed translations into S5anish$ !he first translation e=ercise is eliminator. and consists of te=ts ranging from 266-(88 words in length9 taken from magaCines or news5a5ers and with no standard guidelines on level of difficult.$ !he te=t for the second e=ercise is alwa.s on a legal or economicJcommercial to5ic9 with a length ranging from )12-16) words$ !wo hours are allocated 5er e=ercise$ -nce again9 #iguFleC criticises this e=amination9 making the observation that *it is reasonable to think that the same candidate sitting for different versions of the e=am could get ver. different results* 3166%: %4$ !he new certification e=amination does not im5rove much on the old one$ It maintains the translation e=ercises as described above and adds two com5onents: a translation from S5anish and an oral e=ercise9 where the candidate reads a te=t in the foreign language and then summarises it and answers Auestions on it to a 5anel of e=aminers$ #iguFleC attacks the new e=amination b. stating that *the most obvious 5roblem with this new test format is that it does not in an. wa. test a candidate*s abilit. to translate a legal document into the language of certification or to inter5ret in an. of the three modes$ !he e=am $$$ lacks even the most basic standards of validit. and reliabilit.* 3#iguFleC9 1666: )4$ "icholson and #artinsen 316614 describe the e=amination used in enmark for inter5reters to become members of the AuthoriCed Inter5reters Panel9 a55roved b. the "ational Commission of the anish Police$ Candidates must either 5ossess a degree in a foreign language or be a native s5eaker of a foreign language$ !he onl. testing conducted is an oral test to assess the candidate*s knowledge of anish$ !he other language is not tested nor are an. inter5reting skills 31661: 202-%4$ If little has been written on inter5reting assessment in general9 even less is found on an. t.5e of assessment as 5art of training courses$ #ackintosh 5oints out9 however9 that although there seems to be little 5ublished on assessment s.stems9 5erformance measurement is an area that has long been recognised as in need of s.stematic stud.: *some courses 3e$g$ :!I &eneva4 have develo5ed com5rehensive and detailed marking schemes for final e=aminations9 which attach different weightings to different com5onents of a candidate*s 5erformance* 3166(: 12G4$ !his ma. ver. well be so9 and a surve. of assessment 5rocedures used b. inter5reting courses worldwide might 5roduce ver. interesting results$ 'e have alread. e=5lained that9 in Australia9 training courses that are "AA!I a55roved must adhere to "AA!I guidelines$ /ence the descri5tion of the "AA!I accreditation e=aminations also a55lies to the final e=aminations conducted in educational 5rogrammes 3units taken 5rior to final e=aminations are not assessed under "AA!I guidelines4$ &erver et al. make a brief mention of the final e=amination for the
217
conference inter5reting course at the former Pol.technic of Central +ondon9 mentioning that it tests for consecutive and simultaneous inter5reting skills$ +ongle. 3161G4 mentions that the. use 5rofessional inter5reters as raters in their +ondon si=-month intensive conference inter5reting course$ +ongle. makes one interesting observation about the difference between intuitive marking and more s.stematic marking$ As 5art of a government funded course conducted b. her institution9 weighted marks were reAuested for s5ecific t.5es of errors$ !he raters had made an intuitive assessment of each candidate*s 5erformance at the end of the e=amination and were then faced with the time-consuming task of allocating marks for each s5ecific com5onent9 or deducting marks for each t.5e of error$ Sur5risingl.9 the results were ver. similar under both s.stems 3161G: ()4$ Sch@oldager 3166(4 5rovides us with a marking sheet to assess simultaneous inter5reting9 which can be used b. inter5reters and students to self evaluate their 5erformance9 as well as b. inter5reter trainers$ !he sheet 5rovides a set of criteria under four ma@or categories: Com5rehensibilit. and deliver.9 +anguage9 Coherence and 5lausibilit. and +o.alt.9 with arguments and e=am5les for each criterion$ Sch@oldager states that her *intention is merel. to offer an e=5licit9 s.stematic alternative to intuitive assessment 5rocedures9 whose criteria are not onl. im5licit but also9 I feel9 arbitrar.$ -nl. e=5licit criteria can be useful to learners* 3166(: 16)4$ (no#ledge Gaps in Translation and Interpreting Assess!ent It will be evident from com5aring our checklist with our surve. that there e=ist a number of knowledge ga5s in translation and inter5reting assessment$ In this section we briefl. mention some of the less crucial ga5s before a somewhat lengthier discussion of a fundamental omission in the literature - reliabilit.$ 'e will argue that this issue above all is in need of serious work$ !he first four items on our checklist are reasonabl. well covered in the literature9 at least as far as the traditional modes of inter5reting and translation are concernedB assessment in newer or more 5eri5heral modes of work such as inter5reting in mental health settings9 software localisation9 and multilingual advertising has barel. been discussed$ "evertheless9 we have a fair understanding of the state of the art in the domains of the areas and 5ur5ose of assessment9 the com5etencies assessed9 and the forms of assessment$ !here are9 however differing amounts of em5hasis with9 for e=am5le9 a 5re5onderance of work on a5titude testing for inter5reting9 and a s5read of work across achievement and accreditation testing in translation$ &enerall. s5eaking9 there is
some agreement on the sets of com5etencies assessed in both translation and inter5reting9 but little e=5licit discussion of the efficac. of 5articular assessment instruments to measure those com5etencies$ !he basic forms of both translation and inter5reting tests reflect a 5hiloso5h. that the test should resemble the real-world task9 although in conference inter5reting a5titude testing there are attem5ts to se5aratel. measure underl.ing com5etencies$ !he fifth item - the basic a55roach - is rarel. if ever e=5licitl. discussed9 but there seems to be tacit ado5tion of a criterion-referenced a55roach 3although with no solid discussion of the actual criteria4$ !he ne=t three items - t.5es of results9 discrimination9 and re5orting mechanisms - are onl. minimall. discussed$ !hese less crucial issues contrast starkl. with the 5aucit. of discussion on the central to5ics of validit. and reliabilit.$ !he knowledge ga5 in these areas is so large that we can do no more here than sketch the 5roblem$ Indeed we will sa. ver. little at all about validit. given that the consensus in measurement and evaluation circles is that tests cannot be valid unless the. 3or more
