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Television producer
The primary role of a television producer is to oversee all aspects of video production, ranging from show idea development and cast hiring to shoot supervision and fact-checking. It is often the producer who is responsible for the television show's overall quality and survivability, though the roles depend on the particular show or organization. ome producers take more of an e!ecutive role, in that they conceive new programs and pitch them to the television networks, but upon acceptance they focus on business matters, such as budgets and contracts. "ther producers are more involved with the day-to-day workings, participating in activities such as screenwriting, set design, casting, and even directing. There are a variety of different producers on a television show. # traditional producer is one who manages a show's budget and maintains a schedule, but this is no longer the case in modern television. $urrently, the producer and writer are usually the same person.

Types of television producers


%ifferent types of producers in the industry today include &in order of seniority'( )executive producer( There are four meanings for the term. The showrunner is the *chief e!ecutive*+in charge of everything related to the production of the show. It is the highest ranking individual who is responsible for the development and daily management of the show. ,stablished show creators with prior writing credits are automatically given the title of e!ecutive producer, even after they depart the show. ,!ecutive producers can also be head writers, the $," of the production company that distributes the series, or an e!perienced producer on the writing team who has moved up the ranks and currently serves on the board of the directors. )co-executive producer( econd in seniority to e!ecutive producer who attends writing team meetings. -ost write for the series. )supervising producer( upervises the creative process in the writing room, and often aids in script re-writes. These people also guide new writers. They are usually supervise less e!perienced story editors and staff writers on the writing team.

)producer( # producer can also be the writer of the episode, or a former e!ecutive producer who still writes for the show, but has since relinquished his.her duties as ,./. ince producer credits are used for individual episodes, they often require approval from the 0riters 1uild of #merica &01#'. Traditional producers, who are responsible for physical facilities, are given the credit of produced by. -ost line producers are given the title of produced by. )co-producer( # writer on the show who may not have written the episode, but contributed significantly through table reads or revisions. $o-producer credits also often require approval from the 0riters 1uild of #merica. )coordinating producer( or production coordinator. This producer manages the show's schedule and arranges the staff into teams. )consulting producer( These producers are former e!ecutive or possibly coe!ecutive producers, or in rare cases directors, who no longer work on the show that much. They are called upon to assist the writers, sometimes specializing in a particular sub2ect. )associate producer( 3uns day-to-day operations. )assistant producer( ources contributors and stories for the program. )chase producer( 4or news and talk show production, locates and schedules &or *chases*' guests for interviews. )segment producer( 0rites one segment of a program. )line producer( -anages current staff, and finds staff to hire for the production. )field producer( elects areas to film &outside of a television studio' and coordinates stories for a production in the field. They also form a trusting relationship with the cast.participants in order to get interviews while in the field. They may fill a number of different roles, including production manager.coordinator, videographer and also /roduction assistant. )edit producer( "versees the creative and editorial aspects of the program when it is being edited. )post producer( upervises the overall post-production process, including editing, dubbing and grading. /ost-producers are typically employed by facilities houses rather than by production companies directly. In live television or *as-live*, an e!ecutive producer seldom has any operational control of the show. 5is.her 2ob is to stand back from the operational aspects and 2udge the show as an ordinary viewer might. In film or video productions, the e!ecutive producer is almost always given an opportunity to comment on a rough cut but the amount of attention paid to his.her comments is highly dependent on the overall personnel structure of the production.

Writer as "producer"
6nder the guidelines of the 0riters 1uild of #merica, script writers in television also tend to be credited as *producers,* even though they may not engage in the responsibilities generally associated with that title. "n-screen, a *producer* credit for a T7 series will generally be given to each member of the writing staff who made a demonstrable contribution to the final script. The actual producer of the show &in the traditional sense' is listed under the credit *produced by*.

Star as "producer"
ometimes the star of a successful television series can have a degree of influence over the creative process. 4or e!ample, besides his leading role as 8ack 9auer in 24, :iefer utherland was credited as producer during the show's second season, then rising to co-e!ecutive producer from season ; to the last few episodes of season <, from where he was finally promoted to e!ecutive producer. -ark 5armon, star of the series NCIS, serves as one of the show's producers. imilarly, Tom 0elling, the star of the $0 show Smallville, became co-e!ecutive producer for the show in season = and e!ecutive producer in season >?. House .!. star 5ugh @aurie became co-e!ecutive producer for the show in its si!th season.

Some notable television producers


)#aron orkin( Sports Night, "he #est #ing, Studio $% on the Sunset Strip )#aron pelling( &everly Hills' (%2)%, Charmed, Charlie*s +ngels, !ynasty, ,antasy Island, "he -ove &oat, elrose .lace, "he od S/uad, Stars0y and Hutch, S.#.+."., ". 1. Hoo0er > )#lan 9all( Six ,eet 2nder, "rue &lood )#lan 5ardwick( 3or0shire "elevision )9etty $orday( !ays of our -ives &>=AA->=BC' )9iddy 9a!ter( &lue .eter &>=ADEA<F editor >=A<E>=BB' )9ill @awrence( Scrubs, Cougar "o4n, Spin City )9ill /odmore( Coronation Street )9ill Todman( &eat the Cloc0, Card Shar0s, ,amily ,eud, I*ve 5ot a Secret, atch 5ame, .ass4ord, "he .rice is 6ight, "attletales, "o "ell the "ruth, #hat*s y -ine7
>#aron pelling Gew Hork Times.

)9radley 9ell( "he &old and the &eautiful &>==<Epresent' )$hris $arter( "he 8-,iles,

)$arlton $use( "he +dventures of &risco County' 1r., Nash &ridges, -ost illennium, Harsh 6ealm, "he -one 5unmen )$huck 9arris( "he !ating 5ame, "he 5ong Sho4, "he Ne4ly4ed 5ame, "reasure Hunt )$huck @orre( "4o and a Half )%amon @indelof( -ost )%aniel @ipman( 9ueer as ,ol0 2S+ )%an chneider( :ictorious, iCarly, !ra0e ; 1osh, <oey )%), #hat I -i0e +bout 3ou, =enan ; =el, "he +manda Sho4, +ll "hat )%avid #ngell( ,rasier, #ings, Cheers )%avid $hase( "he Sopranos; )%avid %oyle( .o0er Superstars Invitational "ournament, .uppy &o4l )%avid ,. :elley( +lly c&eal, &oston -egal, &oston .ublic, Chicago Hope, .ic0et ,ences, "he .ractice )%avid -aloney( &la0e*s >, "he !ay of the "riffids )%avid imon( "he #ire, "he Corner, 5eneration =ill, Homicide? -ife on the Street, "remeI )%ick 0olf( -a4 ; @rder, -a4 ; @rder? Criminal Intent, -a4 ; @rder? Special :ictims 2nit < )%onald 9ellisario( )%on 5ewitt( $% ),ric 9ischoff( #C# agnum' ..I., +ir4olf, 1+5, NCIS, 9uantum -eap inutes onday Nitro en, "he &ig &ang "heory

),ric :ripke( Supernatural, 6evolution )4ran -ires( @currio asi, +l 3oum )4rederick de $ordova( "he "onight Sho4 Starring 1ohnny Carson &>=C?->==D' )1arry -arshall( "he @dd Couple &>=C?->=C<', Happy !ays &>=CI->=BI', -averne and Shirley &>=CA->=B;' )1ene 3oddenberry( Star "re0, Star "re0? "he Next 5eneration )1reg %aniels( "he @ffice, =ing of the Hill, "he Simpsons )5aim aban( .o4er 6angers &>==;ED??>F D?>?Epresent', &eetleborgs, :6 "roopers
Dhttp(..www.boldandbeautiful.com.inde!.cfmJpidKI???=? ;http(..www.hbo.com.sopranos.cast.crew.davidLchase.shtml Ihttp(..www.hbo.com.thewire.cast.crew.davidLsimon.shtml <Gew Hork Times. *%ick 0olf 9reaks and ,nters 0ith '@aw and "rder' on G9$* by 9ruce 0eber. -arch >, >==D.

)5arry Thomason( !esigning #omen' Avening Shade' Hearts +fire )Ilene $haiken( "he - #ord )Ivan Tors( Science ,iction "heater' Sea Hunt' "he an and the Challenge' "he +/uanauts' !aring 5ame' ,lipper' 5entle &en' !a0tari' 6ip Cord' Co4boy in +frica' 1ambo )8ames @. 9rooks( "he "racey 2llman Sho4 ary "yler oore Sho4, 6hoda, "axi, "he Simpsons, "he r. Cooper

)8eff 4ranklin( ,ull House, Hangin* 4ith )8erry einfeld( Seinfeld

)8erry 9ruckheimer( "he +maBing 6ace, Cold Case, CSI, #ithout a "race )8.8. #brams( +lias, -ost, ,ringe )8ohn de -ol( &ig &rother, ,ear ,actor, !eal or No !eal )8ohn @angley( C@.S )8ohn Gathan-Turner( !octor #ho &>=B?E>=B=' )8. -ichael )8osh traczynski( &abylon C
A

chwartz( "he @.C., Chuc0, 5ossip 5irl

)8oss 0hedon( &uffy the :ampire Slayer, +ngel, ,irefly and !ollhouse ):en $orday( !ays of our -ives &>=B<-present'

):en 0arwick( +merican Idol, +merica*s 5ot "alent, .op Idol, 5ladiators ):evin 9right.-arta :auffman.%avid $rane( ,riends )@arry %avid( Seinfeld, Curb 3our Anthusiasm )@arry 1elbart( D+DSDH
C

)@inda 9loodworth-Thomason( !esigning #omen' Avening Shade' Hearts +fire )@orne -ichaels( Saturday Night -ive, "he =ids in the Hall, E% 6oc0 )@owell 1anz( Happy !ays, -averne ; Shirley, 1oanie -oves Chachi )@ynn -arie @atham( =nots -anding' Homefront' "he 3oung and the 6estless )-ara 9rock #kil( "he 5ame, 5irlfriends )-arc $herry( !esperate House4ives' "he 5olden 5irls )-arcy $arsey( Erd 6oc0 from the Sun, "he Cosby Sho4, 6oseanne )-ark 9urnett( "he +pprentice, Survivor, 6oc0 Star, +re 3ou Smarter "han a Cth 5rader7, "he Contender

A*8oss 0hedon - 9iography*. I !&. . C59"( $urb Hour ,nthusiasm( #bout the ,nthusiasm( #bout the how.

how *$urb Hour ,nthusiasm* . 59"( $urb Hour

)-ark 1oodson( &eat the Cloc0, Card Shar0s, ,amily ,eud, I*ve 5ot a Secret, atch 5ame, .ass4ord, "he .rice is 6ight, "attletales, "o "ell the "ruth, #hat*s y -ine7 )-ark 3isley( 6ugrats, "he #ild "hornberrys, 6oc0et .o4er and +s "old by 5inger )-ark 0ahlberg( In "reatment, Antourage, &oard4al0 Ampire )-att :unitz( ,ear ,actor, #ipeout )-atthew 0einer( ad en illionaire &>===-D?>?' )-erv 1riffin( 1eopardyF, #heel of ,ortune )-ichael %avies( #ho #ants to &e a )-ichael 1ill( Civilisation, +listair Coo0e*s +merica )-ichael /atrick :ing( Sex and the City )-ichael 0earing( &oys from the &lac0stuff, Adge of !ar0ness )-ichelle /aradise( Axes and @hs )Gorman @ear( +ll in the ,amily, 5ood "imes, Sanford and Son )/aul 5aggis( !ue South )/aul 3auch( +nother #orld &>=C>->=B;', "exas &>=B?->=B>', @ne -ife to -ive &>=BI->==>', Santa &arbara &>==D->==;', 5uiding -ight &>==A-D??D', "he 3oung and the 6estless &D??B-D?>>' )/aul Tibbitt( Sponge&ob S/uare.ants &D??CEpresent' )3eg 0atson( "he 3oung !octors, .risoner, Neighbours )3oger %obkowitz( "he .rice Is 6ight &>=BIED??B' )3onald %. -oore( &attlestar 5alactica, 6os4ell, Star "re0? !eep Space Nine, Star "re0? "he Next 5eneration )3on $owen( 9ueer as ,ol0 2S+ )3on @eavitt( arried... 4ith Children, 2nhappily Aver +fter )3oy 5uggins( &aretta, "he ,ugitive, "he 6oc0ford ,iles )3ussell T %avies( 9ueer as ,ol0 2=, !octor #ho &D??< revival', 1o0ing +part, and Chal0 )3ay 0aru( ,rontier of !reams )3yan -urphy( .opular, NipG"uc0, 5lee, +merican Horror Story, "he Ne4 Normal ) arah -ulvey( &rat Camp, )% 3ears 3ounger, #ife S4ap ) arah 8essica /arker( Sex and the City ) arah -ichelle 1ellar( 6inger aude, @ne !ay at a "ime,

) eth -ac4arlane( ,amily 5uy, +merican !adF, "he Cleveland Sho4 ) haun $assidy( +merican 5othic, Invasion, 6uby ; "he 6oc0its ) hawn 3yan( "he Shield, "he Chicago Code' @ast 3esort ) honda 3himes( 5rey*s +natomy, .rivate .ractice, Scandal ) tephen 8. $annell( "he 6oc0ford ,iles, 2) 1ump Street, "he +-"eam, Hunter ) tephen $olbert( Strangers 4ith Candy, "he Colbert 6eport ) tephen 5illenburg( Sponge&ob S/uare.ants ) tephen tohn( !egrassi? "he Next 5eneration, Instant Star ) teven 9ochco( Hill Street &lues, -.+. -a4, N3.! &lue ) teven -offat( !octor #ho &after 3ussell T %avies', Sherloc0, 1e0yll, Coupling ) uzanne de /asse( -onesome !ove, Sister' Sister, Smart 5uy ) ydney Gewman( 5eneral otors "heatre, +rmchair "heatre and others
B

)Ted $orday( !ays of our -ives &>=A<->=AA' )Terence 0inter( &oard4al0 Ampire )Tim Taylor( >; series of "ime "eam )Tina 4ey( E% 6oc0 )Thom 9eers( !eadliest Catch, -obster #ars, numerous other %iscovery $hannel series )Tyler /erry( #orse ( eet the &ro4ns' House of .ayne' "yler .erry*s ,or &etter or

)7erity @ambert( !octor #ho, +dam +damant -ivesF, 1onathan Cree0 )0illiam 8. 9ell( "he 3oung and the 6estless &>=C;-D??<', "he &old and the &eautiful &>=BC->==<' >? )0illiam /. /erry( +nyone for "ennyson7 )Hvette @ee 9owser( -iving Single, + !ifferent #orld, ,or 3our -ove, Half and Half

External links
)/roducers 1uild of #merica 4requently #sked Muestions

B59"( cast and crew( Terence 0inter( 9io *Terence 0inter*. 59"( cast and crew( Terence 0inter( 9io. =*Tyler /erry's 9iography*. . >?*0illiam 8. 9ell*. .

Television director
# television director directs the activities involved in making a television program and is part of a television crew.

Duties
The duties of a television director vary depending on whether the production is live &as in a television news or sports television event' or recorded to video tape or video server &as in a dramatic or interview production'. In both types of productions, the director is responsible for supervising the placement of professional video cameras &camera bloc0ing', lighting equipment, microphones, and props. In a dramatic arts production, the television director's role can be similar to that of a film director, giving cues to actors and directing the video tape operator when to start and stop the video tape recorder &7T3'. In a television show composed of individual episodes, the television director's role may differ from that of a film director in that he or she may work only on some television episodes as opposed to being the auteur of the entire production. In an episodic television production the ma2or creative control will likely reside with the television producer&s' of the show. The television producer with creative control is called the showrunner.

Responsibilities
"ther than quickly calling out commands, the television director is also e!pected to maintain order among the staff in the control room, on the set, and elsewhere. # news studio might have multiple cameras and few camera movements. In a sports broadcast, the director might have D? or ;? cameras and must continuously tell each of the camera operators what to focus on. 0hile the director is responsible for specific shots and other production elements, the producer &typically seated behind the director in the second row of chairs in the control room' coordinates the *big picture*, including commercial breaks and the running length of the show.

External links
)Television %irector at The -useum of 9roadcast $ommunications

Executive producer
#n executive producer &EP' is a producer who was not involved in any technical aspects of the film making or music process in the original definition, but who was still responsible for the overall production.>> Today, however, the title has become ambiguous,>D particularly in feature films. #lthough directors outrank the authority of an e!ecutive producer in films, it is the e!act opposite in television. In this case, e!ecutive producers+or more specifically, showrunners+ are in charge of the writing staff on scripted shows. Gonetheless, each e!ecutive producer title has a completely different meaning in television and not all are+ though most usually are+affiliated with the writing team.

Motion pictures
#n e!ecutive producer of a motion picture is often the person who found and bought the literary property that a film is based on, such as a novel or play. 5e might hire another producer to develop the pro2ect further. If the pro2ect gets the green-light to go into principal photography, he might hire a line producer to watch over the production day to day. ince the >=B?s, however, it has become increasingly common for the line producer to be given the title of e!ecutive producer, while the initiating producer takes the *produced by* credit. "n other pro2ects, the reverse happens, with the line producer taking the *produced by* credit. o the two credits have become effectively interchangeable, with no precise definition. The e!ecutive producer can also be a person representing a financial investor in a film pro2ect, such as a film studio or a distributor, but who is not directly involved in the day to day production. It can also be someone with other special interests in the pro2ect, such as the author of the book that the film is based on, or one of the film's key actors who has been instrumental in persuading the studio to do the film. In such cases, the e!ecutive producer credit is mainly honorary.

Television
# television show may credit many e!ecutive producers. It may be a situation not unlike the one described above for motion pictures( someone with previous involvement with a particular work, a pro2ect's financier, or someone in control of the business aspect of production. ometimes, this title is conferred upon a celebrity or notable creator who has lent his or her name to a pro2ect to boost its prestige or credibility, as a recognition of newly-acquired industry status, or as a perk to the show's main star or creative force.
>>*,!ecutive producer* definition in the Internet -ovie %atabase 1lossary >D0hat is the point of e!ecutive producersJ 3etrieved D?>D-?;-?>

5owever, under the unusual rules for establishing writing credits on television series &where writers are often credited as *producers*', the principal writer is almost always credited as an e!ecutive producer rather than the more descriptive title of *head writer*. 4or these reasons, it is not unusual for T7 shows to have three sets of *e!ecutive producers*( traditional ,/s &production e!ecutives, financiers, etc.', head writer&s', and showrunner&s'.

Music
In the music industry, the e!ecutive producer of an album is often in control of the business side of production, distribution and promotion, or may be in charge of the entire pro2ect. #long with the album's producer, they decide what the album themes will be, create the image for the artist, decide which songs will be singles and have the final say on every single song's completion. It can be the producer or e!ecutive producer who makes the decision as to when the song is finished and ready to be shown to the public. In some instances, an e!ecutive producer can be a person who *discovered* a particular act, or someone who represents an act, either as an agent or a lawyer.

ideo !ames
The title *e!ecutive producer* is not well-defined in the video game industry. It may refer to an e!ternal producer, from the publisher, who works with the developer. ometimes the title is used by the studio head of the developer who created the game.

External links
)*0hat is the point of e!ecutive producersJ* 99$ Gews. >= "ctober D??C.

"ine producer
# line producer is the key manager during the daily operations of a motion picture production. The title is associated with the idea that he or she is the person who is *on the line* on a day-to-day basis.>;

>;*3ole of the line producer.*. .

The line producer supports the director's vision but does not usually have direct influence on the creative e!pression or narrative of the film.. Though it could be argued that through the @ine /roducer's ability to influence certain aspects of the film, like allocation of resources to certain departments, they can change important aspects of the film that have creative consequences, e.g /roduction 7alue. 4rom the beginning of principal photography, the line producer oversees the budgetary and physical production needs of the shoot. 9y the first day of production, several versions of the budget have usually been drafted. # finalized or *locked* budget is the one used as the basis for the production to move forward. # key ob2ective of a line producer will be to respect this *locked* budget and to deliver in time. 0hile in production, the line producer oversees the e!ecution of many decisions that must be made to deliver each day's shoot. The administrative aspects, especially those that have any financial impact, are all crucial areas of the line producer's work. These areas include but are not limited to negotiating compensation &usually during pre-production' of crew members &both for union and non-union productions', overseeing the locked budget, and resolving daily production issues &in con2unction with the first assistant director and possibly the unit production manager'.

#roduction coordinator
# production coordinator &officially called production office coordinator and abbreviated POC' is a unionized position in stagecraft under the International #lliance of Theatrical tage ,mployees &I#T ,' and is governed in @os #ngeles by @ocal BC>.>I The production coordinator serves under the production manager, producer or 6/- to coordinate the various groups and personnel that come together in filmmaking to a movie and video production to make a television show. It is a supervisory position to the /roduction assistant staff. The position requires adept organizational skills, resourcefulness and the ability to handle a multitude of tasks simultaneously under often high-pressure situations. The /"$ serves as the gatekeeper of company policy and is usually responsible for ensuring the rest of the production television crew follows the requirements of the /roduction $ompany or tudio.

>I*@ocal BC>'s website*. @ocal BC>. . 3etrieved D; -arch D?>D.

The duties of a /"$ are often undefined and e!tremely varied ranging from office manager, to human resources, to controller, to accountant. The /"$ is one of the only positions with the I#T , &6 # and $anada' which no longer has a scale or set wage. The I# bylaws simply state the /"$Ns wage is Osub2ect to negotiation with the /roducerP. 4ringe benefits include inclusion with the &6 #'industryNs -otion /icture Industry /ension Q 5ealth /lans.>< $urrently the production company is required to contribute A? pensions hours per week, which equates to about ;<-percent of the weekly gross wage. -ost all /"$s are hired an *on-call* weekly status and are basically paid a flat rate per week, no matter how many or few hours they work. 0orking conditions can vary on the medium &half-hour, hour-long television, reality, live, soap and feature' and daily hours can range from B to >A hour days. The /"$ is often the first person in the office and the last to leave since they hold the responsibility of tending to the needs of the crew. -ore recent attempts have been made by @ocal BC> to establish a scale rate for the /"$s, but to date all have been unsuccessful. The union has a rela!ed 2urisdiction over the position since it does not have an official 2ob description for a /"$. It also governs another 2unior position in the category called #ssistant /roduction $oordinator or #/"$, but again since it does not have an official 2ob description in its bylaws, many studios are able to avoid hiring the #/"$.

#roduction assistant
# production assistant, also known as a /#, is a 2ob title used in filmmaking and television for a person responsible for various aspects of a production. The 2ob of a /# can vary greatly depending on the budget and specific requirements of a production as well as whether or not the production is unionized. /roduction assistants on films are sometimes attached to individual actors or filmmakers.

Television and feature film


In unionized television and feature film, production assistants are usually divided into different categories( * et /#*, *Truck /#*, *@ocations /#*, *"ffice /#*, or * et 3unner* and *,!tra /# or %aily* - 7ariations e!ist depending on a show's structure or region of the 6nited tates or $anada. @ffice .+s usually spend most hours in the respective show's production office handling such tasks as phones, deliveries, script copies, lunch pick-ups, and related tasks in coordination with the production manager and production coordinator.

><*-otion /icture /ension /lan 4#M*. -otion /icture Industry /ension /lan. . 3etrieved D; -arch D?>D.

Set .+s work on the physical set of the production, whether on location or on a sound stage. They report to the assistant director &#%' department and key set /# if one is so designated. %uties include echoing &calling out' *rolls* and *cuts*, locking up &making sure nothing interferes with a take', wrangling talent &actors' and background, facilitating communication between departments, distributing paperwork and radios, and related tasks as mandated by the #%s. et /#s usually work >D- to >A-hour days with the possibility at the end of a shoot to work more than D? hours a single day and are regularly the *first to arrive and the last to leave*.

$ommercials
$ommercial et /#s share the same responsibilities as their Television and 4eature 4ilm counterparts &see * et /#s* above',but also inherit additional responsibilities traditionally encompassed by other departments in the television and feature film structure. These responsibilities range from providing both critical and mundane production support equipment such as dollies, cranes, director's chairs and pop-up tents to standing in for talent and even filling in for other departments who might be shortstaffed. It is not atypical for a commercial set /# to be seen handling trash one minute, and the ne!t minute assisting the electricians or grips with a set-up. # select group of commercial set /#s are given the responsibility of driving and managing the production and camera cube trucks. This responsibility is often given to the more senior /#s because it provides several e!tra days of pay. et /#s in commercials are more commonly hired by the production coordinator and.or production manager as opposed to an #% or key set /#. 5owever, many commercial #%s will. tandard rate for a commercial /# in the @os #ngeles area is a flat rate of D?? dollars per day. "n 4ebruary >, D??B, benefits for qualifying freelance /#s became available through the /roducer's 5ealth 9enefits /lan.>A

%nion vs& non'union


Go union currently e!ists for production assistants, but the affiliation of a production with a union &or unions' can affect the 2ob responsibilities of a /#. @ess unionized shows have more positions that can be serviced by non-union personnelF consequently, /#s on such productions may take on a greater variety of non-traditional duties. ,!amples of this would be a /# setting a light bounce &grip department' or driving a passenger van &teamster.transportation department'.

>A/roducer's 5ealth 9enefits /lan

In 9ritish $olumbia, which has the third largest film and television production sector in Gorth #merica, /#s are represented by the %irector's 1uild of $anada. /roduction #ssistants represented by the %1$ work in the @ocations %epartment and work both on and off set with duties including locking-up the set, traffic control, echoing rolls, firewatching, and liaising with the public and location owners. The :ey-/# is in charge of all the /#s and is the >st #%s' right-hand man when it comes to do with the on set aspects regarding a location. 4rom this position %1$ /#'s can move up through the @ocations %epartment or the #ssistant %irection %epartment as either a Training @ocations -anager &T#@' or a Training #ssistant %irector &T#%', respectively. "ffice /roduction #ssistants work in the production office as an "ffice /# and they work for the /roduction -anager, /roduction $oordinator, #ssistant /roduction $oordinator, and . or other office staff in maintaining the work-flow in the office. 4rom this position, "ffice /#s can work their way up through the office by becoming and #ssistant /roduction $oordinator &#/"$' which is unionized under I#T , B=>. /ay for /#s according to the %1$ $ollective #greement in 9$ is R>C=.;B &non-members' to R>=C.??&members' for a >< hour day. #n B hour day is appro!imately R=A.??. 4or further information consult the %irector's 1uild of $anada. In Muebec, The et /# is part of what is called the *6nit %epartment* or *3Sgie*. 6sually, there is a 6nit -anager, #sst. 6nit -anager, et /#, Truck /#, et 3unner, and the *dailies* as needed for street blocking and e!tra set ups. In other states and provinces these duties are often taken care of by #% %ept., @ocations or Transport. The 6nit manager and his.her team are the ones who deal with the daily logistics of shooting on location and.or in studio. There are two film unions in Muebec( I#T , <>I and #MTI ( @N#lliance quSbScoise des techniciens de lNimage et du son. In both cases the /#'s are unionized.

Tools
,fficient relaying of information is a critical 2ob function and a radio &walkietalkie' is heavily utilized on set to communicate between the #% staff as well as all other departments. In addition a /# might also carry an assortment of pens and markers, spare radio batteries, a multi-task tool, aspirin, gloves, small light and a surveillance headset.

External links
)T?U %irector's 1uild of $anada )T>U 9$ 4ilm $ommission )The /roduction #ssistant's /ocket 5andbook /opular how-to written by a /# for /#s. 6sed by professors at several film programs. #vailable as a /%4 or handbook.

)The #nonymous /roduction #ssistant # daily blog written by a working production assistant. )$ash 9's 5ow To 9ecome a /# # guide to all things related to a /#.

S(o)runner
*Showrunner* is a term originating in the 6nited tates television industry referring to the person who is responsible for the day-to-day operation of a television series+although such persons generally are credited as an e!ecutive producer>C or supervising producer. &This should not be confused with runners, who are the most 2unior members of the production team, though sometimes showrunners are called *runners* in short.' The term is also occasionally applied to people in the television industries of other countries. 6nlike films, where directors are typically in creative control of a production, in episodic television the showrunner usually outranks the director.>B

*istory
Traditionally, the e!ecutive producer of a television program was the *chief e!ecutive*, responsible for the show's production. "ver time, the title of e!ecutive producer became applied to a wider range of roles, from those responsible for arranging financing to an honorific without actual management duties. The term *show runner* was created to identify the producer who actually held ultimate management and creative authority for the program. The blog &and book' Crafty Screen4riting defines sho4runner as( *...the person responsible for all creative aspects of the show, and responsible only to the network &and production company, if it's not his production company'. The boss. 6sually a writer.*>= -os +ngeles "imes columnnist cott $ollins describes show runners as(D?

>C0riters 1uild of #merica, T7 0riters 9ooklet V>-final, $hapter 4our ,!ecutive /roducers >B8anice 3hoshalle @ittle2ohn &#ugust ><, D??B'. *T7's showrunners outrank directors*. :ariety. . >=$omplications ,nsue( The $rafty T7 and creenwriting 9log D? how runners run the show, a Govember D;, D??C *$hannel Island* column from the -os +ngeles "imes

*5yphenates*, a curious hybrid of starry-eyed artists and tough-as-nails operational managers. They're not 2ust writersF they're not 2ust producers. They hire and fire writers and crew members, develop story lines, write scripts, cast actors, mind budgets and run interference with studio and network bosses. It's one of the most unusual and demanding, right-brain.left-brain 2ob descriptions in the entertainment world....T Uhow runners make E and often create E the shows, and now more than ever, shows are the only things that matter. In the *long tail* entertainment economy, viewers don't watch networks. They don't even care about networks. They watch shows. #nd they don't care how they get them.D>

#n interview with hane 9rennan, the showrunner for NCIS and NCIS? -os +ngeles, states that(

... the moniker was created to identify the producer who actually held ultimate management and creative authority for the program, given the way the honorific *e!ecutive producer* was applied to a wider range of roles. There's also the fact that anyone with any power wanted a producer's credit, including the leading actors, who often did no more than say the writers' lines. *It had got to the stage where it was incredibly confusingF there were so many production credits no one knew who was responsible.*DD

Traditionally, the showrunner is the creator or co-creator of the series, but this is not always the case. In long-running shows, often the creator of the show moves on, and day-to-day responsibilities of showrunning falls to other writers or writing teams. -a4 ; @rder, A6, "he Simpsons, "he #est #ing, Star "re0? "he Next 5eneration, N3.! &lue, Supernatural and "he #al0ing !ead are all e!amples of long-running shows that went through multiple showrunners.

