Language and Affect

Annu. Rev. Rev. Anthropol. Anthropol. 1990. 1990. 19:419-51 Annu. ? 1990 1990 by Annual Reviews Reviews Inc.
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LANGUAGE LANGUAGE AND AFFECT AFFECT

Niko Besnier Besnier Niko
Department of of Anthropology, Anthropology, Yale University, Department New Haven, University, New Haven, Connecticut Connecticut 06520 06520 KEY WORDS: KEY WORDS: emotions emotions and andlinguistic affect and andgender, linguisticbehavior, andsocial behavior,affect affect and social structure, gender, affect structure, language and ethnography, language and ethnography,linguistic linguistic anthropology. anthropology.
INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION
In seminal overview In a seminal overview of semantics, Lyons (294) breaks breaks down the notion semantics, Lyons down the notion of "linguistic meaning" three components: "linguistic meaning" into into three components: descriptive meaning (frequently descriptivemeaning (frequently termed termed "referential," the or "denotative")-i.e. "referential,""propositional," "propositional,""notional," "notional,"or "denotative")-i.e. the mapping linguistic signs signs onto onto the the entities entities and and processes processes they describe; mapping of linguistic they describe; social meaning, meaning, consisting consisting of the the social social categories social class, categories (gender, (gender, social ethnicity, situation, etc) represented ethnicity, situation, represented in language; language; and and expressive expressive (or "affec(or "affective" tive" or "emotive") "emotive") meaning, meaning, representing representing the the speaker's speaker's or writer's writer's feelings, feelings, moods, dispositions, dispositions, and and attitudes attitudes toward toward the the propositional propositional content content of the the message message and and the the communicative communicative context. context. Variants Variants of this this model model have have been been proposed such authors proposed by such authors as Malinowski Malinowski (296), Sapir Sapir (364), Jesperson Jesperson (242), Buhler Buhler (81), Bally (19), Ullman Ullman (426), Firth Firth (138), and and members members of the the 362, 433, 434), although Prague (155,362,433,434), although details details of conceptualization conceptualization can can Prague School (155, diverge diverge significantly significantly from from author author to author. author. For For example, example, what what other other writers writers call "affect" "affect" is subsumed subsumed in Halliday's Halliday's functional functional model model (182, 183) part by 183) in part the interpersonal interpersonal (i.e. that that through through which which "social groups are are delimited, delimited, and and the the "socialgroups individual individual is identified identified and and reinforced," reinforced," 182:143) 182:143) and and in part part by the textual textual (that (that which which gives coherence coherence to discourse). discourse). Similarly, Similarly, affect affect straddles straddles several several categories categories in Jakobson's Jakobson's model model of language language functions functions (235; cf 91). In addiaddition, not all writers writers agree agree that that "meaning" "meaning" and and "semantic" "semantic" are are appropriate appropriate labels labels for for affective affective components components of of language language (e.g. 275, 445). A strict strict distinction distinction among among referential, referential, social, and and affective affective meanings meanings rests rests
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on several meaning must unidirectional several assumptions. assumptions. First, First, meaning must be seen as as a unidirectional mapping from a predefined predefined reality forms (cf 172, mapping from reality onto onto arbitrary arbitrarylinguistic linguistic forms 188). notions, such 188). Second, Second, cognition cognition and and emotion emotion (and (and associated associated notions, such as as subsubjectivity-objectivity, rationality-irrationality, rationality-irrationality, etc; jectivity-objectivity, etc; cf 289) must must be assumed assumed to where such dichotomous. Third, such a distinction distinction is strictly be dichotomous. Third, where strictly adhered adhered to, meaning the language producer; thus thus affective to the also attributed attributed meaning is also languageproducer; affective meaning meaning is seen the encoding interlocutor seen as the speaker's which the as the encoding of the speaker's emotions, emotions, which the interlocutor decodes verbal messages precedence to intentionality decodes in in verbal messages by giving giving precedence intentionality(e.g. 175, that emotions internal events, the 380, 405). A related related assumption emotions are are internal assumption is that the property of the the individual. these various directresult property individual. Probably Probablyas as a direct resultof these variousassumpassumptions, models where the the trichotomy regarded models where have commonly tions, trichotomyis emphasized emphasizedhave commonly regarded language for for "scientific" Apart affect "scientific"investigation. as too slippery an area areaof language affect as slippery an investigation. Apart from investigations of more obvious affect-encoding devices like onomatofrom investigations more obvious affect-encoding devices onomatopoeias and has been been little work in linguistics on little work in orthodox poeias and diminutives, diminutives, there there has orthodox linguistics affective Mainstream linguists linguists define referential affective dimensions dimensions of language. define referential language. Mainstream meaning as their area inquiry, and sociolinguists have made headway of and in as their area have made meaning inquiry, sociolinguists headway in with understanding how language interlocks with various social processes (152). how interlocks various social understanding language processes But affect has been been consistently unexplorable aspect an essentially But aside as as an affect has consistentlyset aside essentially unexplorable aspect of linguistic behavior, a residual residual category which aspects language that that linguistic behavior, category to which aspects of language cannot handled conveniently linguistic models with extant extant linguistic models were cannot be handled were relegated conveniently with relegated forgotten. to be forgotten. Recent developments both of emoin the the anthropological emoRecent developments in anthropologicalunderstanding understandingboth tional life (reviewed relationship between between language language and in 293) and the relationship and tional and of the (reviewed in sociocultural for pertinent socioculturalcontext context (see 33,67,101,152,185,231,338,372 33, 67, 101, 152, 185, 231, 338, 372 for pertinent reviews) have many of the the assumptions underlying structure-oriented have caused caused many structure-oriented reviews) assumptionsunderlying problematic. Linguistic Linguistic anlinguistic positions positions on on affect seen as as problematic. anaffect to be seen linguistic that the between linguistic thropologists have have demonstrated that the relationship linguistic signs demonstrated thropologists relationshipbetween signs mapping but but rather rather a complex and reality is not not a one-way constitutivelinkage and reality one-way mapping complex constitutive linkage (65, 70, 178,207,208,222,223,232,233). Ethnographic work workon emotions emotions 178, 207, 208, 222, 223, 232, 233). Ethnographic between cognition has shown that the the opposition has shown that and emotion emotion is a Western Western opposition between cognition and construct doubt on the construct (5, 109, 243, 282, 287, 289, 290), thereby the thereby casting casting doubt validity of a referential-affective referential-affective dichotomy. dichotomy. Similarly, attributing the the ownerownervalidity Similarly, attributing individual has ship meaning to the the individual has proved proved considerably useful in the the ship of meaning considerablyless useful analysis the anthropological than a "dialogic" position (207,216) materialthan analysis of the anthropologicalmaterial "dialogic"position (207, 216) in which meaning processes (33, 117, 122, 212, in which constructedin interactional interactional meaningis constructed processes 395). Taking these findings point of departure, linguistic anthropologists as a point Taking these findings as departure,linguistic anthropologists have in recent years begun to pay pay closer the role in recent closer attention attention to the have role of affect affect in years begun language. trend are traditions of inquiry: this trend are two traditions language. Guiding Guiding this inquiry:anthropologically anthropologically informed language acquisition, been found that, in many workon language where it has informedwork has been found that, acquisition,where many in language cultures, role in language socialization, affect plays central role and vice versa versa socialization, and cultures, affect plays a central reviewed in 372); and (72, 102, 103,323,324,326,328,329,369-371,373; 103, 323, 324, 326, 328, 329, 369-371, 373; reviewed 372); and
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ethnographic research on poetics poetics and performance (reviewed pheethnographicresearch and performance (reviewed in 33), phenomena whose whose links numerous and with a nomena links to affect affect are are numerous and complex. complex. Armed Armed with a culturally the relationships relationships among language, emotion, culturally sensitive sensitive approach approachto the among language, emotion, and their sociocultural the problems problems posed posed by socioculturalcontext, scholarshave have redefined redefinedthe and their context, scholars affect into hitherto unexplored areas. and pursued their inquiry hithertounexplored affect in language areas. language and pursued their inquiry into in understanding This review evaluates progress made made to date understanding this this research, research, This review evaluates progress date in with an how it may may complement and be complemented with an eye on how cultural complement and complemented by cultural anthropological perspectives on emotional processes. emotional processes. anthropologicalperspectives note on terminology: First, First, space A note on scope scope and and another another on terminology: space limitations limitations preclude an important topic topic of nonverbal nonverbal communication overview of the the important communicationand and preclude an overview its relationship to verbal verbal categories. Although some nonverbal its relationship some aspects categories. Although aspects of nonverbal affect touched on here, here, the the vast literature on nonverbal aspects on nonverbal are touched vast literature affect (cf affect are aspects of affect 125, 126 for for recent recent surveys) generally stems from a tradition of inquiry from stems tradition surveys) generally inquiryvery very different from that represented here. Second, the term "affect" is here the from that here. term "affect" here given different represented Second, given a broad sense, subsuming other categories that are are sometimes broad sometimes distinguished subsuming other categories that distinguished from folk models models in in the from affect. affect. Psychological Psychological and and folk the West West distinguish distinguish among among broad category person-centered psychophysiological psychophysiological sensations, feelings, a broad categoryof person-centered sensations, emotion, particularly "visible" feelings, and "visible" and and "identifiable" subset of particularly "identifiable"feelings, and emotion, a subset affect, the subjective states that observers ascribe a person on the basis of that observers ascribe to on the states the basis subjective person affect, the person's person's conduct In addition, propensity to exhibit the conduct (246). In an individual's individual's propensity exhibit addition, an as a defining particular emotions for personality personality emotions is commonly viewed as factor for particular commonly viewed defining factor (343), a premise premise that that the the (scant) on personality appears on language literature andpersonality (scant) literature languageand appears as a given (137, 147, 149,364,366). 149, 364, 366). [Two related categories, mood to take take as [Two related categories, mood (359) and play an Western and attitude attitude (85), also also play an important, role in Western important,if equivocal, equivocal, role Most anthropologists psychological discourse .] Most this categorization psychological discourse.] anthropologistsview this categorizationwith with that it subsumes subsumes a Western at Western ideology and at least some suspicion, suspicion, in that ideology of self and person (4, 5, 11, 290, 293). The validity of the The cross-cultural cross-culturalvalidity the distinction distinction person between "feeling" "emotion"is an an empirical between and "emotion" and "feeling"and empiricalquestion question (but (but see 2, 3), and in large rely part on concepts while ethnographers emotion to arrive arrive at at a ethnographers rely in large part concepts of emotion sense of how how the the person person is defined particular societies, cross-cultural defined in particular cross-cultural variation in the definition both "emotion" warrant care in the definition of both variation "emotion"and and "person" care in in "person"warrant correlationbetween assigning precise universal universal correlation between them. must be taken them. Care Care must taken assigning a precise not taxonomies of psychological not to adopt Western taxonomies psychological processes processes as as analytic adopt Western analytic tools tools investigations of how language language is interwoven the psychological psychological in investigations interwoven with with the makeup of self and broad (but malleable) definition and society, and and adopting makeup adoptinga broad (but malleable) definitionof "affect" . "affect" can can be seen seen as as a wise empirical stance. empirical stance
THE LANGUAGE THE LOCUS LOCUS OF OF AFFECT AFFECT IN LANGUAGE

A multichannel affect floods multichannel phenomenon, phenomenon, affect floods linguistic linguistic form form on many many different different structure in many differentways. This section section is a selective survey surveyof levels of structure many different ways. This the question affect can can be located findings on the where affect behavior. findings question of where located in language language behavior.