accuratel. their scores4 are reliable$ >alidit. in inter5reting and translation testing is tied u5 with knott. issues such as the nature of the com5etencies assessed9 the models of learning under5inning educational 5rogrammes9 and the e=tent to which tests should reflect 5rofessional tasks$ Reliabilit. stands out as the 5riorit. 5roblem9 and we devote the remainder of this section to a sketch of what we see as the main issues$ 'hile reliabilit. is e=tensivel. discussed in standard manuals on educational measurement9 we have drawn on 2achmann 316614 to frame our discussion given that this work on language testing is a little closer to home than more general works$ According to 2achmann: !he investigation of reliabilit. is concerned with answering the Auestion9 */ow much of an individual*s test 5erformance is due to measurement error9 or to factors other than the language abilit. we want to measureI* and with minimiCing the effects of these factors on test scores$ 32achmann9 1661: 10%4 !hese factors can be grou5ed into *test method facets*9 *attributes of the test taker that are not considered 5art of the language ca5abilities that we want to measure*9 and *random factors that are largel. un5redictable and tem5orar.* 31661: 10)4$ &iven that the latter two grou5s a55l. to tests of an. kind9 we will focus on *test method facets* as criteria affecting the reliabilit. of inter5reting and translation assessment$ Cha5ter ( of 2achmann 316614 is dedicated to test methods9 and the summar. of test method facets on 5age 116 could9 we feel9 be ada5ted to the inter5reting
Translation and "nterpretin/ Assess+ent 21& and translation
conte=t$ ,or e=am5le9 e&pli
itness #2 riteria 2#r #rre tness
resonates with the freAuent Auer. from translation and inter5reting e=aminees about fidelit. to the source te=t 3S!4B how closel.9 one is often asked9 do I need to stick to the originalI An ine=5licit translation test instruction could affect the reliabilit. of the test if one candidate believes that the target te=t must owe its lo.alt. to the S! rather than the target reader9 while another candidate believes the o55osite$ 1egree #2 speededness is highl. relevantB when we im5ose a time limit on a test9 do we know from em5irical investigation the e=tent to which the s5eededness affects 5erformance Aualit.I Is there a s5eed at which we will get the o5timum 5erformance from the ma@orit. of candidates9 and therefore have an o5timall. reliable test 3at least on this facet4I ,or inter5reting and translation9 a ver. significant test method facet is the degree of difficult. of the source material$ es5ite some inroads into the Auestion of translation te=t difficult. 3Cam5bell9 1666B Cam5bell V /ale9 166649 this remains a ma@or barrier to im5roving test reliabilit.$ 'e would assert that in the absence of convincing methods for assessing S! difficult.9 an. testing regime that regularl. introduces fresh S!s and 5assages 3for e=am5le9 for securit. reasons4 will 5otentiall. generate highl. unreliable scores$ A basic conce5t in considering reliabilit. is parallel tests 32achmann9 1661: 10G49 from which can be derived a *definition of reliabilit. as the correlation between the observed scores on two 5arallel tests*$ In other words9 the most reliable test is one where 5arallel versions .ield the same scores 3i$e$ a 5erfect correlation4$ In translation9 this would involve finding or com5osing two e=amination te=ts of e=actl. the same degree of com5le=it. in le=is9 grammar9 content9 st.le and rhetorical structure$ !he lack of an. real discussion of even this most basic measure of test reliabilit. is a serious indictment of the 5resent state of translation assessment$ 'hile occasional statements of intent are made 3for e=am5le9 2ell9 166149 we know of no serious work on basic Auestions such as the reliabilit. of translation test scores over time9 from language to language9 or from te=t to te=t$ Cam5bell 316614 makes a 5reliminar. fora. into the discriminator. 5ower of items in translation tests in an attem5t to launch a discussion about the internal consistenc. of such tests$ #uch work9 then9 needs to be done$ Again9 we rel. on 2achmann to frame the following discussion9 highlighting some of the s5ecific 5roblems encountered in assessing translation and inter5reting$
Internal consistency
If we assume that the basic test format is to translate or inter5ret9 then investigation is needed into the wa. that candidates 5erform on different parts of the written or s5oken in5ut9 and the e=tent to which those 5arts
ma. be differentiall. weighted$ A sim5le e=am5le is that of re5eated material in a written or s5oken 5assage$ /ow9 for instance9 do we deal with 5assages with re5eated chunks 3for e=am5le9 formulaic e=5ressions introducing clauses in a treat.4I !he im5lications for test reliabilit. are 5rofound: if a candidate mistranslates a re5eated chunk9 do we 5enalise multi5le timesI !his is a common dilemma in translation test marking that goes to the heart of reliabilit. because it ma. be argued that the candidate*s 5erformance could have been more reliabl. measured if he or she had been given a chance to be tested on a number of di$$erent itemsB the re5eats ma. be inter5reted as a test method facet that diminishes the discriminator. 5ower of the test and therefore reduces its reliabilit.$ -n the other hand9 the re5etitions ma. call for a creative solution that draws out the com5etence of the candidate$ Arabic9 for e=am5le9 often em5lo.s a degree of 5arallelism that is not tolerated in :nglish9 and we might reward the candidate who manages to conve. the rhetorical effect through a more natural :nglish device$ Internal consistenc. is also an issue tied u5 with te=t develo5ment and is 5articularl. critical when we tr. to construct 5arallel tests$ +et us sa. that we want to base a test on a 1888word 5ress article9 using9 sa. (88 words$ In the first 2(8 words the writer is likel. to be la.ing the groundwork for his or her argument9 5erha5s using iron. or humour$ !he ne=t (88 words ma. contain detailed e=5osition based on a technical account of the issue9 and the last 2(8 a concluding summar. that 5icks u5 the rhetorical flavour of the introduction9 or even introduces a new note of warning$ 'hile it would be tem5ting to think that the most efficient wa. to create 5arallel tests is to cut one te=t into two9 it is obvious that in this e=am5le neither half would reflect the rhetorical structure of the other and thus both would have different internal consistenc.$