$anada
In the $anadian television industry, many terms generally applied to writers are currently in dispute. * howrunner* is one of these terms, with many non-writing producers recently trying to claim the term, as the $anadian T7 industry has traditionally been a line-producer driven industry. -any producers, citing the difficulty of getting programs financed and off the ground, look to claim the title for themselves.

D>The *$hannel Island* column from which the quote was taken was published in Govember D??C, in the early days of the D??C 0riters 1uild of #merica strike. DD9lundell, 1raeme &#pril D;, D?>>'. *1etting the run of the place*. "he +ustralian. . 3etrieved -ay DB, D?>>.

In $anada, as writers and producers struggle for primacy, the term showrunner has become a football, with many writers refusing to acknowledge non-writing showrunners, and producers resisting giving *producer* credits to writers. /artly due to this confusion and controversy, in D??C The 0riters 1uild of $anada, the union representing screenwriters in $anada, established the howrunner #ward at the annual $anadian creenwriting #wards, partially to call attention to this fact, and to the role of *writing* as an essential component of the showrunner title. The first * howrunner #ward* was presented to 9rad 0right, ,!ecutive /roducer of Stargate +tlantis, and Stargate S5-), in #pril D??C.D;

D;*D??C $anadian

creenwriting #wards*. 0riters guild of $anada. . 3etrieved D??B-?C->>.

%nited +in!dom
The concept of a *showrunner*, specifically interpreted as a writer or presenter with overall responsibility for a television production, began to spread to the 9ritish television industry in the first decade of the D>st century.DI The first writer given the role of showrunner on a 9ritish primetime drama was Tony -c5ale, creator of Holby City, in D??<.D< 5owever, it was 3ussell T %avies' work on the D??< revival of !octor #ho that brought the term to prominence in 9ritish television &to the e!tent that in D??= a writer for "he 5uardian wrote that *"ver here, the concept of 'showrunner' has only made it as far as !octor #ho*'.DA %avies e!plained to -ark @awson that he felt the role of the showrunner was to establish and maintain a consistent tone in a drama.DC !octor #ho remains the most prominent e!ample of a 9ritish television programme with a showrunner, with teven -offat having taken over the post from %avies.DBD= 5owever, the term has also been used in reference to other writer.producers, such as Tony 8ordan on oving #allpaper and Acho &each, #nn -c-anus on #aterloo 6oad, and #drian 5odges on .rimeval.;? The first 9ritish comedy series to use the term was y ,amily, which has had four showrunners since its debut in D???. Initially, the show was overseen by creator 4red 9arron from series >EI. Ian 9rown and 8ames 5endrie, the show's most prolific writers, took over for series <, followed by #merican writer Tom @eopold for series A. 4ormer Cheers showrunner Tom #nderson has been in charge since series C.;>

,%-./

DI@awson, -ark &"ctober DD, D??C'. *9ritain's got talent E and it's untouchable*. "he 5uardian. . 3etrieved #pril DC, D?>?. D</lunkett, 8ohn &%ecember >I, D??='. *5olby $ity e!ec producer to leave*. "he 5uardian. . 3etrieved #pril DC, D?>?. DA-artin, %an &8une DI, D??='. *Is Heroes lost without its supermanJ*. "he 5uardian. . 3etrieved #pril DC, D?>?. DC%avies, 3ussell T &8anuary >A, D??B'. ar0 -a4son "al0s to.... Interview with -ark @awson. 99$ 4our. . 3etrieved #pril DC, D?>?. DB*/aul $ornell interview*. &&C #ritersroom. 99$. D??B. . 3etrieved #pril DC, D?>?. Interviewer refers to !octor #ho as *...one of the few 6: series with a showrunner*. D=-c@ean, 1areth &-arch DD, D?>?'. * teven -offat( The man with a monster of a 2ob*. "he 5uardian. . 3etrieved #pril DC, D?>?. ;?%eans, 8ason &Govember D?, D??A'. *Twice the drama at IT7*. "he 5uardian. . 3etrieved #pril DC, D?>?. 0ilby, /eter &-arch ;, D??='. *-elodrama class*. "he 5uardian. . 3etrieved #pril DC, D?>?. 5olmwood, @eigh & eptember D=, D??='. *IT7> saves /rimeval from e!tinction after deal with digital channel 0atch*. "he 5uardian. . 3etrieved #pril DC, D?>?. ;>http(..www.comedy.co.uk.guide.tv.myLfamily.trivia.

Writer
# writer is a person who produces and composes fictional or nonfictional writing or literary art such as novels, short stories, poetry, plays, screenplays, or essays +especially someone who writes professionally. killed writers are able to use language to e!press ideas and images. # writer's work may contribute significantly to the cultural content of a society.;D The term 4riter is customarily used as a synonym of author, although the latter term has a somewhat broader meaning.

*ead )riter
# head writer is a person who oversees the team of writers on a television or radio series. The title is common in the soap opera genre, as well as with sketch comedies and talk shows that feature monologues and comedy skits, but in prime time series this function is generally performed by an e!ecutive producer.

0vervie)
The head writer conceives and outlines the long-term story of a scripted television or radio series. In daytime television, the over-arcing story lines are broken out into daily episodes, which are then individually outlined by particular writers, and fleshed out with dialogue by others. In prime time series, individual staff or freelance writers briefed with any longterm story lines generally pitch their episode ideas to the head writer.e!ecutive producer. The writer then develops their ideas into a script, which is subsequently edited and revised by the series' entire writing team during the production process. ometimes head writers also hold the role of story editor, though other times the roles are separate.

Writin! a)ards
There are several awards for which a head writer can be eligible for. They include( )%aytime ,mmy #wards ),mmy #wards
;D-agill, 4rank G. &>=CI'. Cyclopedia of #orld +uthors. vols. I, II, III &revised ed.'. ,nglewood $liffs, Gew 8ersey( alem /ress. pp. >E>=C;. T# compilation of the bibliographies and short biographies of notable authors up to >=CI.U

)01# #ward )1emini #ward ) atellite #wards )1olden 1lobe #ward )9#T# )T$# #wards

Members(ip
5ead writers may be members of the following groups( 01#, 0riters 1uild of $anada, #uthors 1uild, %ramatists 1uild of #merica, #merican creenwriters #ssociation, #ustralian 0riters' 1uild, and International #ffiliation of 0riters 1uilds.

Screen)riter
# screenwriter or scriptwriter or scenario writer is a writer who practices the craft of screenwriting, writing screenplays on which mass media such as films, television programs, comics or video games are based.

#rofession
creenwriting is a freelance profession. Go education is required to become a professional screenwriter, 2ust good storytelling abilities and imagination. creenwriters are not hired employees, they are contracted freelancers. -ost, if not all, screenwriters start their careers writing on speculation &spec', meaning they write without being hired or paid for it. 0hen such a script is sold, it is called a spec script. 0hat separates a professional screenwriter from an amateur screenwriter is that professional screenwriters are usually represented by a talent agency. #lso, professional screenwriters do not work for free often, an amateur will often work for free and are considered writers *in training*. pec scripts are usually penned by unknown professional screenwriters and amateur screenwriters. There are a legion of would-be screenwriters who attempt to enter the film industry but it often takes years of trial-and-error, failure, and gritty persistence to achieve success.

Screen)ritin! in t(e film industry


,very screenplay and teleplay begins with an idea, and screenwriters use those ideas to write scripts, with the intention of selling them and having them produced.;; The ma2ority of the time, a film pro2ect gets initiated by a screenwriter and because they initiated the pro2ect, the writing assignment e!clusively becomes his or hers.;I These are referred to as *e!clusive* assignments or *pitched* assignments. creenwriters who often pitch new pro2ects, whether original or an adaptation, often do not have to worry about competing for assignments and are often more successful. 0hen word is put out about a pro2ect a film studio, production company, or producer wants done, these are referred to as *open* assignments. "pen assignments are more competitive. In situations where screenwriters are competing for an open assignment, more established writers will usually win these assignments. # screenwriter can also be approached and personally offered a writing assignment.

Script doctorin!
-any screenwriters also work as full or part time *script doctors*, attempting to better a script to suit the desires of a director or studio. 4or instance, studio management may have a complaint that the motivations of the characters are unclear or that the dialogue is weak. cript-doctoring can be quite lucrative, especially for the better known writers. %avid -amet and 8ohn ayles, for instance, fund the movies they direct themselves, usually from their own screenplays, by writing and doctoring scripts for others. In fact, some writers make very profitable careers out of being the ninth or tenth writer to work on a pieceF in many cases, working on pro2ects that never see e!posure to an audience of any size. cript doctoring companies, also known as script consultancies, are also often used by directors, production companies and individual screenwriters. These usually do not offer full re-writes, but are used when a production company or an individual requires feedback on whether or not a script is marketable, how it can be improved, and whether or not it holds any potential for development. -any up and coming screenwriters also *ghost write* pro2ects and allow more established screenwriters to take public credit for the pro2ect.

;;4erguson, 9rooks &>C'. *$reativity and integrity( -arketing the *in development* screenplay*. .sychology and ar0eting 26 &<'( IDB. doi(>?.>??D.mar.D?DB>. ;I

Development process of a pro1ect


#fter a screenwriter finishes a pro2ect, he or she pairs with an industry-based representative, such as a producer, director, literary agent, entertainment lawyer, or an entertainment e!ecutive. These partnerships will often pitch their pro2ect to investors or others in a position to further a pro2ect. "nce the script is sold the writer only has the rights that were agreed with the purchaser.;< # screenwriter becomes credible once their work is recognized, giving the writer the opportunity to earn a higher income.;A

#roduction involvement
creenwriters are rarely involved in the development of a film. ometimes they come on as advisors, or if they are established, as a producer. ome screenwriters also direct. #lthough many scripts are sold each year, many do not make it into production because the amount of scripts that are purchased every year outnumber the amount of professional directors that are working in the film and T7 industry. 0hen a screenwriter finishes a pro2ect and sells it to a film studio, production company, T7 network, or producer, he or she often has to continue networking, mainly with directors or e!ecutives, and push to have their pro2ects *chosen* and turned into films or T7 shows. If interest in a script begins to fade, a pro2ect can go dead.

ideo !ame )ritin!


7ideo game writing is also considered to be a form of screenwriting. and television writers also work in this industry. ome film

%nion
-ost professional screenwriters in the 6. . are unionized and are represented by organizations such as the 0riters 1uild of #merica. #lthough membership in the 01# is recommended, it is not required of a screenwriter to 2oin. The 01# is the final arbiter on awarding writing credit for pro2ects under its 2urisdiction.

Story editor
Story editor is a 2ob title in motion picture and television production, also sometimes called *supervising producer*. # story editor is a member of the screenwriting staff who edits stories for screenplays.
;< ;A

The story editor has many responsibilities, including finding new script.breakdown writers, developing stories with writers, and ensuring that scripts are suitable for production. The story editor will work closely with the writer on each draft of their story and script, giving the writer feedback on the quality of their work, suggesting improvements that can be made while also ensuring that practical issues, like continuity and correct running time, are adhered to. 0hen a script is past due, multiple people may write an act+called *gang banging* a script. -any primetime series have an e!ecutive story editor and a story editor. -arc #brams of the T7 series "he &ernie ac Sho4 said, *#s you go from show to show you learn that each has its own temperature and its own etiquette. Hou recognize your role on that particular show. $ertain show runners encourage the lower-level writers to pitch ideas, others don't. ome want ideas well thought out before they are presented, others like to hear the kernel of an idea that could be e!panded.* This role often overlaps with that of the head writer.

/otable story editors


),li Talbert )8osh 9erman )0illiam 8ames 3oyce )%ee 8ohnson )#shley 1able )#ndrew @ipsitz )-indy :aling ):ay $annon )#rika -ittman )@uvh 3akhe

External links
)0hat do tory ,ditors doJ - -edia-atch6 #

#RES%#%EST0S

#roduction bud!et
# film production bud et determines how much money will be spent on the entire film pro2ect. It involves the identification and estimation of cost items for each phase of filmmaking &development, pre-production, production, postproduction and distribution'. The budget structure is normally split into *above-the-line* &creative' and *belowthe-line* &technical' costs. Production bud et may also refer to a budget set by a business for how many units of a product will be produced.;C

References
),ilm &udgeting by 3alph ),ilm .roduction . ingleton &>==A' anagement by 9astian $levS &Dnd ,d, D???'

)"he Complete ,ilm .roduction Handboo0 &;rd ,d, D??>' )"he @n .roduction &udget &oo0 by 3obert 8. :oster &>==C' ).roduction anagement for ": and ,ilm. "he .rofessional*s 5uide by @inda tradling D?>? &-ethuen'

Above t(e line 2filmmakin!3


!bove"the"line is a term that refers to the list of individuals who guide, influence and hopefully add to the creative direction, process and voice of a given narrative in a film and their related e!penditures. These roles include but are not limited to the screenwriter&s', producer, director, casting director and actors. "ften, the term is used for matters related to the film's production budget. #bove-the-line e!penditures reflect the e!pected line item compensation for an official above-the-line member's role in a given film pro2ect. These e!penditures are usually set, negotiated, spent and.or promised before principal photography begins. They include rights to secure the material on which the screenplay is based, production rights to the screenplay, compensation for the screenwriter, producer, director, principal actors and other cost-related line items such as assistants for the producer&s', director or actor&s'. The distinction originates from the early studio days when the budget top-sheet would literally have a line separating the above-the-line and belo4-the-line costs.

;C*#ccounting for -anagement*. .roduction &udget. . 3etrieved I %ecember D?>D.

4elo) t(e line 2filmmakin!3


In feature-length narrative filmmaking, an imaginary line delineates those who have influence in the creative direction of a film's narrative from others who perform duties related to the film's physical production. #elow"the"line is a term that refers to the list of individuals who perform the physical production of a given film, the post-production work and all of the related e!penditures. These positions include but are not limited to the following(

)#ssistant %irector

)1raphic #rtist

)#rt %irector

)5air

tylist

)@ine /roducer

):ey 1rip

)@ocation manager

)-ake-up #rtist

)9est 9oy ,lectric

)/roduction #ssistant

)9est 9oy 1rip

) cript

upervisor &continuity'

)9oom "perator

) ound ,ngineer

)$haracter generator &$1' operator &television'

) tage -anager &television'

)$ostume %esigner

) tage $arpenter

)%irector of /hotography

)Technical %irector &T%' &television'

)$amera operator

)7ideo control 9roadcast engineering &television'

)$omposer

)4ilm ,ditor

)%olly grip

)7isual ,ffects ,ditor

)1affer

The head of each department is known as a *key*. These individuals are responsible for the overall workings of their area, such as hair, make-up, wardrobe, locations, grip and electric &1Q,', lighting and camera. The head of the camera department is the %irector of /hotography, also known as the cinematographer. 9elow-the-line costs include allowances for non-starring cast members and the technical production crew and post-production team&s'. $osts for locations such as filming sites, film studios and sound stages with its related technical equipment are also considered below-the-line e!penditures. $rew travel e!penses, catering costs, craft service and many other e!penses fall under the below-the-line banner. :eys will often move around their e!penses to suit their departmental needs unless absolutely necessary during production. In addition, below-the-line costs include production insurance, errors and omission coverage &,Q"' insurance and other unforeseen e!penses under the heading *contingency*, which usually begins at around >?W.

9eginning in the >==?s, a growing labor pool coupled with the pressure by production studios to cut costs, as well as a decline in labor-intensive television scripts &such as dramatic series' has since created a stagnant below-the-line industry. #lthough hourly wages still remain high, reports indicate that the work has become harder and less predictable, with producers attempting to cut costs by reducing shooting days, requiring long hours of overtime ... as unions have lost power over industry practices with an increase in the proportion of productions made on *shoestring* &low budget' budgets.;B -any producers, whose profit margins depend on saving labor costs, have begun using crews not working under standard union contracts. This pressure to reduce total e!penses &caused by rising star salaries and marketing costs' is particularly felt by *belowthe-line* or entertainment industry craft because this work is perceived as not adding value or improving the chance for financing. "ne e!ception to the entertainment squeeze felt by OcraftP groups are editors. ince the Getwork era &late X<?Ns to mid XB?Ns', the development of low cost genres, such as news and other un-scripted shows, has become a popular movement. ,ditors have become e!tremely important to productions such as reality television, which are able to produce hours of programming from a small quantity of raw footage.;=

Ma!a5ine
&elo4 the -ine is also the name of a 5ollywood trade magazine that publishes articles and production listings whose primary audience is the film crew.

External links
)btlnews.com, &elo4 the -ine official website

Television cre)
$elevision crew positions are derived from those of film crew, but with several differences.

;B-c%onald, /. Q 0asko, 8. &D??B'. "he Contemporary Holly4ood ,ilm Industry. #ustralia( 9lackwell /ublishing @td.. pp. >A?E>AD. I 9G =CB>I?<>;;BCA.. ;=-c%onald, /. Q 0asko, 8. &D??B'. "he Contemporary Holly4ood ,ilm Industry. #ustralia( 9lackwell /ublishing @td.. pp. >A?E>AD. I 9G =CB>I?<>;;BCA..

#re'production
,verything before the shooting of the film is known as the pre-production stage. The crew of people involved in this stage include the $asting %irector, the $ostume designer, the %irector, the @ocation manager, the -ake-up artist, the 3esearcher, the creenwriter, the et designer, and the Television producer.

$astin! Director
$asts the #ctors. 6sually one of the first crew members attached to the pro2ect. In fact, when a television pilot is initially cast the ,!ecutive /roducer and $asting %irector are often the only crew members.

$ostume desi!ner
The Costu%e &esi ner makes all the clothing and costumes worn by all the #ctors on screen, as well as designing, planning, and organizing the construction of the garments down to the fabric, colours, and sizes. They greatly contribute to the appearance of the production, and set a particular mood, time, feeling, or genre. They alter the overall appearance of a pro2ect with their designs and constructions, including impacting on the style of the pro2ect, and how the audience interprets the show's characters.

Director
# $elevision &irector is usually responsible for directing the actors and other filmed aspects of a television production. The role differs from that of a film director because the ma2or creative control will likely belong to the /roducer. In general, the #ctor and other regular #rtists on a show will be familiar enough with their roles that the %irector's input will be confined to technical issues. The %irector is responsible for all creative aspects of a movie. The %irector would most likely assist with hiring the cast &and possibly the crew'. The %irector helps decide on the locations, creates a plan of shooting, and sets a mental layout of shot by shot in their minds eye. %uring shooting, the %irector supervises the overall pro2ect, manages shots, and keeps the assignment on budget, and schedule. #lthough the %irector holds much power, they are second in command after the /roducer, who ultimately hired the %irector &unless the %irector holds both positions'. ome %irectors are also the /roducers of their television program, and, with the formal approval of the funding studio, have a much tighter grip on what makes the final cut than %irectors usually have. )!ssociate &irector &!&'

#n !ssociate &irector in television production is usually responsible for floor directing in the studio and ensuring that the sets, props and technical equipment are safe, ready to use and positioned correctly before filming. #ssociate %irectors are also responsible for communications with the audience and any guests, for e!ample ensuring they are seated in good time, and assisting the %irector with production. In scripted television series, an #ssociate %irector will occasionally serve as the episode's %irector, in which case someone else will sub for the #%. 6ntil the mid D???s in the 6nited tates, #ssociate %irectors were usually credited as *Technical $oordinators* for most sitcoms were shot on filmF #%s are usually not used on drama programs.

"ocation Mana!er
The 'ocation (ana er finds and manages film locations. -ost pictures are shot in the controllable environment of a studio sound stage but occasionally, outdoor sequences call for filming on location.

Make'up artist
# professional (a)e"up artist is usually a cosmetology beautician, and applies makeup to anyone appearing on screen. They concentrate on the area above the chest, the face, the top of the head, the fingers, hands, arms, and elbows. Their role is to manipulate an #ctor 's on screen appearance whether it makes them look more youthful, larger, older, or in some cases monstrous. There are also 9ody makeup artists who concentrate their abilities on the body rather than the head. -ake-up itself is substances to enhance the beauty of the human body, but can also change the appearance, disguise, or costume someone. #long with the -ake-up artists, the 5air stylists, $ostume designers, and %ress technicians all combine their effort into transforming an #ctor into a character, or a person into a presenter.

#roduction desi!ner
The Production &esi ner is the person with the responsibility of the visual appearance of a production. They design, plan, organize, and arrange set design, equipment availability, as well as the on screen appearance a production will have. # production designer is often referred to also as the set designer, or scenic designer. They are trained professionals, often with -aster of 4ine #rts &-4#' degrees in scenic design. The set designer is responsible for collaborating with the Theatre %irector to create an environment for the production and then communicating the details of this environment to the Technical %irector, charge scenic artist and /roperty -aster. cenic %esigners are responsible for creating scale models of the scenery as well as scale drawings. The set designer also takes instructions from the #rt %irector to create the appearance of the stage, and design its technical assembly. The #rt %irector, who can also be the /roduction %esigner, plans and oversees the formation of settings for a pro2ect. They are fully aware and conscious of art and design styles, including architecture and interior design. They also work with the $inematographer to accomplish the precise appearance for the pro2ect.

Researc(er
*esearchers research the pro2ect ahead of shooting time to increase truth, factual content, creative content, original ideas, background information, and sometimes performs minor searches such as flight details, location conditions, accommodation details, etc. It is their task to inform the %irector, /roducer, and 0riter of all ideas, and knowledge related to what task is being undertaken, or what a scene. event.prop. or backdrop needs to be included to make the show factual and ultimately more believable.

Set desi!ner
The scenic designer is responsible for collaborating with the Theatre director and other members of the production design team to create an environment for the production and then communicating the details of this environment to the Technical director, /roduction manager, $harge artist and /roperty master. cenic designers are responsible for creating scale models of the scenery, artistic rendering, paint elevations and scale construction drawings as part of their communication with other production staff.

Television #roducer
In the entertainment industry, a $elevision Producer &compare to film producer' is generally in charge of, or helps to coordinate, the financial, legal, administrative, technological and artistic aspects of a production. In television, a television producer can be given one of the following titles( )!ssociate Producer The !ssociate Producer performs limited producing functions under the authority of a /roducerF often in charge of the day-to-day running of a production. 6sually the /roducer's head assistant, although the task can differ. They are frequently a connection between everyone making shooting possible &the production team' and the people involved after filming to finalize the production, and get it publicized &the /ost-production team'. "ccasionally credit for this role is given to the product's financial backer, or the person who originally brought the assignment to the /roducer. )!ssistant Producer &!P' In the 6:', the !ssistant Producer is the closest role to that of a film director. #n #ssistant /roducer often doubles as an e!perienced 3esearcher, and takes direct charge of the creative content and action within a programme. The title of Television director is usually reserved only for dramatic programming productions and those which bear most similarity to films, or for those who control a multi-camera set up from the 5allery. )Co"producer Typically performs producing functions in tandem with one or more other Co" Producers &working as a team, rather than separately on different aspects of the production'. )Coordinatin Producer

$oordinates the work of two or more producers working separately on one or more productions. )Executive producer

upervises one or more producers in all aspects of their workF sometimes the initiator of the productionF usually the ultimate authority on the creative and business aspects of the production &e!cept to the e!tent that a 4ilm %irector retains creative control'. If the title is designated correctly, the ,!ecutive /roducer would arrange for the pro2ect's financial backing and attempt to maintain a well production budget. 4ar too often, the ,!ecutive /roducer's role is given falsely to a power player in the equation E sometimes an actor, an actor's agent, or someone else who aided in the production of the pro2ect. )'ine producer upervises the physical aspects of the production &not the creative aspects', including personnel, technology, budget, and scheduling. The line producer oversees the pro2ect's budget. This involves operating costs such as salaries, production costs, and everyday equipment rental costs. The @ine /roducer works with the /roduction manager on costs and e!penditure. )Se %ent producer /roduces one or more components of a multipart production. )Supervisin producer

upervises one or more producers in some or all aspects of their workF usually works under the authority of an ,!ecutive /roducer.

Writer
The +riter creates and moulds an original story, or adapts other written, told, or acted stories for production of a television show. Their finished work is called a script. # script may also have been a contribution of many writers, so it is the 0riters 1uild of #mericaNs &01#' task to designate who gets the credit as being 'the 0riter'. '0ritten 9y' in the credits, is a 0riters 1uild of #merica assigned terminology meaning *"riginal tory and creenplay 9y*. # screenplay or script is a blueprint for producing a motion picture, and a teleplay is the replica for a television show. 0riters can also come under the category of screenwriters. creenwriters &also called *script writers*', are authors who write the screenplays from which productions are made 2ust as a writer does. -any of them also work as script doctors, attempting to change scripts to suit directors or studiosF cript-doctoring can be quite lucrative, especially for the better known writers. -ost professional screenwriters are unionized and are represented by organizations such as the 01#.

*ead )riter
# head writer is a person who oversees the team of writers on a television or radio series. The title is common in the soap opera genre, as well as with sketch comedies and talk shows that feature monologues and comedy skits, but in prime time series this function is generally performed by an ,!ecutive /roducer.

Screen)riter
Screenwriters or scenarists or scriptwriters are people who write.create the short or feature-length screenplays from which films and television programs are based.

Story editor
tory editor is a 2ob title in motion picture filmmaking and television production, also sometimes called * upervising /roducer*. # story editor is a member of the screenwriting staff who edits stories for screenplays.

#roduction
,verything while the shooting of the film is in progress is part of the so called OproductionP stage. The crew of people involved in this stage of production include the $inematographer, /roduction -anager, the Technical %irector, the 9oom "perator, the 1affer, the %olly grip, the :ey 1rip and the tunt coordinator.

A6
#n #D &or #udio #ssistant' is a person responsible for placement and interconnection of audio devices, such as microphones and intercom, from the Television /roduction truck to the venue. Typically in larger productions, there are two or more #Ds.

4oom operator
The #oo% Operator is an assistant of the ound ,ngineer or *production sound mi!er*. The main responsibility of the 9oom "perator is microphone placement, sometimes using a *fishpole* with a microphone attached to the end and sometimes, when the situation permits, using a *boom* &most often a *fisher boom*' which is a special piece of equipment that the operator stands on and that allows precise control of the microphone at a much greater distance away from the actors. They will also place wireless microphones on actors when it is necessary. The 9oom "perator is part of the sound crew, who manages to keep the microphone boom, near to the action, but away from the camera frame, so that it never appears onscreen, but allows the microphone to pursue the actors as they move. They work closely with the /roduction ound -i!er, or ound 3ecordist, to record all sound while filming including background noises, dialogue, sound effects, and silence.

$amera 0perator7$inemato!rap(er7 ideo!rap(er


#s the head member of the camera crew, the camera operator uses the camera as coached by the %irector. They are accountable for maintaining the required action is correctly filmed in the frame, and needs to react instinctively as the proceedings take place. If the Ca%era Operator is also a Cine%ato rapher, they also help establish the theme and appearance of the show. The $inematographer or %irector of photography &%/' regulates the lighting for every scene, is responsible for framing some shots, chooses the lenses to be used, decides on film stock and guarantees that the visual appearance of the pro2ect follows to the directors initial foresight. 5owever, the $inematographer would usually not maneuver the camera on the set, as this is usually the e!clusive role of a $amera "perator.

$(aracter ,enerator 0perator7Aston7$(yron 0perator


The Character ,enerator -C,. Operator prepares and displays digital onscreen graphics &%"1 or 961' and lower third graphics on the character generator that were created by the 9roadcast designer.

Floor Mana!er
The /loor (ana er is the %irector's representative on the studio floor, and is responsible for giving instruction and direction to crew, cast and guests. It is closest to the role of an #ssistant %irector, as the 2ob frequently entails barking orders to keep a production moving to schedule. The 4loor -anager is always in direct contact with the %irector via tal0bac0 in the gallery. #lso checks that the floor is clear and safe for the performance requiredF checks that any scenery or set piece is ready to be used as requiredF turns on the appropriate lightsF gives announcements to staff and audienceF helps to maintain the set quiet and in orderF calls cues to begin the action and prompts talents as required. )!ssistant /loor (ana er #n !ssistant /loor (ana er &frequently abbreviated to #4-' is responsible for setting a stage and prompting contributors on the studio floor and ensuring that everyone knows their place in the script, freeing the 4loor -anager for other duties. They often oversee a team of 3unners. Increasingly, #ssistant 4loor -anagers are being asked to assist with the design and preparation of props, as well as setting and resetting the action on the studio floor.

,rap(ics $oordinator
The ,raphics coordinator &,C' decides what graphic content should be displayed on-air E such as on a fullpage &a full-screen graphic' or a lower third &a bar graphic appearing in the lower third of the screen'. The 1$ should not be confused with the $haracter 1enerator &$1' "perator, who usually operates a $1 and is part of a television crew, or a 9roadcast designer who physically creates the graphics.

Sta!e Mana!er
tage management is the practice of organizing and coordinating a theatrical production. It encompasses a variety of activities, including organizing the production and coordinating communications between various personnel &e.g., between director and backstage crew, or actors and production management'. tage management is a sub-discipline of stagecraft.

,affer
The ,affer is the head ,lectrician at the production set, and is in charge of lighting the stage in accordance with the direction of the $inematographer. In television the term Chief 'i htin &irector is often used instead of 1affer, and sometimes the Technical %irector will light the studio set. The 1affer reports to the %irector of /hotography &%o/', 'i htin &irector &'&' or 'i htin &esi ner, and will usually have an assistant called a #est #oy and a crew of electricians.