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Illustrated here the wide wide variety Illustrated here is the variety of affective affective devices devices available available in the the structure languages and structureof different differentlanguages and speech speech communities, and the the prevalence communities, and prevalence of affect linguistic structure. In essence, the task of writing in all affect in all aspects aspects of linguistic structure.In the task writinga "grammar" of affect use of a "grammar" affect is equivalent equivalent to describing describing the the structure structureand and use language. language. That the lexicon That affect an important affect is an importantcomponent componentof the lexicon is well documented documented (for bibliography of relevant relevant work, (for a bibliography work, see 105). The affective 105). The affective meaning meaning of lexical items, items, commonly referred to as their connotation, lexical commonly referred as their connotation, became became the the subject subject of work work in psychology psychology in the the late late 1950s with Osgood's 1950s with Osgood's attempt attempt to find find universal patterns of affective was universalpatterns affective associations associations(332). While While this this line of work work was quickly found to be fraught fraught with with problems problems (e.g. 355, 445), it opened new quickly found opened a new vista the notion notion of "lexical which has has since been investigated investigated by vista on the "lexical meaning," since been meaning,"which concentrating narrower problems. problems. The the lexicon in which affect The area areaof the in which concentratingon narrower affect is the most words (cf 293 for review), but many the most salient salient comprises emotion words for a review), comprises emotion but many other lexical fields fields have have clear meaning. A rich rich domain other lexical clear affective affective dimensions dimensionsof meaning. domain for the for investigation of affect in the the lexicon would would include include descriptors the investigation affect in for descriptorsfor groups and individuals and various strategies that can used in groups and individuals and the the various can be used in addressstrategiesthat addressing referring to participants participants in communicative van or referring ing or communicativeevents. events. For For example, example, van Dijk Dutch speakers' and not necessarily shows that that Dutch and Dijk (435) shows not speakers' descriptive dedescriptive necessarily defor immigrants rogatory immigrants are reinforcers of ethnic prejudice terms for are carriers rogatoryterms carriersand and reinforcers ethnic prejudice (cf also 305) . As Foucault Foucault (142) emphasizes, have powerful powerful con305). labels have emphasizes, labels These consequences are evident in political sequences. These papers in sequences. political rhetoric rhetoric (cf papers evident in consequences are in where in many and review 50, 65, 70, 335 and review in 338), where many cultures culturesthe the "moralizing" "moralizing" function of persuasive persuasive language language (82, 83) is brought brought out particularly vivid vivid function out in particularly also plays definition of some ways. ways . Affect also plays a role role in the the very very definition lexical fields. some lexical fields. normativeassertions, Regardless of wine wine tasters' tasters' normative wine descriptors Regardless have such such assertions, wine descriptorshave imprecise referential meanings meanings that that their use is more more successfully imprecise referential their use in successfully captured capturedin Their primary function is to construct affective terms: Their primary function wine tasters' presentaaffective terms: constructwine tasters' presentation of self and tion phatic communion and create create phatic communion (277). Address terms, terms, kinship often have Address kinship terms, and pronouns pronouns often have a clear terms, and clear affective affective dimension: from the the complex found in languages dimension: from address-formsystems complex address-form systems found such languages such as vocative kin kin terms terms (e.g. mothers in rural rural as Javanese Javanese(130) to "inversions" "inversions"of vocative mothersin Italy their offspring ProItaly affectionately with mamma; affectionately addressing addressing their offspring with mamma; cf 63). Pronominal rich opportunities offer rich for affect nominal paradigms affect displays. paradigmsoffer opportunitiesfor displays. TN-pronoun T/V-pronoun consist of two or or more more alternative alternativepronoun systems pronoun forms systems consist forms (most in (most commonly commonly in the second person), some of which which are more "polite" than others the second person), are more others (64, 78, 79, "polite"than 131, 193). Friedrich's (146) analysis Russian novels T/V choices in 193). As Friedrich's in Russian analysis of TN novels these paradigmatic alternativesare shows, these paradigmatic alternatives are exploited for a complex exploited for complex web of In some some languages social and and affective affective purposes. social purposes. In Samoan and and Tongan) languages (e.g. Samoan Tongan) diminutive form form of the one finds finds a diminutive the first-person pronoun (324), first-person singular singular pronoun derived from from a plural historically plural form, thatcan can be used used to elicit empathy historicallyderived form, that and empathyand mark mark self-deprecation. with the the same meanare also also special articles with self-deprecation. (There (There are special articles same mean-
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ing.) In languages that that do not not provide provide these paradigmatic resources, resources, pronouns pronouns In languages these paradigmatic can pregnant with with affect. Witness the affect. Witness the different differentdispositions can be equally associequally pregnant dispositionsassociated the "institutional" pronoun we we and with the and its its alternatives ated with "institutional" alternativesin English pronoun English (430). In languages languages that that allow to appear with no In allow clauses clauses to no overt appearwith overt subject subject and/or and/ordirect direct object being encoded verb morphology, or being recoverable encoded in in the the verb or object (reference (referencebeing morphology, being recoverable or not extratextually), not to name particular participants participants can provide whether or name particular can provide extratextually), whether ways of controlling the affective (cf 226:377 for affective deployment ways controlling the deployment of discourse discourse 226:377 for from Native examples Native North North American American narratives, narratives, and on pronouns examples from and 119 119 pronouns in Italian middle-class conversation). Where honorific honorific forms structures forms and Italian middle-class conversation). Where and structuresare are particularly salient, as in Western Polynesia (121) and Java (130), such as Western Java and such forms forms particularlysalient, Polynesia frequently become become incorporated incorporated in the the affect-display repertoire of speechfrequently affect-display repertoire speechcommunity members. members. community Lexical processes processes like synecdoche metonymy are involved and metonymy Lexical are frequently synecdoche and frequentlyinvolved manipulation of affective in the the manipulation affective meaning Other metaphorical meaning (148, 336). Other metaphorical processes have have important processes affective dimensions, as even even universalism-seeking importantaffective dimensions, as universalism-seeking In research on metaphor metaphor recognizes recognizes (256, 257, 268:380-415, 269, 270). In research many cultures, talk about replete with For about emotional emotionalprocesses with metaphors. many cultures, talk processes is replete metaphors.For example, many speech propensity to communities have members of many have a propensity to use example, members speech communities somatic metaphors (e.g. "my liver is angry" heart is weak") or "the "the heart when somatic metaphors "my liver angry"or weak") when talking about pattern is particularly particularly prevalent prevalent in the Pacific (43, the pattern the Pacific talking aboutemotions; emotions;the 272, 280, 281, 348, 352, 353,402), but it is also also witnessed in Elizabethan witnessed in Elizabethan 353, 402), but England Many scholars, tacitly assuming relationship constitutive relationship England (53). Many scholars, tacitly assuming a constitutive between linguistic linguistic and point to these these metaphorical metaphorical patpatbetween and cultural cultural categories, categories, point for a somatic terns as of emotion these societies terns as evidence evidence for somatic conceptualization emotion in in these conceptualization societies for words (but words of caution). and 249 for 198 and (but see 198 these linguistic caution). Of course, course, if these linguistic patterns are indeed symptoms bodily sensations, emotions being as bodily are indeed "felt"as patterns symptoms of emotions being "felt" sensations, not metaphors in the are not at all all in conventionalsense the term they are the conventional sense of the term (cf 24). In In they metaphorsat other talk about other cultural culturalcontexts, about emotions emotions as as organically contexts, speakers speakerstalk organicallyinseparainseparathe social and situations they engender which they ble from from the social acts acts they situationsin which are found found engenderand they are (196, 197, 251, 252, 276, 286, 288, 290, 312). In In some some cultural culturalcontexts, contexts, as internal emotions are are conceptualized such is the emotions internal events; the case case of contempoconceptualizedas events; such contemporary middle-class American society rary middle-class American society (89, 112, 243, 437). Elsewhere, Elsewhere, individuals "undergo" emotional sensations; dividuals for example, the ex"undergo"emotional sensations; in Samoan, Samoan, for example, the emotions is frequently encoded as periencer of certain frequently encoded locative modifier certainemotions as a locative periencer modifier of the verb, rather than its grammatical subject its grammatical the emotion-denoting rather than emotion-denoting verb, subject (158, 326, in Yiddish attested in 390; the Yiddish and the same same pattern and Kaluli; 390; pattern is attested Kaluli; cf 410). Clearly, Clearly, preferred ways emotions and aboutemotions and emotional emotional life offer preferred ways of talking offer rich rich opportalking about opporthe underlying underlying categories categories and tunities for for exploration exploration of the tunities and normative normative views associated with them. associated with them. Certain many languages, languages, such Certain marginal areas of the the vocabulary such as as marginal areas vocabulary of many not necessarily ideophones whose phonological phonological ideophones (i.e. words, words, not necessarily onomatopoeic, onomatopoeic, whose structure meanings) and structureitself encodes encodes meanings) andonomatopoeias onomatopoeias(20,38, (20, 38, 108, 141, 150,