Esti!ating reliability
!hose luck. enough to use multi5le choice and other brief res5onse test item t.5es have the lu=ur. of measuring test reliabilit. through s"lit-hal$ methods9 where *we divide the test into two halves and then determine the e=tent to which scores on these two halves are consistent with each other*32achmann9 1661: 1124$ !he crucial reAuirement of s5lithalf measures is that 5erformance on one half must be inde5endent of 5erformance on the other half$ :ven if we could find wa.s to s5lit inter5reting and translation tests 3for e=am5le9 odd versus even 5aragra5hs9 first half versus second half49 there is no wa. that the two halves can be inde5endentB if the. were9 the. would not constitute a te=t$ S5lithalf methods a55ear9 then9 to be ruled out$ An alternative a55roach - the <uder-Richardson reliabilit. coefficients - suffer the same fate for different reasons$ !he <R formulae are based on the means and variances
Translation and "nterpretin/ Assess+ent 221
of the items in the test9 and assume that all items *are of nearl. eAual difficult. and inde5endent of each other* 31661: 1104B even if discrete items could be identified9 the criteria of eAual difficult. and inde5endence would be im5ossible to achieve$ Indeed9 inter5reting and translation tests seem to have much more in common with o5enended instruments like essa.s9 where statistical methods of estimating reliabilit. on the basis of individual test items are e=tremel. difficult to a55l.$ !he 5ractice of *second markers*9 *trial marking*9 etc$ indicates a focus on the marker rather than the items as a source of information about reliabilit.$ 2achmann s5eaks of intra- and inter-rater reliabilit. 31661: 11G-G14$ :stimates of intra-rater reliabilit. are made b. having a marker rate the
same grou5 of sub@ects twice - on two se5arate occasions and in different orders - and calculating a correlation coefficient of some kind$ An.one who has s5ent a da. on an inter5reting assessment @ur. or marking a 5ile of translation e=aminations will be aware of the 5otential shifts in rater behaviour through fatigue9 or through recenc. effects as markedl. different candidates 5resent$ Similarl.9 a correlation coefficient can be calculated to estimate how consistentl. two or more markers rate the same candidates$ -rganisations like "AA!I and American !ranslators Association 3A!A4 a55ear to de5end heavil. on intraand inter-rater behaviour to achieve reliabilit.$ 'e can onl. guess at the e=tent to which educational institutions take rater reliabilit. seriousl. in achievement tests9 final e=aminations9 and the like$ It is somewhat sur5rising to note9 then9 that our sam5le of readings contained not a single ma@or 5ublished stud. on the issue of rater consistenc.$
*oncl ding Re!ar$s
!he translation and inter5reting research world asks a great deal of itself$ 'ith ma@or current research 5ushes in areas as diverse as cognitive 5rocessing9 cultural studies9 le=icogra5h. and machine translation9 it is 5erha5s not sur5rising that the field of assessment is in its infanc.$ 2ut assessment does need to grow u5 a little and realise that there are some bigger kids on the block for it to learn fromB the wider field of measurement and evaluation re5resents a solid source of knowledge that we can use to understand and im5rove our assessment 5ractice$ It is not @ust a Auestion of filling in the knowledge ga5s9 but a Auestion of 5rofession building$ As an a55lied disci5line9 translation and inter5reting 5uts 5eo5le into real and im5ortant @obsB better assessment means better translators and inter5reters$ Note
1( I 2e assistance
acknowledged
of 5driana %eissgen in underta ing the literature search is
222
Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es Re"erences
Ar0ona9Tseng% E. =1''G> A ps!chometric approach to the selection of translation and interpreting students in Tai"an. In 3. .ambert and 8. Moser9Mercer =eds> <ridging the ?a". Im"irical Research in &imultaneous Inter"retation +"". 6'9I6>. AmsterdamF /ohn 8en0amins. 8achmann% .. =1''1> Fundamental 6onsiderations in Language Testing. &xfordF &xford 5niversit! #ress. 8astin% (... =1222> Evaluating beginners) re9expression and creativit!F A positive approach. The Translator >/2$ 1?19G5. 8ell% 3. =1''Q> The challenges of setting and monitoring the standards of communit! interpretingF An Australian perspective. In 3. Carr% ,. ,oberts% A. -ufour and -. 3te!n =eds> The 6ritical Lin5 Inter"reters in the 6ommunity. !a"ers $rom the First International 6on$erence on Inter"reting in Legal, 8ealth and &ocial &ervices &ettings. AmsterdamF /ohn 8en0amins. F 8o"en% -. and 8o"en% M. =1'I'> Aptitude for interpreting. In .. (ran and /. -odds =eds> The Theoretical and !ractical As"ects o$ Teaching 6on$erence Inter"retation +"". 12'915>. 5dineF Campanotto Editore. 8o" er% .. =1222> A corpus9based approach to evaluating student translations. The Translator 641% 1I?9112. 8runette% .. =1222> To"ards a terminolog! for translation :ualit! assessmentF A comparison of THA practices. The Translator 641% 16'9I1. 8Mhler% *. =1'I6> .inguistic =semantic> and extra9linguistic =pragmatic> criteria for the evaluation of conference interpretation and interpreters. :ultilin/ua G95%1?195. Campbell% 3. =1''1> To"ards a model of translation competence. :eta ?6419?% ?1'9G?. Campbell% 3. =1'''> A cognitive approach to source text difficult! in translation. Target ))T), ??9 6?. Campbell% 3. and *ale% 3. =1'''> +hat ma es a text difficult to translateL !roceedings o$ the )CC8 ALAA 6ongress. chttpF44""".eltr.u:.edu.au4alaa4 proceed4camphale.htmld =1' April 1'''>. Cestac% <. =1'IQ> The recruitment of translators4prDcis "riters at the 5nited $ations and :ualit! control of translations. In M. (addis ,ose =ed.> Translation Ixcellence Assessment Achievement @aintenance +"". QQ9I6>. 8inghamton% $NF 35$N -e0ean .efeal% 6. =1''2> 3ome thoughts on the evaluation of simultaneous interpretation. In -. 8o"en and M. 8o"en =eds> Inter"reting besterday, Today and Tomorrow +"". 15G962>. 8inghamton% $NF 35$N. -ollerup% C=1''?> 3!stematic feedbac in teaching translation. In C. -ollerup and A. .indegaard =eds> Teaching Translation and Inter"reting 9. Insights, Aims, 4isions. !a"ers $rom the &econd Language