,rip 21ob3
In the 6. . and $anada, grips are lighting and rigging technicians in the film and video industries. They constitute their own department on a film set and are directed by a key grip. 1rips have two main functions. The first is to work closely with the camera department to provide camera support, especially if the camera is mounted to a dolly, crane, or in an unusual position, such as the top of a ladder. ome grips may specialize in operating camera dollies or camera cranes. The second main function of grips is to work closely with the electrical department to create lighting set-ups necessary for a shot under the direction of the %irector of /hotography. )0ey rip The *=ey 5rip is the head grip on the production set. It is a 1rip's task to create shadow effects with lights and occasionally maneuver camera cranes, dollies and platforms while receiving direction from the $inematographer. The term grip is used in slightly different ways in #merican and 9ritish or #ustralian film making. In the 9ritish and #ustralian film industries, a grip is responsible for camera mounting and support, which can include anything beyond a basic tripod. @ighting in 9ritish and #ustralian film-making is headed by the 1affer, who is also part of the camera department. 1rips can also be the people that do the laborious work on sets. These type of 1rips push, pull, roll, and lift various pieces of equipment under the watchful eye of the Television %irector, Television producer, or et designer. )&olly rip In cinematography, the &olly ,rip is the individual who places and moves the dolly track where it is required, and then pushes and pulls the dolly along that track while filming. # %olly 1rip must work closely with the camera crew to perfect these comple! movements during rehearsals. 4or moving shots, %olly 1rip may also push the wheeled platform holding the microphone and 9oom "perator. The dolly is a cart that the tripod and camera &and occasionally the camera crew' rest on. It makes the camera able to move without bumps and visual interruptions from start to finish while the camera is filming. It is commonly used to follow beside an actor to give the audience the sense of walking with the actor, or as the actor.

,allery7$ontrol Room Team


The following crew positions are only utilised on a ultiple-camera setup production. The 1allery or */roduction $ontrol 3oom* is a separate darkened area away from the studio floor where the action can be viewed across multiple monitors and controlled from a single source.

#roduction Mana!er
The Production (ana er performs deals concerned with business about the crew, and organizes the technical needs of the production. This would involve many things ranging from gaining the correct equipment with the e!act technical requirementsF to arranging accommodation for the cast and crew. The /roduction -anager reports their e!penses and needs to the @ine /roducer.

#roduction Assistant
$ommonly referred to simply as the .+, the Production !ssistant assumes a prompting role in the 1allery or $ontrol 3oom. They are responsible for communication with the broadcasting channel during a live television show, counting down the time before transmission aloud to the crew via the studio microphone. They also count down time remaining for sections of a programme, such as an interview or an advertising break. /rior to a production, the /# is responsible for preparing and timing the script, noting pre-recorded inserts, sound effects and suchlike, and for clearing copyright and other administrative issues.

Runner
*unners are the most 2unior members of a television crew. They are responsible for fetching and carrying and doing most of the odd-2obs of a production. Their role is usually to support anyone who needs help in a variety of ways, until such time as they have learned enough to assume more responsibilities. This position in the 6nited tates is referred to as a 1ofer.

Stunt $oordinator
0here the programme requires a stunt, and involves the use of stunt performers, the Stunt Coordinator will arrange the casting and performance of the stunt, working closely with the Television director.

Tec(nical director
In a production control room &/$3', the $echnical &irector &$&' has overall responsibility for the operation of the production. The Technical %irector is responsible for the proper working of all the equipment in the /$3. They also match the quality and the output of all the cameras on the studio floor through the camera control units &$$6' &7ision ,ngineering'. It is the responsibility of the T% to supervise all the other crew members working in the /$3. The Technical %irector also coordinates the working of the whole crew and looks into any technical problem which arises before, during or after the shooting of a pro2ect.

Television director 8 Director


6nlike the film counterpart, a %irector in television usually refers to the 1allery &or $ontrol 3oom' %irector, who is responsible for the creative look of a production through selecting which shots to use at any given moment. The %irector views the action on the studio floor through a bank of screens, each one linked to one of the professional video cameras, while issuing instructions down to the 4loor -anager. They also control the 1allery area, calling for sound rolls, digital on-screen graphics &+stons' and video rolls video tape recorder &:"*s'. ome directors also work more closely with on-camera talent and others also act as both /roducer and %irector.

ideo $ontrol 0perator7 ision En!ineerin!


# 1ideo Control Operator &typically credited under the title *video control*, and sometimes referred to simply as a *7ideo ,ngineer* or, a *7ideo "perator*' is responsible for controlling the video console to regulate transmission of television scenes, including test patterns and filmed and live telecasts. 7ideo $ontrol "perators view the action on set through video monitors and sets switches and observes dials on the video console to control contrast, framing, brilliance, color balance, and the fidelity of the transmitted image. They also monitor the program to ensure the technical quality of the broadcast, and review the shot program to determine that the signal is functioning properly and that it will be ready for transmission at the required time. 7ideo $ontrol "perators and 7ideo Tape "perators are used only in television productions recorded on video tape because the growing use of broadcast automation with video servers.

ideo Tape 0perator


The 1ideo $ape Operator &also known as a 1$ Operator or 1$* Operator', cues and prepares video inserts into a program. # 7T "perator sets up and operates the video tape equipment to record and play back the program, reads the program log to ascertain when the program will be recorded and when it will be aired. They also select the source, such as satellite or studio, from which the program will be recorded, and selects the videotaping equipment on which it will be recorded. 5eavily used in sports programming &though they are used in all video taped productions, including television news programming, and sometimes sitcoms, if they are shot on video tape', they are also responsible for action replays and quickly editing highlights while a show is in progress. #s the title suggests, video tape operators only are used in video taped productions.

ision Mixer
The 1ision (ixer or $echnical &irector &$&' in the 6nited tates is responsible for the actual switching between different video sources, such as camera shots and video inserts. They also maintain colour and contrast balance between the studio cameras. # 7ision mi!er &7ideo witcher' is, confusingly, also the name of the equipment which the Technical %irector operates.

#ost'production
,verything after the shooting of the film is post production. /eople involved in this stage of production include the 4ilm editor for film editing, the 7ideo editor for video editing the /ublicist for publicity, the ound ,ditor, the 4oley artist, the $omposer, the Title equence %esigner, and the pecialist editors.

$olorist
The colorist is responsible for interpreting the visual look of the show, often supervised by post-production producers and the cinematographer. %igital tools in the color grading suite are used to control brightness, contrast, color, and the general *mood* of each shot, usually in an effort to make every shot in a scene appear to flow naturally from one shot to the ne!t.

$omposer
# Co%poser is a person who writes the music for a production. They may also be the conductor of an orchestra who plays the music, or part of the orchestra. The $omposer is the originator of the music, and usually its first performer. The $omposer occasionally writes the theme music for a television show. # television program's theme music is a melody closely associated with the show, and usually played during the title sequence and end closing credits. If it is accompanied by lyrics, it is a theme song.

Editor
The ,ditor works in tandem with the %irector in editing the film that has been shot. The %irector has the ultimate accountability for editing choices, but often the editor has substantial contribution in the creative decisions concerned in piecing together a finalized product. "ften, the ,ditor commences their role whilst filming is still in process, by compiling initial takes of footage. It is an e!tremely long process to edit a television show, demonstrating the importance, and significance editing has on a production. 1radually more ,ditor are beginning to work on a non-linear editing system &G@,', limiting physical touching of the actual film, decreasing film corruption due to touch. The ,ditor follows the screenplay as the guide for establishing the structure of the story and then uses their talents to assemble the various shots and takes for greater, clearer artistic effect. There are several editing stages. In the first stage, the ,ditor is supervised by the %irector, who spells their vision to the ,ditor. Therefore, this first rough cut is created during *"ffline editing*. #fter the first stage, the following cuts may be supervised by one or more Television producers, who represent the production company and its investors. $onsequently, the final cut is the one that most closely represents what the studio wants from the film and not necessarily what the %irector wants during *"nline editing*.

Foley artist
The /oley artist on a film crew is the person who creates and records many of the sound effects. 4oley #rtists, ,ditors, and upervisors are highly specialized and are essential for producing a professional-sounding soundtrack, often reproducing commonplace yet essential sounds like footsteps or the rustle of clothing. The 4oley artist also fabricates sounds that canNt be correctly recorded while filming, much like the ound editor does with digital sound effects.

#ost'production runner
# Post"production runner, unlike a production runner, carries out tasks that are essential to the smooth running of a post-production house. 3unners are the most 2unior members of a post-production team.

#ublicist
# Publicist, or advertiser has the task of raising public awareness of a production, and ultimately increase viewers and sales of it and its merchandise. The publicist's main task is to stimulate demand for a product through advertising and promotion. #dvertisers use several recognizable techniques in order to better convince the public to buy a product. These may include( )*epetition2 ome advertisers concentrate on making sure their product is widely recognized. To that end, they simply attempt to make the name remembered through repetition. )#andwa on2 9y implying that the product is widely viewed, advertisers hope to convince potential buyers to *get on the bandwagon.* )$esti%onials2 #dvertisers often attempt to promote the superior worth of their product through the testimony of ordinary users, e!perts, or both. 4or e!ample using film critics or media personalities. This approach often involves an appeal to authority such as a doctor of media science. )Pressure2 9y attempting to make people choose quickly and without long consideration, some advertisers hope to make rapid sales, and a sense of urgency to watch or buy a product. )!ssociation2 #dvertisers often attempt to associate their product with desirable things, in order to make it seem equally desirable. The use of attractive models, picturesque landscapes, and other similar imagery is common. *9uzzwords* with desired associations are also used. )I%a ery2 6sing advertising slogans, logos, or a common image increases familiarity, trust, personality of a production, and the ability for the show to be remembered. The /ublicist ensures the media are well aware of a pro2ect by distributing the show as a trial run, or a Osneak previewPF through press releases, interviews with members of the cast or crew, arranging e!clusive public visits on set of the production, and creating media kits, which contain pictures, posters, clips, shorts, and trailers and brief descriptions on the show and the plot.

Sound editor
In television, the Sound Editor deals with audio editing, ad2usting and fi!ing of the soundtrack. They usually have a ma2or decision-making and creative role when it comes to sound and audio. # ound ,ditor also decides what sound effects to use and what effects to achieve from the sound effects, edits and makes new sounds using filters and combining sounds, shaping sound with volume curves, and equalizing. # ound ,ditor takes the /oley artist3s sounds and puts them in place so it works with the picture and sounds natural, even if the sound is unnatural. In many cases, a ound ,ditor uses a sound effects library e!tensively, either self-compiled, bought or both, as many of the sounds don't get enough focus if they were taken straight from the shoot of the show.

Title se9uence desi!ner


# title sequence, in a television program, is shown at the beginning of the showF which displays the show name and credits, usually including #ctors, /roducers and %irectors. # montage of selected images and a theme song are often included to suggest the essential tone of the series. # title sequence is essential in preparing the audience for the following program, and gives them a sense of familiarity that makes them trust, and feel comfortable with the film. It is up to the $itle Se4uence &esi ner to achieve this very goal, and make it catchy, entertaining, and appealing to increase the audiences feeling of positivity towards the show.

Specialist editors
ADR editor
#utomatic dialogue replacement &#%3' is the process of replacing dialogue that was recorded incorrectly during filming, with the actors voices recorded and put into place during editing. The #%3 editor oversees the procedure and takes the corrupted dialogue, and replaces it with newly recorded lines to the actor's mouth on film to make it lip sync correctly.

4luescreen Director7Matte Artist


9luescreen is the film technique of shooting foreground action against a blue background, which is then replaced by a separately shot *background plate* scene by either optical effects or digital composting. This process is directed and co-ordinated by the 9luescreen %irector. The matte artist is a part of the special effects department who assists in making scenery and locations that do not e!ist. They assemble backgrounds using traditional techniques or computers that mi! with the footage filmed to create a false set. 9oth are fairly alike, but bluescreen technology is more modern and more widely used.

Special effects co'ordinator


pecial effects & /4Y' are used in television productions to create effects that cannot be achieved by normal means, such as depicting travel to other star systems. They are also used when creating the effect by normal means is prohibitively e!pensive, such as an enormous e!plosion. They are also used to enhance previously filmed elements, by adding, removing or enhancing ob2ects within the scene. The pecial ,ffects $o-ordinator implements these effects, and directs them with the help of the visual effects art director. The task of the ,ffects co-ordinator differs frequently, and can range from e!tensive over-thetop special effects to basic computer motion graphics animation.

External links
)#dvice and Information into -edia 3unners' )9reaking Into /roduction( 5ow To 1et Hour 4irst /# 8ob )# 4ew Things I @earned 4rom -y 4irst ,!perience as a /roduction #ssistant #n editorialized synopsis of the production departments, from the perspective of a /roduction #ssistant.

$ARA$TER:ST-$AS ; FASES
#re'production
Pre"production' is the process of preparing all the elements involved in a film, play, or other performance. There are three parts in a production( /reproduction, /roduction and /ost-production. ee 4ilmmaking for more detail. /re-production ends when the planning ends and the content starts being produced.

-n film
&see main article 4ilmmaking /re-production' In filmmaking and video production, pre-production formally begins once a pro2ect has been greenlit. #t this stage, finalizing preparations for production go into effect. 4inancing will generally be confirmed and many of the key elements such as principal cast members, director and cinematographer are set. 9y the end of pre-production, the screenplay is hopefully finalized and satisfactory to all the financiers and other stakeholders. %uring pre-production, the script is broken down into individual scenes and all the locations, props, cast members, costumes, special effects and visual effects are identified. #n e!tremely detailed schedule is produced and arrangements are made for the necessary elements to be available to the film-makers at the appropriate times. ets are constructed, the crew is hired, financial arrangements are put in place and a start date for the beginning of principal photography is set. #t some point in pre-production there will be a read-through of the script which is usually attended by all cast members with speaking parts, the director, all heads of departments, financiers, producers, and publicists. ,ven though the writer may still be working on it, the screenplay is generally page-loc0ed and scene-numbered at the beginning of pre-production to avoid confusion. This means that even though additions and deletions may still be made, any particular scene will always fall on the same page and have the same scene number.

-n music
In the music industry, pre-production is a process whereby a recording artist spends time creating and refining their musical ideas. The artist thus produces a song's demo recording, or rough draft, in order to pre-establish the song's creative promise. This reduces the time and money spent in e!pensive studios. The goal is to enter into the ma2or recording phase of production with the basic and most promising ideas having been already established. Gotable producers who preferred this process have included 9ruce 4airbairn and 9ob 3ock. They both produced smash hit records such as 9on 8ovi's Slippery #hen #et, -Ztley $r[e's !r. ,eelgood, -etallica's "he &lac0 +lbum and #erosmith's .ermanent :acation. The pre-production process can be seen in the %7% documentary +erosmith "he a0ing of .ump.

Television pro!ram
# television pro ra% &usually television pro ra%%e in the 6nited :ingdom', also called television show, is a segment of content intended for broadcast on television. It may be a one-time production or part of a periodically recurring series. # single program in a series is called an episode. # television series that is intended to comprise a limited number of episodes is usually called a miniseries or serial. eries without a fi!ed length are usually divided into seasons or series, yearly or biannual installments of new episodes. 0hile there is no defined length, 6 industry practice tends to favor longer seasons than those of some other countries. # one-time broadcast may be called a *special*, or particularly in the 6: a *special episode*. # television movie &*made-for-T7 movie* or television film', is a film that is initially broadcast on television rather than released in cinemas or direct-to-video, although many successful T7 movies are later released on %7%. # program can be either recorded+as on video tape or other various electronic media forms+or considered live television.

*istory
Television programming started out as transferred radio variety shows to television. hows such as Te!aco tar Theater got their start on radio and was one of the first 6 television hits in the late >=I?s.

Formats
Television programming may be fictional &as in comedies and dramas', or nonfictional &as in documentary, news, and reality television'. It may be topical &as in the case of a local newscast and some made-for-television movies', or historical &as in the case of many documentaries and fictional series'. They could be primarily instructional or educational, or entertaining as is the case in situation comedy and game shows.

# drama program usually features a set of actors in a somewhat familiar setting. The program follows their lives and their adventures. 0ith the e!ception of soap operas, many shows especially before the >=B?s, remained static without story arcs, the main characters and the premise changed little. If some change happened to the characters lives during the episode, it was usually undone by the end. &9ecause of this, the episodes could be broadcast in any order.' ince the >=B?s, there are many series that feature progressive change to the plot, the characters, or both. 4or instance, Hill Street &lues and St. Alse4here were two of the first #merican prime time drama television series to have this kind of dramatic structure while the later series, &abylon C, is an e!treme e!ample of such production that had a predetermined story running over its intended five season run. $ommon television program periods include regular broadcasts &like news', series &usually seasonal and ongoing with a duration of only a few episodes to many seasons', or miniseries, which is an e!tended film, usually with a small predetermined number of episodes and a set plot and timeline. -iniseries usually range from about ; to >? hours in length. In the 6:, the term *miniseries* is only usually used in reference to imported programmes, and such short-run series are usually called *serials*. 6ntil recently, all scripted shows began with a title sequence showing opening credits at the bottom lower third of the screen during the beginning, and included closing credits at the end of the show. 9eginning in the >==?s, some shows began with a *cold open*, followed by a title sequence and a commercial break. -any serial-type shows begin with a */reviously on\* &such as the series 24' introduction before the new episode. #nd, to save time, some shows omit the title sequence altogether, folding the names normally featured there into the opening credits. 0hile series appearing on networks are usually commissioned by those networks, their producers earn greater revenue when the program is sold into syndication. 0ith the rise of the %7% home video format, bo! sets containing entire seasons or the complete run of a program have become a significant revenue source as well. -any of the prime-time comedy shows and aturday morning cartoons were digitally remastered for 6. . television around mid--ay D??B, as there are more original and reissued %7% sets of television programs containing either entire seasons or complete series to come. Typically, a %7% of a series or T7 movie may contain e!tended or additional scenes not shown during the broadcast, scenes not allowed for broadcast &due to censorship rule', or additional background information.documentaries.

In D?>D, it was reported that television was growing into a larger component of ma2or media companies' revenues than film.I? ome also noted the increase in quality of some television programs. In D?>D, #cademy-#ward winning film director teven oderbergh, commenting on ambiguity and comple!ity of character and narrative, stated( *I think those qualities are now being seen on television and that people who want to see stories that have those kinds of qualities are watching television.*I>

,enres
Scripted entertainment
)#nimated )#ward shows &partially scripted' )%rama+which includes( >. #ction-adventure or Thriller D. $omedy-drama ;. 4amily drama I. @egal drama <. -edical drama A. /olice procedural C. /olitical drama B. =. >?. >>. cience-fiction . 4antasy . 5orror . erial drama oap opera Teen drama upernatural drama

)-iniseries and Television movies )$omedy >. -ockumentary D. ;. I. atire itcom ketch comedy

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%nscripted entertainment
)1ame shows )3eality )Talk shows

-nformational
)Infomercials+paid advertising spots that are up to an hour long )Gews programs )%ocumentaries )Gews magazines+dealing with current affairs

Development
%nited States
0hen a person or company decides to create a new series, they develop the show's elements, consisting of the concept, the characters, the crew, and cast. Then they offer &*pitch*' it to the various networks in an attempt to find one interested enough to order a prototype first episode of the series, known as a pilot. ,ric $oleman, an animation e!ecutive at %isney, told an interviewer, *"ne misconception is that itNs very difficult to get in and pitch your show, when the truth is that development e!ecutives at networks want very much to hear ideas. They want very much to get the word out on what types of shows theyNre looking for.*ID To create the pilot, the structure and team of the whole series must be put together. If the network likes the pilot, they pick up the show to air it the ne!t season &usually 4all'. ometimes they save it for mid-season, or request rewrites and further review &known in the industry as development hell'. "ther times, they pass entirely, forcing the show's creator to *shop it around* to other networks. -any shows never make it past the pilot stage. If the show is picked up, the network orders a *run* of episodes+usually only >; episodes at first, though a season typically consists of at least DD episodes. &The last nine episodes are sometimes called the *back nine*+borrowing the colloquial golf term'.

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The show hires a stable of writers, who usually work in parallel( the first writer works on the first episode, the second on the second episode, etc. 0hen all the writers have been used, episode assignment starts again with the first writer. "n other shows, however, the writers work as a team. ometimes they develop story ideas individually, and pitch them to the show's creator, who folds them together into a script and rewrites them.

%nited +in!dom
In contrast to the 6 model illustrated above, the 6: procedure is operated on a sometimes similar, but much smaller scale. The method of *team writing* is employed on some longer dramatic series &usually running up to a ma!imum of around >; episodes'. The idea for such a programme may be generated *in-house* by one of the networksF it could originate from an independent production companyF it sometimes is a product of both. 4or e!ample, the 99$'s long-running soap opera AastAnders is wholly a 99$ production, whereas its popular drama -ife on ars was developed by :udos in association with the broadcaster. 5owever, there are still a significant number of programmes &usually sitcoms' that are built around 2ust one or two writers and a small, close-knit production team. These are *pitched* in the traditional way, but since the creator&s' handle all the writing requirements, there is a run of si! or seven episodes per series once approval has been given. -any of the most popular 9ritish comedies have been made this way, including onty .ython*s ,lying Circus &albeit with an e!clusive team of si! writer-performers', ,a4lty "o4ers, &lac0adder and "he @ffice.

#roduction
The e!ecutive producer, often the show's creator, is in charge of running the show. They pick the crew and help cast the actors, approve and sometimes write series plots &some even write or direct ma2or episodes'. 7arious other producers help to ensure that the show runs smoothly. #s with filmmaking or other electronic media production, production of an individual episode can be divided into three parts. These are(

#re'production
/re-production begins when a script is approved. # director is chosen to plan the episode's final look.

/re-production tasks include storyboarding, construction of sets, props, and costumes, casting guest stars, budgeting, acquiring resources like lighting, special effects, stunts, etc. "nce the show is planned, it must then be scheduledF scenes are often filmed out of sequence, guest actors or even regulars may only be available at certain times. ometimes the principal photography of different episodes must be done at the same time, complicating the schedule &a guest star might shoot scenes from two episodes on the same afternoon'. $omple! scenes are translated from storyboard to animatics to further clarify the action. cripts are ad2usted to meet altering requirements. ome shows have a small stable of directors, but also usually rely on outside directors. 1iven the time constraints of broadcasting, a single show might have two or three episodes in pre-production, one or two episodes in principal photography, and a few more in various stages of post-production. The task of directing is comple! enough that a single director can usually not work on more than one episode or show at a time, hence the need for multiple directors.

#rincipal p(oto!rap(y
/rincipal photography is the actual filming of the episode. %irector, actors and crew gather at a television studio or on location for filming or videoing a scene. # scene is further divided into shots, which should be planned during preproduction. %epending on scheduling, a scene may be shot in non-sequential order of the story. $onversations may be filmed twice from different camera angles, often using stand-ins, so one actor might perform all their lines in one set of shots, and then the other side of the conversation is filmed from the opposite perspective. To complete a production on time, a second unit may be filming a different scene on another set or location at the same time, using a different set of actors, an assistant director, and a second unit crew. # director of photography supervises the lighting of each shot to ensure consistency.

#ost production
"nce principal photography is complete, producers coordinate tasks to begin the video editing. 7isual and digital video effects are added to the filmF this is often outsourced to companies specializing in these areas. "ften music is performed with the conductor using the film as a time reference &other musical elements may be previously recorded'. #n editor cuts the various pieces of film together, adds the musical score and effects, determines scene transitions, and assembles the completed show.

4ud!ets and revenues


-ost television networks throughout the world are 'commercial', dependent on selling advertising time or acquiring sponsors. 9roadcasting e!ecutives' main concern over their programming is on audience size. "nce the number of 'free to air' stations was restricted by the availability of channel frequencies, but cable T7 &outside the 6 #, satellite television' technology has allowed an e!pansion in the number of channels available to viewers &sometimes at premium rates' in a much more competitive environment. In the 6nited tates, the average broadcast network drama costs R; million an episode to produce, while cable dramas cost RD million on average.I; The pilot episode may be more e!pensive than a regular episode. In D??I, -ost's two-hour pilot cost R>?ER>I million, in D??B ,ringe's two-hour pilot cost R>? million, and in D?>?, &oard4al0 Ampire was R>B million for the first episode. In D?>>, 5ame of "hrones was R<ER>? million, .an +m cost an estimated R>? million, while "erra Nova's two-hour pilot was between R>? to RD? million. III< -any scripted network television shows in the 6nited tates are financed through &eficit financin ( a studio finances the production cost of a show and a network pays a license fee to the studio for the right to air the show. This license fee does not cover the show's production costs, leading to the deficit. #lthough the studio does not make its money back in the original airing of the show, it retains ownership of the show. This ownership retention allows the studio to make its money back and earn a profit through syndication and %7% and 9lu-ray disc sales. This system places most of the financial risk on the studios, however a show that is a hit in the syndication and home video markets can more than make up for the misses. #lthough the deficit financing system places minimal financial risk on the networks, they lose out on the future profits of big hits, since they are only licensing the shows.IA

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$osts are recouped mainly by advertising revenues for broadcast networks and some cable channels, while other cable channels depend on subscription revenues. In general, advertisers, and consequently networks that depend on advertising revenues, are more interested in the number of viewers within the >BEI= age range than the total number of viewers.ICIB #dvertisers are willing to pay more to advertise on shows successful with young adults because they watch less television and are harder to reach than older adults.I= #ccording to +dvertising +ge, during the D??CE?B season, 5rey*s +natomy was able to charge RI>=,??? per commercial, compared to only RDIB,??? for a commercial during CSI, despite $ I having almost five million more viewers on average.<? %ue to its strength in young demos, ,riends was able to charge almost three times as much for a commercial as urder' She #rote, even though the two series had similar total viewer numbers during the seasons they were on the air together. <> 5lee and "he @ffice drew fewer total viewers than NCIS during the D??=E>? season, but earned an average of RDCD,A=I and RD>;,A>C respectively, compared to R><?,C?B for G$I .<D

Distribution
#fter production, the show is turned over to the television network, which sends it out to its affiliate stations, which broadcast it in the specified broadcast programming time slot. If the Gielsen ratings are good, the show is kept alive as long as possible. If not, the show is usually canceled. The show's creators are then left to shop around remaining episodes, and the possibility of future episodes, to other networks. "n especially successful series, the producers sometimes call a halt to a series on their own like Seinfeld, "he Cosby Sho4, Corner 5as, and D+DSDH and end it with a concluding episode, which sometimes is a big series finale. "n rare occasions, a series that has not attracted particularly high ratings and has been canceled can be given a reprieve if %7% sales have been particularly strong. This has happened in the cases of ,amily 5uy in the 6 and .eep Sho4 in the 6:. If the show is popular or lucrative, and a number of episodes &usually >?? episodes or more' are made, it goes into broadcast syndication &in the 6 #' where broadcast to the program rights are then resold.
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Seasons7series
The terminology used to define a set of episodes produced by a television series varies from country to country.

/ort( American usa!e


In Gorth #merican television, a series is a connected set of television program episodes that run under the same title, possibly spanning many seasons. # new series is often ordered &funded' for 2ust the first >? to >; episodes, to gauge the audience interest. If it is *picked up*, the season is completed to the regular D? to DA episodes. # midseason replacement is an ine!pensive short-run &>?E>; episode' show designed to take the place of an original series that failed to garner an audience and has not been picked up. # series finale is the last show of the series before the show is no longer produced &In the 6:, it means the end of a season, what is otherwise called a *season finale*'. ince the late >=A?s, this broadcast programming schedule typically includes D? to DA episodes &before then, a regular television season could average out to at least ;? episodes'. In Gorth #merica the term *television season* is used inconsistently. # *full season* on a broadcast network typically runs from eptember through -ay for at least DD episodes.<; # full season is sometimes split into two separate units with a hiatus around the end of the calendar year, such as the first season of 1ericho on $9 . 0hen this split occurs, the last half of the espisodes sometimes are referred to with the letter 9 as in *The last nine episodes &of 'the opranos'' will be part of what is being called either * eason A, /art D* or * eason A9,*<I or in *4uturama is splitting its seasons similar to how outh /ark does, doing half a season at a time, so this is season A9 for them.*<< ince the >==?s, these shorter seasons also have been referred to as *.<* or half seasons, where the run of shows between eptember and %ecember is labeled * eason G*, and the second run between 8anuary and -ay labeled * eason G.<*. This is typically done to increase %7% sales of the show. %istributors release the first half of the season in stores 2ust before the second half first airs to increase interest in the season's second half. ,!amples of this include the D??I incarnation of &attlestar 5alactica, #9$'s ,lash,or4ard, and #9$ 4amily's a0e It or &rea0 It.

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%+ and Australia usa!e


In the 6nited :ingdom and other countries, these sets of episodes are referred to as a *series*. In #ustralia, the broadcasting may be different to Gorth #merican usage, however, the terms series and season are the same. 4or e!ample, &attlestar 5alactica has an original series as well as a remake, both are considered different series with their own number of individual seasons. It helps to avoid much confusion when talking about a T7 series. #ustralian television does not follow *seasons* in the way that 6. . television doesF for e!ample, there is no *fall season* or *fall schedule*. 4or many years, popular nighttime dramas in #ustralia would run for much of the year, and would only go into recess during the summer period &%ecemberE4ebruary', when ratings are not taken. Therefore popular dramas would usually run from 4ebruary through Govember each year. This schedule was used in the >=C?s for popular dramas including Number ($. Typically, a drama or soap opera such as Home and +4ay would begin a new season in late 8anuary and the season finale would air in late Govember, with DD?ED;? episodes per season. %uring the "lympics, however, Home and +4ay would often go on hiatus, which is referred to as an *"lympic cliffhanger*. #ustralian situation comedy series' seasons are appro!imately >; episodes long and premiere anytime in between 4ebruary and Govember. 9ritish shows have tended toward shorter series in recent years. 4or e!ample, the first series of long-running science fiction show !octor #ho in >=A; featured forty-two D<-minute episodes, which had been reduced gradually to fourteen D<-minute episodes in >=B=. The revival of !octor #ho has comprised thirteen I<-minute installments. 5owever, there are some series in the 6: that have a larger number of episodes, for e!ample #aterloo 6oad started with B to >D episodes but from series three onward, it increased to D? episodes, and series seven will contain ;? episodes. 3ecently, #merican non-cable networks have also begun to e!periment with shorter series for some programs, particularly reality shows such as Survivor. 5owever, they often air two series per year, resulting in roughly the same number of episodes per year as a drama. This is a reduction from the >=<?s, in which many #merican shows &e.g., "he "4ilight <one' had between D= and ;= episodes per season. #ctual storytelling time within a commercial television hour has also gradually reduced over the years, from <? minutes out of every A? to the current II &and even less on some networks', beginning in the early D>st century.

<apanese usa!e
The 8apanese have sometimes subdivided television series and dramas into 0Jru &', from the 4rench term cours for course' which is a three-month period usually of >; episodes. ,ach episode generally has its own opening and ending image sequence and song, recordings of which are often sold. The number of episodes permitted per season ranges from three to A<. & ee also 8apanese television programs.'