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260, 360, 361), exclamations, and curses, insults, insults, and interjections,curses, exclamations, expletives, expletives, interjections, rich in imprecations are rich imprecations(9, 10, 113, 164, 190, 201, 237, 298, 310, 425) are affective have been for example, as been described described as example, have Shona ideophones, ideophones, for meaning. Shona affective meaning. "dramatizations of actions Descriptive linguists chronicalor states" linguistschronicalactions or states"(260:20). (260:20). Descriptive "dramatizations neglect these these categories but nevertheless nevertheless point point to them whenever "affect" "affect"is them whenever categoriesbut ly neglect invoked. fact that that they they exhibit exhibit unusual unusual formal such as as deviant deviant formal features, features, such invoked. The The fact stress patterns and the lexicon, not found found elsewhere elsewhere in the and phonological segments not stress patterns phonologicalsegments is well documented, but the parameters of their not. context are are not. their use use in context the parameters documented, but Related to ideophones referred to as as sound sound symbolism symbolism what is commonly commonly referred Related ideophones is what (reviewed not clear semiotic appropriate semiotic clear that that "symbolism" the appropriate "symbolism"is the (reviewed in 427; it is not with debatable descriptor). this topic has been been devoted, debatable work on this devoted, with Much work topic has descriptor). Much uncovering universal success (cf 426), to uncovering universal correlations correlations between between particular particular sounds Although often often left ununand "smallness"). and concepts "smallness"). Although [i] and sounds and concepts (e.g. [i] discussed, between form form and meaning would and meaning fall would fall semiotic association association between the semiotic discussed, the under the rubric of affect. That certain certainsounds sounds have have affective affective meaning meaning is well the rubric affect. That under established for certain references on ideophones ideophones above), but certain languages above), but established for languages (cf references most clear narrators substituted substituted cases are are highly Cocopa narrators language specific. specific. Cocopa most clear cases highly language or talking certain when impersonating talking about for others others when about mythical mythical consonants for impersonatingor certain consonants animals patterns are are found found in other other languages Native languages of Native animals (273); comparablepatterns (273); comparable North America, America, although these devices mark emotional in other other devices mark emotional distance distance in North although these languages (225, 226). languages Certain meaning like evidentiality markers of encoded markers Certain categories evidentiality (i.e. encoded categories of meaning the which may through a status of utterances), conveyed through may be conveyed the epistemological utterances),which epistemological status variety linguistic means means (97), are with affective with are often often saturated saturated affective connotation connotation variety of linguistic (162, 189, 191). languages, evidentiality evidentiality is grammaticalized: The The In some grammaticalized: some languages, 191). In Japanese particle no indicates indicates whether whether communicators speak communicators as speak as sentence-finalparticle Japanesesentence-final as individuals otherlanguages members group or as individuals (106, 107). languages 107). Speakers Speakersof other membersof a group to convey In English, have evidential meaning. English, meaning. In lexical strategies convey evidential strategies to have to rely rely on lexical adverbs plainly, and perhaps, and allegedly hedging (e.g. perhaps, adverbs like obviously, allegedly (47), hedging obviously, plainly, oj, loosely speaking; speaking; 247,267,375), 247, 267, 375), intensity as very, really; really; 264), as intensity(e.g. very, sort of, markers (e.g. well, well, you you know; know; 333, 374, 375) encode discourse markers encode well as as discourse and augmentative affixes in Indo-European and affective Indo-European and Diminutive and stance. Diminutive affective stance. augmentativeaffixes Amerindian languages indicate sympathy, emotional closeness, Amerindian endearment,emotional sympathy, endearment, languages indicate or and emotional emotional distance distance (e.g. 225, 407, 439). or antipathy, condescension, and antipathy, condescension, un borghese "a small, small Reduplication Italian un small, small borghese piccolo piccolo "a Reduplication (e.g. Italian and comparative many), and citizen"; constructions comparativeconstructions most, many), quantifiers(e.g. most, citizen"; 448), quantifiers the list. associated with with commonly associated (156) can list. Many can be added added to the categories commonly Many categories for example: mood example: mood can also also carry affective meaning; meaning;for carryaffective inflectional morphology inflectional morphologycan (e.g. variations indicatives in in Romance between conditionals conditionalsand and indicatives Romance languages; variationsbetween languages; modality (e.g. the the English English auxiliaries auxiliaries must must and and will, affective will, whose affective 274), modality meanings historically derived from their their deontic deontic meanings; are historically derived from meanings; 421, 422; cf meanings are for ergative, also 156), and noun phrases phrases marked and case marking markedfor ergative, marking(e.g. agentive agentive noun . oblique, 123). or genitive Samoan; 123) genitive case in Samoan; oblique, or
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Many syntactic . Various Various ways for affective affective purposes purposes. featuresare are exploited exploited for Many syntacticfeatures of constructing many languages languages allow users to language users clauses in many allow language negative clauses constructingnegative shared exploit logical presupposition presupposition and the status and give certain certain elements elements the status of shared exploit logical knowledge for for affective purposes (218). The valency of clauses transitivityvalency clauses The transitivity affective purposes knowledge may place in the the foreground foreground certain participants, certainevents events and andparticipants, to place may be manipulated manipulated actions (217). blame and and identify the the consequences consequences of actions and identify and subtly subtly to assign assign blame Active-passive alternatives many languages languages (e.g. the opposition accused the opposition alternativesin many Active-passive the government opposition; 49, 144, the government accused by the opposition; by the the governmentwas accused governmentvs the hearer, and different axes axes of and events events along along different align speaker, speaker, hearer, 259, 349, 423) align In some some identification, which which some linguists linguists call "empathy" "empathy"(261, 262). In identification, Japanese (219, 420), a separate passive construction languages, such constructionis separatepassive as Japanese languages, such as reserved for events perceived as grammatical on the an adverse adverse effect on the grammatical having an events perceived as having reserved for patient. In In Tuvaluan, obtained by similar effect is obtained language, a similar Tuvaluan, a Polynesian Polynesian language, patient. adding verb (39) . an intransitive intransitive verb marked argument an ergatively (39). argument to an adding an ergatively marked Nominalization (e.g. picketing picketing curtailed production; 259) and and other other curtailed coal production; Nominalization structure-altering processes also point of view. Depersonalization affect point and Depersonalizationand also affect processes structure-altering affective can be communicated communicatedin in impersonal constructions(e.g. it distance can impersonalconstructions affective distance will be shown shown that or pronoun that this this hypothesis pronoun incorrect), agentless agentlesspassives, or hypothesisis incorrect), deletion structuresas as inversion Such structures inversion (e.g. and down down he many languages. languages. Such deletion in many left-dislocation (e.g. that stand him; him; 124), went into that man, 124), went the ditch), man, I can't stand ditch), left-dislocation into the topicalization, focusing focusing (230), c1efting really various types WhatI really clefting of various types (e.g. What topicalization, in languages word-order variations variations in and word-order with languages with like is a cup cup of tea; tea; 345), and feel like relatively free word order packaging" are commonly an "information "information packaging" free word orderare commonly assigned assigned an relatively function in descriptive but they also carry affective they also carryaffective function descriptivelinguistics linguistics (93, 140, 184), but meaning. In In at least two languages, raising and Tuvaluan Tuvaluan(41), raising at least English (135) and languages, English meaning. that John John has left) allow the rules (e.g. John John seems seems to seems that the to have have left rules left) allow left vs It seems onto speaker the responsibility blame) for often blame) for events events onto focus the (and often subtly focus responsibility (and speaker to subtly other complex-sentence particular participants. participants. (The affective dimensions dimensions of other complex-sentence (The affective particular constructions discussed in 56.) By increasing and decreasing textual constructionsare are discussed decreasing the the textual increasing and distance between selected the discourse, selected elements elements of the these devices devices contribute contribute distance between discourse, these to textuality textuality (i.e. "the that characterizes or connectivity "the quality coherence or characterizes connectivity that quality of coherence text"; but they juxtapose certain certain elements, thus creating comelements, thus creating comthey also juxtapose text"; 185:96); 185:96); but between them users relationships between them (115). They provide language affective relationships languageusers They provide plex affective affective worlds worlds in in narratives narrativesand and other other with the tools for for creating particular affective with the creating particular expositions. expositions. acousticphenomena thatwe perceive as intonation intonation The phenomena that perceive as The complex systems of acoustic complex systems reign prime, and multifunctional, locus locus of affect and notoriously affect (13, 55, 57, as a prime, notoriouslymultifunctional, reign as 58, 265, 266). Experimental Experimental evidence evidence (e.g. 278, 318, 368) indicates indicates that that language users have have difficulties or agreeing difficulties assigning affective interpretainterpretaassigning or agreeingon affective language users tion utterances solely on the the basis basis of intonational intonationalcues; cues; tion to decontextualized decontextualizedutterances not fare Other affect-encoding affect-encoding suprasegmental suprasegmental linguists do not fare much much better. better. Other linguists some West West African Africanlanguages phenomena include tone raising languages (35), whose include tone raising in some phenomena affect of various various kinds; segment gemination; gemination; sole purpose purpose is to mark high affect kinds; segment mark high
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aspiration pitch volume (233); and pitch aspiration(367); (367); voice quality quality (230); (230); volume (233); speed speed (45); (45); and (304). Nonphonemic Nonphonemic vowel nasalization Yokuts, a language nasalizationin Yokuts, language of California, California, serves affective functions functions (319:238). serves a variety variety of affective (319:238). There are important affective dimensions are affective dimensions to discourse There important discourse strategies, strategies, to the the organization information, and, generally, to "ways organization of information, and, generally, "ways of speaking" speaking" (224, 386). Quotes, Quotes, recreations recreationsof one's own and and others' others' speech, speech, and and other othertypes types of replaying activities :530) are that they interweave replaying activities (163 (163:530) are affectively affectively charged, charged, in in that they interweave the voices of different layer's moral social entities the rep the different social entities and and the replayer's moral agenda agenda (18, 440). They may mark the speaker's or writer's emotional involvement the or writer's They may markthe speaker's emotional involvement in the text, enhance the heteroglossic nature of discourse, and subtly leak the text, enhance the heteroglossic nature discourse, and subtly leak the reporter's stance replayed situation the replayed reporter's stance on the situation (20-22, (20-22, 32, 169, 295, 369,415, 369, 415, 416, 431). Replaying Replaying may the opposite that of creating also have have the may also opposite effect, that creating when the distance between the the quoted message, as distance between the reporter and the as when reporterand quoted message, the Shuar Shuar engage in ceremonial a genre associated with a tradition from which ceremonialdialogs, associated with engage tradition from which dialogs, genre they have become alienated when American American life-story or when have become alienated (161), or they narrators life-story narrators present themselves themselves in negative light light in past events in a negative in past present events (283). A striking strikingcase of exploitation the hiring griot in rural in discourse discourse is the different voices in rural exploitation of different hiring of a griot praise or which allows hirer's affect or insult insult someone, Wolof society society to praise allows the the hirer's affect to someone, which remain decorously the Polynesian Nukulaelae, the the atoll of Nukulaelae, remain decorously flat flat (230,233). On the (230, 233). On Polynesianatoll narratives employ various devices the identification authors of gossip narratives authors devices to delay identification employ various delay the of "victims" their narratives various advantageous in their with various "victims" in narratives with advantageous consequences, consequences, for the introduction of among which figure multiplication of opportunities the multiplication among which figure the the introduction opportunitiesfor different with negative the reinforcement different descriptors connotation and and the descriptors with negative connotation reinforcement of collusion and collusion between participants participants (44; collusion between and affect, (44; on collusion also 163, 168, affect, see also 170, 302). In In multilingual multilingual communities, ground offers fertile communities, code switching fertile ground switching offers one language for affect from one for affect work. Switches Switches from the other otherexploit languageto the the affective affective exploit the each language, where a marked connotation language, particularly particularly where marked prestige prestige differenconnotationof each differential between varieties Even the the direction tial exists between varieties (51, 151, 180, directionof 180, 192,200). 