International 6on$erence +"". 1119?1>. Amsterdam4#hiladelphiaF /ohn 8en0amins. -ue[as (on@ale@% ,.% 7\s:ue@% 7 and Mi elson% *. =1''1> Fundamentals o$ 6ourt Inter"retation. Theory, !olicy and !ractice. $orth CarolinaF Carolina Academic #ress. Ebel% ,... =1'Q1> Issentials o$ Iducational @easurement =1nd edn>. Engle"ood Cliffs% $/F #rentice9*all. Ec strom% ,.8.% <rench% /.+.% *arman% *.*. and -ermen% -. =1'Q6> @anual $or 2it o$ Factor-Re$erenced 6ognitive Tests. #rinceton% $/F Educational Testing 3ervice. <arah@ad% <. =1''1> Testing achievement in translation classes. In C. -ollerup and A. .oddegaard =eds> #liuilring Translation and Inter"reting. Trainit5c, Talent and
22#
Ix"erience. !a"ers $rom the First Language International 6on$erence +"". 1Q19I>. Amsterdam4#hiladelphiaF /ohn 8en0amins. <urneaux% +.-. =1'56> @anual o$ 0u$Tirno &"eed Tests and @anual o$ 0u$$erno Level Tests. .ondonF Institute of #s!chiatr!. (entile% A. =1''Q> Communit! interpreting or notL #ractices% standards and accreditation. In 3. Carr% ,. ,oberts% A. -ufour and -. 3te!n =eds> The Criti al Lin5 Inter"reters in the 6ommunity +"". 12'91I>. AmsterdamF /ohn 8en0amins. (erver% -.% .ongle!% #.% .ong% /. and .ambert% 3. =1'IG> 3electing trainee conference interpretersF A preliminar! stud! 3ournal o$ Mccu"ational !sychology 5Q%1Q9?1. (erver% -.% .ongle!% #.% .ong% /. and .ambert% 3. =1'I'> 3election tests for trainee conference interpreters. @eta ?G4G% Q1G9?5. *atim% 8. and Mason% I. =1''Q> The Translator as 6ommunicator. ,outledgeF .ondon. *atim% 8. and +illiams% M. =1''I> Course profile. -iploma in Translation =-ipleme de Traducteur>. The Translator P/1$ 1159??. *ouse% /. =1'I1> A @odel $or Translation Zuality Assessment. TMbingenF $arr. Ivanova% A. =1''I> Educating the ).anguage Elite). In 6. Malm0aer =ed.> Translation and Language Teaching. Language Teaching and Translation +"". C)-):C/. Man chesterF 3t /erome. /ames% *.% ,offe% I. and Thorne% -. =1''5> Assessment and s ills in screen trans lation. In C. -ollerup and 7. Appel =eds> Teaching Translation and Inter"reting *. 0ew 8oriJons. !a"ers $rom the Third Language International 6on$erence +"". 1Q19I>. Amsterdam4#hiladelphiaF /ohn 8en0amins. 6alina% 3. =1221> Hualit! re:uirements in conference interpreting. In The 8irst International 6on$erence on Translation and Inter"retation &tudies Theories o$ Trans lation and Inter"retation and !roblems in 2orean Translation and Inter"retation +"". 1'9?1>. 3eoulF *an u 5niversit! of <oreign 3tudies. 6eiser% +. =1'QI> 3election and training of conference interpreters. In -. (erver and *. +allace 3inai o =eds> Language Inter"retation and 6ommunication +"". 1191G>. $e" Nor and .ondonF #lenum #ress. 6intsch% +. =1'QG> Re"resentation o$ @eaning in @emory. *illsdale% $/F Erlbaum. 6opc@!ns i% A. =1''1> Hualit! in conference interpretingF 3ome pragmatic problems. In M. 3nell *ornb!% E #Bchhac er and 6. 6aindl =eds> Translation &tudies. An Interdisci"line. AmsterdamF /ohn 8en0amins. 6ussmaul% #=1''5> Training the Translator. Amsterdam4#hiladelphiaF /ohn 8en 0amins. .ambert% 3. =1''1> Aptitude testing for simultaneous interpretation at the univer sit! of &tta"a. :eta ?64G% 5I69'G. .ongle!% #=1'I'> The use of aptitude testing in selection of students for con ference interpreting training. In .. (ran and /. -odds =eds> The Theoreti al and !ractical As"ects o$ Teaching 6on$erence Inter"retation +"". 1259I>. 5dineF Campanotto Editore. Macintosh% /. =1''5> A revie" of conference interpretationF #ractice and training. Target N/1$ 11'9??. Maier% C. =1222> Introduction. The Translator >/2$ 1?Q9GI. Martin% #. =1''G> $AATIF ,ole and functions. In ,. 3e!mour and C.C. .iu =eds> Translation and Inter"reting <ridging Iast and West +"". 1?9?1>. *a"aiiF 5niversit! of *a"aii and the East9+est Center. MiguDleDe% C. =1'''> Current issues in court interpretingF 3pain% a case stud!. !roteus. 0rtoRlel$rr & the 0ational Association o$ TudBiary Inter"reters and Trans lators 8T9, )-L.
( 88@
Moser9Mercer% 8. =1''G> Aptitude testing for conference interpretingF +h!% +hen and *o". In 3. .ambert and 8. Moser9Mercer =eds> <ridging the ?a" Im"irical Research in &imultaneous Inter"retation =pp. 5Q96Q>. AmsterdamF /ohn 8en0amins. $ied@iels i% *. and Chernovat!% .. =1''?> .inguistic and technical preparation in the training of technical translators and interpreters. In 3.E. +right and ..-. +right% 0un. =eds> &cienti$ic and Technical Translation =pp. 11?9G'>. AmsterdamF /ohn 8en0amins. &starhild% E. =1''G> The Institute of .inguists $e" -iploma in English and Chinese 9 factors influencing s!llabus update. In ,. 3e!mour and C.C. .iu =eds> Translation and Inter"reting <ridging Iast and West =pp. 519G>. *a"aiiF 5niversit! of *a"aii and the East9+est Center. &@olins% 5. =1''I> Inter"reting and Translation in Australia. 6urrent Issues and International 6om"arisons. MelbourneF .anguage Australia. #Bchhac er% E=1''?> Hualit! assurance in simultaneous interpreting. In C. -ollerup and A. .indegaard =eds> Teaching Translation and Inter"reting 9. Insights, Aims, 4isions. !a"ers $rom the &econd Language International 6on$erence =pp. 1??9G1>. Amsterdam4#hiladelphiaF /ohn 8en0amins. 3ain@% M. =1''?> 3tudent9centred correction of translations. In C. -ollerup and A. .indegaard =eds> Teaching Translation and Inter"reting 9. Insights, Aims, 4isions. !a"ers $rom the &econd Language International 6on$erence =pp. 1??9G1>. Amsterdam4 #hiladelphiaF /ohn 8en0amins. 3chaeffner% C. =1''I> Hualifications for professional translatorsF Translation in language teaching versus teaching translation. In 6. Malm0aer =ed.> Translation and Language Teaching. Language Teaching and Translation =pp. 11Q9??>. ManchesterF 3t /erome. 3ch0oldager% A. =1''5> Assessment of simultaneous interpreting. In C. -ollerup and 7. Appel =eds> Teaching Translation and Inter"reting *. 0ew 8oriJons +"". 1I69'5>. AmsterdamF /ohn 8en0amins. 3ch"eda $icholson% $. and Martinsen% 8. =1''Q> Court interpretation in -enmar . In 3. Carr% ,. ,oberts% A. -ufour% and -. 3te!n =eds> The 6ritical Lin5 Inter"reters in the 6ommunity =pp. 15'9Q2>. AmsterdamF /ohn 8en0amins. Teague% 8. =1'IQ> ATA accreditation and excellence in practice. In M. (addis ,ose =ed.> Translation Ixcellence Assessment Achievement @aintenance =pp. 1196>. 8inghamtonF 35$N. Thorndi e% ,.M.% Cunningham% (.6% Thorndi e% ,... and *agen% E.# =1''1> @easurement and Ivaluation in !sychology and Ivaluation =5th edn>. $e" Nor F Macmillan. 7idal% M. =1222> $A/IT Certification on the "a!. !roteus. 0ewsletter o$ the 0ational Association o$ 3udiciary Inter"reters and Translators '4?% 19?. +u% /. =1''G> Tas 9oriented and comprehensive training of translators and interpreters. In ,. 3e!mour and C.C. .iu =eds> Translation and Inter"reting <ridging , Iast and West =pp. IQ9'5>. *a"aiiF 5niversit! of *a"aii and the East9+est Center.
Chapter 16
' Comment on Translation .thics and .ducation

