History of Western Costume A 20th Century retrospective In the last hundred years there has been tremendous upheaval

in society due to socio-economic-political reasons. This has influenced every facet of life and therefore, by extension, affected fashion too. The twentieth century has seen tremendous transition from slower forms of communication and travel to incredibly fast ones which are manifestations of the unprecedented strides in technology. While this century has seen womens emancipation to a large extent it has also witnessed several wars of varying magnitude and economic tremors which have rocked the world, affecting global consumerism to a large extent. THE EDWARDIAN ERA BELLE EPOQUE: 1900 TO 1914 Paul Poiret, Mariano Fortuny, Charles Poynter Redfern, Jacques Doucet, Edward Molyneux, Paquin With the death of Queen Victoria, England relaxed its rigid dress code. The Edwardian era was named after King Edward VIII who ascended the throne after her The period fin de siecle to WW I was an era of extravagance and high fashion. America was a relatively new nation gaining ascendancy in many ways including technology, science and even fashion. The International Garment Workers Union was founded in 1900. However, at the turn of the century, the Paris of Belle poque was powerful as a fashion and economic capital. It was a catalyst for a variety of energizing influences and trends that nourished and cross- fertilized it. International fairs benefited both luxury and peripheral trades. The prevailing fashion at the turn of the century in the Edwardian Era was the Grande Dame S-shaped silhouette. The "style tapissier" with over-elaborate frills and bows and festooned hats were also popular .The first couturier was Charles Fredrick Worth whose pioneering efforts paved the way for haute couture as we understand it today. With the invention of the automobile came a new line of clothes for the traveler: women wore huge linen clothes over dresses, hats tied down with voluminous scarves and dustproof veils- a symbol of the new motoring class. The tailor- made, a coat and skirt worn with a blouse popularized in the 1880s by Redfern for Princess Alexandra became fashionable, worn even by nonworking women when they travelled. Jacques Doucet excelled in superimposing pastel colours on his ornate gossamer dresses for the elegant socialite, with his more original designs for actresses both on and off stage. Mario Fortuny took

out patents on his dress designs for which he devised a special pleating process and new dyeing techniques. By far the most visionary designer of the time was Paul Poiret, whose creativity was not limited to clothes alone but extended to other aesthetic fields too. He encouraged women to discard their corsets in favour of high-fitting boned belts but also put them in Hobble skirts which bound their ankles. His colours were brilliant and inspirational motifs ranged from Oriental to Russian. The influence of periodicals and magazines grew steadily with the inclusion of photographers and illustrators. Among the best was Gazette Du Bon Ton founded in 1912 by Lucien Vogel. Vogue launched earlier in 1892 as a New York society gazette, was presented by Conde Nast in its present format in 1909. Later the French and British versions followed. The Art Nouveau movement affected every facet of design including fashion.

THE FIRST WORLD WAR: 1914 TO 1918 Fashion came to a virtual standstill during the war, but women took a giant leap in terms of emancipation. While men were away fighting the war, women were called to step out of traditional roles of governesses and typists, postponing social events in favour of nursing and taking on male roles of porters, drivers and policewomen etc. Women were forced to work in factories thereby requiring clothes like overalls and trousers. The serious mood of the nation and mourning for the dead inhibited pre-occupation with personal elegance and ushered in dark colours. From the economic point of view, decreased domestic production and currency restrictions contributed to the trend. Elaborate fashion in terms of material, trims and ornamentation prevalent in the pre-war period gave way to new developments in clothing. For both sexes clothes showed less variety. Garment production became easier but lacked the elegance of customized tailoring. Ornate styles were discarded in favour of simpler styles. Due to the need of increased mobility and less fussiness, skirts lengths rose from ankle to mid-calf while low-cut shoes replaced high heels as comfort and practicality took over vanity and variety. Encouraged to wear caps, women started to cut their hair short. When jobs became more regimented, the clothes tended to become more uniform-like. The cut of mens uniforms remained the same with fewer details since they led a more active life than earlier.

BETWEEN WARS: 1919-1929-1939 Jeanne Lanvin, Gabrielle Coco Chanel, Madeleine Vionnet, Elsa Schiaparelli, Jean Patou, Mainbocher, Norman Hartnell, Nina Ricci, Salvatore Ferragamo Post 1918, across the globe all wanted to forget the nightmare. The upheaval of war created a schism between the previously prevailing traditions and new developments in society. Therefore fashion in the Roaring Twenties consisted of clothes where restrictive styles in terms of ease or length were discarded. Long dresses with trains and corsets gave way to knee-length pinafores. The process of restoration of peace after the war saw upheavals which constituted a dividing line between the old Europe with its traditional values and a new society with an altered social composition. It was a society that enjoyed jazz dancing, swimming, travel and sunbathing - outdoor activities that toned the body and slowly popularized the revolutionary concept of tanning. Holidays now considered necessary for relaxation, encouraged designers to create sportswear comprising of wearable separates like trousers, suits and wrap skirts.Tennis whites made their appearance using knits. By and large, summer fashions doubled as tennis uniforms until the 1920s when shorter skirts gave women some freedom of movement. The Bachelor girl became a symbol of emancipation with her short hair, bare legs below the knee, wearing items of clothing borrowed from the male wardrobe. This new androgynous look led to a more feminine version of the same. The girl with the Flapper Look, had bobbed hair with fringes, a small close-fitting Cloche hat and a long string of pearls. She was slender in a bustless, waistless silhouette, wore short knee-length dresses with lowered waistlines. Men wore trousers called Oxford Bags so roomy and loose that they almost looked like skirts. Several movements at the time explored the relationship between Fashion and Art. Art movements like Fauvism, Cubism also found resonance in fashion. The Art Deco movement started in 1925 Jeanne Lanvin was a visionary who treated fashion as a lifestyle. Apart from made-to-measure tailoring, sportswear, fur, lingerie and interiors, her first perfume marketed successfully in USA was My Sin followed by 'Arpege' exploring the synergy between perfume, bottle design, clothing and lifestyle. The euphoria of the 1920s characterized by progress and radical changes, gave way abruptly to the Wall Street crash of 1929 where the US Stock Exchange collapsed, triggering the Great Depression. This economic disaster spread to Europe causing unemployment and inflation. As if in resonance to the market crash, skirt lengths fell. Couture and expensive clothing was not haute. Massproduced cheaper clothing and toiles of ready-to-use for making designer copies on ones own sewing machines came into their own to make clothing that balanced style with affordability. At this juncture America imposed a 90% tax on 3