192, 200). Even can act as an an affective the key: A switch English the switch switch can act as affective key: switch from from Spanish to English Spanish to displays than the the opposite attitudethan switch when displays a sterner, sterner,angrier when a MexicanMexicanangrierattitude opposite switch American mother mother talks talks to a child American child (180:92). (180:92). At the the convergence affective and and poetic poetic dimensions dimensions of language convergence of affective language (33), and performance genres, types, and performance styles can be affectively genres, speech-act speech-act types, styles can affectively charged. charged. Poetic Poetic devices like parallelisms parallelisms of various various types types (e.g. 236, 236,429) this . illustratethis. 429) illustrate Proverbs among American Southwest the American Proverbs older Spanish Southwest serve among older serve a Spanish speakers speakersin the from a validation complex ranging from validation of the the speaker's complex array array of functions, functions, ranging speaker's credibility relationship between between participants participants (71, the social social relationship credibilityto a negotiation negotiationof the 73). Mexican-Americans Mexican-Americansin Texas Texas express towardtheir theirown own express complex complex feelings feelings toward ethnic resentment of the ethnic identity, and their their resentment the encroachment encroachmentof values identity, and values from from the the dominant ridicule and dominant culture, satirical stories stories that that ridicule and stereotype the Angloculture, in satirical stereotype the AngloAmerican (337). Satires American Satires of the the affective affective style members of a dominant style of members dominant group, best documented for the Western Apache Apache (25), are the Western documentedby Basso for group, best are common common protest mechanisms mechanisms among More or or less protest among socially socially disadvantaged disadvantagedgroups groups (12). More
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ritualized insults, boasts, boasts, and genres of (often other genres verbalplay, (often competitive) competitive) verbal and other ritualizedinsults, of the the type type that Americans (30, 171, 255, 263, 279, 309), Black Americans that young young Black Turkish many other members of many other groups engage in in (1, 69, groups engage and members Turkish boys (118), and 154; have complex in 67), have functions. Such Such genres genres may may be complex affective affective functions. 154; reviewed reviewed in bracketed by various . Western Western Apache Apache spoofs the "White"Whiteaffective signals spoofs of the signals. variousaffective bracketed man" interactions (25), and and everyday interactions and exuberant, exuberant, in contrast contrastto everyday loud and man" are are loud Black American American "marking" by switches from switches from accompanied by frequently accompanied Black "marking"is frequently Black English (308). In In many many cultures, poetic genres genres are are cultures, poetic standardEnglish Black English English to standard associated with emotionality: North Yemeni performers, for for example, Yemeni performers, example, view emotionality:North associated with their highly highly controlled and formalized formalized poetic poetic duels the most appropriate most appropriate duels as as the controlled and their for creative, locus of affect, where emotions emotions like anger creative, may be displayed displayed for angermay affect, one where rather than than destructive, purposes (92). Poetry Poetry may may be be laminated into another another laminatedinto rather destructive, purposes to event: Witness Tzotzil speakers "breaking out" into couplets to express out" into Tzotzil anger couplets express anger event: Witness speakers"breaking or respect (191). In both performance and more mundane contexts, In more mundane both and claims to contexts, claims or respect performance in competitive the floor and these claims verbal performance performance claims in competitive verbal and challenges challenges to these the floor (169, 171, 392) establish certain social social structures structuresamong speaker, audience, audience, among speaker, establish certain affective and narrated events but also establish complex affective relationships among but also establish among events relationships and narrated complex these various elements. various elements. these such communicative communicativeactivities meaning can can also also be conveyed activities Affective meaning conveyed by such as In many many societies, laughter, co-occurrence whose co-occurrence and weeping. laughter, whose as laughing weeping. In laughing and with verbal interaction serves as as a a distancing mechanism interactionis carefully distancingmechanism carefully timed, timed, serves with verbal and co-occurring events; between its its producer or recipient) co-occurringevents; recipient)and speakeror producer(whether (whetherspeaker between the distance reaction such in an such as as embarrassoften expressed an emotional emotional reaction embarrassthe distance is often expressed in ment in middle-class middle-class Britain Britain and and the United States States (194, 238-241) or or shame shame the United ment on the the Melanesian Melanesian atoll Nissan (317). Among Among Italian-Americans, laughter atoll of Nissan Italian-Americans, laughter serves deflect ethnic ethnic prejudices prejudices strategy to deflect as an an emotion-management emotion-management strategy serves as Mexicano (Nahuatl) controlled (114: 164). Weeping narratives is a carefully carefullycontrolled (Nahuatl)narratives Weeping in Mexicano (114:164). the index which, which, used the thematic thematic deployment at crucial crucial moments moments in the deployment of the used at index with affective state state and and her discourse, both the the narrator's narrator's affective her relationship relationship with defines both discourse, defines in Thus the the micro-organization talk and and nontalk can in her audience micro-organization of talk nontalk can her audience (209). Thus itself serve for affect. affect. Likewise Likewise silence silence (7, 23, 26, 31, 417), as a vehicle for serve as withdrawal (37), inarticulateness inarticulateness and and dysfluency the withdrawal dysfluency (7, 210, 233, 301), the unstated (208, 424), and and the understated (44, 45, 438) signify range the understated broadrange unstated signify a broad in many of affective . For For the the Western Western societies and and contexts contexts. affective experiences many societies experiences in Apache, for for whom utterance consists whom an an expressive consists of as as much much meaning meaning expressive utterance Apache, packed into form as possible (27), silence silence may little form as possible communicatea strong into as as little strong may communicate packed In Shakespearean emotional representations of ElizabeElizabeemotional experience representations Shakespearean experience (23, 26). In than culture, with a broad broad range range of sensations, silence is also associated associated with sensations, than culture, silence including such pairs as as alienation alienationand and intimacy, and grief (52). such antonymic intimacy,joy and antonymicpairs including Again, extensive. the multifunctionality multifunctionalityis extensive. Again, the The how nonverbaldevices devices demonstrate demonstrate functionsof many how affecaffecThe affective affective functions many nonverbal constructedinteractionally For example, tive meaning example, interactionally(44, 120, 166, 357). For meaning is constructed on the the auauthe success of singing in many depends on performancesdepends singing performances cultures, the many cultures,
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response; such the case for for song performances among the affective response; such is the dience's affective song performances among the Kaluli of Papua which can listeners to tears can move listeners tears (136), and and Kaluli Papua New Guinea, Guinea, which among the Ge-speaking which move some some to tears tears and and others others to among the Ge-speaking Suya, Suya', which euphoria (382) . Even Even in contexts where audiences very few contexts where audiencesare are allowed allowed no or very euphoria (382). claims floor, their have a major the floor, their affective affective response can have on the claims to the response can major impact impact on the discourse. A case in point in political deployment point is applause political speechdeployment of discourse. applause in speechmaking in postindustrial postindustrial societies, which which requires between making requiresclose coordination coordinationbetween the the audience audience and and can can influence influence the the speaker speaker and and the the deployment deployment of the the cooccurring an Furthermore, an affective occurringdiscourse discourse (14, 15,203,204). 15, 203, 204). Furthermore, affective display display can can In poetic poetic duels Yemeni wedding duels at be a group at Yemeni groupaffair. affair. In wedding celebrations, celebrations,performers performers frequently present present their responses to strong frequently their spontaneous spontaneous compositions compositions as as responses strong to be seated the group group as they are in the emotions, which are likely to in the are as as likely seated in as they the are in emotions, which individual (92). individual This that affective This brief survey has shown shown that affective meaning survey has meaning may may be conveyed conveyed through a broad range of linguistic and communicative devices. broad and communicative through range linguistic devices. However, However, there are various manifestations differences among there are significant significant differences among various manifestationsof affect. affect. In In probably all speech communities, emotions can described (e.g. hate can be all emotions described I probably speech communities, hate him), the first first person person are such overt overt avowals avowals in the are likely him), although although such likely to be associassociated marked situations. More commonly, situations.More emotions are are alluded alluded to, with rather rathermarked ated with commonly, emotions and the decoding task is a process process of "reading messages off' complex covert messages and the decoding task "readingoff' complex covert (284). But nondescriptive nondescriptive affective not uniformly uniformly covert affective signs are not covert or or "trans"transsigns are for example, parent" (398) Interjections, for messages more more affective messages parent" (398).. Interjections, example, convey convey affective can stand overtly than, say, intonation. intonation. Interjections can independent linguistic linguistic standas as independent overtly than, Interjections are potentially on-recordthan units and hence are potentially more more on-record than intonation, intonation, which which is not not units and hence same time, segmentable. the same time, more more transparent means of encoding means affect segmentable. At the transparent encoding affect are also frequently frequently less efficient. For example, perceived primary primary purpose purpose are efficient. For the perceived example, the of the the syntactic of a sentence structure sentence is to communicate communicatereferential referentialmeaning: syntacticstructure meaning: referentialentity the patient, which referential the agent, which is the patient, etc. If an which an affective affective entity is the agent, which component is superposed processed by this referential referentialfunction, component superposedon this function, it will be processed as the the at the the same same time time as component,and and will come "for the referential referential component, the recipient recipient at "for an affective affective interjection does not not play free." In In contrast, playa referenfree." contrast,an interjectiondoes a significant significantreferential and thus as an an affect-encoding tial role, and thus will be perceived perceived solely as the In the affect-encodingdevice. In first affect is likely to be processed first example, processed less consciously than in the example, affect consciously than the and often often lies outside outside of participants' second participants' limits second example, limits of awareness example, and awareness are sometimes sometimes unconscious (397-399 users are unconscious of using using even (397-399,, 432); language language users very "noticeable" "noticeable"affect-carrying discourse markers markers very affect-carryinglinguistic linguistic devices, like discourse most commonly (444). Not surprisingly, affect is most surprisingly, affect commonly expressed expressed covertly covertly in natural discourse. natural discourse.