'ERAR7 M<A ESTER
#eter $e"mar has stated that a valid text should among other things be ethicall! sound. *e argues that a text containing "ords li e bent, broad, dus5y, yid used pe0orativel! is thus deficient% and that conse:uentl! it is the translator)s 0ob to correct or gloss the text. +hile it is difficult to imagine immediate contexts in "hich some of these "ords =for example yid/ could be used in an! other "a! than pe0orativel!% except as citation forms% it is of course the larger context% and particularl! the purpose of the translation% that counts. There surel! can be no ob0ection to a translator putting such "ords into the mouth of a character in a "or of fiction or drama "ho is intended b! the author to be obnoxious. The innocence of "ords as forms is amusingl! illustrated b! (ore 7idal in his =to some tastes pornographic> novel @yron, "hen he replaces taboo "ords "ith the names of 0ustices "ho supported a 3upreme Court ruling that allo"ed each communit! the right to decide "hat is and is not pornograph!. Thus describing a sex9change operationF )This large artificial rehnDuist "as then attached to "hat had been m! 9 or rather M!ra)s 9 whiJJer white.# =M! emphasis.> If a non9fiction text does contain the "ords cited above in a pe0orative sense% then surel! the moral :uestion that arises is not so much "hether the "ords should be avoided% improved% or translated "ith or "ithout a gloss% but "hether such a text should be translated at all. This raises the "hole :uestion
of the moral responsibilit! of translators for their "or . Is the translator morall! responsible for the content of the text being
translated% and if so to "homL &ver the centuries there has been a9debate J... about "here the responsibilities or lo!alties of the translator should lie 9 with the author of<#$e source text% theJ reader of the target text% the commissioner of the translationL ,ecentl! Anton! #!m =1''Q> has suggested that translators Io!alt! lies "ith the profe==ion to "hich the! belong% and that the value of a translation is the de4ree to "hich it contributes to inter<ultural relatioms% 2t this is so% then it can certainl! be argued that 779
translators should not connive in the dissemination of ideas that the. regard as
re5rehensible$ Although the meaning is not com5letel. clear9 it is 5erha5s this that the !ranslator*s Charter 316604 5ublished b. the International ,ederation of !ranslators is referring to in Clause %9 which states under the &eneral -bligations of the translator that he *shall refuse Alll$ to give a te=t an inter5retation of which he does not a55rove9 or which would be contrar. to the obligations of his 5rofession*$ In 5ractice9 however9 the situation is not so sim5le$ A freelance translator 5erha5s has the lu=ur. of being able to refuse a commission to translate a te=t which offends herJhis 5rinci5les9 but translators who are em5lo.ed in full-time 5ositions b. firms9 institutions9 or translation agencies 5robabl. cannot do that if the. wish to kee5 their @obs$ !his kind of situation can 5erha5s most easil. arise in a totalitarian state9 where a translator em5lo.ed in the government service ma. well be forced to translate te=ts whose ideological content is obno=ious to herJhim or face loss of em5lo.ment9 disgrace9 or worse$ -n the other hand9 it is not a55ro5riate in such cases for the rest of the translating communit. to ado5t a holierthan-thou attitude - and the situation comes much nearer home with some of the translated *information* 5ut out b. multinational cor5orations9 for e=am5le$ -f course9 the translator is essentiall. in the same 5osition here as the creator of an. 5roduct - for e=am5le9 someone working in a munitions factor.$ In the case of translators9 the situation can be e=acerbated because the. can easil. become associated with the end use to which the 5roduct is 5ut when their name is attached to that 5roduct$ Det it is not alwa.s 5ossible for the translator to know to @ust what ends their translation will ultimatel. be 5ut$ !he same te=t can be used in ver. different wa.s$ @ein 2am"$ can be translated as an informative te=t to be used b. non&erman s5eaking scholars to learn e=actl. what /itler wrote$ !here is nothing re5rehensible in this$ !he same translation can be em5lo.ed b. some neo-"aCi organisation in order to disseminate racial hatred$ !his is obno=ious9 but surel. the translator cannot be held res5onsible for the use to which herJhis work is ultimatel. 5ut in such a caseI 'here translators do know9 or strongl. sus5ect9 that the use to which the translation will be 5ut conflicts with their 5rinci5les9 then it is u5 to them to decide whether or not to follow the dictates of their conscience$ In such circumstances the translator cannot disclaim res5onsibilit. for herJ his te=t 3*I was onl. obe.ing orders*4$ ;ltimatel. translators* res5onsibilit. is not to the author9 or the reader9 or the commissioner9 or to the translating 5rofession but to themselves$ -ne environment where the moral dimension of translation can9 and must9 be accorded a more 5rominent 5osition is in educational institutions that 5rovide translator training$ !his was brought home to me recentl. in a translation course I was teaching in m. own
A Co++ent on Translation ;thi s and ;du ation 227
universit.$ I had 35erha5s rather carelessl.4 set m. students the task of translating a brochure that was distributed to visitors to a nuclear 5ower 5lant$ -n dee5er e=amination it turned out that the te=t9 which 5osed as informative9 was in fact a 5iece of s5ecial 5leading on behalf of the nuclear energ. industr.$ -ne of m. students9 although she did the assignment9 commented that in real life she would have refused to translate this te=t because it conflicted with her own dee5l. held &reen convictions about the dangers to the environment 5osed b. nuclear 5ower$ She further commented that9 were she em5lo.ed b. a translation agenc. that had been engaged to translate the brochure9 she would be e=tremel. troubled about having to translate it$ I felt that her comments were not onl. @ustified but also an im5ortant reminder that 5articularl. in education we should not forget the moral as5ect of translation$ Peter "ewmark draws attention at the end of his 5a5er to the conflict in values between the universit. and the market$ It seems to me as one working in a universit. de5artment of translation studies that academia9 too9 in an effort to rid itself of its ivor. tower image is becoming so obsessed with the values of the market 3i$e$ with vocational training4 that we
sometimes forget that there is an ethical as5ect contained in the et.molog. of the word vocation 3a calling4$ It remains one of the fundamental tasks of the universit. to concern itself with education in the fullest sense$ !his means that we must aim to educate translators who are not mere automata re5roducing the ideas o$ others9 but who are thinking individuals whose ultimate res5onsibilit.$ for wha. the. do is to their own conscienceB$9$
Re"erences
P.m9 Anthon. +)CC-/ !our une HtiDue du Tradecteur. Artois: Presses universitaires d*Artois$ The Translator#s 6harter +)CC./. Paris: ,I!$
Index
accreditation see :ualifications acron!ms 61 addressee4reader involvement% (erman9English texts 1Q?96% 1QQ 6I9' aesthetics of translation 1G% 1?% 5'% Q1% 1Q596 Africa% English spea ers in 15' Agnihotri% ,.6. and 6hanna% A... 15' Alhambra% 8ible% Kin! )ames Dersion #7 8o"en% -. and 8o"en% M. 11191? 8runer% /erome IQ 8ut@ amm% +. 1?1 advertisements 569Q% Campbell% 3tuart I9'% 62% 12I% 11' Candolle% Alphonse de 1519?%15G95 capitalisation of (erman nouns 1?G% 1?6 captioning =intralingual subtitling> 1''9122 case s!stem% (erman 11'9?2 Catford% /. C. 1G2% 1GG% 1G5 censorship 1G' certification see :ualifications Cestac% <. 11% 12I Chau% 3imon 1G95% 1Q% ?5% G69Q children)s literature 1' Chinese% $e" -iploma in English and 12I% 112 Choms !% $oam Q'%165 clues IQ% I' co9"riting 6' cohesiveness% (erman9English texts 1Q596 Coleridge% 3amuel Ta!lor 115 Colling"ood% ,.(. II collo:uialisms 61 )communication precedes language) I69Q% I' communicative translation G1% GQ9I% 5Q 9 assessment approach 12' 9 versus semantic translation 119?% 1G% 6I9Q1% QGn. compounds% (erman 1?291 computers ?291% ??9G% G195 contextual parameters% anal!sis 1Q19? correlative theor! of translation 119? Corsellis% Ann Q court interpreters 61% 115916 covert translation see
see English93panish translation 5Alhambra> Irving>
America% English spea ers in 9 .atin 15' 9 $orth 15G95 American $ational Association of /udiciar! Interpreters and Translators 61 American Translators Association =ATA> 111%111 Anderman% (unilla 1?%1Q951 /assim aphorisms 11' aptitude testing 12I% 111% 11G
see also assessment Ar0ona9Tseng% E. 111% 11? Arnt@% ,einer 159Q art see pictures% text in Asia 15'962 assessment 6596% 1269Q% 12I911 9 basic approach 1269I 9 internal consistenc! 11'912 9 interpreting 11191Q 9 no"ledge gaps 11Q911 9 round9table discussion 16% 1G95% G59I 9 validit!4reliabilit! 11G916% 11I91'% 11291 see also :ualifications audiovisual translation 1'19G% 12? 9 approaches 1'G95 9 challenges 12291 9 changes 1'69122
9 preferences 1'596 Australia% $AATI accreditation 12Q% 12I% 112%11G915%116%111 8achmann% .. 11I91'%11291 8aile!% ,.+. 1519? 8angladesh% English spea ers in 162 8astin% (... 111 8ell% ,. I1% I1 8ell% 3. 12I% 12'% 11G915 8en0amin% +alter 55
)creative deviations) 15% 66 creative "riting 11G916
Der(ecktes Gbersetzen ? :o'ert Translation pro0ect
see also literar! translation criminal 0ustice s!stem% $ational Agreement 1IG%1I5 Critical .in international conferences 1II Cross% (raham ?1%??%?Q9I%GQ9I Cr7slal% -avid 15=%% 15Q9I% 15'% 162 culture II9E>% E*>% 9In.
)lxyond the information given) IQ% $0
? advertising st*les and onvention=S5,?@
Inde6AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA88/ 9)cultural filter) 16I9' 9 genre 1Q1 9 to"ards the )third remove) 12291 ethics 1GQ9'% 1159Q
see also
social translation
see also human rights legislationC truth 1thnolo!ue 15596

