Geology 229 Engineering Geology Lecture 3

Basic Rock Classification and Engineering Considerations (West, Chs. 2, 3, 4, 5)

Outline of this Lecture

1. Rock types and rock cycle 2. Geological and engineering definitions of rocks 3. Basic Mineralogy 4. Engineering Geology considerations

Geology is the study of the earth, from different perspectives, it studies Composition Mineralogy, petrology Geomorphology Structural geology Global geophysics Stratigraphy, geochronology Paleontology

Surface expression Structure Internal activities

Formation process Ancient Life -

The physical nature of the earth and its interaction with engineering construction - Engineering Geology.

What is a rock? In Geology, Rock is defined as the solid material forming the outer rocky shell or crust of the earth. There are three major groups of rocks by its origin: (1) Igneous rocks: cooled from a molten state; e.g., granite, basalt ; (2) Sedimentary rocks: deposited from fluid medium; the products of weathering of other rocks in water; e.g., sandstone, mudstone; (3) Metamorphic rocks: formed from pre-existing rocks by the action of heat and pressure. e.g., dolomite, marble ;

Rock Cycles

Plate Tectonic Settings of Volcanoes and Igneous Rocks

Rhyolite

Andesite

Basalt

Andesite

Diorite e

Gabbro

Diorite

Granite

Thus, in pure geological sense rock is defined as the essential part of the earths crust. Geologists concern about the origin, classification, history, and the spatial aspects of rocks. So, geologically speaking, ice, sand, marble, coal, basalt, can be simply regarded as rocks. However, the Engineering Geologists have a different, and relatively narrower view of rocks. The Engineering Definition of Rocks Rock is the hard and durable material.

The Engineering Definition of Rocks (cont.) By an excavation point of view, Rocks are the earth materials that cannot be excavated without blasting. This definition clearly excludes other kinds of earth materials such as soils, and glacial tills, etc. Here is another engineering definition of rocks: The earth materials that do not slake when soaked into water. For example, a thick loess deposit is regarded as rock geologically and regarded as soil in engineering.

Basic Mineralogy of Rocks Rocks are formed with minerals. What is a mineral? 1) a naturally occurring chemical element or compound; 2) formed by inorganic processes; 3) with an ordered arrangement or pattern for its atoms crystalline structure; 4) possesses a definite chemical composition or range of compositions. The opposite of mineral property is amorphous, i.e., the property of non-crystal, order-less property possessed by glass, volcanic glass, etc.; oil or coal can neither be regarded as minerals by their organic involvement.

Basic Mineralogy of Rocks (cont.) So we can simply express the mineral as mineral = composition + crystalline structure For two minerals if the composition are the same but the structures are different, they can be called a pair of polymorphs. The common examples for polymorphs include 1) pyrite/marcasite (FeS2 , isotropic vs anisotropic iron atom spacing); 2) diamond/graphite (C, the same composition of carbon but different structure); 3) Calcite/aragonite (CaCO3); 4) quartz/cristobolite (SiO2).

Mineralogy Identification for Engineering Purposes From an engineering point of view, certain properties of minerals, especially when they are introduced into or encountered with another mineral, are of special concern to engineers. For example, gypsum in a limestone can become swelling when water presents; pyrite (the fools gold) in shale can be deteriorated by acid water; swelling clays in shale can become wetting and cause instability problem of a slope. Thus, fundamental mineralogical acknowledge is needed when identifying engineering material is needed.

Mineralogy Identification Minerals can be identified by its color; streak (strip); luster; hardness; specific weight; cleavage; fracture; crystal form; magnetism; tenacity; diaphaneity; striation; chemical reaction.

Color
Minerals are colored because certain wave lengths of light are absorbed, and the color results from a combination of those wave lengths that reach the eye. Some minerals show different colors along different crystallographic axes. Mineral identification by colors can be deceptive!!

Flourite

Flourite

Flourite

Streak
The streak of a mineral is the color of the powder left on a streak plate (piece of unglazed porcelain) when the mineral is scraped across it

Luster
Luster refers to how light is reflected from the surface of a mineral. The two main types of luster are metallic and nonmetallic. Types of nonmetallic luster adamantine, vitreous, pearly, greasy, silky, earthy

Rosequartz - greasy
Quartz - vitreous

Apophyllite-pearly

Chrysolite -silky

Cuprite - adamantine

Bauxite - Earthy

Hardness
The hardness of a mineral is its scratchability, determined by Mohs hardness scale. The hardest mineral known, diamond, was assigned the number 10.
Minerals Talc Gypsum Calcite Fluorite Apatite Orthoclase Quartz Topaz Corundum Diamond Level of Hardness 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Glass Copper penny Finger nail Tools

Specific Gravity
Specific gravity is the "heaviness" of a mineral. It is defined as a number that expresses the ratio of the weight of a mineral and the weight of an equal volume of water. The specific gravity depends on: the kind of atoms that comprise the mineral how the atoms are packed together Common rock-forming minerals (quartz, feldspar, calcite, etc.) have specific gravity near 2.7

Cleavage
Cleavage is the ability of a mineral to break along preferred planes Minerals tend to break along certain planes where atomic bonds are weak Minerals can have one, two plane or three plane cleavages.