THE AFFECTIVE MEANING THE SEMIOTIC STATUS OF OF AFFECTIVE SEMIOTICSTATUS MEANING

illustrated in the the previous previous section, descriptive not been been very As illustrated has not descriptivelinguistics linguistics has very in assigning successful meanings to linguistic linguistic structures. successful in exact affective affective meanings structures.Most Most assigning exact
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characterizations make make do with general general notions notions like emotional emotional intensity intensity (e.g. characterizations of or with detachment) directionality of empathy), involvement focus empathy), or directionality (e.g. vs detachment) involvement "positive" and and "negative" "negative" affect. affect. The difficulties difficulties with transcending transcending labels like "positive" of generality generality are are frequently frequently explained explained as resulting resulting from from the the extreme extreme this level of this multifunctionality of of many many affect-encoding affect-encoding linguistic linguistic categories. categories. A particular particular multifunctionality intonation contour, contour, for example, example, can have different different meaning meaning in different different intonation referential, others others affective; affective; even the the more more "solidly" "solidly" affective affective contexts, some referential, areas of of language, language, like adjectives adjectives denoting denoting emotions, emotions, seem to have an an ununareas canny propensity developing range meanings through metaphora wide of metaphormeanings through for range developing propensity canny extension (6). This This section section takes takes these these difficulties difficulties as as a point point of departure departure ical extension affect in language. language. for an an inquiry inquiry into into the semiotic semiotic status status of affect for noted earlier, earlier, some aspects aspects of communication communication are are privileged privileged as as loci of As noted affective meaning. meaning. For For example, example, intonation intonation is universally universally utilized utilized as a pripriaffective mary affective affective key; key; multiple multiple second-person second-person pronoun pronoun forms forms often often differ differ from from mary another in terms terms of affect; affect; and, and, in many many languages, languages, many many address address terms terms one another affective connotations. connotations. It is notable notable that that these these features features of language language are are have affective privileged loci for for indexicality, indexicality, both both referential referential and and nonreferential nonreferential (130, also privileged This predilection predilection for for indexical indexical vehicles vehicles is no coincidence: coincidence: Most 234, 396). This metamessage (28). Thus Thus the the bewildering bewildering multimultilinguistic affect affect is itself a metamessage linguistic functionality of many many affective affective signs can be explained explained in terms terms of their their signs can functionality In contrast contrast to the the arbitrary arbitrary and self-contained symbols semiotic nature. nature. In that symbols that and self-contained semiotic post-Saussurean linguists linguists have have come to expect in language, language, indexical indexical vehicles post-Saussurean affective sign have meaning meaning when when embedded embedded in a context context (339). An affective sign may may only have in categories in ambiguously, or different index several different categories experiences ambiguously, affective experiences several affective index affective different For language users, the the multifunctionality multifunctionality of affective situations. For language users, different situations. problem. Because communicative resource, rather than than a problem. resource, rather devices is often often a communicative and often affect, they than one referent, often more more than than just affect, more than referent, and may signal signal more they may useful or or affect-laden structures particularly useful useful when when ambiguity are particularly ambiguity is a useful structuresare affect-laden becomes a necessary communicative indeterminacy itself becomes (116); indeterminacy strategy (116); communicative strategy necessary as an An approach an object divorceable object divorceable communicative resource. An language as approachto language communicativeresource. for an an investigation affective dimensions dimensionsof from its ill-equipped for investigation of affective from its context context is ill-equipped language (178). language to affectivaffectivare related Affective indexes indexes and and indexical indexical symbols relatedto shifters)are symbols (or (or shifters) not a universal emotional universalset set of emotional They conjure conjurenot ity mediatedways. ways. They culturallymediated ity in culturally culturally categories, but rather ratherculturally assumed in descriptive linguistics, but descriptive linguistics, as tacitly tacitly assumed categories, as certainindexes facets of indexes presuppose differentfacets constructed presupposedifferent constructedcategories. Indeed, certain categories. Indeed, For example, and stuttering are affectivity in different different cultures. cultures. For stutteringare dysfluency and example, dysfluency affectivity in the Wolof (233), but but with with associated with low-affect low-affect interactive interactivestyles among the styles among associated with in each the Barundi each case case these these displays Barundi(7), although although in affect among among the high affect displays of high with other other linguistic indexes for for the the desired desired features co-occur with features must must probably linguistic indexes probablyco-occur in the the relationship relationshipbetween between results variability cross-cultural variabilityin to obtain. obtain. Clearly, Clearly, cross-cultural resultsto is likely to be particular emotion categories be extensive. extensive. An likely to affective keys and emotion categories is keys and particularaffective a concurrent concurrent in language cannot proceed without a understanding affect in proceed without language cannot understandingof affect
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social investigation of the these categories place in in social and of their their place nature of these categories and the nature investigation life. as an an empirical multiple question of multiple Frequently recognized as problem is the the question empiricalproblem Frequentlyrecognized levels of linguistic many different displayed at at many different keys. Since linguistic affect can can be displayed keys. Since affect structure, individuals can signals as differentlevels, as can give out out contradictory contradictory signals on different structure,individuals Bateson (29) documented in his pioneering work on double-binding and and in work double-binding documented his pioneering Bateson schizophrenia. you can uttered with can be uttered with an an aggressive tone of voice (and (and love you aggressive tone schizophrenia.I love angry face) that contradicts the literal meaning of the sentence. Such disthe Such dissentence. angry face) that contradicts the literal meaning junctions are exploited (probably universally) sarcasm and irony (12, 28 in sarcasm and 28,, irony junctions are exploited (probablyuniversally) in 163, 315), which themselves have affective functions in interaction (356). functions interaction themselves have affective which Different indexes can meanings (e.g "excontradictorymeanings (e.g.. "excan also key contradictory affective indexes Different affective cited" intonation intonation co-occurring between with "uninvolved" "uninvolved"syntax). Conflicts between syntax). Conflicts co-occurringwith cited" utterances or turns at or turns at speaking) or speaking) or across utterances (e.g. across syntagmatic (e.g. keys can can be syntagmatic paradigmatic (e.g. intonation "contradicting" propositional content; 131,230, intonation 131, 230, content; "contradicting" propositional (e.g. paradigmatic Researchers from varioustraditions 221, 294, 363) from various traditionsof inquiry inquiry(e.g (e.g.. 206, 221,294,363) 329). Researchers one another, as keys as have suggested that whenever whenever keys contradict contradict one another, such such keys have suggested that intonation facial expressions more nonreferential indexical nonreferential signs) indexical signs) the more (i.e.. the and facial expressions(i.e intonationand override other signs. override other signs. broadly contextualized The problem of channel can be be more more broadly channel disjunction contextualizedin disjunctioncan The problem what Irvine problem" (230): How do members membersof different different Irvine calls the the "sincerity (230): How "sincerityproblem" what social groups distinguish from "deceitful" "deceitful"affective affective displays "true"from displays ("exuded ("exuded social groups distinguish"true" expressions" from "guided terminology; 163)? Goffman's terminology; The 163)? The doings," to use Goffman's "guideddoings," expressions"from distinction between "true" requires that that at emotion requires "true"and at and "feigned" displays of emotion distinction between "feigned"displays as individual that emotions emotions as experiences be least made: that individual experiences assumptionsbe made: least two assumptions differentiated interactional constructs; that the the attribuand that attribufrom emotions emotions as as interactional constructs;and differentiatedfrom tion interpretation of human behavior. the interpretation human behavior. central to the tion of intentionality intentionality be central these assumptions universal. While Neither of these While an an "inside"insideNeither cross-culturallyuniversal. assumptionsis cross-culturally in many emotion in cultures outside" underlie ethnotheories many cultures ethnotheoriesof emotion contrastseems to underlie outside"contrast as an not necessarily necessarily seen ingredient of seen as an important contrast is not important ingredient the contrast (230), the are cultures cultures explanations for emotionality there are Similarly, there emotionality (e.g. 250, 390). Similarly, explanations for which a person's intentions are not a relevant in which are not relevantissue person's intentions Samoa; 122, 390) in (e.g. Samoa; social action, emotion displays. Rather, moral moral displays. Rather, including emotion in accounting for social action, including accounting for the goodness fit between social assessments are made made on the the basis basis of the between social assessments are goodness of fit Urban (432) shows for ritualized wailing in context shows for as Urban ritualizedwailing action. Further, context and and action. Further,as and affective disSouth America, the relationship between between "real" "real"emotions emotions and affective disthe relationship South America, plays is a cultural members of a culture as members culture"agree" match as long as "agree"to match culturalconstruct; construct;as plays and as as long as as this this agreement particular emotion labels to particular particular displays, agreement emotion labels displays, and particular remains tacit, the basis of these the sincere. On On the the basis these observations, observations, the the display remains tacit, display is sincere. as follows: original more fruitfully fruitfully restated follows: To what what extent can be more restatedas extent is original question question can "true"and affect relevant relevant to to members members of the distinction between "true" and "deceitful" "deceitful"affect the distinction between cultures for for which which the the answer particular groups? members of cultures answer to this this groups? How members particular "mixed"affective affective displays question negative one account the type account for for "mixed" type displays of the question is a negative exhibited irony remains remains to be investigated. exhibited in irony investigated.