Eurobarometer surve!s 16291 Europe 9 audiovisual translation 1'?% 1'596% 1'I9'% 121 9 English spea ers in 1629? 9 (rotius programme 1II European Convention of *uman ,ights 1GQ9I%1I1 Evans9#ritchard% E.E. II9'
-anish see -enmar -avidson% -onald QQ9'% I1 deafness and subtitling 1''9122% 12?n. decomposition and recomposition I1% I1 deficient texts 1G915% 16% 5I962 -elisle% 0ean 1G?% 1G5 -enmar =-anish> 9 audiovisual translation 1'Q%1'I9'% 121 9 Authorised Interpreters #anel% examination 116 derivations% primar! and secondar! 122 deverbalisation 1G?% 1GG% 1G6 9 versus mista es 66 -Kas Cintas% /orge I% 1'5% 121 dictionaries 5Q didactic presentation% (erman texts 1QG95 -igital 7ersatile -isc =-7-> 1'?%1'I% 122 )diseased language) 5'962 -odds% /ohn ?291% ??% ?I% 5291 -ollerup% C. 12I% 12'% 112 dualities4dualisms 1G dubbing G2%1'5 9 changes 1'69Q%1'I9' in "or ing practices 121 9 -7- 1'I%1'' 1'596 -ue[as (on@ale@% R.> et al. 9#; -7- =-igital 7ersatile -isc> 1'?% 1'I% 122 )d!namic reflection of human activities) Q69Q economic texts% genre mixing 1Q6 enc!clopaedias 5I enc!clopaedic dictionaries 5Q English 9 as academic sub0ect 11G% 16596 9 in Asia =India% 8angladesh% #a istan> 15'962 9 and Chinese% $e" -iploma in 12I%112 9)diseased English) 5'962 9 in Europe 1629? 9 as lingua franca 15% 159'% 6291 gro"th and pro0ections 1519Q subtitling 121
examinations see assessmentC :ualifications experiential learning curve% public service translators 1IG deviations 15% 16 )fair)% untranslatabilit! of 6G% Q? <arah@ad% <. 12I% 12'% 112 field% contextual parameter 1Q1% 1Q1
film translation see audiovisual translation <ogart!% E!vor 1'% GG for"ard loo ing nature of human language QQ9I2 four9stage translation model 1GG <rance =<rench> 9 audiovisual translation 1'6 9 English spea ers 16191 9 as language of ideas and diplomac! 151 function in translation 569Q 9 national preferences gender% (erman 11Q9' genre 1Q1 genre mixing 1Q6 (entile% A. 11G (erman9English translation 9 addressee4reader involvement 1Q?96% 1QQ 9 capitalisation of nouns 1?G% 1?6 9 case 11'9?2 9 cohesiveness 1Q596 9 compounds 1?291 9 gender 11Q9' 9 pre9 and post9modification 1??95 9 presentation of information 1QG95 9 separable verbs 1?19? 9 tourism in Trier 15% 1Q% 1I% 61
see also (erman9English translation 9 modelling language shift 1619G 9 native spea ers 15G9Q% 16G% 16596 9 second language spea!ers /9@?-<, 165% 166
English9tip%rnish translation Irving>
(erver% &. et al. 111% 11?% 11691Q (in@burg% Carlo IQ (lass% #hilip 65 globalisation 62%16I9'% 121 (ottlieb% If. 121% 12? (raddol% #eter 6 (reece 1'Q% 1'I9' (rinun% /acob Q2
5Alhambra>
'19? Hau=, 'illiam 2d<?2lahE=ti(mt 2r(,& "
? umpotEFhlrl,air= 0h? 2", 2///?"ul%"ndm
*(uh+ $s,N-.l1*a * target 2r=h '?b
1 fa
lhs la v= M A A: 696= 696
8;0AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAATran=lation To(a.- Trend= and Per=5e<tive=