Copper - none

Crystal forms
Crystal forms are displays of well-formed crystal faces by a mineral Crystal faces formed during crystallization process vs. cleavage faces formed when mineral breaks.

Beryl -hexagonal -

Diamond- octahedron

Basic Mineralogy of Rocks There are more than 2000 naturally occurred minerals have been discovered; only a bit more than 100 are common and used in college mineralogy. However, of the 100 common minerals only about 25 are abundant rock-forming minerals. The main types of minerals are: metallic minerals; nonmetallic minerals; carbonate minerals; sulfate minerals; sulfide minerals; silicate minerals; oxide minerals; clay minerals.

Sulfide Minerals
Pyrite: Fools gold, minor ore of sulfur for sulfuric acid, causes staining on surface of concrete due to oxidation or presence of sulfate ions. Molybdenite: Nearly 50% of all molybdenum is used in making steel. Sphalerite: The most important ore mineral of zinc which is used to make brass, electric batteries, and zinc white.

Sphalerite

Pyrite Molybdenite

Oxide Minerals

Hematite: Fe2O3 - causes staining and popouts on the concrete surface

Chromite: -resistant to the altering affects of high temperatures and pressures - component in the bricks and linings of blast furnaces - major constituent in stainless steel

Hematite

Ilmenite: - major ore of titanium (aluminum-like metal; light weight, non-corrosive, able to withstand temperature Chromite extreme, has many applications in high tech airplanes, missiles, space vehicles)

Ilmenite

Silicates
Most important of all mineral classes because: - 25% of the known minerals and nearly 40% of the common ones are silicates - Nearly 90% of the igneous rock-forming minerals are silicates, which means that they make up over 90% of the Earth's crust - Bricks, stones, concrete and glass are either silicates or derived from silicates
Silicon-Oxygen Tetrahedron

Important silicate groups: Ferromagnesians, nonferromganesians, feldspar (orthoclase, plagioclase), Quartz

Ferromagnesians
Contain Fe or Mg Olivines: Olivine: (Mg, Fe)2SiO4 - found mostly in igneous rock - olivines variety, peridot, has same chemical composition as molten magma in Earths mantle. Thus, peridot is considered the most common mineral by volume in the Earth - industrial uses as refractory sands and abrasives, an ore of magnesium Pyroxenes: Augite Amphibole: Hornblende Micas: biotite

Olivine

Augite

Biotite

Hornblende

Nonferromagnesians
Contain Ca, K, Na Soft, flaky, platy, one prominent cleavage minerals Serpentine: many industrial applications, including brake linings and fireproof fabrics and as an ornamental stone. Muscovite: used in heat and electrical insulator for industrial purposes Muscovite

serpentine

Feldspars (Si3O8 )
By compositions, feldspars is the most common rock-forming silicates Orthoclase: - contains K - used in porcelain industry Plagioclase: - contains Ca, Na - Industrially important in glass and ceramic industries; pottery and enamelware; soaps; abrasives; bond for abrasive wheels; cements and concretes; insulating compositions; fertilizer; poultry grit; tarred roofing materials; and as a sizing (or filler) in textiles and paper.

Orthoclase albite

Quartz Minerals (SiO2 group)

Rose Second common rock-forming mineral silica for glass, electrical components, optical lenses, abrasives, ornamental stone, building stone, etc. Chert: - variety of Quartz, - found in sedimentary rock - when used as an aggregate material, it easily breaks and pop out when exposed to freezing and thawing. Thus, it reduces the strength of concrete.

Rock crystal Rock Crystal

smoky

Amethyst quartz

Carbonate minerals (CO3 group)

Calcite: - fizzes with acid - Primary component in cave formation, react with carbon dioxide in sea and air, thus, acts like carbon dioxide filter for the planet - used in cements and mortars, production of lime, limestone is used in the steel industry; glass industry, ornamental stone, chemical and optical use Dolomite Aragonite: minor constituent of limestone which is used in cement and in steel production, ornamental Dolomite carvings Dolomite: Dolomite problem calcite

Aragonite

Sulfate Minerals (SO4 group)

Gypsum: -common in sedimentary rock in high saline water. - used in plaster, wall board, some cements, fertilizer, paint filler, ornamental stone Gypsum

Anhydrite Anhydrite : - water-free form of gypsum Gypsum - in the manufacture of some cement, a source of sulfate for sulfuric acid - causes cracks in structure due to property of swelling when wet Anhydrite and converting to gypsum

Clay Minerals
Very fine-grained minerals, common in soil Clay = kaolinite, halloysite, illite (non swelling clays), vermiculite, smectite (swelling clays) Smectite: used in drilling mud since it has property of swelling when exposed to water Kaolinite: made up high-grade clay, used in manufacture of ceramic products, rubber industry, refractories Illite: chief constituent in shales

Smectite illite Kaolinite vermiculite Halloysite Vermiculite

Rock Identification Rocks are identified mostly by its texture; mineral composition; field relationships; color; hardness; specific weight; crystal form; magnetism; Apparently, some techniques used in identifying minerals can also be used to classify the rock type.