imported clothes. Dress materials and paper patterns being duty-free, led to the development of reproductions based on simplified prototypes in variations of styles and copied in affordable fabrics. Since French fashion was somewhat isolated during the war, American designers developed co-coordinated outfits which gave women the freedom to mix and match and thereby to put together her own look. There was an overall trend towards classics and basics. After recovering from the economic slump in 1936, France introduced paid holidays and the enthusiastic crowds rushed to the seaside. This saw the rise of what we today call Resortwear with sundresses, backless swimsuits and even shorts. There was a huge expansion in the menswear market in fabrics like soft wool that emphasized youthfulness and relaxation. With increasing interest in sport, the lean, toned male body was emphasized by slim masculine cuts with padded shoulders and loose sleeves. In the history of fashion design, the period between the wars was dominated by 3 women designers. The meteoric rise of Gabrielle Coco Chanel was the legendary story of a woman who lived life by her own rules. Her designs were born in response to her own personal needs and corresponded with an image she wanted to create for herself. The birth of the blazer, masculine tweeds in boxy silhouettes, the knit twin-set, the origin of the little black dress and the strong branding of her logo of the intertwined Cs were examples of her creativity. Her perfume 'Chanel No.5' in a plain, unembellished bottle still continues to be a huge hit. Madeline Vionnet created timeless evening clothes that softly fitted the body without excessiveness. The cowl neck and halter neck are attributed to her. Though deceptively simple, the elaborate process of pinning and draping on dolls bestowed her with the title of Queen of the Bias cut. Elsa Schiaparelli had a humorous approach to design using optical illusion, witty accessories and trims characterized by whimsical touches like silk dresses painted with flies and lobsters. The launch of her scent Shocking and the vibrant pink which was her signature colour- characterized her inimitable style. THE SECOND WORLD WAR: 1939-1945 Madame Gres, Charles James, Pauline Trigere, Tina Leser, Claire McCardell, Jacques Fath, James Galanos, Bonnie Cashin With the outbreak of war again, wartime austerity was strictly enforced. Women once again enlisted in 'reserved' occupations like engineering, ship building etc. However the essential difference between the clothes worn during the two World Wars lay in the fact that now women's clothes were not defined by their new roles but by government regulations. Government rules set limits on amount of fabric to be used in each garment. The pencil skirt, wedge heels, shoulder bags were products of necessity. The key look of the 40s consisted of men in uniform while women were in simple skirts, blouses and sweaters which looked like uniforms, in colours like dusky blue, bottle green, burgundy and black. The Boiler suit and Siren suit were born in this era

With Paris couture in a state of hibernation, designers came from other countries to America. Pauline Trigere came from Paris and Charles James from England. Claire McCardell ushered in the concept of American sportswear. The distinctive Zoot Suits of Mexican origin, also worn by some Black Americans, consisted of baggy pants tapering at ankles, oversized jacket and wide-brimmed hat. Due to the economic situation, new marketing strategies were implemented giving birth to the rise of American ready-to-wear with the introduction of mailorder catalogues, techniques of re-production based on toile models using newly developed modest or synthetic fabrics which were earlier regarded as unworthy of couture. Meanwhile in England a committee consisting of designers like Edward Molyneux, Hardy Amies, Norman Hartnell and others were responsible for selecting attractive practical designs for mass production within the parameters of textile restrictions enforced in 1941 called Utility Clothing including the famous womens uniform called the Victory Suit. The end of World War II was euphoric - it heralded the end of rationing of clothes and Utility clothing. The Baby Boom began as couples opted for easy domesticity. After the liberation, the new post-war period saw the gradual revival of the clothing industry and rebirth of elegance. The development of boutiques made designer creations more accessible to the general public. The clear need for both practical daytime dresses as well as luxurious evening gowns was balanced. In 1947 with the lifting of fabric restrictions, Christian Diors New Look was born which became the new ideal of feminine chic with a tiny corseted waist, rounded bust and hips emphasized by peplums, re-establishing the supremacy of Paris as the fashion power base.

THE FIFTIES Christian Dior, Pierre Balmain, Norman Norell, Cristobal Balenciaga, Givenchy, Guy Laroche This period is known also as the Eisenhower years, as Dwight Eisenhower became the American president in 1952, followed by the coronation of Queen Elizabeth as the British monarch in 1953. The Fifties saw technological advancements accelerated by war. The textile industry made advances, thanks to introduction of synthetic fabrics like nylon which was used for rayon lingerie, hosiery and quick- to-dry swimwear. Natural fibres gave way to more popular polyester fibres like Dacron and Terelene as spandex heralded body-hugging silhouettes. In 1953 the first polyester suit was launched which, in spite of its crease - resistant qualities and low prices, was not used by mainstream designers.

The Sweater Girl Look popularized by actress Lana Turner comprised of a tight pullover worn with tapered slacks accessorized with bouffant hairdo and stiletto heels. Diors New Look which necessitated the rebirth of the corset now saw the rise of panty girdle made of stretchable lastex with satin panels and garters. Duality of looks prevailed. On one hand was the squeaky clean image of Pat Boone vs. the inimitable style of Elvis Presley. The sexy Marilyn Monroe, Sophia Loren and Bridget Bardot reigned while the innocent, waif-like Audrey Hepburn was the love of millions. Latin rhythms like Mambo and Cha-cha were popular. In 1953 Marlon Brando in 'West Side Story' made the black motorcycle Perfecto jacket a symbol of tough-guy rebellion along with T-shirts and battered jeans. The biker uniform became the symbol of youthful rebellion. In the 50s are also the English 'Teddy boys' who wore long overcoats, shoestring ties, stovepipe trousers, thick soled beetle-crusher shoes with Elvis Presley hairdos. Teddy girls wore caps and carried duffle bags. THE SWINGING SIXTIES Pierre Cardin, Mary Quant, Andre Courreges, Yves Saint Laurent, Paco Rabanne, Emilio Pucci, Rudi Gernreich, Giorgio di SantAngelo , Emanuel Ungaro, Oleg Cassini The end of the 50s marked the end of the post-war depression. The undisputed supremacy of Paris as the touchstone of fashion was affected by Americas offer of good quality mass-produced goods. Economic growth made young people, the adolescent Baby Boomers, a force to reckon with. For the first time independent youth fashion accelerated the generation gap. Political leaders emerged as style icons. John F. Kennedy, the young American President accompanied by First Lady, Jacqueline who epitomized style with her bouffant hair and pill box hats, were the equivalent of royalty. The slim, below-the-hip Nehru jacket with a short standup collar was the first major variation in menswear in decades. Prints were manifestations of anarchic ideas in art, furniture design and literature which permeated society. Op Art and Pop Art found expression in clothes too. Emilio Pucci was famous for simple tubular clothes like sleek shift dresses, tunics and beachwear. Strides in space technology by NASA, was the inspiration for Space Age futuristic clothes of Andre Courreges and Pierre Cardin. The Hippie movement started with disenchantment with the Vietnam War when the youth started detaching themselves from mainstream consumerist society by creating their own culture. The movement began in San Francisco as Afghanistan and India became fashionable destinations with a growing interest in other religions/ cults like Buddhism and Hare Ram Hare Krishna. The flower children or Hippies wore multi-coloured caftans, tasseled dresses, flat leather sandals, headbands copied from Native American Indians, scruffy flared jeans and bell bottoms with undertones of illegal drugs and alcohol. Flower power which was their way of greeting each other as a symbol of peace was responsible for the 'handmade' look, which mainstream picked up later. This 6