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LANGUAGE, AFFECT, AND SOCIAL SITUATION SOCIAL SITUATION LANGUAGE, AFFECT,

tripartite distinction and affective affective meaning meaning was was among referential, referential, social, and distinction among A tripartite point has noted above. the discussion up to this this point has touched touched on the the discussion up While the noted above. While the referential-affective little has has been been problems and prospects of the contrast, little referential-affectivecontrast, problems and prospects said which the this review review is the rest rest of this contrast, to which social-affective contrast, said about about the the social-affective devoted. research on emotionality emotionality has has shown shown anthropological research current anthropological devoted. As current convincingly, which interwoven, which and social social life are are intricately intricately interwoven, emotions and convincingly, emotions immediately sheds between line between dividing line some doubt doubton the the validity sharpdividing validity of a sharp sheds some immediately the social In this this and and in subsequent sections, it will be the affective. affective. In subsequent sections, the social and and the shown that linguistic linguistic affect the constitutive relationships among constitutive relationships among affect mediates mediates the shown that such While and language. language. While ethnicity, and gender, class, ethnicity, as situationality, situationality,gender, such concepts concepts as an absolute dichotomy between affective and social meanings is not useful, and social not useful, meanings an absolute dichotomy between affective one must recognize that that not not all all social social meaning affective. The The meaning is affective. must nevertheless neverthelessrecognize linguistic representation of power relations, for example, does not always does not always for example, linguistic representation power relations, have affective dimensions. have affective dimensions. manage affect, The members of all or extralinguisall cultures culturesmanage extralinguisaffect, linguistic linguistic or The ways members social tic, can vary greatly from one context another. Not only do different to another. differentsocial from context can vary greatly contexts for different but the the "same" "same"emotion emotion can can be emotion displays, different emotion contexts call for displays, but American norms displayed variously across Middle-class American norms different contexts. contexts. Middle-class across different displayed variously in certain prescribe that weeping in public contexts, certainpublic contexts, that grief be displayed throughweeping displayed through prescribe such displays such (particularly by women), displays are are "op"opalthough such such as as funerals funerals (particularly women), although oratoricaldebates debates tional" private contexts . Among in more contexts. the Ilongot, Ilongot, public public oratorical tional"in more private Among the "slow down" down" their their emotions emotions and and control control outoutrequire active participants to "slow require active participants In contrast, bursts of affective 177-220). In Black American American contrast, Black affective displays (352:177-220). displays (352: bursts In fact, affective displays members Baptist dramaticaffective fact, members services involve dramatic displays (303). In Baptist services kind of affect affect of many situationsin in terms termsof the the amount amountand and kind societies identify identify situations many societies affect is never But affect absent that never absent be displayed displayed (40, 229, 233). But that can can appropriately appropriately certainsituations situationsmay described from context, though certain may be described interactional context, even though from an an interactional as In contexts where communicative contexts where communicativenorms normscall call for for "flat" "flat"affect, for affect, for as if it were. were. In in footing depersonalization or for for a change from author authorto animator animator footing from change in depersonalization(391), or (163, 165), utterances with "the "theemotionally distinctiveaura auraof utterancesare arepermeated emotionallydistinctive permeatedwith affectlessness" the case of Javanese Javanese krama krama ("polite") ("polite") Such is the affectlessness" (164:813). (164:813). Such speech indexicality is structurally muted; such is which indexicality muted;such structurally speech levels (129, 130), in which In British British academic also the the case in writing, for for in Western Western academic academic writing. academic writing, writing. In example, lexical and markers of stance relatively infrequent stance are are relatively and grammatical infrequent grammaticalmarkers example, (47), a symptom the writer's writer's visibility visibility in that devaluationof the that context. context. the devaluation symptom of the as having Facelessness having a "natural" "natural" Facelessness is frequently explained as "normalized,"explained frequently "normalized," affinity the context For example, universalcontext (379): with the organizedskepticism, skepticism, universalexample, organized (379): For affinity with in Western disbelieved to reign reign in and disinterestedness disinterestednessare are believed Western academic academic disism, and course muted affect but another and muted affect is but anothersymptom this course (159, 313, 346, 358), and symptomof this perhaps less discourse is still still infused infused with with affect, academicdiscourse belief. Of course, affect, perhaps course, academic overtly linguistic devices travesty devices are are available available to travesty than other other discourses; discourses; linguistic overtly than
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affect major burden burden of an response shift the the major an affective affective response "reason"or to subtly subtly shift affect as as "reason" onto Academies' folk folk beliefs about the affectlessness about the affectlessness of onto the the audience audience (17). Academics' in social their discourse not one social hegemonies; whetheror or not hegemonies;whether are deeply embeddedin deeply embedded their discourseare participate successfully discourse is a is able successfully in conventionalized conventionalizedacademic academicdiscourse able to participate criterion for for access institutional power power (132,258,346,449) symbolaccess to institutional and to symbol(132, 258, 346, 449) and criterion ic capital capital (61, 62). Many bracket certain which emotionality situationsas as contexts contexts in in which emotionality certainsituations culturesbracket Many cultures and thematized. For topic out or or thematized. For example, example, affect affect is a key topic and affect affect are are to be acted acted out of discussion the therapeutic postindustrial societies. societies. The The encounters of postindustrial discussion in the therapeuticencounters encountherapist focuses focuses the the patient's patient's attention attentionon affective affective dimensions dimensionsof the the encountherapist ter provided by the the patient; patient; emotion-labelling, emotionemotion-labelling,emotionor of narratives narrativesprovided ter itself or term negotiations of the the meaning terms (usually emotion terms (usually and negotiations meaning of emotion term glossing, and under the the covert the therapist; therapist; 111) in are common common activities activities in control of the 111) are under covert control Western therapy (80, 90, 128, 277, 265, 342, 418, 450) and comparable and comparable Western therapy events preindustrial societies papers in 443). An An ethnographer and papers ethnographer in preindustrial societies (e.g. 66 and events in of communication would first first pose the the following following questions: members do members questions:How do communicationwould of the the group frame events What role role which emotions emotions can can be talked talked about? about?What events in which group frame do these play in the social what triggers in the social life of the the community, and what events play triggers community, and these events them? have provided provided definition of such such contexts contexts have the emie emic definition them? Investigations Investigationsof the important insights into the the role the social emotion in the social life of many role of emotion many groups groups insights into important are thus patterns of relative across relative"distancing" acrosscontext. context. thuscomplex "distancing" There are complex patterns (443). There In the focus focus of talk; such as affect is the as Western-style talk; therapy,affect In some some situations, Western-styletherapy, situations, such in the in others, participants are excited interest interestin the situation, situation, are expected display excited expected to display others, participants but cannot prominence to personal personal emotions emotions (e.g. 133, 134). cannot give prominence 134). but Particular attention has been been paid paid in the literature to contexts the ethnographic contexts attentionhas ethnographicliterature Particular such as as wailing and weeping, are called called where "ritualized" emotion wailing and emotion displays, where "ritualized" weeping, are displays, such for. Wailing weeping, genres are usually usually gendered typically that are and that that typically genderedand for. and weeping, genres that Wailing and are viewed viewed in in consist intoned with with restricted restricted pitch pitch variation, sounds intoned consist of vowel sounds variation,are 386, 428) many maximally iconic as maximally iconic expressions expressions of grief (136, 173, 386,428) culturesas many cultures and the Shavante Shavanteand and Tapirape as among Brazil (173, and sometimes sometimes of joy, as Tapirapeof Brazil among the 441). Urban's Urban's (432) comparative that ritual ritual wailing shows that South wailing in in South analysis shows comparativeanalysis When it accompaaccompaforms and and semiotic semiotic functions: functions:When America have various various forms America may may have its form form is iconic iconic of the greeting the feelings nies bereavement, feelings it expresses; expresses; in greeting bereavement, its an more stylized and controlled controlled form, serves as as an form, serves ceremonials, takes on a more stylized and ceremonials, it takes for sociability. index of "meta-affect," and marks marks a desire desire for index sociability. "meta-affect,"and and affect affect writing) and The relationship between between modality modality (i.e speaking vs writing) (i.e.. speaking The relationship remains largely largely unexplored, unexplored, although the sociolinguistic literatureon orality orality sociolinguistic literature remains althoughthe and frequently alludes affective categories. For example, example, it is and literacy alludes to affective categories. For literacy frequently commonly language is universally more "involved," that spoken assumed that "involved," universally more spoken language commonly assumed "emotional," better suited for emotion representation (as and better suited for emotion representation "emotional," and opposed to (as opposed presentation) than written language. language . Textual Textualevidence advancedin commonly advanced than written evidence commonly presentation) in spoken support this is the language of such incidence in featuresas as the greater such features spoken language greaterincidence supportof this
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pronouns and personal involvement involvement (46, 94-96, 94-96, 411, markersof personal pronouns and questions, questions, markers in a spoken 413; reviewed that the participants in The assumption made that the participants spoken in 98). The assumptionis made reviewed in (particularly face-to-face) interaction are more prone prone to becoming becoming "emotionare more "emotionface-to-face) interaction (particularly been al" than readers readers and However, most most of these these claims claims have have been and writers. writers. However, al" than supported with data from contemporary mainstream Western mainstream where Westerncontexts, data from contexts, where contemporary supportedwith writing is viewed as being less "subjective," and generally "emotional,"and generally as being "subjective,"less "emotional," writing The literacy literacy pracmore "reliable" than speaking pracspeaking (195, 285, 350, 408, 409). The more "reliable"than with academia reproduction are other loci of cultural cultural reproduction are academia and and other tices associated associated with particularly prone prone to such (75, 159), as That above. That such characterizations as noted noted above. characterizations particularly these views merely ideological construction Western, schoolconstructionof Western, schoolconstitutethe the ideological these merely constitute the cross-cultural cross-cultural oriented, middle-class-dominatedliteracy literacy is suggested suggested by the oriented, middle-class-dominated in evidence. For Nukulaelae atoll atoll (Central For example, participantsin (CentralPacific), participants example, on Nukulaelae literate activities this characteristic affect (42, 43), this characteristic display affect activities are are expected expected to display literate constituting the context practices in Nukulaelae Nukulaelae society. Even in context of literacy society. Even literacy practices constituting the Western products as such products as direct-sale direct-saleletters letters exploit affecwritersof such exploit affecWestern settings, settings, writers tive strategies for audience manipulation (145); these contexts contexts are are no audience manipulation (145); yet these strategies for for comparless written-like practices involving writing (cf 314 for other practices comparinvolving writing than other written-like than able remarks on professional professional letters Thus affect affect letters exchanged scientists). Thus exchanged by scientists). able remarks defines manifestation of symas yet another another manifestation communication as symdefines modality modality of communication bolic capital, not correlate manner with correlate in any with mode mode of and does does not any simple simple manner capital, and interaction. interaction. interesting case of emergent tensions among affect displays, their folk folk displays, their An interesting among affect emergenttensions surrounds in postcommunication and normative control electronic accounts, accounts, and normative control surrounds electronic communication in postin the e-mail has its appearance early 1980s, e-mail appearance industrial societies. the early has had had to industrial societies. Since its develop norms of social and linguistic interaction, based on a complex norms and based complex interaction, new linguistic develop combination contexts. normsfrom from kindred kindredspoken and written writteninteractional interactional contexts. combinationof norms spoken and in the exert normative control have have emerged the At the the same time, attempts normative control same time, emerged in attemptsto exert into preexisting being integrated integrated into preexisting sociopolitical process of the dythe medium's medium's being sociopolitical dyprocess and computercenters centers and circulatedby computer form of etiquette etiquette memos namics, in the the form memos circulated namics, in these electronic bulletin boards. boards. Affect has has figured these various various electronic bulletin figured prominently prominentlyin developments. have a more texture than than other other indeed have more "emotional" "emotional" texture E-messages indeed developments. E-messages as witnessed the [overt types of discourse (253), as witnessed by the prevalence of emoticons [overt discourse emoticons prevalence types affective irony or or "upbeat" mark irony for affective keys--e.g. emotions, ":-&" ":-&" for "upbeat"emotions, keys-e.g. ":-)" ":-)" to mark "tongue-tied", and flames (verbal attacks on public electronic forums).] Folk and attacks electronic Folk forums).] public (verbal "tongue-tied", flames models these features adaptation the technological technological "natural" features as as a "natural" models explain adaptationto the explain these characteristics the -medium, and normative discourse and normative discourse targets them as as disdischaracteristicsof the'medium, targets them ruptive academic social social order. order. ruptive of academic Affect thus thus permeates permeates all because the all utterances utterancesacross across all all contexts contexts because the voices of social their affect, never be extinguished can never the social beings, and and hence hence their extinguished from from the affect, can discourse discourse (18, 391, 431, 440). To use BaIrntin's Bakhtin's apt are apt phrase, phrase, utterances utterancesare "ideologically However, this this ideology may may take take on saturated"(18:271). (18:271). However, "ideologically saturated" across communicative communicativecontexts, and these in tum turn these guises guises may may in different differentguises across contexts, and