happ! renderings +trouvailles/ 65% 66 *arris% 8rian 6' *arris% ,o! I69Q *atim% 8. 9 and Mason% 1. 111% 111 9 and +illiams% M. 12' hearing difficulties and subtitling 1''9122% 12?n. 9 court interpreters 61% 115916 9 criminal 0ustice s!stem% $ational Agreement 1IG%1I5 9 European Convention of *uman ,ights 1GQ9I%1I1 .ind:uist% *ans ?'% G1 .inguistics and .anguage 8ehavior Abstracts =..8A> database 126
)home)% untranslatabilit! of 6G% Q? *ouse% /uliane 69Q% 16'% 1Q1% 126 *udson% 6enneth 5'962 human :ualities of "ords 61%6? human rights legislation 9 E5 1GQ9I% 1I1 9 5$ 1'% ?69Q% ?I% 5I% 6?% Q19?
imagination% role of 1G India% English spea ers in 15'962 communication technolog! =ICT> see audiovisual McAlester% (erard '% G596% G'952% 62 translationC later modes of translation McArthur% T. 155 Institute of .inguists machine translation see later modes of 9 International -iploma in Translation 65 translation 9 $ational ,egister of #ublic 3ervice MacIntosh% /. 116 Interpreters =$,#3I> 61%1I1%1II Magnusson% (unnar 5 9 $e" -iploma in English and Chinese 12I% Magritte% ,enD ?'% G2% G1% 51n. 112 9 house4 museum 62 institutional terms 61 Mahapatra% 8.#. 15' International -iploma in Translation 65 Maier% Carol 126 interpretation 1G1% 1G? Malm 0xr% 6irsten ?9G 9 spea ers of same language I1 mar et and universit! 1691Q% ?291% GI951% see also social translation 66 Irving% +ashington see English93panish Mauss% Marcel II translation +Alhambra, Irving> meaning 1?% 56 Ivanova% A. 12I% 12' 9 concept of 1G29Q% 152n. 9 contextual parameters 1Q1% 1Q1 /ames% *. et al. 12I% 12' 9 sub0ective approaches 1GQ9' 0argon 5'962 9 versus message 6'9Q2 mediation role of translators 6'9Q2 6apuscins i% ,!s@ard 11291 Merino% ,a:uel G no"ledge gaps% assessment 11Q911 message versus meaning 6'9Q2 6ohn% 6urt 1191% ?191% ?G% ?I% G2% GG95 metafunctions% contextual parameters 1Q1 6uder9,ichardson =6,> reliabilit! migration 1I'9'2 coefficients 11291 see also public services 6uhi"c@a % #iotr 5% 1291 MiguDle@% C. 115916 6ussmaul% #. 12I% 12' mista es 15% 16% 1?9G% 65 9 target language =T.>% assessment 12'911 .abrie% $. and Huell% C.16291%161 9 versus deviations 66 language of habitual use% translating out of mode% contextual parameter 1Q1% 1Q1 15%1'9?G%62 Modern .anguage Association =M.A> language shift% modelling 1619G database 126 later modes of translation ?I9GI% 6G95 morals see ethics 9 computers ?291% ??9G%G195 Morris% Marshall G 9 surtitles 16% ?'% 65 Moscr9Mercer 111% 11? 9 technological no"9ho" and e:uipment )mother tongue) see language of habitual 12291 use% translating out ofC native spea ers .atin America% English spea ers in 15' multimedia translation 1'G% 111?n. .ec% 3tanisla" >er@! 11' music hG95 legal translation 9 opera Ir6td%% fur*lh" /-, A0, -9
literar! translation 11191G% 1129? 9 creative "riting 11G916 9 cf. non9literar! translation 1G% 5Q% 5'% Q1% Q1 9 teaching 11Q91' 9 translator as "riter and critic 11691Q logic 5I9' .omheim% 3!lfest ?G% ?5 .ongle!% #. 11Q .u! en% (.1'5% 1'5%1'6 information and
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names 5Q9I $ational Accreditation Authorit! for Translators and Interpreters =$AATI> 112%11G915%116%111 $ational Agreement% criminal 0ustice s!stem 1IG% 1I5 $ational ,egister of #ublic 3ervice Interpreters =$,#3I> 61% 1I1% 1II native spea ers 6 9 versus non9native spea ers ?291% ??% 62 nature of translation 1?91G% 1Q91G% 559Q needs see under public services $eubert% Albrecht ?% 5Q 9 round9table discussion 12% 1G% 1Q9I% ??% ?6% ?Q%G1 $e" -iploma in English and Chinese 12I% 112 $e"mar % #eter 1% 19?% G% 6% I% ' 115 9 :uotations '1% 122% 111% 116% 1G6% 1GQ% 16I 9 round9table discussion 1?91Q%1'951 "assim 9 tributes to 1G2% 1I2 $ida% Eugene I1% I1%1G191 $ied@iels i% *. and Chernovat!% .. 12'912 non9literar! translation 1G% 5Q% 5'% Q1% Q1 9 needs acceptance of 1I?9G% 1I6 denial and rationalisation 1I? establishing 1I191 una"areness of 1I?% 1I596 9 process A 1I195 9 process 8 1I59' 9 process C 1I'9'2 9 professional regulation 1I69' 9 English 15G9Q%16G%1659 :ualifications 12I 9 Australia =$AATI> 12Q% 12I% 112% 11G915% 116%111 9 56% public service translators 1IQ9I% 1'291n. 9 5$ 12I 9 53A =ATA> 111% 111 see also assessment :uestions and ans"ers II% '2 9 ethical issues 1GQ9'% )race a"areness) 1IG reader4addressee involvement% (erman9English texts 1Q?96%1QQ reciprocit! II% '2% '1n. recomposition% decomposition and I1% I1 reference boo s 5I ,elationship #ostulate I1 reliabilit! see validit!4reliabilit! of
non9translation% translation and I191 $or"egian English spea ers 161 nouns% (erman% capitalisation of 1?G%1?6 opera texts% surtitles 16% ?'% 65 oral translation see interpretation originalit!% in creative "riting 11G916 &starhild% E. 12I% 112 #a istan% English spea ers in 162 parallel testing 11'% 112 parallel texts 16I #aris 3chool model 1G19? 9 fallac! 1G?9G 9 *aas)s criti:ue 1GG96 passing theories QQ9'% I291 pedagog! see teaching pe0orative terms 5I% 115 pictures% text in ?'9G2% G1% 51n. plagiarism 122 poetr! 56% 66 popular science% English9(erman texts 1QG95%1Q6 pragmatic translation Q191% QGn. prior theories QQ9I% I291 )privac!)% untranslatabilit! of ?69Q% ?I% 6?9G% Q?9G public services 61 9exlxrirntiel learning curve 1IG ? la el level I"t 3 9 nauon.il It97G 1 Ittti
.
assessment revisers% role of ?2% ?1 ),oc !) text 11% 1?9G ,ogers% Margaret ?5 round9table discussion 1Q951 9 #eter $e"mar 1?91Q%1'951 "assim 9 opening address 1? 9 participants 191% 1? sacred texts 15% 1I 3ain@% M. 12I% 12' 3almon96ovars !% .aura 11Q% 11I% 11'% 112% 11?n. 3chelle ens% #hilida 1I'%1'1n. 3ch0oldager% A. 11Q science of translation 1G screen translation 1'G second language spea ers% of English 15Q96G%165%166 3eles ovitch% -anica 1G1%1G1%1G?%1G5%1G6 semantic concepts ?Q9I semantic translation ?'% 5Q 9 versus communicative translation 119?% 1G%6I9Q1%QGn. separable verbs% (erman 1?19? )shado" meanings) 16' 3hields% Mi e ?1% G1% G19G social anthropolog! II9'% '1n. d6xi.d tnrn"lrtion 159It%% ?G9I% </, -/?< 9 nrlr of "nr/P m Q19G "e aI" r ultun