gave birth to the Gypsy Look which consisted of embroidered and patch worked waist coats worn over bright coloured tunics, shirts over striped trousers or baggy jeans, Afghan coats with frilly shirts and bell bottoms. It is said the Mini was born on the street at a time when Beatles at Woodstock and the Rolling Stones created new music and Mary Quant fashioned a new look in Swinging London. Street Fashion was the driving force for this youthful look epitomized by the model Twiggy, comprising of the 18 mini skirt, short shifts and smock dresses with light coloured stockings and flat shoes giving a childlike appearance. The 60s also saw the use of alternative materials like plastic, metal links, vinyl and aluminum. Paper suits and underwear were ultimate symbols of a disposable society. THE SEVENTIES Vivienne Westwood , Zandra Rhodes, Laura Ashley, Sonia Rykiel, Kenzo, Karl Lagerfeld, Issey Miyake, Jean Charles de Castelbajac, Gianni Versace, Jil Sander, Thierry Mugler, Claude Montana, Angelo Tarlazzi, Gianfranco Ferre, Missoni, Giorgio Armani, Oscar de la Renta , Geoffrey Beene, Halston, Bill Blass, Ralph Lauren, Calvin Klein, Katherine Hamnett, Vivienne Westwood, Sonia Rykiel, Laura Ashley, Charles de Castelbajac In the Seventies what prevailed was not one fashion but many fashions. Therefore a multitude of ideas, even contradictory ones co-existed simultaneously. In order to entice women to revamp their wardrobes, the Midi was heralded as the new length. Yet in the next season it was Hot-pants thigh high shorts in cotton, satin, leather and denim. At the beginning of the decade, the rejection of society continued through adoption of clothes like Afghan jackets, Indian shirts etc from far-off places in the continued search for peace and liberty. It was also a decade where discos and clubs proliferated. Movies like Saturday Night Fever and Grease contributed to the new popularity of black motorcycle jackets and cycle skirts. This was a decade where there were several expressions of social or political protest through fashion. The rise of Punks was a statement of being antiestablishment and anti-fashion which, as a word, was the opposite of fashion. It represented everything negative in the context of current society - anarchy, destruction of order and chaos. The Punks sported hairstyles ranging from spiked hair cuts, Mohawk haircuts in pink, purple or green or even bald heads. The most important accessories were in metal - spikes, studs, heavy crosses, bracelets, and several earrings on one ear-lobe, chains and safety pins. The basic colour was black - turtlenecks, shirts, short leather skirts and tight leather pants. In America new names emerged. Sportswear designer Anne Klein showed clean, crisp styles, Calvin Kleins designer jeans, Diane von Furstenbergs 7

perfectly-cut wrap dresses, Ralph Laurens denims, Halstons reconciliation of couture dresses for special occasions with comfort and ease, while the names of Bill Blass and Geoffrey Beene, Oscar de la Renta became synonymous with classic, elegant evening dresses which impressed the European press. Giorgio Armani, master of pattern, cut and fit, initially produced only menswear ,which was casual yet inventive through immaculate technical perfection which was well suited to mass production. Kenzo combined Oriental / Japanese influences with colourful florals. In 1964 he had launched his Jungle Jap collection in knits where Kabuki-coloured tunics, wide-legged pants and smocks - everything multi-patterned and layered, proclaimed his roots. THE EIGHTIES Thierry Mugler, John Paul Gaultier, Claude Montana, Christian Lacroix, Azzedine Alaia, Lagerfeld for Chanel, Romeo Gigli, Norma Kamali, Kansai Yamamoto, Yohji Yamamoto, Commes des Garcons, Dolce and Gabbana, Michael Kors, Rifat Ozbek, Donna Karan, Paul Smith, ANTWERP SIX. The decade was an era of boardroom dressing and power. For the Yuppies, appearance was equated to performance with a strong desire for power. The independent 80s woman was a professional career woman who believed in equaling men. The competitive spirit saw Power Dressing for women through padded shoulders, small waists and wide peplums as seen in soaps like Dallas and Dynasty . Glamour was celebrated in media-saturated occasions and highly publicized. As a result fashion was in constant revolution every six months. Conversely, the New Man was sensitive and caring. Karl Lagerfeld, always hidden behind dark glasses affects the cultivated air of a dandy. He has successfully re-invented Chanel elements, combining it with contemporary elements. Sporty casuals and easy practicality in luxury sportswear separates, characterized Norma Kamali's sporty sweatshirt dresses and knits. Donna Karans business encompassed menswear, childrenswear, perfume, New York Home with extension of her diffusion line DKNY. Her business was publicly traded publicly and bought by LVMH group. Japanese fashion is significantly represented by Comme des Garcons, the label designed by Rei Kawakubo, which has become synonymous with a particular avant - garde look. Her clothes are deliberately designed and constructed to look unfinished and worn, defying common sense and challenging established notions of perfection. She is an architect of dress, deconstructing garments in order to build them anew. Issey Miyake synthesizes Japanese designs, textures and techniques with western concepts. He also works with the idea of universal sizing for practical and democratic clothing.

In America Calvin Klein launched his full sportswear line in the mid -70s with the invention of designer denim. His CK brand is among the most high-profile diffusion lines but his knack for creating best selling fragrances (among them Obsession, Eternity and cK One, the first unisex fragrance) is matched only by Armani. Ralph Lauren, launched Polo Fashions in 1968 followed by 'Polo' perfume for men and 'Lauren' perfume for women in 1978. The 80s saw him expanding in other areas - sportswear, luggage and eyewear. For the elite faced with avant - garde fashions, he represents a rock - steady classic style. The Dolce and Gabbana signature style is exciting for the merging polar opposites of masculinity/ femininity, softness/ hardness, innocence/ seduction. Branching out into childrenswear, accessories and fragrances, their clothes have high doses of glamour and glitz. ANTWERP 6 Belgium has rarely played a role in international politics. Seemingly completely oblivious to Belgium's marginal position in the international fashion world, Mary Prijot founded the Fashion Department at Royal Academy of Antwerp where a new generation of designers learnt the 'purity' of fashion. New talent was encouraged through the establishment of Golden Spindle' contest which finally short listed the designers who have come to be known as the Antwerp 6. These Post-modern designers are Martin Margiela, Walter Van Beirendonck - the mastermind behind W&LT (Wild & Lethal Trash), Dries Van Noten, Ann Demeulemeester, (acknowledged as one of the pioneers of Deconstruction), Dirk Van Saene and Dirk Bikkembergs.