Runnin! time
In the 6nited tates, in general, dramas usually last II minutes &an hour with advertisements', while sitcoms last DD &;? with advertisements'. 5owever, with the rise of cable networks, especially paid networks, series and episode lengths have been changing, with <<EA? minutes per episode, and shorter seasons overall.

External links
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ideo production
1ideo production is also known as videography. Technically, it is the process of creating video by capturing moving images, and creating combinations of parts of this video in live production and post-production &video editing'. In most cases the captured video will be recorded on electronic media such as video tape, hard disk, or solid state storage, but it might only be distributed electronically without being recorded. It is the equivalent of filmmaking, but with images recorded electronically instead of film stock. /ractically, video production is the art and service of creating content and delivering a finished video product. This can include production of television programs, television commercials, corporate videos, event videos, wedding videos and special-interest home videos. # video production can range in size from a family making home movies with a prosumer camcorder, a one solo camera operator with a professional video camera in a single-camera setup &aka a *one-man band*', a videographer with a sound person, to a multiple-camera setup shoot in a television studio to a production truck requiring a whole television crew for an electronic field production &,4/' with a production company with set construction on the backlot of a movie studio. tyles of shooting include on a tripod &aka *sticks*'<A for a locked-down shotF hand-held to attain a more 2ittery camera angle or looser shot, incorporating %utch angle, 0hip pan and whip zoomF on a 2ib that smoothly soars to varying heightsF and with a teadicam for smooth movement as the camera operator incorporates cinematic techniques moving through rooms, as seen in The hining.

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$orporate

ideo

$orporate video production covers a wide range of purposes from corporate communication, training and education, videotaping conferences and conventions, products and services, and sales. # popular type of corporate shoot is known as the *candids* or *happy-face* video, in which a multiple-day event is covered by a video crew, including speakers, break-out sessions, awards ceremonies and local recreational activities in which the conventioneers participate. #n on-site editor then creates a short video presentation that is shown before the close of the convention. -any associations take advantage of the convention venue to gather interviews of their principals, setting up a green screen or other type of background in a secluded room. 7ideo productions video tape or memory-based recording device or an edited version from a website video, optical disc, magnetic tape, or portable video device.

Television 4roadcast
9etacam / video production has been the broadcast television standard from the early >=B?s up until the beginning of the D>st $entury when many television stations began to use digital media to shoot, transmit and store their footage. Two styles of producing video are ,G1 - ,lectronic news-gathering and ,4/ ,lectronic field production. Television video productions include television commercials, infomercials, newscasts, entertainment shows, documentaries, sitcom and reality shows. They may be distributed by broadcast syndication.

Event

ideo

7ideo production can be used at sporting, school, stage, wedding, church, and similar events to provide recordings of the events. ,vent video productions range in distribution from a wedding video that is custom made for a bride and groom and their immediate family and friends, to a dance recital where dozens to hundreds of videos are sold to individual dancers. ,vent video production can also be used to broadcast events live to viewers at home such as a press conference or concert. 7ideo of live events can be sent by microwave or a satellite truck from the event location to a television studio in order to be broadcast.<C

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Marketin! ideo
-arketing videos are used to promote an organization or product and create awareness among consumers. -arketing video production ranges from Television advertisement to internet commercials and viral videos. Internet -arketing 7ideo production is primarily made in home based environments, and serves the purpose of interacting with the audience. There are two main types of video production(

Real Estate

ideo #roduction 2 ideo Tours3

3eal ,state 7ideo /roduction consists of shooting footage of properties and editing them into short videos. The final videos will include footage, graphics, titles, animations, and voice over. # good idea would be to include the real estate agent into the video to allow them to market themselves as well as market the property. These videos are becoming a very popular way to showcase homes and properties through social media platforms.

' Transactional
# transactional video is one that aims to sell a product to a customer, and is a means of boosting the psychological effectiveness of your selling points.

' Reference
# reference video's goal is to stimulate further navigation of a website.

-nternet

ideo #roduction

#s the internet develops video is having a changing application too. 7ideos are the second biggest search engine on the internet &HouTube' second to 1oogle. 7ideo /roduction with ," and internet focus is a new thing on the web. Internet video production simply refers to videos that are used on websites. The videos are not necessarily produced online although there are many video production tools that now allow the production of videos to occur without actually using a physical camera. #n e!ample of this is using the HouTube video editor to create a video using pre-e!isting video content that is held on the platform under creative commons license.

7ideo content is being used in an ever growing range of scenarios on websites in order to help users achieve their goals. There are testimonial videos, web presenter videos, help section videos, interviews with well known industry e!perts, parody videos, product demonstrations, training videos, thank you videos and apology videos.

Trainin! ideo
Training videos are commissioned by organizations to promote make changes in workforce. This can range throughout the organization from training for those that need to learn simple, repetitive tasks and up to e!ecutive training. In addition, organizations often purchase or rent more generic training videos to minimize costs. uch videos would include safety, first aid, time management, sales skills, etc.

External links
)7ideo production at the "pen %irectory /ro2ect

#ost'production
Post"production is part of filmmaking and the video production process. It occurs in the making of motion pictures, television programs, radio programs, advertising, audio recordings, photography, and digital art. It is a term for all stages of production occurring after the actual end of shooting and.or recording the completed work. /ost-production is, in fact, many different processes grouped under one name. These typically include( )7ideo editing the picture of a television program using an edit decision list &,%@' )0riting, &re'recording, and editing the soundtrack. )#dding visual special effects - mainly computer-generated imagery &$1I' and digital copy from which release prints will be made &although this may be made obsolete by digital-cinema technologies'. ) ound design, ound effects, #%3, 4oley and -usic, culminating in a process known as sound re-recording or mi!ing with professional audio equipment. )Transfer of $olor motion picture film to 7ideo or %/Y with a telecine and color grading &correction' in a color suite.

Typically, the post-production phase of creating a film takes longer than the actual shooting of the film, and can take several months to complete because it includes the complete editing, color correction and the addition of music and sound. The process of editing a movie is also seen as the second directing because through the post production it is possible to change the intention of the movie. 4urthermore through the use of color correcting tools and the addition of music and sound, the atmosphere of the movie can be heavily influenced. 4or instance a blue-tinted movie is associated with a cold atmosphere and the choice of music and sound increases the effect of the shown scenes to the audience. /ost-production was named the one of the '%ying Industries' by I9I 0orld.<B The once e!clusive service offered by high end post houses or bouti4ue facilities have been eroded away by video editing software that operates on a non-linear editing system &G@,'. 5owever, traditional &analogue' post-production services are being surpassed by digital, leading to sales of over RA billion annually.<= The digital revolution has made the video editing workflow process immeasurably quicker, as practitioners moved from time-consuming &tape to tape' linear video editing online editing suites, to computer hardware and video editing software such as #dobe /remiere, 4inal $ut /ro, #vid, ony 7egas, $inelerra, and @ightworks.

Tv
In television, the phases of post production include( editing, video editing, sound editing, animation and visual effects insertions, viewing and the start of the airing process. It is imperative that post production e!ecutes and oversees the preparation until the final product is completely ready.

Music
Techniques used in music post-production include comping &compiling the best portions of multiple takes into one superior take', timing and pitch correction &perhaps through beat quantization', and adding effects.A? $ontrary to the name, post-production may occur at any point during recording and production process and is non-linear and nonveridic.A>

External links
)6: creen #ssociation - Trade association representing the 6:'s postproduction industry
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$astin! 2performin! arts3
In the performing arts, castin &or castin call' is a pre-production process for selecting a cast &a meaning of the word recorded since >A;>' of actors, dancers, singers, models and other talent for a live or recorded performance.

$astin! process
The casting process somewhat involves a series of auditions before a casting panel, composed of individuals such as the producer, director and.or choreographer. In the early stages of the process, performers often may present prepared audition pieces such as monologues or songs. These audition pieces are usually video taped, attached with resumes, and head shots and then shared with producers, directors and studio representatives. @ater stages may involve groups of actors attempting material from the work under consideration in various combinationsF the $asting %irector considers both the talent of the individual actors and the chemistry of their combination. %epending on the prestige of the role, casting calls may go out to the public at large &typical for community theater', to professional and semi-professional local actors &for supporting roles in theater and film' or to specifically selected actors &for leading roles, especially in films'. In the production of film and television, a similar process is followed. #n actor may go through several casting calls before receiving a part. Independent $asting tudios are often used for casting calls so that the castings can take place in various locations. %ewar tudios in 1reat Titchfield treet in central @ondon is a good e!ample of the independent casting studios that provide facilities to casting directors.

$astin! director
4or some ma2or productions, the process of selecting actors for sometimes hundreds of parts may often require specialized staff. 0hile the last word remains with the people in artistic and production charge, a Castin &irector or *$%* &and sometimes the $asting #ssociate' are in charge of most of the daily work involved in this process during pre-production. # $asting %irector is sometimes assisted by a $asting #ssociateF productions with large numbers of e!tras may have their own ,!tras $asting %irector. The *$%* remains as a liaison between director, actors and their agents.managers and the studio.network to get the characters in the script cast. ome $asting %irectors build an impressive career working on numerous 5ollywood productions, such as -ary 8o later, -ary elway, @ynn talmaster, #pril 0ebster, 8ohn %esiderata, Tammara 9illik, -arci @iroff, 8ohn @yons, 9ill %ance, #vy :aufman and -indy -arin. #t least in the early stages and for e!tras, casting may be decentralized geographically, often in con2unction with actual shooting planned in different locations. #nother reason may be tapping into each home market in the case of an international co-production. 5owever for the top parts, the choice of one or more celebrities, whose presence is of enormous commercial importance, may rather follow strictly personal channels, e.g. direct contact with the director. The resulting list of actors filling the parts is called a cast list.

$astin! Society of America 2$SA3


The significant organization of professional screen and theater casting in the 6 is the $asting ociety of #merica &$ #', but membership is optional. $asting %irectors organized in D??< and became members of a collective bargaining unit, the 5ollywood Teamsters @ocal ;== &@ocation -anagers 1uild of #merica'

References
)$asting ociety.com( The $asting professional association of )I-%b's definition of *casting* )The $asting %irectors' 1uild &6: Q Ireland' )$asting $all %ates )$asting $all /ro ociety of #merica &$ #', the largest

$ostume desi!ner
# costu%e desi ner or costume mistress.master is a person who designs costumes for a film or stage production. This role is an i%portant part of the production team. The costume designer works alongside the director, scenic, lighting designer, sound designer, and other creative personnel. The costume designer may also collaborate with hair stylist, wig master, or makeup artist. In ,uropean theatre, the role is different, as the theatre designer usually designs both costume and scenic elements. $ostume designers typically seek to enhance a character's personality, and to create an evolving plot of colour, changing social status, or period through the visual design of garments and accessories. They may distort or enhance the body +within the boundaries of the director's vision. The designer must ensure that the designs let the actor move as the role requires. The actor must e!ecute the director's blocking of the production without damaging the garments. 1arments must be durable and washable, particularly in e!tended runs. The designer must consult not only with the director, but the set and lighting designers to ensure that all elements of the overall production design work together. The designer must possess strong artistic capabilities and a thorough knowledge of pattern development, draping, drafting, te!tiles and fashion history. The designer must understand historical costuming, and the movement style and poise that period dress may require. In the 6nited tates, costume designers are represented by International #lliance of Theatrical tage ,mployees, 6nited cenic #rtists @ocal BD=.

Responsibilities
# costume designer creates the look of a character in film, television or in a stage production and in a play. Their main duties are... >. 3ead and analyze the script. D. 0ork closely with the director and other designers &set designer, lighting designer, make-up artist' on the production team to develop design concepts. ;. %o research to flesh out design concepts. &for e!ample, geographical setting, time period, characters and their relationships and actions' I. /roduce drawings and colour renderings of costumes. <. -eet with the wardrobe manager and head cutter to discuss each design. A. /urchase fabrics, new or used clothing and accessories.&#long with prop ideas' C. %evelop and implement a budget for costume-related e!penses. B. %evelop patterns for costumes if it is necessary.

=. #ttend fittings and rehearsals. &for theatre, dance or opera productions'.

Types of costume desi!ner


/rofessional costume designers generally fall into three types( freelance, residential, and academic. )4reelance designers are hired for a specific production by a theatre, dance or opera company, and may or may not actually be local to the theatre they design for. # freelancer is traditionally paid in three instalments( 6pon hire, on delivery of final renderings, and opening night of the production. 4reelancers are not obligated to any e!clusivity in what pro2ects they work on, and may design for several productions concurrently. )# residential designer is hired by a specific theatre, dance or opera company for an e!tended series of productions. This can be as short as a summer stock contract, or may be for many years. # residential designer's contract may limit the amounts of freelance work they are allowed to accept. 6nlike the freelancer, a residential designer is consistently *on location* at the theater+at hand to work with costume studio and other collaborators. 3esidential designers tend to be more established than strict freelancers, but this is not always the case. )#n academic designer is one who holds professorship at a school. The designer is primarily an instructor, but may also act as a residential designer to varying degrees. They are often free to freelance, as their schedule allows. In the past, professors of costume design were mostly e!perienced professionals that may or may not have had formal post-graduate education, but it has now become increasingly common to require a professor to have at least a -aster of 4ine #rts in order to teach. 9oth residential and academic designers are generally also required to act as hop -aster or -istress of an onsite costume shop, in addition to designing productions. In a resident theatre, there is almost always a shop staff of stitchers, drapers, cutters and craft artisans. In an academic environment the shop *staff* is generally students, who are learning about costume design and construction. -ost universities require costume design students to work a specified number of hours in the shop as part of their course work. 6 # is the union that represents costume designers. #lthough most professional designers are union members, 6 # has relatively few collective bargaining agreements with theatres when compared with other theatrical unions. 5owever, most ma2or 6 opera companies do have $9#s with 6 #. The ma2ority of union contract work for designers is on a pro2ect by pro2ect basis, not as a part of $ollective 9argaining #greements with theatrical establishments.

/otable costume desi!ners

T(eater
)0illy $larkson who designed costumes for @ondon's 0est ,nd theatre )Theoni 7. #ldredge( +nnie, &arnum, + Chorus -ine )9ob -ackie( @n the "o4n )%esmond 5eeley( &rigadoon )8ulie Taymor( "he -ion =ing )1regg 9arnes( !irty 6otten Scoundrels )#nn 3oth( +ssassins )8ane 1reenwood( "he Scarlet .impernel, @nce 2pon a ) anto @oquasto( ,osse, 6agtime ) usan 5ilferty( #ic0ed, Spring +4a0ening )#nn $urtis( 1e0yll ; Hyde )0illiam Ivey @ong( "he .roducers, Chicago )#nn 5ould-0ard( &eauty and the &east, !ance of the :ampires )0illa :im( "he #ill 6ogers ,ollies )1regory 1ale( 2rineto4n, "he #edding Singer )7alentina( "he .hiladelphia Story )Toni-@eslie 8ames( 1elly*s -ast 1am, ,ootloose attress

Film and television


)8une #mbrose( *The Y 4actor 6 # D?>>*, *9elly >==B* )"leg $assini( "he 6aBor*s Adge, "he 5host and )$olleen #twood( Chicago K2%%2L, #onderland K2%)%L )$ecil 9eaton( y ,air -ady, 5igi arry a illionaire arie rs. uir, "he ating Season. emoirs of a 5eisha K2%%CL, +lice in

)8enny 9eavan( Ho4ards And, Sense and Sensibility )0illiam Travilla( Ho4 to )8ohn 9right( Ho4ards And, Sense and Sensibility )-ilena $anonero( + Cloc04or0 @range, "he 5odfather' .art III, +ntoinette )%anilo %onati( 6omeo and 1uliet

)Ggila %ickson( "he -ord of the 6ings? "he 6eturn of the =ing, "he -ast Samurai

)8ames 1alanos( @h !ad' .oor !ad' ama*s Hung 3ou in the Closet and I*m ,eelin* So Sad, Never #ave at a #+C, 5inger in the orning )#drian 1reenburg( "he #iBard of @B, )7alerie 5alverson( Stargate? +tlantis )8ulie 5arris( !arling, + Hard !ay*s Night, 5oodbye' the 6ose r. Chips, "he Slipper and arie +ntoinette

),dith 5ead( Sabrina K)(C4L, "he Sting, -ady in the !ar0, Amperor #altB, "he Hurricane )%orothy 8eakins( "he Sound of usic ichael )%eborah Gadoolman( 6aiders of the -ost +r0, "he "hree +migos, 1ac0son*s "hriller )8ean @ouis( ,rom Here to Aternity )"rry-:elly( +n +merican in .aris, Some -i0e It Hot, 5ypsy )0alter /lunkett( 5one 4ith the #ind, Singin* in the 6ain ) andy /owell( "he #ings of the !ove, Sha0espeare in -ove )#nn 3oth( "he Anglish .atient )Irene haraff( Call e adam, 5uys and !olls ic0ybo and e, Closing the 6ing, 3our Highness )Theadora van 3unkle( &onnie and Clyde )5azel 0ebb-$rozier( )8oan 9ergin( y -eft ,oot K)(M(L, In the Name of the ,ather K)((EL' 3eign of 4ire &D??D'' The /restige &D??A'' The Tudors &D??CED?>?'' $amelot &D?>>E '

T(eatre and 0pera


)-adeleine 9oyd( .ellNas et Nlisande, @rfeo ed Auridice, -a 5aBBetta, .artenope, .eter 5rimes, -a scala di seta

External links
)$ostume %esigners 1uild

"ocation mana!er
The location %ana er is responsible for the finding and securing locations to be used and coordinating the logistics involved for the production to successfully complete its necessary work. They are also the face of the production to the community and responsible for addressing the issues that may arise due to the production's impact on the community.

In 5ollywood, they are represented by the International 9rotherhood of Teamsters @ocal ;== and in Gew Hork and $hicago they are represented by the %irectors 1uild of #merica &%1#' for features and television work. In Gew Hork $ommercials they are represented by the International 9rotherhood of Teamsters @ocal B>C. #dditionally, nationwide, they have the @ocation -anagers 1uild of #merica, a non-profit corporation dedicated to the promotion and interests of their members and their relations with the general public, communities and industry partners. In the Gew Hork area they have the #ssociation of @ocation couts and -anagers &#@ #-' They are commonly associated with production as being part of the management of a show and as such, are generally paid a weekly salary as opposed to an hourly wage. The salary changes with how much e!perience a person has and can range from a couple hundred dollars a day on low budget films to almost a thousand dollars a day on commercials. The location manager is typically responsible for film location scouting. They usually oversee several other scouts and assistant managers during the course of a show. # location manager will commonly work closely with the director and the production designer during preproduction to find and secure their e!pressed creative vision. The manager is also responsible for public relations at the locations used and the safety of the crew during filming. # *location scout* is responsible for the initial scouting of all the locations used in a film and translates the writer and directorNs vision for the look of the scene into a viable and appropriate location. #n e!perienced location scout will take into account all the logistics necessary for the production to adequately work. ome of the things that a location scout needs to be aware of before submitting a location for approval are the fees and budgetary restrictions of the production, local permitting costs and regulations, camera and lighting requirements, convenience to other locations, crew, production services, crew and unit parking, and possibly incidental issues such as direction of the sun, traffic in and around the location, airplane flight paths, weather patterns, road work, demonstrations and even interest by local organized crime families. "nce a location has been determined to meet the appropriate look, the location manager must then schedule dates for preparation, wrap and strike, and negotiate with the property owner an appropriate fee as well as fees to any neighbors and tenants that may also be impacted by the production. The location manager will also apply for the necessary permits through the local municipality and.or community and housing associations, arrange parking for trucks, equipment and crew, prepare temporary facilities for holding production, talent, crew and meals, and ensuring the security of the location, the safety of the crew while minimizing the impact to the surrounding community.

1ood location managers are well poised and able to think fast on their feet as they are constantly moving, usually preceding production to a location and overseeing final strike and wrap. They are the first and last people the public sees that represent the production and are responsible for ensuring that the location is returned to the condition in which it was received. The location manager is also to be aware of the possible copyright issues which may be an issue if the show is filmed in a public place where there is art work or similar and where the artist has to give consent to the creation being depicted or covered or replaced by other artwork. They need to be aware of the production's needs and know how to best accommodate them while diplomatically ensuring that the requirements of all parties, from the property owners, line producer, director and production designer to the grip and electric lighting and rigging the set and their teamster brothers with all their trucks, trailers and vans.

External links
)@ocation -anagers 1uild of #merica &@-1#' )#ssociation of @ocation couts and -anagers #@ #)1uild of @ocation -anagers 6nited :ingdom )@ocation -anagers %enmark )@ocation -anager $openhagen

Make'up artist
# %a)e"up artist &or 'makeup artist'' is an artist whose medium is the human body, applying makeup and prosthetics for theatrical, television, film, fashion, magazines and other similar productions including all aspects of the modeling industry. #wards given for this profession in the entertainment industry include the #cademy #ward for 9est -akeup and 5airstylingAD and even several entertainment industry awards such as the ,mmy #wardsA;AI and the 1olden 1lobesA< to name a few. In the 6nited tates as well as the other parts of the globe, professional licenses are required by agencies in order for them to hire the -6#. 9igger production companiesAA have in-house makeup artists on their payroll although most -6#Ns generally are freelanceAC and their times remain fle!ible depending on the pro2ects.The use of digital cameras may have made the use of bridal make up more popular.
AD*BDnd #cademy #wards "scar Gominees for -ake-up* . a0eup ag. . 3etrieved D?>?-?D-?<. A;*,mmy #wards Gominations #nnounced*. a0eup ag. . 3etrieved D?>?-?D-?<. AI*A>st ,mmy for -akeup Gominees*. ,ox Ne4s Idaho. . 3etrieved D?>?-?D-?<. A<*ACth 1olden 1lobe #wards Tina 4ey -ake 6p 9reak %own*. pursebuBB. . 3etrieved D?>?-?D?<. AA*3evisiting the D??= -ake-up "scar $ontenders* . a0eup ag. . 3etrieved D?>?-?D-?<. AC*1et paid to apply -akeup*. ,ab 1ob. . 3etrieved D?>?-?D-?<.

Makeup tec(ni9ues
/ashion %a)eup 4ashion makeup is used in magazine photography as well as on the fashion runway. #vant-garde makeupAB is also an applicable technique used for pro2ects that require e!perimental themes. 4ashion makeup is also commonly used in television and film ranging for the natural prime loo0 to more sophisticated applications such as color balance. $heatrical %a)eup tage makeup is used as a method in con2unction with stage lighting to highlight the actors' faces in order make e!pressions visible to the audience from moderate distances. This often includes defining the eyes and lips as well as the highlights and lowlights of the facial bones. Special effects %a)eup -/5 %a)eup. The use of special effects techniques enhancing physical features to e!hibit metaphysical characteristics as well as fantasy makeup. The use of prosthetics and plaster casting are also required for pro2ects that entails non-human appearances. #ccents such as theatrical blood and ooze are also techniques applicable to this type of makeup. !irbrushin The use of an airbrush which is a small air-operated device that sprays various media including alcohol and water-based makeup by a process of nebulization. The earliest record of this type of cosmetic application dates back to the >=D< A= film version of 9en-5ur, it has recently been re-popularized by the advent of 5%T7 and digital photography, where the camera focuses on higher depths of detail. @iquid foundations that are high in coverage but thin in te!ture are applied with the airbrush for full coverage without a heavy build-up of product. #ridal %a)eup 9ridal makeup is a new segment in a makeup artist's repertoire. 4rom ethnic, to glamorous, to contemporary, makeup artists are now an important part of wedding planning in #sia, ,urope, and Gorth #merica. 6i h definition This is an art which involves the use of lightC? reflectors and ingredients such as minerals to give the skin a flawless finish. This was developed due to the further development of high definitionC> mediums and the cost implications of airbrush makeup.

AB*The art of make up*. Arica Storm. . 3etrieved D?>?-?D-?<. A=*#I3936 5 4"6G%#TI"G -#:,-6/*. +irbrush &ody +rt. . 3etrieved D?>?-?D-?<. C?*Top 5igh %efinition -akeup*. a0eup.com. . 3etrieved D?>?-?D-?<. C>,lsworth, $atherine &D??<->D-?;'. *#re they ready for a high-definition close-upJ*. "elegraph.co.u0. Telegraph -edia 1roup @imited. . 3etrieved D??C->?-><.

/otable make'up artists


),llis 4aas )Iman -ohamed #bdulma2id

External links
)99$ 9last - 9ecoming a makeup artist )-asterclass with 9#4T#-winning makeup artist $hristine 9lundell &video'

#roduction desi!ner
In film and television, a production desi ner or /.% is the person responsible for the overall look of a filmed event such as films, T7 programs, video games, music videos or adverts. /roduction designers have one of the key creative roles in the creation of motion pictures and television. 0orking directly with the director and producer, they must select the settings and style to visually tell the story. The term *production designer* was coined by 0illiam $ameron -enzies while he was working on the film 5one 4ith the #ind.CD /reviously &and often subsequently' the people with the same responsibilities were called *art directors.*C;

Responsibilities
4rom early in pre-production, the production designer collaborates with the director and director of photography to establish the visual feel and specific aesthetic needs of the pro2ect. The production designer guides key staff in other departments such as the costume designer, the key hair and make-up stylists, the special effects director and the locations manager &among others' to establish a unified visual appearance to the film.

CD$airns, %avid &-arch.#pril D?>>'. *The %reams of a $reative 9egetter*. The 9eliever. . 3etrieved D?>>-?;-;>. *-enzies was an art director, production designer &a title he invented himself', producer, and director, the man who created the look of 1one with the 0ind, unifying the work of a posse of directors.* C;/reston, 0ard &>==I'. #hat an +rt !irector !oes. ilman-8ames /ress. pp. ><?. I 9G >BC=<?<->B-<.

The *art department* is a group of people who work with the production designer to implement the scenic elements of that vision. The art director, as the production designer's lead manager carrying out designing, supervises set designers, model artists, computer designers, graphic designers, set and storyboard illustrators, and assistant art directors. 0ithin the art directors budget 2urisdiction is wall to wall carpeting, stage.set floor covering &hardwood, linoleum, tile, ets', wall coverings, finishes, wallpaper, etc. The #rt %irector deals with specific budget accounting for all charges related to the construction and finishing of both stage and location sets. The #rt %irector supervises set construction and painting, as well as modifications to e!isting locations, such as changing signs or installing new carpet. #n art director has myriad specialists reporting to them including the construction department, which includes carpenters, painters, plasterers, riggers and other trades, propmakers, greensmen &landscapers', sign painters, and scenic artists, and drapery departments. # production illustrator, such as -entor 5uebner, provides preproduction concept art and storyboards. The set decorator, often someone with e!perience in interior decoration, finds, shops, selecting set dressing from prop furniture rental houses - decorative items for the sets such as furniture, knickknacks and lighting fi!tures. The decorator is responsible for area rugs. 0all to 0all set carpeting is the art director's 2urisdiction and part of his budget, which the art director selects. The set decorator must coordinate with the prop master any actor's hand props which is used in specific settings. 0orking under the decorator are buyers, as well as a crew of set dressers who bring the items to the set, arrange furniture, hang curtains &drapery department lead' and *dress* the set. # property master coordinates with the production designer, but also works closely with the director and actors to provide the items handled directly by the actors such as newspapers, weapons, musical instruments and food. 4or the most part, the prop crew, along with an on-set dresser, maintain the integrity of the production designer's vision during the shoot and manipulate the items for the camera. ince >=D= the #cademy of -otion /icture #rts and ciences grants an #rt %irection #ward to an outstanding /roduction %esigner. #n #rt %irector may only be considered eligible for an "scar when there is no /roduction %esigner credited. I#T , VB?? 9oard of %irectors must approve any /roduction %esign request for this credit, which must be submitted to the union for approval. In D?>D, the #rt %irection 9ranch in the -otion /icture #rts and ciences #cademy was designated The %esigners &ranch. "his branch includes members as art directors' assistant art directors' set decorators' costume designers' illustrators' research historians' and applicants related 4ith an art department. ome of the crew who work in the art department under the production designer include the art director, set designer &draughtsman', set decorator, costume designer, property master, concept artist, graphic designer, and model maker.

Societies and trade or!ani5ations


In the 6nited tates, production designers are represented by I#T , local B??F the #rt %irectors 1uild. The production design credit must be requested by the producer, prior to completion of photography, and submitted to the #rt %irectors 1uild 9oard of %irectors for the credit approval. In $anada, production designers are represented by the %irector's 1uild of $anada, e!cept in 9ritish $olumbia where they are represented by I#T ,.

/oted production desi!ners


See Category?.roduction designers' +cademy +4ard for &est +rt !irection and #rt %irectors 1uild 5all of 4ame

References
pecific references( 1eneral references( )9arnwell, 8ane &D??I'. .roduction !esign? +rchitects of the Screen. 40allflower. I 9G >-=?;;AI-<<-B. )9lock, 9ruce &D??>'. "he :isual Story? Seeing the Structure of ,ilm' ":' and Ne4 edia. 4ocal /ress. I 9G ?-DI?-B?IAC-B. ),de, @aurie G. &D?>?'. &ritish film design? a history. I.9.Tauris.I 9G =CB->-BIBB<>?B-< )5ans-8[rgen Tast &ed.' +N"@N #A&A6 K)(%4-)(>(L - ,ilmarchite0t bei der 2,+ & chellerten D??<' I 9G ;-BBBID-?;?-YF ):atz, ,phraim &D??<'. "he ,ilm Ancyclopedia KCedL. $ollins. I 9G ?-?A-?CID>I;.

External links
)#rt %irectors 1uild, I#T , @ocal B?? 6nion local representing #rt %irectors and /roduction %esigners >. #%1 #rt %irection 0iki "nline community and knowledge base relating to film design )9ritish 4ilm %esigners 1uild

)The #ustrian 4ilmdesigners #ssociation &7^4 - 7erband ^sterreichischer 4ilmausstatterInnen'. )/roduction %esign Training Toi 0hakaari( G] %rama chool creen )/roduction %esign training in #uckland G] at 6nitec /erforming and #rts

Researc(er
# researcher is somebody who performs research, the search for knowledge or in general any systematic investigation to establish facts. 3esearchers can work in academic, industrial, government, or private institutions.