Rock Properties for Engineering Rock are significant for two major reasons in engineering: (1) As building materials for constructions; (2) As foundations on which the constructions are setting; For the consideration of rocks as construction material the engineers concern about: (a) Density to some extent (for calculating the weight, load to the foundation, etc.); (b) Strength; (c) Durability;

For the consideration of rocks as the construction foundation the geological engineers concern about the rocks: (a) Density; (b) Strength; (c) Compressibility;

Engineering concerns of different rocks:

(a) Igneous; (b) Sedimentary; (c) Metamorphic;

The Identification Chart of the Igneous Rocks

Engineering Considerations of Igneous Rocks (1) Fine-grained igneous rocks cannot be used as aggregates in Portland cement due to volume expansion caused by the Alkalisilica reaction. Solutions include: (a) Can be used in low alkali cement; (b) Non-reactive aggregates go with the high alkali cement; (c) Add pozzolans, coal-ashes, etc. in the aggregate-cement mixture to minimize the reaction. (2) Coarse-grained igneous rocks (e.g., granite, syenite, etc.) are not for aggregates for constructions because its low abrasion resistance; but fine-grained igneous rocks (e.g., basalt) are good fro aggregates (e.g., basalt as paving aggregates goes with asphalt. (3) Siting of foundations needs to avoid weathered rocks (e.g., dams, bridge piers, etc.); (4) Igneous rocks are good for dimension stone (tombstone etc.) because their resistance to weathering but need avoid fractures.

The Nathan Hale Monument in Coventry, Connecticut. Built in 1851 with granite blocks quarried from Quincy, MA.

Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks

Sediments are pieces of loose debris that have not been lithified. Sediments are soil, with the engineering definition. Sediments are the combination of gravels, sands, silts, and clays; Sedimentary rocks are lithified sediments that held together by various types of cementing agents, such as calcite, quarts, and iron oxide; or by compaction of the mineral grains into an indurate mass. There are three ways in lithification: compaction cementation crystallization - reduction of pore size; - pores filling by binding agents; - new minerals crystallized in pores.

Sedimentary Rocks

(1) 95% of the volume of the crust (the first 10 miles in depth of the earth) are igneous and metamorphic rocks; (2) However, it is about 75% of the surface of the earth are covered by sedimentary rocks; (3) Consequently, engineers are most likely end up with working more often on sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks composed of mineral grains or crystals that have been deposited in a fluid medium, and subsequently lithified to form rocks. Of the sedimentary rocks on the earths surface, 46% are shale, 32% are sandstone and 22% are limestone.

Conglomerate is a clastic sedimentary rock that forms from the cementing of rounded cobble and pebble sized rock fragments. Conglomerate is formed by river movement or ocean wave action. The cementing agents that fill the spaces to form the solid rock conglomerate are silica, calcite, or iron oxides. Chert is a very hard sedimentary rock that is usually found in nodules in limestone. Chert is light gray to dark gray in color. It probably formed from the remains of ancient sea sponges or other ocean animals that have been fossilized. Silica has replaced the tissue forming the sedimentary rock. Limestone is the most abundant of the non-clastic sedimentary rocks. Limestone is produced from the mineral calcite (calcium carbonate) and sediment. The main source of limestone is the limy ooze formed in the ocean. Sandstone is a clastic sedimentary rock that forms from the cementing together of sand sized grains forming a solid rock. Quartz is the most abundant mineral that forms sandstone. Calcium carbonate, silica, or iron has been added to the water that is in contact with the sand grains.

Engineering Considerations of Sedimentary Rocks

(1) The sedimentary rocks also have the Alkali-silica reaction problem when used as aggregates with Portland cement. The sedimentary rocks with this problem are chert and graywacke. (2) Fine-grained sedimentary rocks like limestone and dolomite are the best for being used as aggregates; siltstone, shale, conglomerate, and quartz sandstone are not acceptable; (3) Stream and terrace gravel contains weak pieces, they are not good for aggregates in concrete. Weathered chert, shale, and siltstone can cause pop-outs at the concrete surface after freeze-thaw cycles; (4) Coarse-grained limestone is not good for aggregates by reducing particle size; (5) Sinkhole problem in carbonate terrains due to the high dissolvability of limestone and dolomite.

Engineering Considerations of Metamorphic Rocks

(1) The metamorphic rocks also have the Alkali-silica reaction problem when used as aggregates with Portland cement. The metamorphic rocks with this problem are argillite, phyllite, impure quartzite, and granite gneiss; (2) Coarse-grained gneiss can be abraded severely when used as aggregates; (3) For metamorphic rocks the stability of rock mass greatly affected by the foliation orientation; (4) Marble as a metamorphic rock from carbonate sedimentary rocks can cause similar problems, eg., leakage of reservoirs, sinkhile collapse, solution cavities, and channels.

reference
http://www.theimage.com/mineral/index.ht m http://webmineral.com/specimensM.shtml

Readings: Ch. 2, 3, 4, 5 Homework: Chapter 3: Problem 9 Chapter 4: Problem 6