THE NINETIES John Galliano, Alexander McQueen, Stella McCartney, Emma Cook, Sophia Kokosolaki, Hussein Chalayan, Donatella Versace, Helmut Lang, Tom Ford. The 90s was a decade of some designers who produced functional outfits rather than fashion while simultaneously there existed individual statements of designers who were unafraid of breaking time-tested norms of fashion. This was based on the premise that Creativity by its very nature needs to be free. Unmitigated uniformity and homogenization of look would completely defeat the purpose of the creative instinct. Even the established Labels felt that designers with a freshness of approach and a sense of authentic, cultural belonging with financial support of powerful organizations could infuse new energy into fashion. A variety of looks from Grunge, DIY, rise of Diffusion and Pret-a-porter emerged. There was a universalization/ homogenization of looks adapted everywhere Japanese nightclubs, Manhattan, markets of France. The teenagers uniform of T-shirt and jeans, could belong to any corner of the world. There was a sense of minimalism in the 90s which resulted from progressive elimination and simplification. Technical know-how was important to convey the designers vision.

Donatella Versace, once muse and right- hand of her brother Gianni Versace, earlier designed Versus diffusion collection. After his death, she has successfully fused Giannis Baroque style with her own sensuality. Versace's use of flamboyant, rich prints, ancient Roman and Greco-Roman culture, and the ultra-glamorous celebrity-oriented look continues with the Versace label. Several graduates of Central Saint Martins College, UK, John Galliano pushes the boundaries of creation, presenting his clothes in a highly theatrical and exaggerated mode. As Creative Director at Christian Dior, he has revitalized the label with the complete support of LVMH. Alexander McQueen presents clothes in an ultra-theatrical mode with very bold, provocative themes. Now with a partner in the Gucci group, he is developing a global luxury brand bearing his name. Stella McCartney has proved her resilience and understanding of women's needs - sharp trouser suits and vintage style dresses. Committed to animal rights, she uses neither fur nor leather. Emma Cooks signature style is her focus on old brocade, recycled fur and gold yarn. Julien Macdonald dresses women in delicate clothes embellished with crystals presented with great showmanship. Now Creative Director at Givenchy after the exit of McQueen, he has revived sales for this luxury label. The 90s has been about de-luxe labels, business strategies, take-overs and mergers. This is important in order to resurrect the traditional image of a Label and to redefine it to connect with a younger clientele e.g. Donna Karan sold out to LVMH (Louis Vuitton Moet Hennessey) The brand of Yves Saint Laurent sold out to Gucci. The House of Gucci, founded in 1922 surrendered control to Invest Corp. in 1989. Fashion was increasingly corporate and each House belonged to a conglomerate. Designers are hired and fired according to market trends and few dare to be daring and original (John Galliano is an exception). Even when some designers (like Ungaro, Kenzo) are alive, they may have nothing to do with the clothes produced by the Houses that bear their names e.g. (Hubert de Givenchy hated Alexander Mcqueens clothes) THE PRESENT DECADE The current decade shows an increasing trend of mingling design and business expansion strategies. It is interesting to see the role played by descendents of the original designers, in business decisions e.g: Aerin Lauder, grand-daughter of Estee Lauder (Creative Director) Delphine Arnault-Garcia, daughter of Bernard Arnault, head of Dior (only woman member of LVMH board, also Pucci and Loewe boards) Margherita Missoni, heiress to the Missoni House Vivia Ferragamo, grand-daughter of Salvatore Ferragamo (Vivia own line) Jennifer Woo, heiress to Lane Crawford empire Olaf Van Cleef, scion of Van Cleef family The rise of Luxury and even Hyper-luxury labels is an indicator of the spending power and desire for ultra-exclusivity by a niche segment of society. This spans 10

from clothing, accessories, cosmetics and perfume, luggage, restaurants, hotels, spas, modes of travel. With increased globalization and raising of the bar of luxury retailing, designer labels are now available across continents in limited editions. Simultaneously there is a global consciousness towards responsible Design / green design / Ethical Design where the methods of production in terms of ecofriendly processes, fair wages, social and human concerns are as important as the end product.

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1. CLASSIC vs FAD Some styles never become completely obsolete, but remain acceptable for extended periods of time. Classics appeal to those personalities who seek to avoid extremities of style. These are staple styles with integrity of design and versatility, coordinating easily with other apparel products. They change minimally over time thereby creating an aura of timelessness characterized by simplicity of design executed to perfection that makes Classics perennially contemporary. The formal black dress, a Burberry trench-coat, a crisp white shirt, well-fitted jeans etc are examples of classics. While fashion itself of short duration, Fads are even more short-lived fashions whose longevity can even be as short as a single season. They are typically confined to particular segments of society. Fads are outside historic continuity each springing up independently with no forerunner or successor. They begin at lower price ranges, are relatively simple and inexpensive to copy, may stimulate a frenzied increase in production leading to overproduction flooding the market in a very short time causing market saturation which tires the public quickly and subsequently ends swiftly. (They are too extreme to hold consumer attention for long. It is only through innovative changes by fashion pundits like fashion journalists, forecasters and merchants who have the ability to recognize and transmit fads from the sub-group to the mainstream because they have a unique understanding of both). The Punk look of the 70s and early 80s in England, exaggerated wide shoulder of the 80s Power Dressing, hiking boots as everyday wear, sports shoes with inbuilt elevations are examples of Fads.