Examples of researc( institutions


)-a $hung 3esearch $enter for /hotosynthetic /igments &Indonesia' )#_ T#3 & ingapore' )$entre Gational de la 3echerche )$ommonwealth cientifique &4rance' cientific and Industrial 3esearch "rganisation &#ustralia'

)G# # #mes 3esearch $enter &6 #' )Gational $enter for #tmospheric 3esearch &6 #' )Gational Institute of #erospace &6 #' )Gational Institute of -ental 5ealth &6 #' )#rgonne Gational @aboratory &6 #' )9rookhaven Gational @aboratory &6 #' )@awrence 9erkeley Gational @aboratory &6 #' )@os #lamos Gational @aboratory &6 #' )"ak 3idge Gational @aboratory &6 #' )/acific Gorthwest Gational @aboratory &6 #' )$entro de ,studios $ient`ficos $,$s &$hile' )8oint Institute for Guclear 3esearch &3ussia' ),uropean ynchrotron 3adiation 4acility &4rance' )Institut @aue-@angevin &4rance' ),uropean "rganization for Guclear 3esearch & witzerland' )Indian pace 3esearch "rganisation &India' cientific and Industrial 3esearch &India' )$ouncil of

)9habha #tomic 3esearch $entre &India'

)-a! /lanck )4raunhofer

ociety for the #dvancement of ociety &1ermany'

cience &1ermany'

)5elmholtz #ssociation of 1erman 3esearch $entres &1ermany' )$onsiglio Gazionale delle 3icerche &Italy' ) /ring-B &8apan' )Gew Hork - $,0IT &6 #'

Scenic desi!n
Scenic desi n &also known as sceno raphy, sta e desi n, set desi n or production design' is the creation of theatrical, as well as film or television scenery. cenic designers have traditionally come from a variety of artistic backgrounds, but nowadays, generally speaking, they are trained professionals, often self taught with a -.4.#. degrees in theatre arts. "ne of the most difficult challenges in creating a scenic design is helping your audience to visualize and e!perience feelings that can trigger memories toward a particulare setting. The beauty of a scenic design can produce the most unforgettable memories of life. cenic art should provide an e!perience that engages your heart and mind. It takes you to a person, place or thing that can cause us to value it.

Scenic Desi!ner
# designer looks at the details searching for evidence through research to produce conceptual ideas thatNs best toward supporting the content and values with visual elements. The sub2ect of, O5ow do we generate creative ideasJP is a very legitimate question. The most consuming part of e!panding our horizons toward scenic concepts is much more than witnessing 1odNs creativity, and creative people. It starts with us opening our mind to the possibilities. To have an attitude toward learning, seeking, and engaging in creativity and to be willing to be adventurous, inquisitive and curious. "ur imagination is highly visual. 0hether outside or inside, colorful trees or concerts, star lit skies or the architecture of a great building, scenic design is a process of discovery. %iscovering what will best clarify and support the story being told. The scenic designer works with the director and other designers to establish an overall visual concept for the production and design the stage environment. 5e is responsible for developing a complete set of design drawings that include the following( )basic ground plan showing all stationary scenic elementsF )composite ground plan showing all moving scenic elements, indicating both their onstage and storage positionsF )section of the stage space incorporating all elementsF )front elevations of every scenic element, and additional elevations or sections of units as required. #ll of these required drawing elements can be easily created from one accurate ;-% $#% model of the set design.

Responsibility
The scenic designer is responsible for collaborating with the theatre director and other members of the production design team to create an environment for the production and then communicating the details of this environment to the technical director, production manager, charge scenic artist and propmaster. cenic designers are responsible for creating scale models of the scenery, renderings, paint elevations and scale construction drawings as part of their communication with other production staff.

Trainin!
In ,urope and #ustraliaCI scenic designers take a more holistic approach to theatrical design and will often be responsible not only for scenic design but costume, lighting and sound and are referred to as theatre designers or scenographers or production designers. @ike their #merican cousins, ,uropean theatre designers and scenographers are generally trained with 9achelor of #rts degrees in theatre design, scenography or performance design. Gotable scenic designers, past and present, include( #dolphe #ppia, #leksandra ,kster, 1lenn %avis, #le!andre 9enois, #lison $hitty, #ntony -c%onald, 9arry :ay, 9oris #ronson, $yro %el Gero, %aniil @ider, %avid 9orovsky, %avid 1allo, ,dward 1ordon $raig, ,s %evlin, ,zio 4rigerio, 4ranco $olavecchia, 4ranco ]effirelli, 1eorge Tsypin, 5oward 9ay, Inigo 8ones, 8ean-/ierre /onnelle, 8o -ielziner, 8osef voboda, :en #dam, @Son 9akst, @uciano %amiani, -aria 92Zrnson, -ing $ho @ee, -otley, Gatalia 1oncharova, Gathan #ltman, Gicholas 1eorgiadis, /aul 9rown, "liver mith, 3alph :oltai, Geil /atel, 3obert 9rill, 3obert 0ilson, 3ussell /atterson, 9rian idney 9embridge, anto @oquasto, ean :enny, Todd 3osenthal, 3obin 0agner, Tony 0alton, and 7adym -eller.

Furt(er readin!
) a0ing the Scene? + History of Stage !esign and "echnology in Aurope and the 2nited States by "scar 1. 9rockett, -argaret -itchell, and @inda 5ardberger &Tobin Theatre #rts 4und, distributed by 6niversity of Te!as /ressF D?>?' ;A< pagesF traces the history of scene design since the ancient 1reeks.

CI*Training as a Theatre %esigner*. $entral chool of peech and %rama, 6niversity of @ondon article. .

External links
)www.scenicdesign.blogspot.com, cenic Information by 1lenn %avis on design, carpentry skills and photos of scenic designs )www.willowproduction.com, cenic Information by 1lenn %avis on design, carpentry skills and photos of scenic designs from 0illow $reek $hurch )/rague Muadrennial of /erformance %esign and pace - the largest scenography event in the world - presenting contemporary work in a variety of performance design disciplines and genres - costume, stage, light, sound design, and theatre architecture for dance, opera, drama, site specific, multi-media performances, and performance art, etc., /rague, $] )Gew ]ealand tage and creen %esign %egree Theatre %esign Training )-aster's %egree in cenography and $ontemporary $ities in 9arcelona and

) ociety of 9ritish Theatre %esigners Theatre %esign )0hat is cenography #rticle illustrating the differences between 6 ,uropean theatre design practices ) tagelink /roduction and )8osef et %esigner %irectory voboda #rticle on www.scenography.co.uk

)Theatre et and $ostume %esign #rchive at the 6niversity of 9ristol Theatre $ollection, 6niversity of 9ristol

A6 2remote television production3


In outside broadcasting using a remote television crew, an !2 &or #udio #ssistant' is a person responsible for placement and interconnection of audio devices, such as microphones and intercom, from the Television /roduction truck to the venue. Typically, in larger productions, there are two or more #Ds, responsible to the #> &or #udio -i!er'.

4oot('A6
The 9ooth-#D is responsible for setting up and connecting audio equipment for the on-air-talent in the announcersN booth. This equipment includes on-air announcerNs consoles, handheld-microphones and intercom stations. The 9ooth#D will assist the on-air-talent with equipment.

Field'A6
The 4ield-#D sets up the effects-microphones, on-air-talent microphones and intercom on the field. In sports television, these microphones are set up to capture the sounds of the game. These microphones are placed on hand-held television cameras, near goals and pointed by microphone-operators. In some sports, such as golf, there are so many microphones spread over a large venueF an audio-sub mi! is required. The 4ield-#D will be responsible for sub mi!ing microphones back to the production truck.

RF'A6
The 34-#D, sometimes referred to as the 0ireless-#D, sets up wireless microphones and wireless intercom. The 34-#D works with both the 4ield-#D and the 9ooth-#D.

$oms'A6
6sually in only the largest productions, there is a $oms-#D short for $ommunications-#D. This #D is responsible for intercom and telephone communications. The $oms-#D will work with all other #Ds to get communications set up.

Assistant director
The role of an !ssistant director include tracking daily progress against the filming production schedule, arranging logistics, preparing daily call sheets, checking cast and crew, maintaining order on the set. They also have to take care of health and safety of the crew. 5istorically the role of an assistant to the director &not the same as an #ssistant director' was a stepping stone to directing workF #lfred 5itchcock was an #%, as was 8ames -cTeigue. This transition into film directing is no longer common in feature films, but remains an avenue for television work, particularly in #ustralia and 9ritain. It is more common now for #%s to transition to production management and producer roles than to directing. #n *assistant director* can also take on many different roles. 3esponsibilities of an assistant director in theatre may include taking notes to actually staging parts of the play. -any aspiring theatre directors begin their careers assistant directing, although the responsibilities in theatre are usually completely different to the requirements of filmmaking and should not be confused.

Sub'roles
"ften, the role of assistant director is broken down into the following sub-roles( )The /irst !ssistant &irector &4irst or >st #%' has overall #% responsibilities and supervises the econd #%. The *first* is directly responsible to the director and *runs* the floor or set. The >st #% and the unit production manager are two of the highest *below the line* technical roles in filmmaking &as opposed to creative or *above the line* roles' and so, in this strict sense, the role of >#% is non-creative. )The Second !ssistant &irector & econd or D#%' creates the daily call sheets from the production schedule, in cooperation with the production coordinator. The *second* also serves as the *backstage manager*, liaising with actors, putting cast through make-up and wardrobe, which relieves the *first* of these duties. upervision of the second second assistant director, third assistant director, assistant director trainees, and the setting of background &e!tras' are parts of the *second's* duties. )The Second Second !ssistant &irector & econd econd or DD#%' deals with the increased workload of a large or complicated production. 4or e!ample, a production with a large number of cast may require the division of the aspects of backstage manager and the call sheet production work to two separate people. )The $hird !ssistant &irector &Third or ;rd #%' works on set with the *4irst* and may liaise with the * econd* to move actors from base camp &the area containing the production, cast, and hair and makeup trailers', organize crowd scenes, and supervise one or more production assistants &/#'. There is sometimes no clear distinction between a D#% and a ;#%. #lthough some industry bodies &#merican %1#' have defined the roles in an ob2ective way, others believe it to be a sub2ective distinction. )The !dditional !ssistant &irector &##% or #dditional' or /ourth !ssistant &irector &I#% or *4ourth*' or *:ey /roduction #ssistanta* &:ey /#' may have a number of duties. -ost commonly, the ##% has two broad 2ob functions. "ne is the contraction of the duties of an #% where the #% acts as both Dnd #% and ;rd #% simultaneously. 4or e!ample, a production with a large number of cast may pass the D#% call sheet production work to that of the ##%, especially when the D#% is already performing the additional work of a ;rd #%. The other main use of an ##% is as an ad2unct to the ;#% and >#% for logistically large scenes where more #%s are needed to control large numbers of e!tras. The *#dditional* may also serve where the comple!ity of the scene or specialized elements within it &stunts, period work' require or are best served by a dedicated #% in most respects equal to a >st #% - directing and controlling a number of other #%s to direct action to the satisfaction of the >#% and the director. )# production assistant is one of the lowest crew in a film's hierarchy in terms of salaryC< and authority. They perform various duties required of them by #%s.

C</#$T /ay-scale

The sub-roles of assistant directors differ among nations. 4or e!ample, the distinction between second second #% and third #% is more common in Gorth #merica. 9ritish and #ustralian productions, rather than having a second second #%, will hire a *second* D#% e!perienced in the same duties, and trained to the same level, to allow a division of the duties. ;#%s in 9ritain and #ustralia have different duties from a second second #%, and the terms are not synonymous.4or e!ample # *third* may 2ust be a crowd scene specialist, with seniority, and even higher pay than the second #% of that production. -any times, in 5ollywood film making, especially studio productions, the 4irst #.%. is the first person hired on a film, often as soon as the pro2ect has been green lit for production. #n assistant director must be very good at estimating how long a scene will take. & ometimes a scene running a few pages long on the screenplay can be shot relatively quickly, while a half page emotional key moment may take all day.' 0hen producers visit their production sets or floors, the 4irst #.%. is the one they will want to listen to and get answers from. "ften, this person will provide the ob2ective view on progress being made, problems that may be foreseen, and solutions that may be found. The director is often insulated from these discussions, e!cept when inevitable.

$allin! t(e Roll


The >st #%'s responsibilities is to *call the roll*. "ver the years, special procedures have been developed for this task to achieve ma!imum efficiency during shooting, which is usually some variant of the following( >>>. *0aiting on...* Though not technically part of calling the roll, >st #%s may keep the set focused by frequently calling out which department is responsible for a delay in rolling a take. If the lights need to be ad2usted, the >st #% calls out, *0aiting on lighting*. If the actors are still in their trailer, the >st #% calls out *0aiting on talent*, etc. 5owever, such calls can be regarded as applying e!cessive pressure to the department in question, and especially in the case of actors, are often avoided. >>D. *4inal checks, please* &or *@ast looks*'. "nce everyone is in place, and rehearsals and blocking have finished, the >st #% calls out, *4inal checks* or *$hecks*. This is the signal for any last minute ad2ustments, especially to hair, makeup, wardrobe and props. >>;. Traditionally, the >st #% calls *Muiet on the set*. 5owever, it is more common in current productions to hear first */icture is upa* &or *3ehearsal's up* accordingly' followed by *Muiet pleasea* to alert everyone that the take is ready and imminent. *@ock it down* is also a signal &particularly on location' to ensure nothing interrupts the take, crucial for Third #ssistant %irectors, as this is their primary responsibility during a take.

>>I. *Turnover.* 0hile some #%s say both *3oll sound* and *3oll camera*, *Turnover* signals both the camera and sound departments to start rolling. The sound department will roll first &sound stock is cheaper than film, so this minimises the film footage used for the take'. #fter a second or two, the sound recordist will confirm that the recording equipment is running at the correct speed by calling * peed*. 5earing this, the $lapper-@oader immediately calls out the *scene* and *take* numbers so that these details are on the recording. imultaneously &or within a very few seconds' the $amera "perator or 4ocus /uller will roll the camera, and immediately the camera is confirmed as running at the correct speed, will call for the $lapper-@oader to *-ark it* &or * mack it*, *9ang it*, *Tag it*, etc.'. This is done by showing the slate &*clapper-board*' on camera, and bringing the clapper down to make a synchronisation point for audio &the sound of the clapper' and picture &the two parts of the clapper being seen to come together'. 0ith the slate quickly taken out of shot, and the camera refocused or repointed as necessary for the opening framing, the $amera "perator calls * et* or *4rame* to indicate that all is ready to capture the action. >><. 1enerally, it is the >st #ssistant %irector who calls *#ction*, though on some sets the %irector does so. &The >st possibly preceded by *9ackground #ction* if e!tras must be in motion before the main action commences'. >>A. 6sually the %irector says *$ut*, but $amera "perators may also *cut* to save film if they know the take is unusable. >>C. #fter the %irector has called *$ut*, the >st #% will check whether the %irector is happy with the take, and conclude the roll with a direction such as *1oing again* or *That's a take two* if another take is required. If the %irector does not want another take, the #% will call *$heck the gate* &a signal for the 4ocus /uller or $amera #ssistant to confirm that the camera has not malfunctioned during a take, and that there is no hair or fluff in the aperture &*gate*' where the film is e!posed'. 0hen the camera has been checked, the call from the 4ocus /uller or $amera #ssistant will be *$lear gatea*. Then, if the scene is complete, the #% may call *-oving on* or *Ge!t scene*. These announcements cue all departments and the #%s on set as to the ne!t steps they must take. 4or e!ample, *1oing again* and.or *9ack to "ne* may require a reset of elements in the frame e!tras, cars - anything that moved' back to where they started, which the ;rd #% will oversee.

The above roll sequence can be varied by, for e!ample, eliminating the sound calls and the clapping of the slate if the shot is mute or *-" * &*-" * is a universal abbreviation for *-otor "nly hot*'.CA #t other times, for e!pediency &e.g. if the shot begins with a closeup of a closed door which then opens', the slate may be shown at the end of the take rather than the beginning. In this case, once the sound is rolling, there is an audible announcement of *,nd board* or *,nd slate* &also *Tail slate*' so that the editing department knows to look for the sync marks at the end of the action. #t the conclusion of the action, the %irector will still call *$ut*, but the >st #% &and possibly others' will immediately call *,nd boarda* so that the camera and sound recorder are not turned off before the clapper is clapped. #lso, as a visual cue to the editors, the clapperboard will be shown upside down on camera.

External links
)%irector's 1uild of #merica )%irector's 1uild of $anada )#ssistant %irector's 1uild of 1reat 9ritain )The 4rench #ssociation of #ssistant %irectors )#ssistant %irectors #ssociation

Script doctor
# script doctor, also called a script consultant,CC is a highly skilled screenwriter or playwright hired by a film, television or theatre production to rewrite an e!isting script or polish specific aspects of it, including structure, characterization, dialogue, pacing, theme, and other elements.CB

CA*-" *, 4ilm ound.org, bhttp(..filmsound.org.terminology.mos.htmc. 3etrieved D?>>->>-DA. CC5onthaner, ,ve @ight &D??<'. Holly4ood !rive? #hat It "a0es "o &rea0 In' Hang In ; a0e It In "he Antertainment Industry. 9urlington( 4ocal /ress. pp. BCEBB. I 9G ?DI?B?AAB=. CB8ones, arah &D??I'. ,ilm. Gorth -ankato( mart #pple -edia. pp. >IE><. I 9G ><B;I?D<AY.

cript doctors generally do their work uncredited, for a variety of commercial and artistic reasons.C=B?B> They are usually brought in for scripts that have almost been *green-lit*,BD during the development and pre-production phases of a film, to address specific issues with the script, as identified by the financiers, production team, and cast.B; 6nder the 0riters 1uild of #merica screenwriting credit system, a screenwriter must contribute more than <? percent of an original screenplay or ;; percent of an adaptation to receive credit.BI 6ncredited screenwriters are not eligible to win the #cademy #ward for 9est creenplay or the 0riters 1uild of #merica #wards.

#eople considered script doctors


-any screenwriters have been called *script doctors* for doing uncredited work on screenplays, some of which are known( )9en 5echt &>B=IE>=AI'( "4entieth Century &>=;I', + Star Is &orn &>=;C', +ngels 4ith !irty ,aces &>=;B', 5one 4ith the #ind &>=;=', Stagecoach &>=;=',B< ,oreign Correspondent &>=I?',BA Cornered &>=I<', 5ilda &>=IA', 6ope and Cry of the City &>=IB', Strangers on a "rain &>=<>', +ngel ,ace &>=<D',BC and Cleopatra &>=A;'.BB #ccording to a Govember >=== article from "he 5uardian, *T6ncredited script doctoring isU a tradition that goes back to the mighty 9en 5echt. 5echt was a snob, and hanging out at the #lgonquin with %orothy /arker, it suited him to downplay his movie work, so he only received credit for about half of the >?? plus films he worked on.*B=
C= B?5yman, /aula ,. and -oore, %eborah %ash, ed. &>==B'. 1e4ish #omen in +merica? +n Historical Ancyclopedia. Gew Hork( 3outledge. p. III. I 9G ?I><=>=;A;. *$urrently T4isherU works in that great uncredited 5ollywood profession of script doctor+or, as 4isher calls it, script nurse.* B>5urd, -ary 1. &D??C'. #omen !irectors and "heir ,ilms. 0estport( /raeger /ublishers. p. ><?. I 9G ?DC<=B<CBI. * he T,laine -ayU then became a script doctor, one of a small group of writers who are paid handsome fees by studios to do uncredited work on a script.* BD#ppleton, %inaF Hankelevits, %aniel &D?>?'. Holly4ood !ealma0ing? Negotiating "alent +greements for ,ilm' ": and Ne4 edia &D ed.'. Gew Hork( #llworth /ress. p. ;?;. I 9G ><B>><AC><. *# writer hired to 'spruce up' or 'fi!' a script, usually by inserting 2okes or otherwise adding some '2uice'. These highly paid writers are often hired by studios for brief periods of employment, most often to work on scripts that are very close to being 'green-lit'.* B;#bramowitz, 3achel &"ctober DC, D??D'. *To the rescueJ*. "he -os +ngeles "imes. . 3etrieved #ugust >C, D?>D. BI B<9ooker, -. :eith &D?>>'. Historical !ictionary of +merican Cinema. @anham( carecrow /ress. p. >AI. I 9G ?B>?BC>=D?. BA/hillips, 1ene %. &D?>D'. @ut of the Shado4s? Axpanding the Canon of Classic ,ilm Noir . @anham( carecrow /ress. p. BB. I 9G ?B>?BB>=?Y. BC picer, #ndrew &D?>?'. Historical !ictionary of ,ilm Noir. @anham( carecrow /ress. pp. >D=E >;?. I 9G ?B>?B<=A?D. *5e became a 5ollywood screenwriter from >=DA, valued highly for his contemporary, idiomatic, and vivid prose, and as a ruthless and effective 'script doctor', having a hand in many films noir for which he was uncredited...* BB:ashner, amF choenberger, Gancy &D?>?'. ,urious -ove? AliBabeth "aylor' 6ichard &urton' and the arriage of the Century. Gew Hork( 5arper$ollins. p. >;. I 9G ??A><ADBIY. B=-orris, -ark &Govember D=, >==='. *1et me Tom toppard*. "he 5uardian. . 3etrieved #ugust

),laine -ay &born >=;D'( 6eds &>=B>', "ootsie &>=BD', and -abyrinth &>=BA'.=? )3obert Towne &born >=;I'( &onnie and Clyde &>=AC', "he 5odfather &>=CD', and +rmageddon &>==B'.=> #uthor /eter 9iskind writes in Aasy 6iders' 6aging &ulls &>==B' that 4rancis 4ord $oppola asked Towne if he wanted credit for his contributions to the screenplay of "he 5odfather, and Towne replied( *%on't be ridiculous. I only wrote a couple of fuckin' scenes. If you win an "scar, thank me.*=D $oppola won the #cademy #ward for 9est 0riting &#dapted creenplay' and thanked Towne.=;

>C, D?>D. =? => =D9iskind, /eter &>==B'. Aasy 6iders' 6aging &ulls? Ho4 the Sex-!rugs-+nd 6oc0 *N 6oll 5eneration Saved Holly4ood. Gew Hork( imon and chuster. p. ><B. I 9G ?ABIB<C?B>. =;Turan, :enneth &Govember DC, >=BB'. *3obert Towne's 5ollywood 0ithout 5eroes*. "he Ne4 3or0 "imes. . 3etrieved #ugust >C, D?>D.

) ir Tom toppard &born >=;C'( Indiana 1ones and the -ast Crusade &>=B=',=I Sleepy Hollo4 &>===',=< and "he &ourne 2ltimatum &D??C'.=A=C "n "he &ourne 2ltimatum, toppard said in "ctober D??C, *I wrote a script for TdirectorU /aul 1reengrass. ome of the themes are still mine+but I don't think there's a single word of mine in the film.*=B #ccording to an #pril D?>? interview with "he 5uardian, toppard *does uncredited script-doctoring on 5ollywood movies, 'about once a year'( most recently he worked on /aul 1reengrass's "he &ourne 2ltimatum. 'The second reason for doing it is that you get to work with people you admire. The first reason, of course, is that it's overpaid.' "nce, hearing the phone ring at home while in the shower, he took a call from TdirectorU teven pielberg on the set of Schindler*s -ist, agonising over a scene in teven ]aillian's script. tanding naked, toppard improvised a solution that was used in the movie. 5e remains bemused by this #merican habit of invisible script revision. 'I actually got quite angry with pielberg, who was and is a good friend, and told him 2ust to film ]aillian's script. 9ut teven, like a lot of other people in movies, tends to think one more opinion can't hurt.'*== 5e also said, *I used to worry about it enormously, but it's a different culture. It's a moral issue, almost. # few years ago, I was invited to a film festival, as a freebie, because I'd done so much work on a movie that they said I should be there. #nd I said( 'I can't do that, because I'm not supposed to be on this film, and it's unfair to the chap whose name is on it.' 9ut it 2ust goes with the territory( these are the conditions one works under out there.*>?? )Tom -ankiewicz &>=IDED?>?'( "he !eep &>=CC', "he Spy #ho -oved e &>=CC', Superman &>=CB', oonra0er &>=C=', and Superman II &>=B?'. 5e was credited as *creative consultant* on Superman by director 3ichard %onner.>?> In a 8une D?>D interview, 3obert $rane, who co-wrote -ankiewicz's autobiography y -ife as a an0ie4icB &D?>D', said( *I think script doctoring was an in road for him. /eople had liked what they'd seen with the 9ond films, especially the dialogue. I think that caught the attention of agents and studio heads, and they said, 'I want -ankiewicz to come in here and work on this pro2ect.' 5e spent a lot of time at 0arner 9rothers and 6niversal working on scripts.*>?D
=I:oski, 1enevieve &-ay ><, D??B'. *3aiders "f The @ost #rk*. "he +.:. Club. . 3etrieved #ugust >C, D?>D. * pielberg said, in an D??< interview with Ampire magazine, 'Tom is pretty much responsible for every line of dialogue Tin Indiana 1ones and the -ast CrusadeU.' * =<Gashawty, $hris &Govember >=, >==='. * leepy 5ollow( # 5ead of its Time*. Antertainment #ee0ly. . 3etrieved #ugust >C, D?>D. *"n the other hand, it doesn't hurt that Sleepy Hollo4's script+credited to #ndrew :evin 0alker &Seven'+received a stealthy stem-to-stern overhaul from Sha0espeare in -ove's "scar-winning screenwriter Tom toppard.* =A@awson, -ark &#pril >I, D?>?'. *Tom toppard( 'I'm the crank in the bus queue'*. "he 5uardian. . 3etrieved #ugust >C, D?>D. =C3apkin, -ickey &"ctober >B, D??C'. *Tom toppard*. "ime @ut Ne4 3or0. . 3etrieved #ugust >A, D?>D. =B == >?? >?>Gelson, 7alerie 8. &#ugust ;, D?>?'. *Tom -ankiewicz dies at ABF screenwriter for 8ames 9ond, uperman films*. "he -os +ngeles "imes. . 3etrieved #ugust >A, D?>D. *Tom -ankiewicz, a screenwriter and premier script doctor...* >?D:onow, %avid &8une DA, D?>D'. *Think Hou :now 5ollywoodJ Hou %onNt :now -ank*. Script agaBine. . 3etrieved #ugust >=, D?>D.

)$arrie 4isher &born >=<A'( Hoo0 &>==>',>?; Sister +ct &>==D',>?I -ethal #eapon E &>==D',>?< -ast +ction Hero &>==;',>?A "he 6iver #ild &>==I',>?C and "he #edding Singer &>==B'.>?B #n Antertainment #ee0ly article from -ay >==D described her as *one of the most sought after doctors in town.*>?= 0hen asked if she was still working as a script doctor in %ecember D??B, she said( *I haven't done it for a few years. I did it for many years, and then younger people came to do it and I started to do new things. It was a long, very lucrative episode of my life. 9ut it's complicated to do that. Gow it's all changed, actually. Gow in order to get a rewrite 2ob, you have to submit your notes for your ideas on how to fi! the script. o they can get all the notes from all the different writers, keep the notes and not hire you. That's free work and that's what I always call life-wasting events.*>>? )#aron orkin &born >=A>'( Schindler*s -ist &>==;', "he 6oc0 &>==A', Axcess &aggage &>==C', and Anemy of the State &>==B'. In an "ctober D?>? interview, he said( *0ith the script doctoring, I did it for 8erry 9ruckheimer for a while, because I was 2ust going through a period where I was having a very difficult time coming up with my own ideas and I was climbing the walls. o I did what is called 'the production polish', where you are brought into the last two weeks on something that you are not emotionally invested in, where it is not your 2ob to break the story, to come up with the moving parts and plot points. 9asically, they 2ust wanted some snappy dialogue for ean $onnery and Gicolas $age. The first time I did it, actually, was for Schindler*s -ist where no-one is looking for snappy dialogue, but the writer of that movie had gone on to direct a picture and there was a little more work that Tdirector teven pielbergU wanted done before it went to /oland to begin shooting. 5e asked me to come in and do that, but you are obviously more interested in your own thing.*>>> )8ohn ayles &born >=<?'( +pollo )E &>==<', imic &>==C'. ayles has stated that the script doctor's main role is to help others tell their stories. 5e decides which 2obs to accept based on whether there's a germ of an idea for a movie he'd actually like to see. 5e's also stated that he works harder when writing for others than he does on his own work.>>D

>?;-cGamara, 8onathan &#pril D=, D??B'. *$arrie 4isher on py in the 5ouse of -e, Tinkerbell and being the movie industry's best script doctor*. .hoenix Ne4 "imes. . 3etrieved #ugust >=, D?>D. >?I$agle, 8ess &-ay D=, >==D'. *The /rayer*. Antertainment #ee0ly. . 3etrieved #ugust >A, D?>D. >?< >?AGick %e emlyen, *The @ife #nd %eath "f @ast #ction 5ero*, Ampire &DA=', >?C >?B etoodeh, 3amin &%ecember >B, D??B'. *9eing $arrie 4isher*. Ne4s4ee0. . 3etrieved #ugust >A, D?>D. >?= >>? >>>@awrence, 0ill &"ctober >>, D?>?'. *4acebook movie The ocial Getwork tells a hakespearean tale of money, power and betrayal*. "he Herald. . 3etrieved #ugust >A, D?>D. >>Dhttp(..www.youtube.com.watchJvKbzsfpCuf7yw

)Muentin Tarantino &born >=A;'( It*s .at &>==I'>>; and Crimson "ide &>==<'.>>I>>< )8oss 0hedon &born >=AI'( Speed &>==I', "he 9uic0 and the !ead &>==<',>>A #ater4orld &>==<', "4ister &>==A',>>C and 8- en &D???'.>>B In a eptember D??> interview, 0hedon said( *-ost of the dialogue in Speed is mine, and a bunch of the characters,* adding that he was arbitrated out of credit.>>= 5e also spoke about #ater4orld and 8- en( *I refer to myself as the world's highest-paid stenographer. This is a situation I've been in a bunch of times. T...U #ater4orld was a good idea, and the script was the classic, 'They have a good idea, then they write a generic script and don't really care about the idea.' 0hen I was brought in, there was no water in the last I? pages of the script. It all took place on land, or on a ship, or whatever. I'm like, 'Isn't the cool thing about this guy that he has gillsJ' #nd no one was listening. I was there basically taking notes from T:evin $ostnerU, who was very nice, fine to work with, but he was not a writer. #nd he had written a bunch of stuff that they wouldn't let their staff touch. o I was supposed to be there for a week, and I was there for seven weeks, and I accomplished nothing. I wrote a few puns, and a few scenes that I can't even sit through because they came out so bad. It was the same situation with 8- en. They said, '$ome in and punch up the big clima!, the third act, and if you can, make it cheaper.' That was the mandate on both movies, and my response to both movies was, 'The problem with the third act is the first two acts.' 9ut, again, no one was paying attention. T...U #nd then, in 8- en, not only did they throw out my script and never tell me about itF they actually invited me to the readthrough, having thrown out my entire draft without telling me.*>D?