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Translation Today

Trends and Perspectives

Gunilla Anderman and Margaret Rogers

MULTILINGUAL MATTERS LTD Clevedon Buffalo Toronto Sydney

Contents ..........- vii Contributors: A Short Profile .......... . . viii

Part 1 2 Round-table iscussion on !ranslation in the "ew #illennium$ $ 1%

Part 2 % "o &lobal Communication 'ithout !ranslation

KirstenMalmkjxr.................. 0 'ith !ranslation in #ind

........ . . 92 ......... ...

8 !he !roubled Identit. of +iterar. !ranslation

16 A Comment on Translation Ethics and Education

Index ............................................................................................ ....22!

Contributors: A Short Profile

studies of (erman and 3"edish #al x!nl%i ;

Contributors: A Short Profile

Translation Today: Trends and Perspectives

Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es References

Round-table Discussion on Translation in the New Millennium

Pro"essor Peter Ne#!ar$

T%e nat re o" translation

T%e Disc ssion G nilla Ander!an

!hank .ou ver. much$ An. Auick comments hereI

Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es

'ound(table )is ussion

models of language% .inguistic Theor!% on the other.

Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es

Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es

increasing economic significance of technical translation have together resulted in a noticeable

'ound(table )is ussion

$e"mar )s. Than !ou.

Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es

'ound(table )is ussion

2& G nilla Ander!an

Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es John Dodds

millions of 5ages of :nglish that have to be translated9 it no longer matters financiall.

!hank .ou9 &raham$ &ideonI

I think that*s a good argument9 but is it reall. trueI

Albrecht9 I think9 and then ?ohn$

Peter9 would .ou like to res5ond to <urtI

'ell that ma. be so9 but $$$

'ell9 !erminolog. itself is full of e=am5les of that kind$

I didn*t sa. that$ I was talking about :nglish$

Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es

+ell that)s "hat I)m tr!ing to sa! 9 that)s m! "hole point.

8ut the! had to do it hereO And the! did it inade:uatel!.

Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es

5erha5s we should start with /ans$ 'ould .ou like to beginI

'hat about the te=t in the 5ictureI

2ut the. dub movies$

Des9 I know9 but .ou can*t $$$

'ould an.one else like to commentI <urt$

!hank .ou9 Albrecht$ &ideonI

Peter9 would .ou like to comment ver. briefl.I eter

I*ve alread. made m. comment$

I couldn*t have said thatL

Right9 -< - Simon$

'ound(table )is ussion

;. :urrent <ssues in 4an!ua!e an( 6ociet. 5#7778 6=9> //. #%,?9%.

No Global Communication Without Translation

Translation Today: Trends and Perspe ti!es

<erusalem be #mes in)isible b' t.e means #2 t.is interi#r7s unrealit'.

T%e University and t%/ Mar$et

1o 2lobal Co++uni ation 3ithout Translation