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2. STYLE vs TREND Consumers develop relationships with style, products and brands based on habit, familiarity and satisfaction. For a new trend to succeed it must replace a current purchase pattern. To gain a competitive advantage, managerial decisions need to understand the following: Short-term variations as the path of trends as they emerge, evolve and dissipate Cyclical variations when style features repeat over a period of time in response to an underlying trend Long-term trends when there are changes in the fundamental pattern of pattern of culture Style is any particular look in apparel or accessories available in the marketplace simultaneously. Styles may come and go in fashion but a specific style of design may remain the same, whether in fashion or not e.g. a shirtwaist style may not always be in fashion but the details and cut would always be that of a shirtwaist. The elements that define a style include Silhouette, Cut, Colour and Details. Each customer makes a choice of what styles to buy, based on demographics, lifestyle, personality and taste. This may indicate a signature style as an individual or as a style tribe signaling the groups aesthetic code. Designers, retailers and marketers use their experience and training to classify peoples style preferences into general categories called consumer segmentation. TREND Tracking trend movement helps in detecting a direction. Designers interpret the socio-economicpolitical changes through short-term and long-term environmental scanning. Trends may Trickle-down from an extravagant one-of-a-kind couture creation from the ramp or when worn by a celebrity. They may Bubble-up from the streets through levels of consumers to upmarket levels or even transform to couture creations. Horizontal movement called Trickle-across of trends occur when innovation and acceptability cuts across clothing categories. For a particular Style to become a fashion Trend, the acceptance of the consumer becomes essential. Since different groups have different tastes, what appeals to a junior customer would probably not appeal to an older one. Designers therefore, plan styles to appeal to certain specific target groups. Moreover Trends are symbolic of the fickleness of fashion since the demand for constant novelty is the driving force. Designers need a sense of timing the ability to understand the speed of acceptance and/or changing preference for a trend.

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3. HAUTE COUTURE The fashion leadership of Paris had its origin in a small group of fashion producers specializing in Couture (French for fine custom dressmaking). Subsequently when the numbers of Haute Couture (French, meaning high-class dressmaking or high fashion) designers grew, a trade association was formed to determine the qualifications of a couture house and to deal with common interests. In France only those on the selective list of Federation Francaise de la Couture are considered members of Haute Couture. Couturier membership is decided by a special commission of the Department of Industry. Membership was, and still is limited to couturiers who meet specified qualifications and abide by the norms of the Chambre, to control the schedules of fashion shows, issues of originality, shipping dates etc. membership is not limited to designers of French origin. Members show their collections twice a year in January for Spring-Summer and again in July for Autumn-Winter seasons. The Federation has 3 branches: La Chambre Syndicale de la Couture Parisienne formed in 1868 is an association that promotes and protects couture The Chambre Syndicale de Pret-a-Porter is an association of RTW plus the best of other French Pret-a- porter The Chambre Syndicale de la Mode Masculine is an association of menswear industries of couture. Today couture may not be financially profitable due to shift in peoples economic priorities. There are only about 4000 clients shared worldwide, hardly enough for any house to do business if it is to only do couture. It costs about $ 250,000 to $1,000,000 to produce one couture collection. But Couture is significant in terms of publicity and visibility for other businesses like licensing and prt-a-porter lines. Yves Saint Laurent said Couture is the showpiece of French fashion and still serves an important function even though prt a porter is the money-maker. The other important Couture industry is in Italy which originated on a smaller scale after the World War along the same as Paris. The Italian counterpart is the Camera Nazionale dell Alta Moda Italiana. They are not congregated in a single city but in 3 cities Rome, Milan and Florence. The experience of Italian couture has been similar to that of Paris. As couture prices are prohibitively high, resulting in dwindling clientele and a largely unprofitable couture operation, a substantial share of income comes from their RTW sections, franchised boutiques and licensing fee from perfumes, accessories and other lifestyle goods to which the designer name adds prestige.

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4. READY TO-WEAR APPAREL / PRET-A-PORTER HISTORY OF RTW: The rise of American RTW dates back to the World War I when New Yorks Seventh Avenue emerged as the hub of manufacturing. Between the Wars, owing to the competitive state of the industry which was well-managed and receptive to new marketing techniques, RTW dramatically upped its share of the market. The RTW apparel industry began to prosper when Poiret, Vionnet and Chanel simplified styles and hereby construction. Since individual fittings were not so important for their straight silhouettes, mass production of dresses became practical. As early as 1920s, designers like Lucien Lelong in France and Hattie Carnegie in America were adding RTW lines to their made-to-order collections. By late 1920s, American RTW was firmly established. The first mail catalogues illustrated the latest fashions being modeled by film stars with the promise of delivery within 24 hours brought a spectacular rise in sales. With the Wall Street crash in 1929, America imposed a 90% tax on imported clothes. Dress materials and paper patterns being duty-free, led to the development of reproductions based on simplified prototypes in variations of styles and copied in affordable fabrics. Mass-produced cheaper clothing and toiles of ready-to-use for making designer copies on ones own sewing machines came into their own to make clothing that balanced style with affordability. Since French fashion was somewhat isolated during World War II, American designers in order to counter rationing, developed co-coordinated outfits which gave women the freedom to mix and match and thereby to put together her own look. The rise of American Sportswear ushered in RTW not as a second best alternative but as a comfortable and elegant way for modern women to dress. RTW / PRET-A-PORTER TODAY: RTW has today grown into a full-fledged industry for almost all designers today. Derived from the couture line of each design house, the RTW line echoes the same mood and aesthetics, but is more affordable and produced in multiples of sizes and/ or colourways. Today several designers have a second line/ RTW Line in addition to the main Line e.g. Main Label Ralph Lauren Issey Miyake Anne Klein Donna Karan Prada RTW Polo Pleats Please Anne Klein II DKNY Miu Miu

The RTW collections get more attention since their designs set the trends. The prt designers are innovators and their shows are held earlier than couture shows. Mass production makes garments less expensive e.g. while a couture dress may cost $ 10,000 - $20,000 or more, a prt garment by the same designer may be about $ 500- $1000. It is still expensive to create sample pieces for a prt collection since experimentation and innovation continue to be essential criteria. It is only in mass-production that that these designs make a profitable business.

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5. BABY BOOMERS Similarity in patterns of consumer behaviour has been traced to Generational Cohorts (Groups) who share the same age location in history and a collective mind-set. Group membership is simply based on the date of birth where all members have encountered the same events, moods, and trends at similar ages, giving each cohort a distinct biography and a peer personality. There are 5 Generational Cohorts as 20th century consumers: The G. I. Generation (born between 1901 1924) The Silent Generation (born between 1925 1942) The Baby Boom Generation (born between 1943 1960) The Generation X or Babybusters (born approx between 1961 1981) The Generation Y or Echo Boomers (born approx between 1982 the present) Born between 1943 and 1960, the Baby Boomers were the result of post-World War II baby boom. At the end of World War II, the government actively encouraged the return to traditional family values. The effect was not only to stabilize the nation but to give jobs to the returning soldiers and increase the population. The Baby Boomer generation benefited from increased educational and healthcare facilities. They can be subdivided into: The older cohort who were the Flower Children and Hippies of the late 60s The younger cohort who became the Yuppies (Young Upwardly Mobile Professionals) of the early 80s Boomers were the first TV generation who experienced the Vietnam War. This was the generation of the Youthquake and Woodstock. They had a desire to remain young and were 25 44 years old by the 80s. Fashion moved out of the teenage market back to the grown-up teenagers of the 60s and 70s. If middle-age was set to start at 44-plus, then those at retirement age could not be considered old. Whole industries were set up to provide for this new market called the grey market. Members of this group were affluent; they wished to have a role to play in society and had spending power. They represented an important group called thirty-something generation to the marketers. By the 1960s, 50% of US population was under 25, where sheer numbers brought increased buying power and encouraged a specialized youth industry, especially for rock music and young fashion in sportswear. Designers like Donna Karan and Giorgio Armani found a new clientele as did brands like Next among the career women but at high-street prices.