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help features the social social and and structural structural featuresof each each communicative help define define the communicativecontext, context, its location its location in the the group's and its its role in the group's repertoire repertoireof contexts, contexts, and role in the group's group's social political structure. and political structure. social and
LANGUAGE, AFFECT, GENDER LANGUAGE, AFFECT, AND GENDER

That management play pivotal role the cultural That emotions emotions and and their their management play a pivotal role in the cultural of gender identity amply documented construction is in construction gender identity amply documented work work on gender gender in anthropology and neighboring anthropologyand neighboringdisciplines disciplines (99, 100, 211, 227, 245, 291, 292, 330, 331, 351, 404). Not surprisingly, affect also holds holds an an important, surprisingly, affect important, if in research In many unacknowledged, position position in research on on gender and culture. unacknowledged, genderand culture.In many autochautochthonous women and and men thonous discourses, men are are said said to differ differ in the the frequency, discourses, women the frequency, the intensity, type of affect For example, in interaction. and the the type affect they intensity, and they express interaction. For express in example, among the Kaluli Papua New Guinea, Kaluli of Papua female children childrenare are expected among the Guinea, female expected to be affectively than male predictable (371). are seen steadierthan male children, seen as as less predictable affectively steadier children, who are Anger-like normatively associated men in are normatively associated with in Samoan emotions are with men Samoan and and Anger-like emotions but with the Fiji Indians (68) . Ilongot societies with women women among societies (158, 352) but Ilongot among the Fiji Indians (68). Investigations of gender and language focused on Western Westernsettings Investigations genderand languagefocused settingsgeneralgeneralrecognize gendering performance, although there is emotional performance, ly agree agree to recognize gendering in emotional althoughthere little consensus this gendering . In In postindustrial postindustrial the characteristics characteristicsof this little consensus on the gendering. settings, women are often characterized as more are often characterizedas more emotionally settings, women emotionally extravagant, extravagant, communicatively indirect, men (76, 77, 104,271, and solidarity than men communicatively indirect, and solidarityseeking seeking than 104, 271, 300,344,403,419; reviewed in 299,340,387). provided evidence provided 300, 344, 403, 419; reviewed 299, 340, 387). Linguistic Linguisticevidence in support these views includes includes women's support of these women's exploitation pitch exploitation of a wider wider pitch to range than men, their frequent use of tag and hedges range than men, their frequentuse tag questions questions and hedges [assumed [assumed to convey attitudinal their frequent use of attitudinal insecurity and their insecurity (271, 394, 244)], and frequent use as intensifying such as adverbs and intensifying adverbs modals affect-enhancing linguistic indexes indexes such and modals affect-enhancinglinguistic (76, 77). Women perceived as willing consumers heavily affective as willing Women are are also perceived consumersof heavily affective discourse-an that certain romance, exploit certain genres, discourse-an expectation the romance, expectation that genres, like the exploit (347) Hochschild (211) sees women's women's affect-laden affect-laden communicative (347).. Hochschild communicativestyle style in middle-class America America as linked to their limited access power and middle-class as intimately theirlimited access to power and intimatelylinked in more economic resources. Socialized to engage "emotion management" economic resources. Socialized more "emotion engage in management" than men, women are thus predisposed predisposed for for low-status than are thus low-status service service employment men, women employmentin are privileged; which positive positive affective privileged; these these displays them which affective displays displays are exclude them displays exclude from the competition more powerful and gainful But other from the for more powerful and roles. But work has competitionfor otherwork has gainful roles. association of women found the association and highly found problems problems with with the women and highly affective affective styles. styles. For For middle-class middle-class Western the evidence best equivocal. Western groups, evidence is at at best groups, the For equivocal. For have many example, tag questions which depend and example, tag questions have many meanings, meanings, which dependon linguistic linguistic and such as factors such as social social dialects dialects and and power extralinguistic power differentials extralinguisticfactors differentials(8, 86, Even the 87, 214, 322). Even presence of significant between the presence differences between significant pitch pitch differences women and men is controversial women and men controversial(202). The relationship and affect affect has The relationship between between gender has also been shown take on also been shown to take genderand
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very different characteristicsacross across social social classes and very different characteristics and cultures cultures (299, 341, women are For example, 387). For example, in some some societies, women are expected expected to be silent, silent, taciturn, or unmarked contexts, men are or affectively flat in unmarked while men are voluble taciturn, affectively flat voluble and and contexts, while In many many societies, women women can display much affect affect (e.g. 205,248, display much 205, 248, 334). In can only only express (and sometimes have a public brackaffect (and sometimes have at all) express affect public voice at all) in specially specially bracketed through the particular genres or through eted situations situations or the use of particular Thus "veiled" genres (2, 3). Thus "veiled" and weeping, or tongues, such as as chanting, or speaking and "ambiguous" "ambiguous"genres genres such chanting, weeping, speaking in tongues, the performances performances of which which often the often involve altered alteredstates statesof consciousness consciousness (157), are frequently, but but not polarized (88, 89, 110, 136, 173, 254, not always, are frequently, always, gender genderpolarized the low social 387). One One characteristic characteristicdoes seem seem to apply apply cross-culturally: cross-culturally:the social evaluation the part men or such genres or the evaluationof such either men the entire entire group genres on the partof either group (153). Yet some some scholars scholars (e.g. 2, 3, 59, 153, 169, 171, 186,347) have shown shown that that 186, 347) have women in many many societies varying degrees societies use, with with varying women degrees of success, socially socially devalued resistance, protest, protest, and discourse as as tools tools of resistance, devalued discourse and defiance. defiance. reconciliation of these these contradictory when they they are A reconciliation contradictoryfindings findings surfaces surfaces when are placed in a semiotic perspective. Cross-culturally, placed semiotic perspective. most observable Cross-culturally,most observable differdifferences in the linguistic linguistic behavior behavior of gender indexical of personas, personas, in the are indexical gender groups groups are contexts, with gender and other other social social categories associated with contexts, roles, roles, and categoriescommonly commonly associated gender categories In most most cultures, women and and men men categories (107, 186,299, 186, 299, 325, 327, 387). In cultures, women habitually find find themselves themselves in with social in different different situations situations and and identify social habitually identify with in terms terms of the categories that call for different call for affect displays, differentaffect categories that the intensity displays, be it in intensity or the thus an an important or nature of these these displays. the nature displays. Affect is thus importantmediating mediating agent agent and gender, more broadly, between language language and , more the individual between gender, and and, between the individualand and broadly, between This perspective society. perspective suggests that contexts, rather than thanjust individuals, society. This suggests that contexts, rather individuals, be framed as gendered This perspective perspective provides provides a better model framed as gendered categories. categories. This better model for accounts for example, Pintupi of for the different accounts of, for differentaffective affective styles that the example, the the Pintupi styles that in the Australiaadopt the presence certain combinations Australia presence of certain kin (with combinationsof kin adopt in (with gender gender in the definition of the figuring prominently figuring prominently in the definition the situation; and the the affectsituation;316), and affectheavy verbal which male male customers verbal displays customersaffirm affirm gendered heavy displays through throughwhich domigendered dominance over American working-class bar (406). over cocktail cocktail waitresses an American nance waitresses in an working-class bar
SOCIAL STRUCTURE LANGUAGE, AFFECT, STRUCTURE LANGU-AGE, AFFECT, AND SOCIAL

In stratifiedsocieties, social groups are frequently In stratified frequently perceived perceived as having differas having groups are different affective identification rests part on affective styles, and and class identification on the rests in part the individual's individual's work has has been affective Although little little work affective demeanor. demeanor. Although been done done on either either empirically empirically or extant observable patterns extant ideologies across social social groups observable patterns or ideologies across and cultures, groups and cultures, several patterns emerge the ways ways social several patterns social classes classes and and linguistic affect are are emerge in the linguistic affect interrelated. interrelated. social groups the general First, social their affect First, differ in the groups may may differ general intensity intensity of their affect displays. ruralWolof are are expected an affectively displays. High-ranking High-rankingrural expected to display flat display an affectively flat maftresse de soi, particularly particularly in contexts highlighted, maitresse social standing contexts where where social standingis highlighted,
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while low-ranking individuals engage highly demonstrative in highly while low-ranking individuals engage in demonstrativedisplays displays of emotionality Barundi). Suggestive also 7 on the the Barundi). a similar similar state emotionality (230; (230; cf also Suggestive of a state of affairs is the the contrast between the the sensationalistic, contrastbetween affairs sensationalistic,self-advertising, self-advertising,and and"emo"emotional" communicative geared to working communicativestyle American newspapers to the tional" style of American newspapersgeared the working classes and more "rational" news discourse the upper upper eche"rational" and the the more news discourse addressed addressedto the lons of society lons society (376). The The "neutralizing "neutralizingdistance" distance" characteristic characteristicof much much middle-class public) discourse function. It discourse serves serves a double inmiddle-class (particularly (particularlypublic) double function. It indexes the middle-of-the-road middle-of-the-road approach that middle-class middle-class ideology dexes the approachthat ideology values values (60), and it excludes those who themselves be carried their emotional who "let "let themselves and excludes those carriedaway" emotional away"by their impulses impulses (61:88-89). Second, with different social classes can can also be associated associatedwith differenttypes affect. Second, social types of affect. Sennett that American Americanworking-class Cobb (385) suggest when Sennett& & Cobb suggest that working-classindividuals, individuals,when talking work, engage their own achievethat downplays about work, discourse that achievetalking about engage in discourse downplays their ments , while middle-class middle-class ways about such such topics ments, ways of talking talking about topics highlight highlight the the individual's status also 384 for for a individual's as the the source source of success success (see also a discussion discussion of status as discourse maintenance). Some hypothesized that that and authority-structure Some have have hypothesized discourse and authority-structure maintenance). anonymity, dichotomy, relative lack and relative lack of social social control control anonymity, sharp sharppublic-private public-private dichotomy, and in Western middle-class life foster foster the the use use of impression-management impression-management stratstratWestern middle-class egies, which have become become normalized normalized in the the eyes of their their users users (139). which have Third, the affective meaning of particular features can can vary affective meaning Third, the particularfeatures vary according according to who uses them. In an industrial environment, the "powerful" them. In an American Americanindustrial have environment,the "powerful"have markeryou been shown use the you know mark confidence their the discourse discoursemarker knowto mark confidence in their been shown to use in contrast, meaning, among the "powerless," own meaning, other things; use it for for its among other things; the "powerless,"in contrast,use dialogic dialogic qualities qualities (215, 220). Critical inquiries inquiries into the relationships relationships of language into the with class class structure, Critical language with structure, class ideology, and political economy have recognized recognized that that language and political can economy have language can in establishing function powerful tool in power asymmeas a powerful and maintaining function as establishing and maintainingpower asymmetries Indeed, hegemony both physical control of both and tries (132, 177, 178). 