Tec(nical director
The $echnical &irector &$&' or $echnical (ana er &$(' is usually a senior technical person within a software company, film studio, theatrical company or television studio. This person usually possesses the highest level of skill within a specific technical field and may be recognized as an e!pert in that industry. The Technical %irector provides technical direction on business decision making using the 9usiness %ecision -apping technique and in the e!ecution of specific pro2ects. 5e or she may be assigned to a single pro2ect, or may oversee a number of pro2ects with related technologies. # Technical %irector also typically keeps close contact with any /roduction -anagers and keeps them informed of their budget status at all /roduction -eetings.

>>;%awson, 8eff &>==<'. 9uentin "arantino? "he Cinema of Cool. Gew Hork( #pplause 9ooks. p. >=B. I 9G ><<CB;DDCC. >>I >><%awson, p. A>. >>A3obinson, Tasha & eptember <, D??>'. *8oss 0hedon*. "he +.:. Club. . 3etrieved #ugust >=, D?>D. >>C8acobs, #.8. &#pril D<, >==C'. *Interview with a 7ampire $hronicler*. Antertainment #ee0ly. . 3etrieved #ugust >A, D?>D. *$onsider that 0hedon, an #-list screenwriter and script doctor...* >>B >>= >D?

Soft)are
In software development, a Technical %irector is typically responsible for the successful creation and delivery of the company's product to the marketplace by managing technical risks and opportunities( making key software design and software implementation decisions with the development teamsF scheduling of tasks including tracking dependencies, managing change requests, and guaranteeing quality of deliveriesF and educating the team on technical best practices. Typical 3esponsibilities( )%efines the technological strategy with the development team of each pro2ect( pipeline, tools, and key development procedures. )#ssesses technical risk and mitigation plan. ),stablishes standards and procedures to track and measure pro2ect's progression. ),valuates development team&s', identifying strengths, problem areas, and developing plans for improving performance. ),valuates interview candidates for technical positions. ) couts for and evaluates new technology and tools as opportunities for innovation and development e!cellence. )/re-production "versees technical design documentation process for correctness and timeliness. )/rovides input to the other disciplines on the practicality of initial design goals and impact to the overall pro2ect timeline. ),valuates software implementation on design and task thoroughness )5elps to identify high risk areas for the /ro2ect %irector. )Identifies weak software systems that need code improvement and schedules corrective action, when possible. )$reates automated test process for system features, where possible, and contributes to the build system. )#ids in all stages of post-production including during finalizing

Film
In 74Y.animation production such as /i!ar or Industrial @ight and -agic or game studios, a technical director's &T%' responsibilities vary from studio to studio and as such, the term is not very well defined.

Typically, a T% is a mi! of an artist and a programmer, responsible for the more technical aspects of film production, such as programming shaders, developing character rigs and animation setups, performing comple! simulation tasks and setting up the pipeline how the data is passed from one stage in the film production to the ne!t. In contrast to a programmer, a T% would normally not work on large programming pro2ects but rather make heavy use of scripting languages such as /ython, -,@, or -#Y cript or shell scripting. #nother responsibility of a T% is to look after any technical problems the regular artists encounter and to develop custom tools to improve the artists' workflow. *Technical #rtist*, *Technical #nimator* and *1eneralist T%* are sometimes used as synonyms, and frequently, the role of a T% is more precisely defined, for e!ample *,ffects T%*, *@ighting T%*, *-odeling T%*, */ipeline T%*, *$reature T%*, *5air T%*, *$loth T%*, *-atchmove T%* etc.

T(eatre
It is a Technical %irector's 2ob to make sure the technical equipment in the theater is functional, maintained and safeF the technical director is responsible for the overall organization of the technical production process. %uties included are generating necessary working drawings for construction &in con2unction with a drafts person, if there is one'F budget estimations and maintaining of accountsF materials research and purchasingF scheduling and supervising build crewsF coordinating put-insF handling conflicts that arise between different departmentsF and organizing the strike and clean-up for that production. Technical %irector can also refer to the in-house chief designer.master carpenter for a smaller theater company.

Television
The Technical %irector &often abbreviated T%' works in a production control room of a television studio and operates the video switcher and associated devices as well as serving as the chief of the television crew. 4or a remote broadcast outside of the studio, the T% will perform the same duties in a mobile production truck. It is the T%'s 2ob to ensure all positions are manned and all equipment and facilities are checked out and ready before the recording session or live broadcast begins. They typically will switch video sources, perform live digital effects and transitions, and insert pre-recorded material, graphics and titles as instructed by the %irector. In all but the smallest productions, the %irector does not actually operate the production equipment, allowing him.her to coordinate the production and make rapid decisions without worrying about how to mechanically e!ecute the effect or camera move being called for. The Technical %irector may provide training to more ine!perienced members of the technical crew when needed. In consultation with the %irector, the T% may have more or less input into the creative side of the production, depending on the situation. 5e.she may provide the %irector with guidance on crew assignments, camera shots and the most efficient way to accomplish any given effect. The T% is usually responsible for the technical quality of the signal being recorded or broadcast and will use various measuring devices and displays to ensure quality control. Technical %irectors commonly work on productions that are either broadcast live or recorded on video tape or video servers. Television productions shot on film generally do not use T%s, as the camera cuts and effects are realized in post production after the shooting is completed. The terminology in the 6: differs in some respects from the above description( The production control room is called a *gallery*, a mobile production truck is called an *"9 7an* or a * canner* &a 99$ term'. In 6: television practice, the Technical %irector is the senior technical person in the gallery and supervises the technical team, but does not operate the *vision mi!er*. The T% is responsible for ensuring that the gallery is technically fit for purpose, the routing of internal and e!ternal sources, as well as liasion with other technical areas such as -aster $ontrol 3ooms and transmission suites. They may additionally perform 7ision $ontrol duties, matching the e!posure and colour balance of the cameras &*3acking*'.

External links
) tagelink Technical %irectors %irectory )1amasutra article on the role of Technical #rtists &%irectors' in game production

#roperty master
The property %aster is an artistic and organizational employee in a film, television or theatrical production who is responsible for purchasing, acquiring and.or manufacturing any props needed for a production. The property master also works with other members of the production managing the physical appearance of the stage or set, for e!ample they might work with the script supervisor to maintain set continuity. The property master is on staff during preproduction, develops the stylistic concept of the physical production, then continues on as a member of the physical shooting.production crew. %uring preproduction, the props master develops a props breakdown. This is essentially mapping out the logical progression of each prop throughout the story. %uring shooting, the props master maintains the logical progression by ensuring the props are positioned in their correct logical place for each scene according to the props breakdown. If the logical progression of a prop changes during shooting, the props breakdown is revised to reflect the change. This 2ob description varies somewhat from country to country. In the 6nited tates, food styling, weapons and animals are often directly or indirectly within the property master's domain. The 2ob is a collaboration with the director, production designer, cameraman, set decorator and other members of the production to physically e!press their stylistic and aesthetic requirements. They maintain their own budget. There are physical aspects of productions that are managed by specialists other than the property master, for e!ample costume designers are responsible for the actors' dress, and weapons masters are responsible for any weapons &firearms, blades, staff-based or otherwise'. In professional theatre the property master is responsible for the set up and organization of the props

Dramatic pro!rammin!
&ra%atic pro ra%%in in the 6:, or television dra%a and television dra%a series in the 6nited tates, or teledra%a in ri @anka, is television program content that is scripted and &normally' fictional along the lines of a traditional drama. This e!cludes, for e!ample, sports television, television news, reality show and game shows, stand-up comedy and variety shows. #lso, by convention, the term is not generally used for situation comedy or soap opera. -ost dramatic television programming falls within other standard categories such as miniseries, made-for-T7 movies or certain rather circumscribed dramatic genres. "ne ma2or category of dramatic programing, particularly in the 6nited tates, is $rime %rama. ome e!amples of 99$ dramatic programming would be the serials "he Six #ives of Henry :III or @ur ,riends in the North.

ome e!amples of 6 television drama series are "he Sopranos, &oomto4n, 6escue e, &rea0ing &ad, "he #ire or Sons of +narchy.

4oom operator 2media3


# #oo% operator is an assistant of the production sound mi!er. The principal responsibility of the boom operator is microphone placement, usually using a boom pole &or *fishpole*' with a microphone attached to the end, their aim being to hold the microphone as close to the actors or action as possible without allowing the microphone or boom to enter the camera's frame. "ften in television studios, the boom operator will use a *fisher boom* which is a more intricate and specialized piece of equipment that the operator stands on, and that allows precise control of the microphone at a greater distance from the actors. 5e or she will also attach wireless microphones to persons whose voice requires recording. 9oom poles are usually manufactured from several lengths of aluminium or carbon fibre tubing, allowing the boom to be e!tended and collapsed as the situation requires. ome poles have a microphone cable routed through the inside of the pole, which may be a regular cable protruding at the bottom end, or a coiled cable that can e!tend with the pole, connecting to a socket at the base that the operator plugs their microphone cable into. The ideal boom pole is lightweight and strong, supporting the weight of the microphone on the end while adding as little weight as possible. 4requently, a wind-dampening cover called a mic-blimp is used to enclose the microphone. # mic-blimp covered with sound-absorbing fuzzy fabric is usually nicknamed a windmuff or a *dead cat* 4ile(%ead cat %ead :itten.8/1. In film crew 2argon, the gruesome-sounding phrase dead cat on a stic0 is simply( a boom mic fitted with one of these fuzzy wind-screens. The boom operator and production sound mi!er may often be combined into one 2ob performed by one person, usually when the crew number is to be kept minimal, such as for documentaries or news collecting, or in low budget productions. The one-man unit is often known simply as a *sound recordist* or *sound man*, and would perform all on set sound duties. The boom operator must decide where to place the microphone based on a combination of factors, including the location and pro2ection of any dialogue, the frame position of the camera, the source of lighting &and hence shadows' and any unwanted noise sources. "ften the boom operator will need to be as familiar with the script as the actors themselves, as they may be required to tilt or move the microphone according to who is speaking. In productions with a bigger budget, more than one boom operator may be used, with each operator focusing on a different actor.

$amera operator
# ca%era operator or ca%era%an is a professional operator of a film or video camera. In filmmaking, the leading camera operator is usually called a cinematographer, while a camera operator in a video production may be known as a television ca%era operator, video ca%era operator, or video rapher, depending on the conte!t and technology involved, usually operating a professional video camera. The camera operator is responsible for physically operating the camera and maintaining composition and camera angles throughout a given scene or shot. In narrative filmmaking, the camera operator will collaborate with the director, director of photography, actors and crew to make technical and creative decisions. In this setting, a camera operator is part of a film crew consisting of the director of photography and one or more camera assistants. In documentary filmmaking and news, the camera is often called on to film unfolding, unscripted events. In D??A, there were appro!imately DC,??? television, video, and motion picture camera operators employed in the 6nited tates.>D> Important camera operator skills include choreographing and framing shots knowledge of and the ability to select appropriate camera lenses, and other equipment &dollies, camera cranes, etc.' to portray dramatic scenes. The principles of dramatic story telling and film editing fundamentals are important skills as well. The camera operator is required to communicate clearly and concisely on sets where time and film budget constraints are ever present.

$inemato!rap(er
# cine%ato rapher &usually credited with the title director of photo raphy, or &P' is the chief over the camera and lighting crews working on a film, and responsible for achieving artistic and technical decisions related to the image. The study and practice of this field is referred to as cinematography.

T(e 4ritis( and American systems


There are differences between the 9ritish and the #merican traditions as regards the role of the director of photography.

>D>9ureau of @abor tatistics &D??B'. *Television, 7ideo, and -otion /icture $amera "perators and ,ditors*. @ccupational @utloo0 Handboo0' 2%%M-%( Adition. 6nited tates %epartment of @abor. I 9G >-<=B?I-I?=-<. . 3etrieved D??=->>->?.

In the 9ritish system, the director of photography &*%"/*', sometimes credited as the li htin ca%era%an,>DD is responsible for lighting the set and the visual look of the film, but has no final say over more purely camera operating-based visual elements such as framing. This system means that the director consults the lighting cameraperson for lighting and filtration, and the operator for framing and lens choices. *%"/* is the 9ritish and $anadian acronym for *director of photography*. In the #merican system, the camera operator and everybody else in camera department is subordinate to the %/, who, along with and ne!t to the director, has the final word on all decisions related to both lighting and framing. The cinematographer selects the film stock, lens, filters, etc., to realize the scene in accordance with the intentions of the director. 3elations between the cinematographer and director varyF in some instances the director will allow the cinematographer complete independenceF in others, the director allows little to none, even going so far as to specify e!act camera placement and lens selection. uch a level of involvement is not common once the director and cinematographer have become comfortable with each other, the director will typically convey to the cinematographer what is wanted from a scene visually, and allow the cinematographer latitude in achieving that effect. everal #merican cinematographers have become directors, including 9arry onnenfeld, originally the $oen brothers' %/F 8an de 9ont, cinematographer on films as !ie Hard and &asic Instinct directed Speed and "4ister.

Societies and trade or!ani5ations


There are a number of national associations of cinematographers which represent members &irrespective of their official titles' and which are dedicated to the advancement of cinematography. These include( )the #merican invitation only )the 9ritish ociety of $inematographers &#. .$.', with membership by

)the $anadian ociety of $inematographers &$. .$.' ociety of $inematographers &9. .$.' and ociety &#.$. .' )the #ustralian $inematographers

/oted cinemato!rap(ers
See Category?Cinematographers and +cademy +4ard for &est Cinematography
>DD tart in T7( @ighting $ameraman, %irector of /hotography 3etrieved D?>D->>-DB

External links
)$inematography.com )$inematography -ailing @ist &$-@' )International $inematographers 1uild )9urns, /aul The 5istory of the %iscovery of $inematography )Indian ociety of $inematographers ociety of $inematographers )#merican )9ritish

)The 1uild of 9ritish $amera Technicians ociety of $inematographers ociety &#$ ' ),uropean 4ederation of $inematographers )#ustralian $inematographers

ideo!rap(er
trictly speaking, a video rapher is a person who works in the field of videography, video production + recording moving images and sound on video tape, disk, other electro-mechanical device. Gews broadcasting relies heavily on live television where videographers engage in electronic news gathering &,G1' of local news stories. "n a set, in a television studio, the videographer is usually a camera operator of a professional video camera, sound, and lighting. #s part of a typical electronic field production &,4/' television crew, videographers usually work with a television producer. 5owever, for smaller productions &e.g. corporate and event videography', a videographer often works alone with a single-camera setup or in the case of a multiple-camera setup, as part of a larger television crew with lighting technician, grips and sound operators. Typically, videographers are distinguished from cinematographers in that they manage smaller, event scale productions &commercials, documentaries, live events, short films, training videos, weddings', differing from individualized large production team members. %ue to reduced budget compared to full-length feature productions, videographers typically use electro-mechanical cameras while cinematographers record images on film. The advent of digital cinematography, however, has blurred this distinction. 4urther, it is becoming more and more common for people to talk about *filming* with a camcorder even though no *film* is involved. imilarly, the term *taping* is often used &for lack of a better term' though no tape &or film' is involved, where live video is recorded directly to video tape, a direct to disk recording using a hard disk recorder, or a tapeless camcorder using flash media. 7ideographers maintain and operate a variety of video equipment, edit footage, and stay up to date with technological advances.

The videographer is responsible for the maintenance and operation of the satellite, maintaining and repairing video walls, video editing in various formats, creating graphics for the speciality channels of cruise events information, shooting and editing video tapes, and broadcast programming the broadcast room &such as tuning a T7 Q radio'.

Di!ital on'screen !rap(ic


# di ital on"screen raphic &originally known as di itally"ori inated raphic' &known in the 6: and Gew ]ealand by the acronym &O,F in the 6 and $anada as a bu F and in #ustralia as a water%ar)' is a watermark-like station logo that many television broadcasters overlay over a portion of the screen-area of their programs to identify the channel. They are thus a form of permanent visual station identification, increasing brand recognition and asserting ownership of the video signal. In some cases, the graphic also shows the name of the current program. ome television networks use an on-screen graphic to advertise upcoming programs &usually programs scheduled later the same day, but can also be for *significant* upcoming programs as much as a week in advance' + this is generally displayed after the opening, during inprogram credits, and when returning from a commercial break. The graphic identifies the source of programming even if it is time-shifted+that is, recorded to videotape, %7%, or via a digital personal video recorder such as Ti7o by possibly station identification. -any of these technologies allow viewers to skip or omit traditional between-programming station identificationF thus the use of a %"1 enables the station or network to enforce brand-identification even when standard commercials are skipped. %"1 watermarking also helps minimize off-the-air copyright infringement &for e!ample the distribution of a current series' episodes on %7%'( the watermarked content is easily differentiated from *official* %7% releases, and can help law-enforcement efforts by identifying not only the station an illegally copied broadcast was captured from, but usually the actual date of the broadcast as well. 1raphics are so used to identify if the correct subscription is being used for a type of venue. 4or e!ample to broadcast ky port within a pub a more e!pensive subscription is required. o buying this subscription adds a pint glass graphic to the bottom of the screen for inspectors to see, furthermore the graphic changes at certain times which the inspector is only in knowledge of when this change will occur.

%sa!e
-any news broadcasters also place a clock alongside their %"1. In the 6nited tates, $anada, #ustralia, and Gew ]ealand, %"1s may also include the show's parental guideline rating. In #ustralia, this is known as a /rogram 3eturn 1raphic &/31'. It has also become custom to place te!t advertising other programs on the network above the station's logo.

In many countries, some T7 networks put *live* in the bottom of the %"1 to advise viewers that the program is live other than repeats. %uring televised sports events, a %"1 may also display a few game-related statistics such as the current score. This has led many people in $anada and the 6nited tates to refer to it as a score bu .

Arab )orld
#rabic T7 logos are in the top-right and top left, e!cept -9$ >. -9$ > is in the logos are changed black and white and transparent during commercial breaks.

Australia
#ustralia first introduced the watermark &or digital on-screen graphics' in >===. $hannel C was the first network to broadcast on all of their programs.

$anada
In $anada, networks and channels display logo bugs the same way as the 6: and the 6 , with only minor differences. $anadian networks often request the simultaneous substitution of programs on 6 networks. The imported feed is either a clean feed without a bug from the 6 broadcaster, or a direct 6 feed with the 6 network's bug present. 0hen the 6 network's bug is present, the $anadian broadcaster will either( )cover the logo with their own &opaque' logo - this strategy is used by $T7globemedia's T7 stations &the logo is normally grey', and GT7 in Gewfoundland', or )*co-brand* the show by placing their logo in a different corner of the screen. #s of mid--arch D?>>, $T7 and *#* no longer cover the 4o! logo during +merican Idol, due to 9ell $anada's control of $T7gm. 9oth $T7 and *#* now place their logo at the bottom-left corner.

,ermany
In the >=B?s, public broadcasters started to randomly show logos during programs to prevent video piracy, following the lead of Italian broadcasters 3#I and $anale <. #fter the first private stations emerged in >=BI, permanently showing their logo most times, the public broadcasters soon followed. Today practically all T7 stations show their logo during the programs and often these are an integral part of their design using fluent motion graphic animations to make the transition between programs, previews and advertising, as well as displaying additional information such as telete!t numbers or the name of the following program. -ost logos are transparent during programming though some channels don't. &e.g. kabel eins uses a bright orange coloured logo.' #lso the ma2ority of the channels show their logo in either the top-left or top-right corner of the picture though there are e!ceptions &e.g. 3T@ II in the bottom-right or GDI logo in the bottom-left and date and time in the top-right'.

-reland
The Irish @anguage channel Tna1 first used their %"1 during simulcast of M7$ and their coverage of the "ireachtas &Irish /arliament'. In >==B T7; launch as Ireland's first commercial operator and the first Irish channel to permanently use a %"1 in the @eft hand corner of the screen. In >=== Tna1 re-branded as T1I and began showing their logo during all programmes. In D??D 3Td introduce their %"1 however it would only appear for twenty seconds at the beginning of each show and it was there to classify the suitability of the content of the show, in D??I the %"1 became a permanent part of the on screen presentation for both 3Td "ne and 3Td Two. 3Td's classification guide also appears for twenty seconds at the beginning of each show. 3Td's, T1I's and etanta Ireland's %"1s appear in the upper right hand corner of the screen, while T7;'s %"1s appear in the bottom right hand corner of the screen. 3Td and T7; do not use their %"1s during news or current affairs programming. $hannel A &now ;e' also displayed a %"1 during its two years on the air, ;e continue to display an on screen logo. The new digital services from 3Td also display %"1s.bugs 3Td2r, 3Td Two 5% and 3Td "nee>. %"1s.bugs are also used to tell viewers when shows are live or when they are replays. 3Td use the word *replay* during repeats of live programming while T7; advise viewers *Te!t Q $omment @ines are $losed*, etanta replace the word *Ireland* with the word *live* to advise viewers that they are watching live events rather than repeats and T1I places the Irish word *beo* &live' below the number 'I' in their logo during live programming. 3Td refer to %"1s as bugs. In Gorthern Ireland 6T7 began displaying their %"1 in the late D???s. #ll of the community and local channels in Ireland display a bug. #ll bugs also display BBB for subtitles.

-ndonesia
Indonesian T7 logos appeared since the B?s, when T73I introduced its %"1s. The second television network, 3$TI, shows theirs since >=B=. #ll logos appear in either the upper left or the upper right. -etroT7 was the first to move theirs to the bottom of the screen, in D?>? &the year -etroT7 changed its logo'. 6nilke -alaysia and ingapore, it never leave the logos when commercial breaks, e!cept the logo became transparent. 4or the station identification, it will be leave the logos sometimes are not.

Malaysia
T7; of -alaysia introduced %"1s to -alaysian television in >==<, and >==C for 3T- &although %"1s have been partially used starting in >==>'. -alaysian T7 logos are in full-color, the logos are removed during commercial breaks, trade test transmissions and transitions between programs. #ll -alaysian television stations, show the logos in the top-right of the screen, with the e!ception of BT7, which puts its logo in the top left.

/e) >ealand
Gew ]ealand introduced the digital on-screen graphics in D??D, starting with T7;. Gew ]ealand 4T# networks would place various logos in different places. T7 "ne currently still has the logo on the top right hand corner. T7D usually had the logo from the top right hand corner until Gew Hear's %ay D?>D. /rime #nd -aori Television still use the digital on-screen graphic logo from the top right corner. "ther networks would have the logo on the bottom right hand corner.

#(ilippines
1-# Getwork was first introduced %"1s in >==<, since the -ovie and Television 3eview and $lassification 9oard has implemented a television content rating system way back since Govember on that year. #ll of the stations started to display the %"1s after the commercial breaks, e!cept Get D< and some cable channels, that continue displaying %"1s all the time. The %"1s can be seen on the upper-right corner, aligned with the T7 content rating logo but on several cable channels these are placed on the upper-left corner or bottom-right corner. 4ormerly, #9 -$9G removed the %"1 with the rating for ; minutes before the commercial break, however, the problem was fi!ed in D???, the %"1 and the rating are now removed >? seconds before the commercial break.

#oland
/olish television introduced the logos in >==D because T/ was rebranded to T7/. #t that time, T7/ was the only broadcaster in /oland with two channels( T7/> and T7/D. The %"1s of T7/ are white, while the /ol at one was in full-color until >==I, local T7 broadcasters show the logo in full-color. /olish television removes the logo in commercials, trailers and other non-program broadcasts, e!cept test cards. The T7/ logo is always shown in the top right side of the screen.

Serbia
The erbian national television 3T began showing logos in the early >==?s. Their logo was sometimes turned on manually during certain broadcasts but shortly afterwards remained permanently on-screen. "ne could notice how they were manually controlled, as the *logo-free* time during the begin of a program varied. 6ntil around >==IE>==< their logos were opaque white and black, presumably due to being inserted into the analog $79 signal 2ust before being broadcast instead of an analog H67, 319 or digital %I signal, while in the mid>==?s they upgraded to colorized but still opaque logos. 3T 's predecessor 3T9 &3adio Television of 9elgrade' had %"1s of varying sizes, but rather than being introduced one after another they appear to have been used simultaneously at different broadcast sites. #t least three different sizes and styles of their opaque black-and-white logo are known today. "n the satellite channel *3T - #T*, @atin letters were used, but after the destruction of 3T headquarters in >=== during a G#T" air strike, it could be noticed how the logo appeared to have been quickly re-drawn and was being inserted by different equipment as it varied in shape and size, presumably because of the original equipment used to insert it being destroyed. Today 3T has the same opaque color logo from >=== on 3T #T and new translucent logos were introduced in the D???s for the analog terrestrial programs. "ld logos remain on most archived recordings presumably due to lack of a cleanfeed archiving policy in the past, as can be seen in the *Trezor* historical series( TAU Trivia( %uring a football victory in >==?, the logo 2umped from the left to the right corner and back many times, presumably due to a technician playing with the %"1 inserter out of happiness over the victory. TCU -ost local and regional stations and some national commercial broadcasters &/ink, 9=D, #vala' in erbia along with station logo also show a digital clock below the logo.

Sin!apore
ingaporean televisions began showing the logo during television programs in >==I. The first one was $hannel < then, $hannel >D and lastly $hannel B. The television stations show the logo in full-color, and are usually shown in the top right of the screen. @ike its neighbouring country, -alaysia, ingaporean channels remove logos during commercial breaks.

T(ailand
Thai television started showing the %"1s in >=BB, the first channel was T7;. The logos are removed in the commercials and test cards, and usually during the transition between programs. T7< does not remove logo in the movie trailers. In D???, T7;, T7< and T7C added the station's website 63@ to the logo, and later, in D??C, -$"T and IT7. IT7 removed their website 63@ from the logo on B -arch D??C, when IT7 rebranded to TIT7, and show the website again in D??=, called T7Thai. Thai television logos are in full-color, and usually the logo is in red, green and blue, with the channel name in the middle. T7< used to show the current status above the logo in ; colors, green means everything is normal, yellow means there will be something happening later, red means its in bad situation. The status was added in DA %ecember D??I &tsunami' and was removed in D??A. In D??C, every channel showed the logo of the :ing's B?th birthday in the left of screen. Thai T7 logos are usually shown in top right side of the screen, the top left side is for the clock, the bottom left side is for the program logo and the bottom right side is for hand language, but in rare cases, the logo is moved to the bottom right side. @ogos, tickers, clocks are usually removed when in the royal news at Bpm.

%nited +in!dom
In the 6:, %"1s most commonly appear in the top-left hand corner on 9ritish channels. %"1s were first used on satellite and cable television systems in their early days, when broadcasts were unmarked. $hannel < was the first to use %"1s on an analogue terrestrial channel in >==C. The %"1 was originally very bright and noticeable, and was soon toned down. $hannel < said that the %"1 was used to assist viewers in tuning to the new channel once its test transmissions had ceased. 4ollowing the rebrand to *five* in D??D the %"1 disappeared until "ctober D??B.

The 99$ has a %"1 on each of its digital-only channels. In "ctober >==B, it added %"1s to 99$ "ne and 99$ Two but following a large number of complaints they were removed 2ust two months later.>D; The %"1s appear in the top left-hand corner on other channels e!cept 99$ Gews &which is bottom left and forms part of integrated information graphics' and its international counterpart, 99$ 0orld Gews. 0hilst 99$ "ne 5%, 99$ 4our, 99$ 5% and 99$ /arliament have static %"1s, the ones on 99$ Three, $99$ and $9eebies alongside other channels such as $hannel < and Gick 8r. feature moving elements. IT7 uses %"1s on all its channels. 6T7 provide a %"1 in the top left hand corner of the screen. The logos on channels such as IT7, $hannel <, 99$ Three, IT7D, IT7;, IT7I, ,I, ,a %isney Y%, ky #rts > and D, ky>, kyD, ky ports, 5istory, and -oreI are almost transparent, whereas others like those on $omedy $entral, ,urosport, /layhouse %isney, the 6:T7 channels, $IT7, $99$, $9eebies, the %iscovery channels, Gick 8r., Gicktoons, 9oomerang and Gickelodeon are bright and noticeable. ky -ovies, 4ilmI and $hannel I do not use %"1s. ome stations display their on-screen graphics permanently. The 6:T7 are an e!ample that remove them during commercials and trailers, with some ky channels removing them altogether at certain times into a programme. In addition to a fi!ed &sometimes animated' motif, -T7 includes the programme title in the top-right hand corner. %uring widescreen programmes, the %"1s on IT7, 99$ Three, 99$ 4our, IT7D, IT7;, IT7I, $IT7, $99$, $9eebies, ,I, and I-usic stay in the far corner of the screen while most other channels keep theirs within the I(; *title safe area*.