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6. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN 20S AND 40S FASHION 20s Look The upheaval of World War I war created a schism between the previously prevailing traditions and new developments in society. Therefore fashion in the Roaring Twenties consisted of clothes where restrictive styles in terms of ease or length were discarded. Long dresses with trains and corsets gave way to knee-length pinafores. The process of restoration of peace ushered in a society that enjoyed jazz dancing, travel, swimming and sunbathing. Holidays now considered necessary for relaxation, encouraged designers to create sportswear comprising of wearable separates like trousers, suits and wrap skirts. Tennis whites made their appearance using knits. By and large, summer fashions doubled as tennis uniforms until the 1920s when shorter skirts gave women some freedom of movement. The Bachelor girl became a symbol of emancipation with her short hair, bare legs below the knee, wearing items of clothing borrowed from the male wardrobe. This new androgynous look led to a more feminine version of the same. The girl with the Flapper Look had bobbed hair with fringes, a small close-fitting Cloche hat and a long string of pearls. She was slender in a bustless, waistless silhouette and wore short knee-length dresses with lowered waistlines. The euphoria of the 1920s characterized by progress and radical changes, gave way abruptly to the Wall Street crash of 1929 where the US Stock Exchange collapsed, triggering the Great Depression. 40s Look: With the outbreak of war again, wartime austerity was strictly enforced. Women once again enlisted in 'reserved' occupations like engineering, ship building etc. However the essential difference between the clothes worn during the two World Wars lay in the fact that now women's clothes were not defined by their new roles but by government regulations. Government rules set limits on amount of fabric to be used in each garment. The pencil skirt, wedge heels, shoulder bags were products of necessity. The key look of the 40s consisted of men in uniform while women wore simple skirts, blouses and sweaters which looked like uniforms, in limited colour palette of dusky blue, bottle green, burgundy and black. The Boiler suit and Siren suit were born in this era. The distinctive Zoot Suits of Mexican origin, also worn by some Black Americans, consisted of baggy pants tapering at ankles, oversized jacket and wide-brimmed hat. Due to the economic situation, new marketing strategies were implemented giving birth to the rise of American ready-to-wear with the introduction of mail-order catalogues, techniques of reproduction based on toile models using newly developed modest or synthetic fabrics which were earlier regarded as unworthy of couture. Meanwhile in England a committee consisting of designers like Edward Molyneux, Hardy Amies, Norman Hartnell and others were responsible for selecting attractive practical designs for mass production within the parameters of textile restrictions enforced in 1941 called Utility Clothing including the famous womens uniform called the Victory Suit. The end of World War II was euphoric - it heralded the end of rationing of clothes. After the liberation, the new post-war period saw the gradual revival of the clothing industry and rebirth of elegance. The development of boutiques made designer creations more accessible to the general public. In 1947 with the lifting of fabric restrictions, Christian Diors New Look was born which became the new ideal of feminine chic with a tiny corseted waist, rounded bust and hips emphasized by peplums, re-establishing the supremacy of Paris as the fashion power base.

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7. SAVILE ROW
Mens clothing as well as womenswear was originally custom-made till about 1800. Even recently, most well-to-do businessmen had their suits made by tailors. The finest tailor shops like Henry Poole and Co. established in 1843 were on Savile Row in London, which became the international centre of mens fashion. London has long been the respected world centre for classic mens fashion because of its famous Savile Row tailors (although some Savile Row tailors are not on Saville Row at all). Prince Charles still has his suits made at Gieves and Hawkes at No 1 Savile Row, where his father ordered suits as a young man. Other famous tailors include H. Huntsman & Sons, Kilgour Weatherill, Anderson & Shepherd, Turnbull & Asser, Henry Poole (the oldest Saville Row Firm) and Tommy Nutter ((the youngest). The newly formed English mens designer collections include Paul Smith, Charlie Allen and Roger Dak. A custom tailored suit, completed in 3 4 weeks, usually costs between $500 - $1500. Savile Row offers 3 variations of the basic suit silhouette: The first is very traditional and somewhat form-fitting The second is squarer for the more conservative man who wants to give the impression of solidity The third is the trendy slim fit Continental fit.

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8. FASHION CENTRES OF THE WORLD Internationally RTW is the focal point and money-maker for the fashion industry. The USA leads in RTW manufacturing. Innovative designer fashions from top creators in each fashion centre are translated, modified, adapted or even copied at lower prices to suit budgets of all people. The 5 major global fashion centres are Paris, New York, Milan, London and Tokyo. Other international centres are West Germany, Spain, Latin America, Hongkong. i. PARIS: Since the turn of 20th century, Paris was the capital of fashion for several reasons it had the necessary resources and a creative atmosphere. There is tremendous cooperation among French firms, fabric mills, and the auxiliary industries like shoes, hat, fur, trimmings and embroidery. A designer who needs special fabrics finds mills willing to weave or print just a few metres as a test run; shoe manufacturers plan complementary designs; trim manufacturers will make items exclusively for one designer. In the 60s, the rise of casual clothes ushered in Pret-a- porter, almost forcing out Couture which however, resurfaced again with the support of Federation Francaise de la Couture (ref HAUTE COUTURE notes). The French government gives much support to the couture in order to promote exports .Government-owned French television gives the couture, the prestigious segment of the fashion industry, free exposure. The government also pays to have shows of couture clothing sent all over the world. The cost of this kind of advertising is enormous; that the government pays for it certainly helps to compensate for the costs of producing a collection. The publicity is especially important because it generates both exports and licensing businesses, thereby helping to keep the couture alive. Licensing: Under licensing agreements, designers give manufacturers permission to use their name and/ or designs, for which they are paid a percentage of sales. For example, perfume companies often give a new perfume the name of a well known designer. Licenses provide a means of diversification and cover nearly every product imaginable. Pierre Cardin, probably the most financially successful designer of the couture, has approximately 400 licenses. Recognizing Paris as a significant fashion centre with exacting standards , many fabric and fibre associations, promotion agencies and information sources have established offices there. Paris also has Ateliers i.e. workshops divided into flou for dressmaking and tailleur for tailoring of suits and coats, couture salons and boutiques in the Avenue Montaigne and the Faubourg Saint-Honore in Paris. Today Paris Couture Fashion Week has some of the most influential names like YSL, Givenchy, Chanel, Dior, Nina Ricci, Pierre Balmain and more. French Pret-a-porter: The ready-to-wear collections get the most attention now because their designers set the trends. The prt designers have become the innovators whose shows are presented earlier than the couture showings. Two of the star prt-a-porter designers are Karl Lagerfeld and YSL. Other prt designers are Sonia Rykiel, Kenzo, Charles de Castelbajac, Claude Montana, Thierry Mugler, Jean-Paul Gaultier, Chantal Thomas and others. ii. LONDON: British fashion is famous for its eccentric reputation and plethora of quirky ideas, its creativity and street fashion (although London couture has almost disappeared). The British RTW industry flourished during the 1960s with the avant-garde and uninhibited clothes for the young that continued into the 1970s. Today London has High-street stores all over, offering good quality