178). Indeed, hegemony is control physical and symbolic production (378:314--50), language. There which of course course includes includes language. There symbolic production (378:314-50), which that affect in language plays a pivotal pivotal role role in processes . An in social is evidence affect in social processes. An evidence that languageplays American prison official' s refusal negotiate with rioting Black Black inmates inmates until official's refusalto negotiate with rioting Americanprison until they willing to "talk middle"calm down" down" and and are are willing "talk rationally"-i.e. they "calm rationally"-i.e. adopt adopt a middleillustration.Affective styles telling illustration. class White White affective affective style are style (255)-is (255)-is a telling styles are When Wolof griots also frequently manipulate asymmetries. praise used to manipulate frequently used asymmetries. When griots praise high-ranking individuals individuals in highly they move affective oratorical oratoricaldeliveries, high-ranking highly affective deliveries, they and thus thus enhance enhancethe the status statusof the their audiences , and the targets targets of the the their audiences to admiration admiration, praise, who then then must toward social material generosity must display social praise, display greater greater material generosity toward inferiors (233). Among Among the the Wolof again , and in in Iran inferiors Iran(37), Samoa Samoa (121) again (228), and (121), and probably many positively affective and probably other societies, deferential deferential and and positively affective many other linguistic utilized as power-manipulating devices. as power-manipulating linguistic behaviors behaviors are are utilized devices. Affective elements the hands in language handsof the elements in can also serve, in the the oppressed, as vehicles languagecan oppressed, as and resistance of protest protest against resistance to oppressive institutions, dominant , dominantgroups against and oppressive institutions, groups,
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and and their their symbols Thus emerge satiricalgenres, symbols (127, 377, 449). Thus emerge satirical genres, folksongs, folksongs, and which allow the dominated dominantgroups, and jokes targeting allow the dominatedto express targetingdominant groups, which express the status status quo. their resentment quo. The The overwrought their resentment of the overwroughtself-humbling self-humblingdeference deference Malaysian peasants landlord (378:25; show an an unpopular Malaysian peasantsshow unpopularlandlord (378:25; cf also also 11, 190) 190) and and the extravagantly theatrical story performances telling of exploits against theatrical the extravagantly story performancestelling exploits against the the powerful in a Lebanese Lebanese village are striking powerful village (160) are strikingexamples examples of the the exploitation exploitation of affective resistance. The resulting constitutive affective tools in symbolic The resulting symbolic resistance. constitutive relationrelationand linguistic ship between hegemony remains in part virgin virgin ship between hegemony and linguistic affect affect remains in large large part In particular, territory. In particular, little little is known this known of the the historical territory. historical dimensions dimensions of this relationship (but promising avenues). historically infor promising relationship (but see 5, 84, 383 for inavenues). A historically formed where possible, can the nature formed approach, can be expected approach,where expected to help help explain explain the nature of contemporary processes . and social social processes. contemporarydynamics dynamics among among affect, affect, language, language, and
CONCLUSION CONCLUSION
This review has investigated various various avenues the study the affective has investigated in the This review avenues in study of the affective dimensions pivotal in the the cultural Just as as emotionality dimensions of language. culturalconconlanguage. Just emotionality is pivotal struction the relationship between self and and culture, struction of the relationshipbetween culture, linguistic linguistic displays displays of emotionality functions in process. in this serve important, semiotic functions this process. emotionalityserve important,if complex, complex, semiotic represented in a system permeates all As represented indexical signs, affect permeates system of indexical all levels of signs, affect linguistic and utterances, and and communicative communicative structures, all utterances, and all all comlinguistic structures, all in more does so in municative contexts, contexts, but but it does more or or less transparent ways. municative this transparent ways. As this review has has shown, various affective users exploit review differencesamong affective shown, language languageusers exploit differences among various the relative relative overtness overtness of affect affect to define define contexts, social structures, keys in the contexts, social structures, and their relationship relationship to discourse. which was was loosely The overall overall effect, which and their discourse. The and contexts, termed imtermed the the affective affective style demonstrates the the imstyle of groups groups and contexts, demonstrates on the portance of the the constitutive linkage between language on constitutive linkage between language the one hand and and one hand portance on the In particular, social the other. particular, how affect and situations situationson other. In social categories affect is used used categories and across contexts also constitute and across contexts can can also constituteemotional emotionallife. Thus and manipulated Thus equal manipulated equal attention must be paid to the representation representation and the presentation presentation of of emotion emotion processes (36,68, 383); talk talk (or writing) about aboutemotions emotions is a different processes (36, 68, 383); (or writing) differentactivity activity from the the interweaving from emotions and and discourse, the two are interweavingof emotions are related related discourse, although althoughthe in a complex manner. complex manner. in language Investigations the role role of affect proceed without without a affect in cannot proceed Investigations of the language cannot in context. fine-grained ethnographic inquiry into into language use in context. Questions fine-grained ethnographicinquiry that languageuse Questionsthat Who uses for what must be addressed addressed include: which affective purpose, include: Who uses which must affective tools, for what purpose, in what what context, what role role does representation and what in the does affect affect play the linguistic context, and play in linguistic representation of symbolic processes (e.g. emotion management)? A linguistic emotion management)? symbolic processes linguistic approach approachto affect thus needs needs to problematize problematize context In affect thus context and and contextualization contextualization(33, 167). 167). In since affect affect in language indexes culturally particular, since particular, language indexes constructedcategories culturallyconstructed categories of emotionality, these categories must become become a parallel parallel object emotionality, these categories must object of inquiry. inquiry. for the the relationship Ideal between language Ideal contexts contexts for the study andemotionemotionstudy of the relationshipbetween languageand
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al themselves become become the focus of in which which emotions are situations situations in emotions themselves al life are the focus attention: events (67, 179), conflict-resolution conflict-resolution and and therapeutic attention: Conflictual Conflictual events therapeutic encounters interview itself (72) can provide and the the ethnographic interview can provide encounters(443, 446), and ethnographic rich ethnographic for such such investigations. rich ethnographicopportunities opportunitiesfor investigations. Affect, like other other areas areas of language language (152, 232), is deeply deeply embedded embedded in in social, political, political, and and economic economic contexts contexts (4, 11). The indexical indexical nature 11). The natureof affect affect language makes both an vehicle for an ideal in language makes it both ideal vehicle for the the affirmation affirmationof hegemonic hegemonic in the structures ideal (often resistance to these these structures. and an an ideal tool in structuresand (often covert) covert) tool the resistance structures. Furthermore, what vehicle of affect language frequently what serves serves as as a vehicle affect in language Furthermore, has frequentlyalso has in a multilingual social meaning. Code Code switching social meaning. for example, switching in multilingualcommunity, community, for example, can but it simultaneously the boundboundor caring, index levity, anger, can index indexes the anger, or caring, but simultaneouslyindexes aries membership of social they pepper pepper their their conversations social groups. aries and and membership conversations groups. As they with proverbs, proverbs, older with older Spanish establishthemselves an age themselves along Spanishspeakers speakersestablish along an age (and (and status) hierarchy and provide an affectively charged frame for their proan and status) hierarchy provide affectively charged frame for their pronouncements (73). The of referential meaning, affect, and social nouncements The interweaving referential interweaving meaning, affect, and social categories not necessarily necessarily presume presume that referential meaning meaning is the the pivotal pivotal does not thatreferential categoriesdoes category. response of Wolof women women from The distinctive affective response distinctive affective from different category. The different social women impassive, impassive, low-caste strata to a suicide social strata suicide scene scene (high-caste low-caste (high-caste women women screaming) first indexes indexes affect, rank, through and secondarily women norms screaming)first affect, and secondarilyrank, throughnorms of conduct with social And, of course, meaning social status status(230). And, conduct associated associatedwith social meaning course, social as a semiotic can function as also function semiotic mediator mediator between between referentiality can also and affect. affect. referentialityand Such form ain't, when used the case of the the socially Such is the used by socially stigmatized stigmatizedform ain't, which, which, when British aristocracy, "studied indifference" the British indexes a "studied indifference" to matters matters of class the aristocracy, indexes an important (321). Affect thus thus plays plays an mediating role the relationship importantmediating role in the relationshipof the the individual but this not unidirectional. unidirectional. individual to society, but this mediating role is not mediating role How can at the in the How use of language can a closer closer look at the role role of affect affect in the everyday everyday use language inform Anthropologists have have long recognized recognized that that inform ethnographic concerns? Anthropologists ethnographic concerns? social groups distinctive emotion-management social have distinctive Ethnographic groups have emotion-managementstyles. styles. Ethnographic accounts various groups accounts of emotional emotional life in various groups (e.g. 74, 250, 280, 316, 352) have defined the context how have emotions in the context of social social action, defined emotions action, characterized characterizedhow particular emotions normative perspective, perspective, and emotions are areevaluated from a normative evaluatedfrom particular andidentified identified "hypercognized" the focus and "hypocognized" "hypercognized"and focus of more or less cultural "hypocognized"(i.e. the more or cultural attention) useful terminology emotional categories, attention) emotional categories, to use Levy's (281) useful terminology (cf In their investigations of these these questions, rely heavily theirinvestigations 54, 307). In questions, ethnographers ethnographers rely heavily observationsof affect affect in everyday on observations interactions which, without a sophistieveryday interactions which, without sophistihow affect the cated understanding of how cated understanding affect is embedded embeddedin language, must rely language, must rely on the more overt, normative, and interaction more and best-articulated best-articulatedaspects overt, explicit, normative, aspects of interaction What is advocated closer attention also be paid here is that that closer paid to the (297). What advocatedhere attentionalso the more more For example, covert ways affect suffuses suffuses language. covert ways affect language. For that ememexample, among among groups groups that phasize control more covert control of aggression can more phasize covert affect aggression displays displays (e.g. 74, 311), can affect which easily escape indexes, which normative scrutiny, be used indexes, used to communicate escape normative scrutiny, be communicate such feelings as anger Which indexes such interactions? Which used in indexes are are so used feelings as anger in everyday everyday interactions?
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what How is the the inherent what contexts? contexts? How inherentindeterminacy indeterminacyof many many affect-encoding affect-encoding devices Paying greater devices exploited? exploited? Paying greaterattention attentionto such such microanalytic microanalyticconcerns, concerns, and complex relationship and to the the complex between microscopic microscopic aspects relationshipbetween aspects of emotional emotional behavior and and insiders' insiders' emotional behavior emotional discourse, can yield a rich rich and and complex discourse, can complex ethnographic text. text. ethnographic
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
had the fortune of discussing presented here I had the good fortune the issues issues presented discussing many many of the here with with Sue Philips Philips and Charles Briggs, Briggs, and receiving detailed and Charles and of receiving detailedcomments commentson on earlier earlier Leonardo, Joseph Errington, AnAndrafts from Harold Harold Conklin, Conklin, Micaela di Leonardo, drafts from Micaela di Joseph Errington, gelique Haugerud, and Harold Scheffler. this and Harold Scheffler. Many theirinsights in this gelique Haugerud, Many of their insights appear appearin theirs. I also thank the discussion, but none none of the the shortcomings discussion, but are theirs. also thank shortcomingsare the many many were kind kind enough enough to send send me offprints, offprints, typescripts, and colleagues who were colleagues typescripts, and references. references.
Literature Literature Cited
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Annu. Rev. Rev. Anthropol. Anthropol. 1990. 1990. 19:419-51 Annu. ? 1990 1990 by Annual Reviews Reviews Inc.

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