>D;%"1 0atcha( 5ello 99$ Three &1oodbye $hoice'

"n digital systems such as ky and 4reeview, where stations have a set ,/1 number and a name displayed across the bottom of the screen when changing channel, %"1s have been deemed unnecessary by some users. %espite this, broadcasters persist with the practice. In response to negative feedback, the 99$ has responded, *0e believe it is important to ensure that viewers can quickly identify when they are watching a 99$ service.*>DI It reinforced this position in both D??B and D??= following continual complaints to its .oints of :ie4 programme, citing channel identification as the sole reason for the policy.>D<>DA In its website 4#Ms, 4ive's stated reason for its use of a %"1 is that *the vast ma2ority of channels carry them, most permanently and virtually every channel at some point has one during the day.*>DC 5owever, on D> "ctober D??B, the 99$ announced that it was removing the %"1 from 99$ 5% for all films and most dramas, acknowledging that there was an *irritation factor*. >DB 5owever, the %"1 came back when 99$ "ne 5% launched in D?>?. -ore recent additions are graphics which appear near the end of a programme to tell the viewer what's up ne!t, despite this information being available at a touch of a button on digital T7. -any viewers also find this practice annoying, distracting and unnecessary.>D=>;?>;>

%nited States
4rom its inception, cable network 75> commonly used a bug in the corner of the screen while broadcasting music videos for copyright purposes. -T7 did the same, beginning in >==;. -T7 first began using a bug while videos were shown on the program &eavis and &utt-head, displaying the show's logo during the videos &but not 9eavis and 9utt-head's commentary of them'. %igital on-screen graphics have been a permanent part of the broadcasting of sports events since the mid->==?s, when the G4@ on 4o! introduced a permanent bo! at the top left-hand side of the screen showing the score of the game. 4rom that point forward, the display of digital on-screen graphics with G4@ games has evolved rapidly, with the addition of virtual first-down markers for football games and numerous other miscellaneous graphics. The use of bugs to announce upcoming programs is particularly prevalent among advertising-driven cable T7 networks, such as TGT, %isney $hannel, yfy, #-$, etc. These usually appear when a program resumes after a commercial break, to inform the viewer of the ne!t scheduled program, a new episode of a program later the same day, or a *significant* broadcast in the near future &e.g. the premiere of a featured movie, or the season premiere of a popular series'.
>DI99$ $omplaints( %igital on-screen graphics >D<99$ .oints of :ie4, >> -ay D??B >DA99$ .oints of :ie4, DD Govember D??= >DCfive.tv( #bout 4ive >DB%igital py( 99$ tones down 5% channel logo >D=The 1uardian( $harlie 9rooker's screen burn >;?Telegraph.co.uk( 5ow low will T7 companies stoop to stop us reaching for the remoteJ >;>99$( %octor 0ho fans angered by trailer for "ver the 3ainbow

ietnam
7ietnamese T7 shows their logos since D???.

$onnections )it( sponsor ta!s


#nother graphic on television usually connected with sports &particularly in Gorth #merica, though not in ,urope' is the sponsor tag. It shows the logos of certain sponsors, accompanied by some background relevant to the game, the network logo, announcement and music of some kind.

%se in (am radio


In most countries, hams are required to periodically identify their amateur-T7 transmission. They frequently overlay their callsign on the signal instead of placing a card in the background. -ost hams use for this purpose homebuilt devices or old consumer character generators. "nly rarely one can see real graphics, as the callsign is usually written in the *" % font*.

"ive D0,s by (obbyists


"ne of the easiest and most sought-after devices used to generate %"1s by hobbyists is the >=B?s vintage ony Y7T-<?? video superimposer. This device can luma-key a signal, capture a still frame into memory and then overlay the keyed graphic in one of eight colors onto any $79 signal. #nother method commonly used by hobbyists and even low-budgeted T7 stations in former times was #miga computers with genlock interfaces.

External links
)%"1 0atcha - AD<.uk.com - 0ebsite documenting and questioning the use of %"1s on 9ritish television

"o)er t(ird
In the television industry, a lower third is a graphic placed in the title-safe lower area of the screen, though not necessarily the entire lower third of it, as the name suggests. @ower thirds are most commonly found in television news production, although they also appear in documentaries and even have begun to make appearances in amateur videos thanks to home-video non-linear editing systems &G@,'.

In its simplest form, a lower third can 2ust be te!t overlying the video. 4requently this te!t is white with a drop shadow to make the words easier to read. # lower third can also contain graphical elements such as bo!es, images or shading. ome lower thirds have animated backgrounds and te!t. @ower thirds can be created using basic home-video editing software or professional-level equipment. This equipment makes use of video's alpha channel to determine what parts of the graphic or te!t should be transparent, allowing the video in the background to show through.

Terminolo!y
@ower thirds are also often known as captions, or occasionally chyrons in Gorth #merica.>;D "ther common terms include superbars &or simply supers' &6 ', na%e straps and astons &after #ston 9roadcast ystems' &6:'. 7ideo with lower thirds is known as a *program as broadcast* or as *dirty*F video without lower thirds is known as a *clean feed* or as *te!tless*. 4or international distribution, programs often include *te!tless elements* on the master tape E these are all the shots to which lower thirds &and other digital on-screen graphics' have been applied, placed end-to-end so a clean master can be created if necessary.

Tiers
@ower thirds are usually arranged in tiers, or lines( )One"tier lower thirds + 6sually used to identify a story that is being shown, or to show a presenter's name. )$wo"tier lower thirds + 6sed most often to identify a person on screen. "ften the person's name will appear on the first line, with his or her place of residence or a description below it. Two-tier lower thirds may also be used as *locators* to identify where a story is taking place. )$hree"tier lower thirds + These lower thirds add more information. $ommonly the first tier is used to tell when the video was shot, if it was not shot the day the newscast is airing.

>;D ee this usage in "he Ne4 3or0 "imes blogs, for instance, TBU.

Furt(er elements
In addition to information pertinent to the currently-showing video, the lower thirds has increasingly become saturated with specialized, dedicated graphic elements, such as news tickers, digital on-screen graphics, time and date, stock quotes and.or sports scores, with specialty channels &such as those for news, business, weather and sports' accruing such elements in order to keep the perpetual interests of viewers.

4roadcast desi!ner
# broadcast desi ner is a person involved with creating graphic designs and electronic media incorporated in television productions that are used by character generator &$1' operators. # broadcast designer may have a degree in digital media &or a similar degree', or is self-taught in the software needed to create such content. # large portion of broadcast design is known as *branding* for television channels and programs. The 2ob of the designer is to create a look and feel for a specific idea or sub2ect. "ften, television stations will wish to re-invent their style or *on air look* + this is where the broadcast designer's skills are called upon to design lower third digital on-screen graphics &%"1 or 961' and motion graphics. #nother industry which is reliant on a designer's skill is the television commercial advertising market. -ost often, a client will hire an advertising agency which will then hire a group of designers to produce a commercial for their product. The process usually begins with a concept or an idea which the client has or the agency comes up with. It is then further e!plored in design boards which go up for approval by the client before the process of making it actually begins.

$(aracter !enerator
# character enerator, often abbreviated as C,, is a device or software that produces static or animated te!t &such as news crawls and credits rolls' for keying into a video stream. -odern character generators are computer-based, and can generate graphics as well as te!t. &The integrated circuit, usually in the form of a /3"-, that decodes a keystroke in a keyboard, and outputs a corresponding character, is also referred to as a *character generator.*' In the television business in Gorth #merica, the digital on-screen graphics generated by character generators are also often called *$hyrons*, after the $hyron $orporation, whether or not $hyron made the character generator. imilarly, in the 6nited :ingdom, such graphics are often called *#stons*, after #ston 9roadcast ystems. These are e!amples of somewhat genericized trademarks. ,ven though genericized trademarks are present, it is generally known throughout the world that other character generator companies e!ist.

$haracter generators are primarily used in the broadcast areas of live television sports or television news presentations, given that the modern character generator can rapidly &i.e., *on the fly*' generate high-resolution, animated graphics for use when an unforeseen situation in a broadcast dictates an opportunity for breaking news coverage++for e!ample, when, in a football game, a previously unknown player begins to have what looks to become an outstanding day, the character generator operator can rapidly build a new graphic using the template *shell* of a similarly-designed graphic. The character generator is one of many technologies used to meet the demands of live television, where events on the field or in the newsroom dictate the direction of the coverage. #s character generator development has progressed, the distinction between hardware and software generators has become less distinct as new platforms and operating systems evolve to meet the live television consumer's e!pectations. 9efore character generators were available, the primary method of adding titles to video images was to dedicate one camera to shooting white letters on a black background, which then was combined with the video from a live-action camera to form what appeared to be a single image with white letters seemingly superimposed over it. In fact, to this day &and despite the fact that this technology is long-since antiquated by the modern $1' some directors of live T7 continue to order the Technical %irector &T%' to *add the super* when they want the $1 output *superimposed* over the image of another camera. #s technology advanced, the ability to *key* &compositing' these white letters over live video became available, involving electronically *cutting a hole* &analogous to cutting a keyhole' in the shape of the letters from the title camera and then electronically adding the letters to the holes cut into the live action camera image. #gain, some directors today still call this *keying the graphic*. 4inally, the modern $1 allowed not only more precise and realistic *keying*, but also the addition of multiple picture elements from the $1 to further the illusion of a ;-dimensional graphic physically overlying a video image. Today, the addition of full-motion graphics from the $1 and the animation of graphic elements by the $1 blurs the line between *character generator* and *computer graphics*, combining the $1's ability to elegantly present graphics and video with the computer's ability to interface with game scoring and timing systems, to keep running totals of an athlete's performance on the field or the court and to derive statistics both for individual players and the teams involved, and to interface with computer systems located at other game venues or at a television network's master control central broadcast center. Today, when you watch a sporting event on television, you're likely seeing a score bug which not only contains $1 data from that game, but $1 data from other games in progress, other games already completed, and games yet to come, all in an effort to keep the viewer from having to *channel surf* to another station to watch another television program. #nd the less often you surf away to another station, the more often you see television advertising &also included in $1 output' which then generates revenue for the television network.

#lthough the distinction between hardware and software $1s is becoming less evident as technology advances, and as consumer-grade computing equipment becomes more graphically sophisticated, it remains easiest to view $1's as either hardware- or software-dependent.

*ard)are c(aracter !enerators


5ardware character generators are used in television studios and video editing suites. # desktop publishing-like interface can be used to generate static and moving te!t or graphics, which the device then encodes into some high-quality video signal, like digital erial %igital Interface & %I' or analog component video, high definition or even 319 video. In addition, they also provide a key signal, which the composting vision mi!er can use an alpha channel to determine which areas of the $1 video are translucent.

Soft)are c(aracter !enerators


oftware $1s run on standard off-the-shelf computer hardware and are often integrated into video editing software such as non-linear editing system &G@,'. ome stand-alone character generator products are available, however, for applications that do not even attempt to offer te!t generation on their own, as high-end video editing software often does, or whose internal $1 effects are not fle!ible and powerful enough. ome software $1s can be used in live production with special software and computer video interface cards. In that case, they are equivalent to hardware generators.

,rap(ics coordinator
# raphics coordinator, ,C, or font assist is an individual who works, usually on a television show, as a producer of on-air still and motion graphics. The graphics coordinator decides what content should be displayed on-air - such as on a fullpage &a full-screen graphic' or a lower third &a bar graphic appearing in the lower third of the screen'. The 1$ should not be confused with the "perator, who usually operates a character generator &$1' and is part of a television crew, or a broadcast designer who physically creates the graphics. # $1 &;% computer graphics' coordinator or supervisor plays an important role in film and television productions. 5is or her role is to supervise, manage, and administer the computer-generated imagery &$1I' digital production computer animation workflow for the film or television show. 5e or she is also there at client meetings and conference calls.

The $1 supervisor generally is in charge or has senior input regarding artist management and resource planning, and also plays a senior role in digital productions. 0hile it is a creative role, most supervisors possess a strong technical background and are capable of making informed decisions about the most efficient and effective techniques to employ in order to solve the problem at hand. "ften, a supervisor will work in tandem with a visual effects producer and visual effects supervisor. pecific responsibilities vary somewhat, depending on the nature of the productionF however, most supervisors( )5andle a $1 pro2ect from conception through to completionF )-anage and direct the technical, artistic, and production staffF )/ossess a knowledge of various computer graphic techniques, with emphasis on technical aspects, pipelines, and general film knowledgeF )$onstantly improve workflow and artist training, with an eye on efficiencyF )$ollaborate on the bidding and negotiation processes. There is no union for $1 supervisorsF however, the 7isual ,ffects ociety is a prominent trade organization representing the interests of visual effects professionals.

References
) iggraph )74Y $reative %irector )$inefe! -agazine

Sta!e mana!ement
Sta e %ana e%ent is the practice of organizing and coordinating a theatrical production. It encompasses a variety of activities, including organizing the production and coordinating communications between various personnel &e.g., between director and backstage crew, or actors and production management'. tage management is a sub-discipline of stagecraft. # sta e %ana er is one who has overall responsibility for stage management and the smooth e!ecution of a production. tage management may be performed by an individual in small productions, while larger productions typically employ a stage management team consisting of a head stage manager, or */roduction tage -anager*, and one or more assistant stage managers.

*istory
9etween the 3enaissance and the >Ath century, actors and playwrights took upon themselves the handling of finances, general directorial duties, and stage management.>;; tage management first emerged as a distinct role in the >Cth century during hakespeare's and -olifre's time, though it wasn't until the >Bth century in ,ngland that the term tage -anager was used. This was the first time a person other than actors and playwright was hired to direct or manage the stage. "ver time, with the rise in comple!ity of theatre due to advances such as mechanized scenery, quick costume changes, and controlled lighting, the stage manager's 2ob was split into two positions+ director and stage manager.>;I

Responsibilities
The responsibilities and duties of stage management vary depending on the setting of a production &i.e., rehearsal or performance' and the type of production &e.g., theatre, dance, music'. -ost broadly, it is the stage manager's responsibility to ensure that the director's artistic choices are realized in actual performance. #s the lighting, sound, and set change cues are developed, the stage manager records the timing of each as it relates to the script and other aspects of the performance. The stage manager maintains a prompt book, sometimes called *the book* or *the bible,* which contains all cues, technical notes, blocking and other information pertinent to the show. %uring rehearsals, the stage manager typically serves as an ad2unct to the director by recording the blocking and ensuring that cast members stay on script, have the requisite props, and follow the blocking. tage managers are responsible for helping establish a show's rehearsal schedule and ensuring that rehearsals run on time. The stage manager typically documents each rehearsal in a rehearsal report. "nce the house opens for a performance, the stage manager controls all aspects of the performance by calling the cues for all transitions &this is known as *calling the show*' and acting as communications hub for the cast and crew. @arge productions may utilize a stage management team in which the manager is responsible for calling the show while other team members operate backstage to ensure actors and crew are ready to perform their duties. #fter a show opens, the stage manager is also responsible for calling brush-up, put in and understudy rehearsals to make sure that the show's quality is maintained.>;<
>;;Thomas, 8ames &>=BI'. "he art of the actor-manager? #ilson &arrett and the :ictorian theatre. 6-I 3esearch /ress. pp. D?;. I 9G ?-B;<C->I=D-A. >;I4azio, @arry &D???'. Stage anager? "he .rofessional Axperience. 4ocal /ress. pp. ;AC. I 9G ?-DI?-B?I>?-I. >;</arker, 0. "ren &>==?'. Scene !esign and Stage -ighting. 5olt, 3inehart and 0inston. pp. DA;. I 9G ?-?;-?DBCCC-I.

The stage manager ensures that lighting and sound cues are acted upon at the right time by issuing verbal standby and prompt calls. ,ach cue call begins with the word *standby* to indicate that an action is imminent and, in response, the technician who will perform the action acknowledges readiness to perform the action. #t the appropriate time, the stage manager will prompt immediate e!ecution of the action by saying *go*.

Re!ional differences
%nited States
In the 6nited tates, Stage anager is a generic title that may be applied to anyone who performs stage management functions. "n small shows, one person typically performs all of the tasks of stage management and, in such cases, that person is simply referred to as the stage manager. In larger shows, there is often a need for two or more stage managers. In such cases the head stage manager is titled /roduction tage -anager &commonly abbreviated / -', and working under the / - is one or more #ssistant tage -anagers &commonly abbreviated # -'. hows that employ three stage managers have a / - and two # -s, though the program credits may list them as .roduction Stage anager &first or head stage manager', Stage anager &second stage manager', and +ssistant Stage anager &third stage manager'.>;A /rofessional stage managers in plays and musicals are represented by the #ctors' ,quity #ssociation. In addition to performing their typical stage management duties &e.g., maintaining the prompt book and calling performances', ,quity stage managers are also required to uphold the union's rules and rights for ,quity artists. /rofessional stage managers for opera, ballet, and modern dance are represented by the #merican 1uild of -usical #rtists and perform most of the same duties as their counterparts in plays and musicals

%nited +in!dom
In the 6:, the structure of a stage management team depends on the type and size of the production. It can consist of stage manager &overseeing the running of the show', deputy stage manager &commonly called % -' and assistant stage manager &commonly called # -'. # show may employ one stage manager to carry out the tasks of an entire team, whereas a show in @ondon might employ multiple # -s. /rofessional stage managers are represented by the , which also represents performers.
>;A

Deputy sta!e mana!er


The % - prompts actors and will usually cue technical crew members and sometimes cast, while following the orders of the director and stage manager. The % - calls actors to hold while technical problems are sorted out during rehearsal, and determines where in the script to restart halted scenes.>;C The deputy stage manager &% -' is a separate position in some theaters, while in others the responsibilities of the % - may be assumed by the stage manager or assistant stage manager.>;B

Assistant sta!e mana!er


The assistant stage manager &# -' has varied responsibilities, which are assigned by the stage manager. The # - assists in finding and maintaining props during rehearsals and the run of the show. The # - may take attendance or estimate audience size, may manage the backstage technicians, may act as a liaison between crew, cast and management, and may call some cues. -undane tasks such as mopping the stage and brewing coffee or tea may fall to the # -. If the stage manager is unable to perform his or her duties, the # - must be able to fill in.>;= The assistant may also be in charge of one wing of the stage, while the stage manager is on the other wing.

S(o) $ontrol based venues


-any live shows around the world are produced with the forehand knowledge that they will have a very long run, often measured in years. These are usually known quantities that are very e!pensive productions and have a guaranteed audience because of their location. Typically, they are on cruise ships, in theme parks, @as 7egas or destination resorts such as 9ranson, -issouri. These shows warrant very long range development and planning and use stage managers to run almost all technical elements in the show, without benefit of many of the other traditional crew members, such as sound, lighting and rigging operators. In these cases, show control systems are installed and connected to all other technical systems in the theatre, which are specifically designed to be controlled by show control and to operate safely with minimal supervision. tage managers working these shows usually have the additional responsibility for programming the show control system, and often the other control systems as well.

>;C/allin, p. B> >;B9ond, p. >< >;=9ond, pp. ><E>A

Sta!e Mana!ement?s $(ain of $ommand


Throughout the life of a production, the - will refer to this list for any number of reasons( keeping departments informed, providing a list of program credits to the publicity department assuring no one is forgotten, or creating a guest roster for a social event.

T(e #roduction Executives


)4ounder )9oard of Trustees )1eneral -anager ),!ecutive /roducer )/roducer )#ssociate /roducer )$ompany -anager.Tour -anager

T(e #roduction 0ffice Staff


)/roduction )#ccounting ecretary )$asting %irector

T(e #roduction Staff


)%irector )#ssistant %irector )-usical %irector

T(e #erformin! Artists and Actor?s E9uity


)The tar taff and ,ntourage )/rincipal /erformers ) upporting 3oles

T(e Tec(nical Staff


- %esigners for( ) ets )@ighting )$ostumes )/rops ) ound

)%epartment 5eads )$rew and


>I?

tage 5ands

References
4iblio!rap(y
)/allin, 1ail &D< #pril D??;'. Stage anagement? "he Assential Handboo0 &D ed.'. @ondon( Gick 5ern 9ooks. I 9G >-B<I<=-C;I-<. )9ond, %aniel &D??D'. Stage management? a gentle art &; ed.'. @ondon( # Q $ 9lack. I 9G ?-C>;A-<=B;->.

,affer 2filmmakin!3
# affer in the motion picture industry and on a television crew is an electrician, sometimes head of the electrical department, responsible for the e!ecution &and sometimes the design' of the lighting plan for a production's grips. The term 1affer originally related to the moving of overhead equipment to control lighting levels using a gaff. The term has been used for the chief electrician in films since >=;A.>I> The gaffer's assistant is the best boy.>ID ometimes the gaffer is credited as $hief @ighting Technician &$@T'.

>I?4azio, @arry &D???'. Stage manager ? the professional experience . 9oston( 4ocal /ress. pp. ;I?. I 9G =CB-?-DI?-B?I>?->. >I>"!ford ,nglish %ictionary accessed >< -ay D??= >IDTaub, ,ric &>==I'. 5affers' 5rips' and &est &oys. Gew Hork( t. -artin's /ress. p. ><;. I 9G ?-;>D->>DCA-=.

,!perienced gaffers can coordinate the entire 2ob of lighting, given knowledge of the time of day and conditions to be portrayed, managing resources as broad as electrical generators, lights, cable, and manpower. 1affers are responsible for knowing the appropriate color of gel &plastic sheeting' to put on the lights or windows to achieve a variety of effects, such as transforming midday into a beautiful sunset. They can re-create the flicker of lights in a subway car, the motion of light inside a turning airplane, or the passage of night into day. 6sually, the gaffer works for and reports to the %irector of /hotography &the %/ or %"/' or, in television, the @ighting %irector &@%'. The %/.@% is responsible for the overall lighting design, but he or she may give a little or a lot of latitude to the gaffer on these matters, depending on their working relationship. The gaffer works with the key grip, who is in charge of some of the equipment related to the lighting. The gaffer will usually have an assistant called a best boy and, depending on the size of the 2ob, crew members who are called *electricians*, although not all of them are trained as electricians in the usual sense of the term. $olloquially they are known as 'sparks' or '2uicers'. The gaffer, or chief electrician, works with assistants who are known as grips. -uch of the *hands on* work credited to the gaffer is actually performed by the grips, who manage cables, position lighting fi!tures and install dolly track. 1affer tape is but one of the many types of tape that a gaffer, key grip, or any other member film crew uses in a variety of situations. "ther types of tape include paper tape, adhesive transfer tape &also known as snot tape',>I; electrical tape, 8-@#3, and cloth tape.

External links
-ore about the evolution of the term *gaffer* in film making can be read here.

,rip 21ob3
In the 6. . and $anada, rips are lighting and rigging technicians in the filmmaking and video production industries. They constitute their own department on a film set and are directed by a key grip. 1rips have two main functions. The first is to work closely with the camera department to provide camera support, especially if the camera is mounted to a dolly, crane, or in an unusual position, such as the top of a ladder. ome grips may specialize in operating camera dollies or camera cranes. The second main function of grips is to work closely with the electrical department to create lighting set-ups necessary for a shot under the direction of the %irector of /hotography. Grips' responsibility is to build and maintain all the equipment that supports cameras. This equipment, which includes tripods, dollies, tracks, jibs, cranes, and static rigs, is constructed of delicate yet heavy
>I;%avid ,lkins &D?>D-?<-?C'. *4I- >B?> - 4undamentals of $inematography( %itty 9ag $hecklist, Hears Three Q 4our( ,!pendables*. 6niversity of Gorth $arolina chool of the #rts. .

duty parts requiring a high level of experience to operate and move. very scene in a feature film is shot using one or more cameras, each mounted on highly complex, extremely expensive, heavy duty equipment. Grips assemble this equipment according to meticulous specifications and push, pull, mount or hang it from a variety of settings. The equipment can be as basic as a tripod standing on a studio floor, to ha!ardous operations such as mounting a camera on a "## ft crane, or hanging it from a helicopter swooping above a mountain range. $%edia %atch &nc"''

Good Grips perform a crucial role in ensuring that the artifice of film is maintained, and that camera moves are as seamless as possible. Grips are usually requested by the (o) or the camera operator. *lthough the work is physically demanding and the hours are long, the work can be very rewarding. %any Grips work on both commercials and features. $%edia %atch &nc."'+ In the 6:, #ustralia and most parts of ,urope, grips are not involved in lighting. In the *9ritish ystem*, adopted throughout ,urope and the 9ritish $ommonwealth &e!cluding $anada', a grip is solely responsible for camera mounting and support. The term 'grip' dates back to the early era of the circus. 4rom there it was used in vaudeville and then in today's film sound stages and sets. ome have suggested the name comes from the >=;?s-I?s slang term for a tool bag or *grip* that these technicians use to carry their tools to work. #nother popular theory states that in the days of hand-cranked cameras, it would be necessary for a few burly men to hang on to the tripod legs to stop e!cessive movement of the camera. These men became known as the 'good grips'- as they were constantly being instructed to 'keep a good grip on the tripod'. 6. . grips typically belong to the International #lliance of Theatrical tage ,mployees. $anadian grips may also belong to I#T , or to $anada's other professional trade unions including Toronto's Gabet C??, or 7ancouver's #$4$. 9ritish grips usually belong to 9,$T6 &9roadcasting ,ntertainment $inematograph Q Theatre 6nion'.

>II*1rip - 0hat do 1rips doJ*. -edia -atch Inc. . 3etrieved D?>D-?C-DA. >I<

"i!(tin!
"n all union 2obs, grips do not touch the lights themselves. The placement of lighting instruments and the power distribution to deliver electricity is handled by the electricians who work under a gaffer. 1rips handle all of the non-electrical equipment that modifies the light. This work is done by setting stands that hold flags, nets, diffusing materials or other gobos that control the quality, intensity, or shape of the light. 1rips also set *passive fill* which is a term for the reflected light that is *bounced* back onto a sub2ect on the fill or non key light side. The first choice for most film-makers' fill is a product known in the 6 as beadboard and called *poly*, short for polystyrene, in ,urope. It is actually rigid insulation made for the construction trade, but was adopted to the film trade because of its *truewhite* color and *soft* bounce. 1rips may also be called on to set *negative fill*, which is the reduction of ambient or non-directional light, such as ambient sunlight, to raise contrast on the sub2ect. This is achieved by setting *solids*, made of black fabric, either flags &up to I'!I'' or rags &A'!A' or larger' on the non key light side or wherever the negative fill is desired. 0hen shooting day e!teriors, grips perform similar functions, but with the sun as the primary light source. 1rips use overhead frames up to D?'!D?' or larger for the shaping or filtering of sunlight. The lighting set-ups for these e!terior shots can become quite e!tensive, and the use of boom lifts known as *condors* is common. $ondors are especially useful at night when they are rigged to raise lights or diffusing material up to >D? feet in the air to create moon-effect lighting.

Ri!!in!
1rips also satisfy rigging needs on set. ,!amples of a simple rigs include the menace arm, which allows a light to be boomed over set using one stand, or a goalposts that span over top of set using two stands. -ore advanced rigs can include working with pulleys, steel cable or trusses. 1rips are also called on to rig picture cars on process trailers, placing camera and lights all around the vehicle for driving shots. This often includes the use of hood mounts, side mounts, suction cup mounts and other proprietary clamps to attach film equipment to vehicles, without causing damage to the vehicle.

1rips are also called on for *blackouts* and *tenting-out* windows and doors. 0hen shooting interiors day-for-night on location, grips need to cut all the daylight entering onto set. If windows or other openings are not visible in shot, the light may be simply blacked out with a cloth known as duvetyne or rags, and in rare cases, plastic sheeting. 5owever, when windows or doors are seen from camera, black out tents must be created outside of windows to allow lights to be placed outside, or green screens to be seen through the window, lit only by lights placed by electricians.

Safety
1rips are also responsible for safety on the set as it relates to the force of gravity. Insofar as stands, ladders, scaffolds, and overhead rigs are properly installed, grips are charged with making them safe because the other crew members will invariably have to climb on, walk around, or otherwise negotiate the different grip set-ups. The key grip may even be held responsible for in2uries that happen on set, especially if the in2ury is caused by a lighting instrument falling down onto somebody.

Tools
# grip uses some tools typically used by mechanics and construction workers. #s in those vocations, grips need hand tools at the ready and most carry the following items( a razor knife, an eight-inch ad2ustable crescent wrench, a D<foot tape measure, a ;.>A* he! speed-wrench, a multitool, a small flashlight, a permanent ink marker, and work gloves. #dditionally, a grip will also carry a torpedo level, spring clamps, and a roll of D* black paper tape or gaffer's tape on his or her belt.

Types of !rips
))ey rip or first co%pany rip+the boss or head of the grip department )best boy rip or second co%pany rip+this is the key grip's right hand man or woman. 5e or she will act on behalf of the key grip in areas such as booking crew and equipment rental )7rd rip, co%pany rip or an rip+the ma2ority of grips fit into this category. They work on set under the direction of the key )construction rip+$onstructs and dismantles the set. "n the sound stage, construction grips are responsible for laying out, building, moving, and ad2usting ma2or set pieces &e.g. walls, ceiling flats' when something needs to be moved to get a camera or lights into position. $onstruction grips also build decks and platforms. This 2ob is e!clusively practiced in the Gew Hork area.

)dolly rip+operates the dollies and sometimes camera cranes. 5e or she is a first hire, like the key grip

+ey !rip
In 6 and $anadian filmmaking, the )ey rip supervises all grip crews and reports to the %irector of /hotography.>IA

Responsibilities
9efore filming begins, the key grip attends location scouts and meets with the %irector of /hotography to determine what additional equipment &locationspecific motor vehicles, dollies, cranes, mounts, etc.' will be needed, orders and preps required equipment, and transports equipment to the filming location. >IC "nce on set, the key grip coordinates with the electric and camera departments alongside the %irector of /hotography to control lighting and camera setup.>IB #s a supervisor, the key grip directs the crew of grips, many with specialized skills such as dolly grips, crane operators, or special equipment operators.>I= The key grip is sometimes credited as the *first company grip.*><?

Safety
#dditionally, the key grip is frequently asked to be the safety monitor of the film set. 5owever, changes in the film and television worlds have created lasting change in crew responsibilities. #ny union production crews working under the *5ollywood* umbrella are now required to take "ccupational afety and 5ealth #dministration-style certified courses in safety. The 4irst #% &first assistant director' is responsible for the safe operation of the set. The :ey 1rip no longer has that distinction in the newer 5ollywood policy.

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+ey !rips in ot(er countries


In 1reat 9ritain the *grips* are part of the camera department e!clusively and are not generally responsible for regular grip duties as they are in the 6nited tates.><> In #ustralia and Gew ]ealand the key grip generally owns the grip equipment, often consisting of dollies, track, cranes, camera cars, and insert trailers.

Dolly !rip
In cinematography, the dolly rip is a dedicated technician trained to operate the camera dolly. This technician places, levels, and moves the dolly track, then pushes and pulls the dolly and usually a camera operator and camera assistant as riders. If the dolly has a moveable vertical a!is, such as a hydraulic arm, then the dolly grip also operates the *boom*. If both a!es are used simultaneously, this type of dolly shot is known as a compound move. # dolly grip must work closely with the camera crew to perfect these comple! movements &cinematic techniques' during rehearsals. 4ocusing the lens is critical to capturing a sharp image, so a dolly grip must hit his.her marks in concert with a camera assistant who pulls focus. It is a skill that e!perience can hone to a point, but the best dolly grips are known for their *touch,* and that makes them highly sought-after talents. %espite this e!pertise, these key members of the filmmaking community have on occasion been dubbed with the derogatory term, *dolly 2ockey*. # dolly grip is also employed when the camera is operated in handheld mode &on the operator's shoulders or literally in their hands'. 0hile the camera operator is moving with the camera, the dolly grip is responsible for the operator's safety, helping them to *blindly* negotiate their way through sometimes complicated environments. The dolly grip silently directs the operator &through gentle touches, nudges, pulls and pushes' away from walls and other obstacles that the operator cannot see while concentrating on the image in the camera viewfinder. The same is true when the camera is operated with a teadicam or similar bodymounted stabilization tool. #lthough dolly grips are hired by and under a key grip, they are paid the same as &or more than' a best boy grip, who is the second-in-command. %olly grips may also push a wheeled platform holding the microphone and boom operator. $rane operators in the film industry are specially trained film crew. They are normally grips.