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at suitable prices. It has also been long known for its traditional style country clothes, especially its tweeds, jackets, trench coats, cardigans from companies like Burberry and Jaeger. Mens classic custom tailoring is synonymous with England (also ref Savile Row notes) North of Oxford street lies the rag trade district, which supports a conglomeration of fashion suppliers, studios and showrooms. The area of approx 1square mile can be likened to NYs Seventh Avenue though manufacturing is scattered all over England. England has a wide range of art and fashion colleges whose graduates are now working with both British as well European Houses notably Royal College of Art, London College of Fashion, Central Saint Martins College of Art that boasts of star alumni like John Galliano, Alexander McQueen, Stella McCartney, Emma Cook, Sophia Kokosolaki, Hussein Chalayan. iii. MILAN: The fashion industry in Italy is smaller than that of France, but its impact on international fashion has grown enormously. Italy is regarded as a trend-setter for mens fashions. Around 1940, only 30 fashion manufacturers operated in Italy, their production limited basically to menswear. There has been tremendous growth since then, and an almost total shift from custom-made to ready-towear. Fashion is now the second-largest industry (next to tourism) in Italy. 80% of Italys fashion production takes place in the north central region around Milan. However, Rome and Florence are noted fashion cities as well. Milan is the centre for moda pronta (ready-to-wear). The Milano Collezioni is organized by the Italian Fashion Industry Association. The most famous fashion designers who show in Milan include Giorgio Armani, Gianfranco Ferre, Versace, Mariuccia Mandelli (owner of Krizia), Missoni, Laura Biagiotti and Enrico Coveri. Important manufacturers include Fendi, Benetton (probably the most widely known manufacturer with 3000 shops worldwide), Complice, Byblos, Ferragamo and Trussardi. The Italian Fashion Industry Association also runs the Mipel leather goods fair as well as IdeaComo (Como is the centre for cotton and silk design production). Centro Moda in Florence runs the Pitti Filati (yarns and knits), the Pitti Uomo( men) and Pitti Bimbo (women)fairs. The Italian Couture Association handles Alta Moda, based in Rome. As in all 5 fashion capitals, Italian fashion is known for its exports. These began with leather goods like Gucci and knits. In addition, Italian designers are especially famous for tailored clothing. Italy is one of the worlds top 3 textile and clothing exporters after shoes (along with Japan and West Germany). iv. NEW YORK: Although Paris is the most innovative fashion centre, American RTW is the largest and most competitive in the world. Internationally USA is known or Sportswear. New York remains the garment centre because supplies and skilled labour force are concentrated here. Most fashion originates in the Seventh Avenue garment district in Manhattan, NY City. About 6000 firms employing about 110,000 people are situated here. 2/3rd of American women and childrens clothes and of menswear are made here. California is the second largest apparel manufacturing state with 2/3rd companies in Los Angeles, though the largest company Levi Strauss, is based in San Francisco. Due to a mild climate and a casual lifestyle, California designers have made innovations in sportswear and swimwear. Companies/ brands that produce moderate-priced apparel, the name of the designer may be unknown to the public e.g. Esprit. With high-priced clothing, the designers name and the

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associated publicity also contribute to the sales though popularity of designers may change annually or even every season. Moreover trendsetting is no longer limited to big brands even Esprit is globally recognizable in setting trends. Most consistently popular are Calvin Klein, Donna Karan, Norma Kamali, Ralph Lauren, Liz Claibourne. v. TOKYO: The emergence of Tokyo as the 5th largest fashion capital is also associated with Japan becoming the worlds 3rd largest exporter of textiles and clothing. It is also a textile capital of the world. With WW II, the kimono was discarded in favour of practical western clothes. By the 50s and 60s the Japanese were eager for Parisian clothes and developed an industry that made line-for-line copies of western fashion. By the 70s Kenzo and Hanae Mori were showing in Paris. They were successful in using their own cultural influence interpreted for a global customer. Japanese fashion is a $30 billion business. Renown is the largest clothing manufacturer in Japan and 3rd largest in the world with manufacturing rights over 40 international brands including American labels like Perry Ellis and Norma Kamali. Japanese designs are characterized by their unusual shapes, somber colour combinations, asymmetrical balance and use of natural fibres, particularly cotton. The most well-known designers are Issey Miyake, Kansai Yamamoto, Kenzo Takada, Hanae Mori, Rei Kawakubo of Comme De Garcons, Yohji Yamamoto, Junya Watanabe.

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9. FACTORS AFFECTING FASHION The changes that take place at national and international levels always have consequences for any industry. Fashion too, is particularly susceptible to Zeitgeist (spirit of the times) i.e. changes that take place in the environment. As in any business, there are several factors that affect fashion, which need to be monitored by the marketing department on a continuous basis in order to assess how they will impact the business. They are: Political Economic Social Technological Ecological

POLITICAL: Politics affect both the producer and consumer in various ways. Political activities have a powerful effect on peoples moods e.g. the ideological drive towards private ownership in the 1980s resulted not only in rapid business growth in the retail sector but also precipitated a desire for conspicuous consumption as people bought clothes that reflected a more affluent lifestyle like the increased sale of the business suit for both men and women. International political events also play a significant role e.g. the unification of Europe with Euro as the common currency has put the UK market and the Pound under pressure to compete in many ways for design, production and marketing. The collapse of Communism has enabled Western brands like Littlewoods to sell in St Petersburg while the unification of Germany has created a larger market for European stores like H&M. The onset of the Gulf War escalated sales of T-shirts proclaiming American support for its troops, the demand of which fell drastically once the war ended. History also has examples of political Leaders and First Ladies as well as iconic royalty who have created personal style statements which have inculcated a yearning for similar clothes. Notable personages were Jacqueline Kennedy as wife of President JFK with her immaculate formal suits, dresses and the pill-box hat. The late Princess Diana was a global style icon who dressed appropriately for diverse occasions that influenced womens and childrens dresses. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru popularized the Nehru jacket worldwide. ii. ECONOMIC: The fashion industry is international and therefore strongly affected by economic issues both at national and international levels. Trade agreements like GATT (General Agreements on Tariffs and Trade) dictate the role that experts play in an organizations marketing plan. The effects of exchange rates led to a rise in the cost of imports to the UK while making manufactured goods more competitive. The effects of exchange rates, devaluation of the dollar, inflation rates and availability of credit terms are also monitored closely since they affect both manufacturing and buying patterns. Cutbacks in purchase of items considered non-essential is perceived as a consumers reaction during recession. Fashion is often affected be economic cycles e.g. the link between womens hemlines and the state of the economy is noted by fashion historians and journalists alike. When the economy is buoyant as in the 1920s and 60s, hemlines rose while during recession e.g. the great Depression in 1929 and the 70s, the hemlines fell.

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iii. SOCIAL Fashion reflects the lifestyle and attitude of society at a given point of time. It is a language that communicates self-identity and group-identity with instant impact. The recent obsession with maintaining a youthful appearance manifests in a tendency to dress and behave in a youthful manner, and also through the use cosmetic and surgical procedures. The wearing of trousers by women is not only a matter of practicality but also an expression of freedom from conventional restraints. At times ostentation and excess is in which ushers in rich clothes characterized by bling and ornate home furnishings. At other times, a movement against conspicuous consumption sees the rise of understated, subtle designs. The rise of brands and sub-brands like Allen Solly womenswear and Van Heusen Woman is a response to the rise of working women in India in corporate organizations and their clothing needs. Historical examples of social responses to fashion are the antiestablishment clothes like torn jeans and tie-and-dye loose shirts during the Hippie movement of the 60s, androgynous fashions of 1980s while the bright shades of hair dyes were the Punks way of thumbing its collective nose at the establishment. Designers are increasingly conscious of social and human aspect of fashion. High profile events combine the glamour with a social causes like developing awareness or raising funds for HIV AIDS or breast cancer. The Ethical Fashion Show held in Paris believes in fashion that complies with International Labour Organization rules regarding fundamental rights concerning wages, health and to unionize: it reinvests part of its profits in community projects like (education, training, housing, health) while aiming for fair balance of creativity, quality and price. In India, the Satya Jyoti Trust helps in creating self-reliance among the underprivileged women. Auroville-based Upasana Design Studio has taken several initiatives to give back to society like the rehabilitation of the Tsunamihit victims, Small Steps to reduce the use of plastic and the Varanasi Weavers project to protect the livelihood of these craftsmen. iv. ENTERTAINMENT INDUSTRY Fashion is inspired by and also inspires, the glamour of the entertainment industry, be it films, television, modelling or music. Examples are the popularity of discotheque dressing of the 80s inspired by Saturday Night Fever, the historic American serials Dallas and Dynasty in the 1980s and the India-inspired TV production of Jewel in the Crown. The stage impact and music album videos of superstars like Madonna, Christina Aguilera, Rihanna, Shakira and others, cause a huge impact on the young generation. Models and actresses like J Lo, Kate Moss (for an exclusive line for Top Shop) have also turned designer for their own line of garments and/ or accessories. In India where Bollywood is a huge influence on mainstream fashion, the customer actually seeks out the purple sari worn by Madhuri Dixit in Hum Aapke Hain Kaun or the green lehenga suit of Dilwale Dulhaniya Le Jayenge. The multi-crore agreements of stars to endorse fashion brands and the surge in purchase patterns among the target audience group, is testimony to the iconic influence of the actors. Brand endorsement and modeling are increasingly lucrative propositions for sportspersons who are stars in their own right. While the Williams sisters design an exclusive line of sports clothing, in India cricket players can influence fashion and consumer preferences to a substantial extent.

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v. TECHNOLOGICAL Historically there are examples of technological fabric developments which have affected the rising use of stretch fabrics led to the popularity of skintight bodysuits; the proliferation of T-shirts with graphics was made possible by heat-setting technology; plastics influenced fashions in bright colours. Technological change affects both production methods and the choices made by the consumer. CAD/ CAM has had enormous effect on the manufacturing sector while technology brings many benefits to the manufacturer, it is the marketing department that has to keep abreast of the changes. It has made the international competition fiercer. Designs can be faxed to manufacturers in the Far East where they can be made at a much cheaper price than in Europe. Even samples can be made and couriered much faster, saving time and therefore, money. New technology in contemporary textiles is narrowing the gap between the worlds of fashion, engineering and science. The use of flexible materials is increasing as solutions are sought for a variety of specialist needs. Microfibres are specifically engineered at a molecular level in the worlds most advanced labs, creating a new range of looks and performance characteristics. In Japan, textile design combines traditional crafts and advanced technology. Qualities of new synthetics make them very desirable for fashion designers. Wearable Electronics have revolutionized clothing allowing the wearer to maintain communicative links with others at all times. Sports clothing use state-of-the-art textiles that can enhance performance through characteristics like control of body temperature, heightened tensile strength for extreme sports, transmission of sweat from the skin to the fabric surface etc. Issues of ergonomics, protection and interactive technology are explored. Innovative technical textiles provide new aesthetics and different tactile qualities that street style and fashion designers are recognize and utilize. vi. ECOLOGICAL Our understanding of the environment and the impact of human activities on the ecological support system is constantly developing. Ecological considerations play an important role in marketing activities e.g. ecologists are now questioning the use of natural fibres because of the great cost to the soil caused by widespread damage caused by the over-use of fertilizers. Even the distribution of fashion clothing can have ecological implications. Road transport accounts for a significant percentage of road haulage. Designer Katherine Hamnett now uses pedal-cycle couriers and railway transport wherever feasible. Global warming being one of the most alarming concerns, all industries are crafting solutions world-wide in this respect. Green Design is a significant global initiative to understand design sustainability, the limitations and application of organic design, resource management and concepts of Reuse, Reduce and Recycle.

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