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In film-making, to achieve a desired shot, sometimes the camera needs to be moved. This can be done several ways, one of which is to use a camera crane. There are many types of camera cranes, most being a counterbalanced arm on a pivot, whilst others are hydraulic. $ranes can be used to lift the camera, and often the camera operator and assistant also, quickly into the air. The crane operator sets up and operates the camera crane so that the camera arrives at the right spot. This can be difficult since the camera may be a long distance from the operator.

Filmmakin!
/il%%a)in &often referred to in an academic conte!t as fil% production' is the process of making a film. 4ilmmaking involves a number of discrete stages including an initial story, idea, or commission, through scriptwriting, casting, shooting, editing, and screening the finished product before an audience that may result in a film release and e!hibition. 4ilmmaking takes place in many places around the world in a range of economic, social, and political conte!ts, and using a variety of technologies and cinematic techniques. Typically, it involves a large number of people, and can take from a few months to several years to complete.

#arts
4ilm production involves three ma2or stages(><D )Pre"production+/reparations are made for the shoot, in which cast and film crew are hired, locations are selected, and sets are built. The &evelop%ent stage, in which the ideas for the film are created, rights to books.plays are bought, etc., and the screenplay is written, occurs before /re-production. )Production+The raw elements for the finished film are recorded. )Post"Production+The film is editedF production sound &dialogue' is concurrently &but separately' edited, music tracks &and songs' are composed, performed and recorded, if a film is sought to have a scoreF sound effects are designed and recordedF and any other computer-graphic 'visual' effects are digitally added, all sound elements are mi!ed into *stems* then the stems are mi!ed then married to picture and the film is fully completed &*locked*'.

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Development
In this stage, the pro2ect's producer selects a story, which may come from a book, play, another film, a true story, original idea, etc. #fter identifying a theme or underlying message, the producer works with writers to prepare a synopsis. Ge!t they produce a step outline, which breaks the story down into oneparagraph scenes that concentrate on dramatic structure. Then, they prepare a treatment, a D<-to-;?-page description of the story, its mood, and characters. This usually has little dialogue and stage direction, but often contains drawings that help visualize key points. #nother way is to produce a scriptment once a synopsis is produced. Ge!t, a screenwriter writes a screenplay over a period of several months. The screenwriter may rewrite it several times to improve dramatization, clarity, structure, characters, dialogue, and overall style. 5owever, producers often skip the previous steps and develop submitted screenplays which investors, studios, and other interested parties assess through a process called script coverage. # film distributor may be contacted at an early stage to assess the likely market and potential financial success of the film. 5ollywood distributors adopt a hardheaded business approach and consider factors such as the film genre, the target audience, the historical success of similar films, the actors who might appear in the film, and potential directors. #ll these factors imply a certain appeal of the film to a possible audience. Got all films make a profit from the theatrical release alone, so film companies take %7% sales and worldwide distribution rights into account. The producer and screenwriter prepare a film pitch, or treatment, and present it to potential financiers. If the pitch is successful, the film receives a *green light*, meaning someone offers financial backing( typically a ma2or film studio, film council, or independent investor. The parties involved negotiate a deal and sign contracts. "nce all parties have met and the deal has been set, the film may proceed into the pre-production period. 9y this stage, the film should have a clearly defined marketing strategy and target audience.

#re'production
In pre-production, every step of actually creating the film is carefully designed and planned. The production company is created and a production office established. The film is pre-visualized by the director, and may be storyboarded with the help of illustrators and concept artists. # production budget is drawn up to plan e!penditures for the film. 4or ma2or productions, insurance is procured to protect against accidents. )Storyboard is a visualizing method that create a blueprint of what the shot sequence should be. The visual images are drawn or made by programs such as /hotoshop. There may also be a written caption as needed for each shot.

The producer hires a crew. The nature of the film, and the budget, determine the size and type of crew used during filmmaking. -any 5ollywood blockbusters employ a cast and crew of hundreds, while a low-budget, independent film may be made by a skeleton crew of eight or nine &or fewer'. These are typical crew positions( )The director is primarily responsible for the storytelling, creative decisions and acting of the film. )The unit production manager manages the production budget and production schedule. They also report, on behalf of the production office, to the studio e!ecutives or financiers of the film. )The assistant director &#%' manages the shooting schedule and logistics of the production, among other tasks. There are several types of #%, each with different responsibilities. )The casting director finds actors to fill the parts in the script. This normally requires that actors audition. )The location manager finds and manages film locations. -ost pictures are shot in the controllable environment of a studio sound stage but occasionally, outdoor sequences call for filming on location. )The director of photography &%/' is the cinematographer who supervises the photography of the entire film. )The director of audiography &%#' is the audiographer who supervises the audiography of the entire film. 4or productions in the 0estern world this role is also known as either sound designer or supervising sound editor.><; )The production sound mi!er is the head of the sound department during the production stage of filmmaking. They record and mi! the audio on set - dialogue, presence and sound effects in mono and ambience in stereo.><I><< They work with the boom operator, %irector, %o#, %o/, and 4irst #%. )The sound designer creates the aural conception of the film,><A working with the supervising sound editor. "n some productions the sound designer plays the role of a director of audiography. )The composer creates new music for the film. &usually not until post-production' )The production designer creates the visual conception of the film, working with the art director.><C )The art director manages the art department, which makes production sets )The costume designer creates the clothing for the characters in the film working closely with the actors, as well as other departments.
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)The make up and hair designer works closely with the costume designer in addition to create a certain look for a character. )The storyboard artist creates visual images to help the director and production designer communicate their ideas to the production team. )The choreographer creates and coordinates the movement and dance - typically for musicals. ome films also credit a fight choreographer.

#roduction
In production, the video production.film is created and shot. -ore crew will be recruited at this stage, such as the property master, script supervisor, assistant directors, stills photographer, picture editor, and sound editors. These are 2ust the most common roles in filmmakingF the production office will be free to create any unique blend of roles to suit the various responsibilities possible during the production of a film. # typical day's shooting begins with the crew arriving on the set.location by their call time. #ctors usually have their own separate call times. ince set construction, dressing and lighting can take many hours or even days, they are often set up in advance. The grip, electric and production design crews are typically a step ahead of the camera and sound departments( for efficiency's sake, while a scene is being filmed, they are already preparing the ne!t one. 0hile the crew prepare their equipment, the actors are wardrobed in their costumes and attend the hair and make-up departments. The actors rehearse the script and blocking with the director, and the camera and sound crews rehearse with them and make final tweaks. 4inally, the action is shot in as many takes as the director wishes. -ost #merican productions follow a specific procedure( The assistant director &#%' calls *picture is upa* to inform everyone that a take is about to be recorded, and then *quiet, everyonea* "nce everyone is ready to shoot, the #% calls *roll sound* &if the take involves sound', and the production sound mi!er will start their equipment, record a verbal slate of the take's information, and announce *sound speed* when they are ready. The #% follows with *roll camera*, answered by *speeda* by the camera operator once the camera is recording. The clapper, who is already in front of the camera with the clapperboard, calls *markera* and slaps it shut. If the take involves e!tras or background action, the #% will cue them &*action backgrounda*', and last is the director, telling the actors *actiona*. The #% may echo *action* louder on large sets.

# take is over when the director calls *cuta*, and camera and sound stop recording. The script supervisor will note any continuity issues and the sound and camera teams log technical notes for the take on their respective report sheets. If the director decides additional takes are required, the whole process repeats. "nce satisfied, the crew moves on to the ne!t camera angle or *setup,* until the whole scene is *covered.* 0hen shooting is finished for the scene, the assistant director declares a *wrap* or *moving on,* and the crew will *strike,* or dismantle, the set for that scene. #t the end of the day, the director approves the ne!t day's shooting schedule and a daily progress report is sent to the production office. This includes the report sheets from continuity, sound, and camera teams. $all sheets are distributed to the cast and crew to tell them when and where to turn up the ne!t shooting day. @ater on, the director, producer, other department heads, and, sometimes, the cast, may gather to watch that day or yesterday's footage, called dailies, and review their work. 0ith workdays often lasting >I or >B hours in remote locations, film production tends to create a team spirit. 0hen the entire film is in the can' or in the completion of the production phase, it is customary for the production office to arrange a wrap party, to thank all the cast and crew for their efforts.

#ost'production
5ere the video.film is assembled by the video.film editor. The modern use of video in the filmmaking process has resulted in two workflow variants( one using entirely film, and the other using a mi!ture of film and video. This is the final stage, where the film is released to cinemas or, occasionally, to consumer media &%7%, 7$%, 75 , 9lu-ray' or direct download from a provider. The film is duplicated as required for distribution to cinemas. /ress kits, posters, and other advertising materials are published and the film is advertised and promoted. 4ilm distributors usually release a film with a launch party, press releases, interviews with the press, press preview screenings, and film festival screenings. -ost films have a website. The film plays at selected cinemas and the %7% typically is released a few months later. The distribution rights for the film and %7% are also usually sold for worldwide distribution. The distributor and the production company share profits.

-ndependent filmmakin!
4ilmmaking also takes place outside of the mainstream and is commonly called independent filmmaking. ince the introduction of %7 technology, the means of production have become more democratized. 4ilmmakers can conceivably shoot and edit a film, create and edit the sound and music, and mi! the final cut on a home computer. 5owever, while the means of production may be democratized, financing, traditional distribution, and marketing remain difficult to accomplish outside the traditional system. In the past, most independent filmmakers have relied on film festivals to get their films noticed and sold for distribution. 5owever, the Internet has allowed for relatively ine!pensive distribution of independent films. #s a result several companies have emerged to assist filmmakers in getting independent movies seen and sold via mainstream internet marketplaces, oftentimes ad2acent to popular 5ollywood titles. 0ith internet movie distribution, independent filmmakers who fail to garner a traditional distribution deal now have the ability to reach global audiences.

References
)$ampbell, %rew( Technical 4ilm and T7 for Gontechnical /eople. #llworth $ommunications D??D.

External links
)7ideo1p.Get g The 7ideo 1raphics portal )4ilmmaking.net - independent filmmaking )4ilmmaking at the "pen %irectory /ro2ect

Wikibooks
)-ovie -aking -anual

Wikiversity
)0ikiversity $ourses in 4ilmmaking

,ofer
# ofer, o"fer or opher &pron.( .hiojfkr.' is an employee who specializes in delivery of special items to his superior&s'. The special items may be anything from a cup of coffee to a tailored suit or a car.

Etymolo!y
1ofer is a linguistic simplification of the two words go e for K gofor. 1ofor reflects the likelihood of instructions to go for coffee, dry cleaning, or stamps, or to make other straightforward, familiar or unfamiliar procurements. The term gofer originated in Gorth #merica.

$areer opportunities
0hile often regarded by employers as a menial position, many gofers view the 2ob not only as an achievable position &similar to *working in the mailroom*' for *starting at the bottom* of an industry, but also &especially in the entertainment industries' as a means of gaining the attention of influential figures who may be dramatically helpful to the gofer( ,dward 9urns's submission of his first selffinanced production to 3obert 3edford is described as a successful use of the strategy. tan @ee of -arvel comics fame also started his professional career as a gofer for -artin 1oodman's comic book office in the years before 0orld 0ar II. @ikewise gofer may refer to a 2unior member of an organisation who generally receive the most ve!ing and thankless work. @aw firms with a top-heavy management structure, having not enough 2unior lawyers to take care of menial yet necessary tasks, can be referred to as having *too many loafers and not enough gophers TsicU*.><B

Example from T
"ne early reference to the term gofer as an occupation was made in eason > &>=CA' of the television series "he uppet Sho4 when cooter was given the 2ob because his uncle owned the theater where the -uppets performed. The pun was that a 1opher not only is an animal, like the -uppets supposedly are, but is a fast animal, collecting food and delivering it somewhere else. #t some point in the -uppets series, :ermit the 4rog suggested himself as a gofer, but probably didn't last long in the 2ob.

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T(e ,op(er #rotocol


The 1opher /rotocol of the early days of the 0orld 0ide 0eb partly derives its name from this meaning.><=

Stunt coordinator
# stunt coordinator, usually an e!perienced stunt performer, is hired by a T7, film or theatre director or production company for stunt casting that is to arrange the casting &stunt players and stunt doubles' and performance of stunts for a film, television programme or a live audience. 0here the film requires a stunt, and involves the use of stunt performers, the tunt $oordinator will arrange the casting and performance of the stunt, working closely with the %irector. In many cases, the stunt coordinator budgets, designs and choreographs the stunt sequence to suit the script and the director's vision.

4roadcast en!ineerin!
#roadcast en ineerin

#roadcast en ineerin is the field of electrical engineering, and now to some e!tent computer engineering and information technology, which deals with radio and television broadcasting. #udio engineering and 34 engineering are also essential parts of broadcast engineering, being their own subsets of electrical engineering. 9roadcast engineering involves both the studio end and the transmitter end &the entire airchain', as well as remote broadcasts. ,very station has a broadcast engineer, though one may now serve an entire station group in a city, or be a contract engineer who essentially freelances his or her services to several stations &often in small media markets' as needed.>A?

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Duties
-odern duties of a broadcast engineer include maintaining broadcast automation systems for the studio and automatic transmission systems for the transmitter plant. There are also important duties regarding radio towers, which must be maintained with proper lighting and painting. "ccasionally a station's engineer must deal with complaints of 34 interference, particularly after a station has made changes to its transmission facilities.>A>>AD

Titles
9roadcast engineers may have varying titles depending on their level of e!pertise and field specialty. ome widely used titles include( )9roadcast design engineer )9roadcast systems engineer )9roadcast IT engineer )9roadcast IT systems engineer )9roadcast network engineer )9roadcast maintenance engineer )7ideo broadcast engineer )T7 studio broadcast engineer )"utside broadcast engineer )3emote broadcast engineer

=ualifications
9roadcast engineers may need to possess some or all of the following degrees, depending on the broadcast technical environment. If one of the formal qualifications is not present, a related degree or equivalent professional e!perience is desirable. )%egree in electrical engineering )%egree in electronic engineering )%egree in telecommunications engineering )%egree in computer engineering
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)%egree in management information system )%egree in broadcast technology

+no)led!e
9roadcast engineers are generally required to have knowledge in the following areas, from conventional video broadcast systems to modern Information Technology( )$onventional broadcast >. #udio.7ideo instrumentation measurement D. 9aseband video E standard . high-definition ;. 9roadcast studio acoustics I. Television studios - broadcast video cameras and camera lenses <. /roduction switcher &7ideo mi!er' A. #udio mi!er )9roadcast IT >. 7ideo compression - %7D<, -/,1, %79 or #T $ &or I %9' D. %igital server playout technologies. - 7%$/, @outh, 5arris, control protocols ;. 9roadcast automation I. %isk storage E 3#I% . G# A. $omputer networking C. "perating systems E -icrosoft 0indows . -ac " . @inu! . 3T" B. /ost production E video capture and non-linear editing systems &G@,s'. )34 >. 34 satellite uplinking E 5igh-powered amplifiers &5/#' D. 34 communications satellite downlinking E 9and detection, carrier detection and I3% tuning, etc. ;. 34 transmitter maintenance - I"T 654 transmitters, solid state 754 transmitters, solid state -4 transmitters &#- radio', tube type 754 and -4 transmitters. antennas, transmission line, high power filters, digital modulators, towers, tower lighting systems, backup generators. . #G technologies. <. #rchives E Tape archives or grid storage technologies.

)5ealth and safety >. "ccupational safety and health D. 4ire suppression systems like 4- D??. ;. 9asic structural engineering I. 34 hazard mitigation #bove mentioned requirements vary from station to station.

Di!ital en!ineerin!
The conversion to digital broadcasting means broadcast engineers must now be well-versed in digital television and digital radio, in addition to analogue principles. Gew equipment from the transmitter to the radio antenna to the receiver may be encountered by engineers new to the field. 4urthermore, modern techniques place a greater demand on an engineer's e!pertise, such as sharing broadcast towers or radio antennas among different stations &diple!ing'. %igital audio and digital video have revolutionized broadcast engineering in many respects.>A; 9roadcast studios and control rooms are now already digital in large part, using non-linear editing and digital signal processing for what used to take a great deal of time or money, if it was even possible at all. -i!ing consoles for both audio and video are continuing to become more digital in the D???s, as is the computer storage used to keep digital media libraries. ,ffects processing and T7 graphics can now be realized much more easily and professionally as well. "ther devices used in broadcast engineering are telephone hybrids, broadcast delays, and dead air alarms. ee the glossary of broadcast engineering terms for further e!planations.

En!ineerin! services
9roadcast stations often call upon outside engineering services for certain needs. 4or e!ample, because structural engineering is generally not a direct part of broadcast engineering, tower companies usually design broadcast towers.

>A;Interactive T7 0eb. &roadcast Angineering &asics

"ther companies specialize in both broadcast engineering and broadcast law, which are both essential when making an application to a national broadcasting authority for a construction permit or broadcast license. This is especially critical in Gorth #merica, where stations bear the entire burden of proving that their proposed facilities will not cause interference and are the best use ot the radio spectrum. uch companies now have special software that can map pro2ected radio propagation and terrain shielding, as well as lawyers that will defend the applications before the 6. . 4ederal $ommunications $ommission &4$$', $anadian 3adio-television and Telecommunications $ommission &$3T$', or the equivalent authorities in some other countries.

0r!ani5ations
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<apan
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Mexico
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Turkey
)$hamber of ,lectrical ,ngineers &,-"'>CI &8oint chamber of electrical, electronics and biomedical engineers'

%nited States
In the 6nited tates, many broadcast engineers belong to the ociety of 9roadcast ,ngineers & 9,'.>C< ome may also belong to the ociety of -otion /icture and Television ,ngineers & -/T,',>CA or to organizations of related fields, such as the #udio ,ngineering ociety or Institute of ,lectrical and ,lectronics ,ngineers &I,,,' >CC - I,,, 9roadcast Technology ociety &9T '. 4or public radio, the #ssociation of /ublic 3adio ,ngineers was created in late -ay D??A.>CB

%ru!uay
)#G%,96 E #sociacion Gacional de 9roadcasters 6ruguayos, -ontevideo, 6ruguay "his list is incomplete.

/otable publications
)&roadcast Angineering &T7' )6adio &formerly &A 6adio' )6adio #orld )": "echnology )The"n@ine,ngineer."rg ),ngineering 3adio "his list is incomplete.
>CIT=U >C< ociety of 9roadcast ,ngineers >CA ociety of -otion /icture and Television ,ngineers >CCInstitute of ,lectrical and ,lectronics ,ngineers >CB#ssociation of /ublic 3adio ,ngineers home page

$olor !radin!
Color radin or colour radin is the process of altering and enhancing the color of a motion picture, video image, or still image either electronically, photochemically or digitally. The photo-chemical process is also referred to as color ti%in and is typically performed at a photographic laboratory. -odern color correction, whether for theatrical film, video distribution, or print is generally done digitally in a color suite. $onsidering such achievements in digital imaging, the artist has the ability to *paint* the image, thus the names *colorist* or *color painter* have become most applicable.

Telecine
0ith the advent of television, broadcasters quickly realized the limitations of live television broadcasts and they turned to broadcasting feature films from release prints directly from a telecine. This was in the days before >=<A when #mpe! introduced the first Muadruple! videotape recorder &7T3' 73Y->???. @ive television shows could also be recorded to film and aired at different times in different time zones by filming a video monitor. The heart of this system was the 0inescope, a device for recording a television broadcast to film.>C= The early telecine hardware was the *film chain* for broadcasting from film and utilized a film pro2ector connected to a video camera. #s e!plained by 8ay 5olben in +merican Cinematographer agaBine, *The telecine didn't truly become a viable post-production tool until it was given the ability to perform colour correction on a video signal.*>B? Today, telecine is synonymous with colour timing as tools and technologies have advanced to make colour timing &colour correction' ubiquitous in a video environment.

*o) telecine colourin! )orks


In a $athode-ray tube &$3T' system, an electron beam is pro2ected at a phosphor-coated envelope, producing a beam of light the size of a single pi!el. This beam is then scanned across a film frame from left to right, capturing the *vertical* frame information. 5orizontal scanning of the frame is then accomplished as the film moves past the $3T's beam. "nce this photon beam passes through the film frame, it encounters a series of dichroic mirrors which separate the image into its primary red, green and blue components. 4rom there, each individual beam is then reflected on to a photomultiplier tube &/-T', where the photons are converted into an electronic signal to be recorded to tape.
>C=:allenberger, 3ichard 5., $v2etnicanin, 1eorge %. &>==I'. ,ilm into :ideo? + 5uide to erging the "echnologies. 4ocal /ress. I 9G ?-DI?-B?D><-D >B?5olben, 8ay &-ay >==='. *4rom 4ilm to Tape* +merican Cinematographer agaBine, pp. >?B>DD.

In a charge-coupled device-&$$%' telecine, a OwhiteP light is shone through the e!posed film image into a prism, which separates the image into the three primary colours, red, green and blue. ,ach beam of coloured light is then pro2ected at a different $$%, one for each colour. The $$% converts the light into electrical impulses which the telecine electronics modulate into a video signal which can then be colour-graded for use. ,arly colour correction on $3T 3ank $intel -kIII telecine systems was accomplished by varying the primary gain voltages on each of the three photomultiplier tubes to vary the output of red, green and blue, respectively. 4urther advancements converted much of the colour-processing equipment from analog to digital and then, with the ne!t-generation telecine, the 6rsa, the colouring process was completely digital in I(D(D colour space. The 6rsa 1old brought about full I(I(I colour space.>B> $olour correction control systems started with the 3ank $intel T"/ H &Telecine "perations /rogramming Hstem' in >=CB.>BD In >=BI %a 7inci ystems introduced their first colour corrector, a computer-controlled interface that would manipulate the colour voltages on the 3ank $intel -kIII systems. ince then, technology has improved to give e!traordinary power to the digital colourist. Today there are many companies making colour correction control interfaces including %a 7inci ystems, /andora International /ogle and more. ome of the main functions of electronic &digital' colour grading(>B; )3eproduce accurately what was shot )$ompensate for variations in the material &i.e. film errors, white balance, varying lighting conditions' )"ptimize transfer for use of special effects ),stablish a desired 'look' ),nhance and.or alter the mood of a scene + the visual equivalent to the musical accompaniment of a filmF compare also film tinting. Gote that some of these functions are contrary to others. 4or e!ample, colour grading is often done to ensure that the recorded colours match those of the set design. In music videos however, the goal may instead be to establish a stylized look.

>B> >BD >B;

Traditionally, colour grading was done towards technical goals. 4or e!ample, in the film -arianne, grading was used so that night scenes could be filmed more cheaply in daylight. 4eatures like secondary colour correction were originally used to establish colour continuity. The trend today is increasingly moving towards creative goals - improving the aesthetics of an image, establishing stylized looks, and setting the mood of a scene through colour. 9ecause of this trend, some colourists suggest the phrase *colour enhancement* over *colour correction*.

#rimary and secondary colour correction


/rimary colour correction affects the whole image utilizing control over intensities of red, green, blue, gamma &mid tones', shadows &blacks' and highlights &whites' of the entire frame. econdary correction is based on the same types of processing used for $hroma :eying to isolate a range of colour, saturation and brightness values to bring about alterations in luminance, saturation and hue in only that range, while having a minimal or usually no effect on the remainder of the colour spectrum.>BI 6sing digital grading, ob2ects and colour ranges within the scene can be isolated with precision and ad2usted. $olour tints can be manipulated and visual treatments pushed to e!tremes not physically possible with laboratory processing. 0ith these advancements, the colour correction process became increasingly similar to well-established digital painting techniques, and ushered forth a new era of digital cinematography.

Masks@ Mattes@ #o)er Windo)s


The evolution of digital colour correction tools advanced to the point where the colourist could use geometric shapes &like mattes or masks in photo software such as /hotoshop' to isolate colour ad2ustments to specific areas of an image. These tools can highlight a wall in the background and colour only that wall + leaving the rest of the frame alone + or colour everything but that wall. ubsequent colour correctors &typically software-based' have the ability to use spline-based shapes for even greater control over isolating colour ad2ustments. $olour keying is also used for isolating areas to ad2ust. Inside and outside of area-based isolations, digital filtration can be applied to soften, sharpen or mimic the effects of traditional glass photographic filters in nearly infinite degrees.

>BI

Motion Trackin!
0hen trying to isolate a colour ad2ustment on a moving sub2ect, the colourist traditionally would have needed to manually move the mask to follow the sub2ect. In its most simple form, motion tracking automates this time-consuming process using algorithms to evaluate the motion of a group of pi!els. These techniques are generally derived from match moving techniques used in special effects and compositing work. -otion tracking can be combined with other techniques to add light to a sub2ect's eyes or achieve the final look wanted for a scene. This not only saves time on the set &and money' but, when done in close collaboration with the cinematographer, allows greater fle!ibility in ad2usting the overall feeling of the scene.

DThe evolution of the telecine device into film scanning allowed the digital information gathered from a film negative to be of sufficient resolution to transfer back to film. In the late >==?s, the films .leasantville and @ &rother' #here +rt "hou7 advanced the technology to the point that the creation of a digital intermediate was possible, which greatly e!panded the capabilities of the digital telecine colorist in a traditionally film-oriented world. Today, many feature films go through the %I process, while manipulation through photochemical processing is decreasing in use. In 5ollywood, @ &rother' #here +rt "hou7 was the first film to be wholly digitally graded. The negative was scanned with a pirit %ata$ine at D: resolution, then colors were digitally fine-tuned using a /andora -ega%ef color corrector on a 7irtual %ata$ine. The process took several weeks, and the resulting digital master was output to film again with a :odak laser recorder to create a master internegative.

*ard)are'based versus soft)are'based systems


5ardware-based systems &da 7inci D:, /andora, etc.' have historically offered better performance and a smaller feature set than software-based systems. The real time performance was optimised to particular resolution and bit depths unlike software platforms that use standard computer industry hardware and often trade speed for resolution independence. &i.e. #pple's $olor &previously ilicon $olor 4inal Touch', # I-I@#T, $3#T$5, #dobe peed1rade, 1" -istika, etc.'. 0hile hardware-based systems always offer real-time performance, some software-based systems need to render as the comple!ity of the color grading increases. "n the other hand, software-based systems tend to have more features such as spline-based windows.masks and advanced motion tracking.

The line between hardware and software is blurring as many software-based color correctors &e.g./ablo T>?U, -istika, $3#T$5 T>>U, #utodesk @ustre, Gucoda 4ilm -aster and 4ilmlight 9aselight' use multi processor workstations and a 1/6 &graphics processing unit' as a means of hardware acceleration. #s well, some newer software-based systems use a cluster of multiple parallel 1/6s on the one computer system to improve performance at the very high resolutions required for feature film grading. e.g. 9lackmagic %esigns %a7inci 3esolve . ome color grading software like ynthetic #perture's $olor 4inesse runs solely as a software based and will even run on low-end computer systems.

*ard)are
The control panels are placed in a color suite for the colorist to operate. )4or high-end systems many telecines are controlled by a %a 7inci corrector Dk or Dk /lus, which is also called color grading. ystems color

)"ther high-end systems are controlled by /andora Int.'s /ogle, often with either a -ega%,4, /i!i, or 3evolution color grading system. )#dditionally, color grading systems require an edit controller. The edit controller controls the telecine and a 7T3&s' or other recording.playback devices to ensure frame accurate film frame editing. There are a number of systems which can be used for edit control. ome color grading products such as /andora Int.'s /ogle have a built in edit controller. "therwise, a separate device such as %a 7inci ystems' T@$ edit controller would be used. )"lder systems are( 3enaissance, $lassic analog, %a 7inci ystems's( The 0hiz &>=BD' and BBBF The $orporate $ommunications's ystem A?Y@ &>=BDE>=B=' and $opernicus- unburstF 9osch 4ernseh's 43/-A? &>=B;E>=B='F %ubner &>=CB>=B<J', $intel's T"/ H &>=CB', #migo &>=B;', and #3$# &>==D' systems. #ll of these older systems work only with standard-definition <D< and AD< video signals, and are considered near obsolete today.

Soft)are
The controls are shown on-screen and are sometimes accessed as plugin in a host application. ) oftware like ynthetic #perture's $olor 4inesse runs as a plugin in host applications like #pple's 4inal $ut /ro, #dobe's #fter ,ffects and /remiere. )%a7inci 3esolve from 9lackmagic %esign operates on -ac " Y, 0indows C /ro and @inu! " utilizing a cluster of multiple parallel 1/6s for real time grading of 5%, D: and I: images in D% or tereoscopic ;%. 3esolve is often used as a mastering solution for its versatility and speed in operation while grading, compositing and the optical quality of its image resize transform engine.

)-agic 9ullet $olorista II T>DU from 3ed 1iant oftware offers multi-step color correction with primary, secondary and master stages inside host applications including #pple's 4inal $ut /ro, #dobe's #fter ,ffects and /remiere. )The 1rading weet is a package of specialized $olor 1rading plugins for #pple's 4inal $ut /ro, designed by a cinematographer. ) ony 7egas has many built-in filters, as well as third-party plugins, which can provide professional quality color grading. )#pple 4inal $ut tudio D $ontains #pple $olor T>;U which is a dedicated software application for color grading. )9ones %ailies by %igital 4ilm Technology )"ther programs have their own color grading options &for e!ample ,dius, in which there is a *$olor $orrection* video effect - with it, you can do a *day to night_* effect &turning footage shot during the day to look like it was shot during the night'. )#utodesk @ustre is another high-end color grading solution. It features 1/6 acceleration for most functions. )Gucoda 4ilm -aster from Image as many restoration tools. ystems provides colour grading tools as well

)-istika & 1"' is a powerful color grading suite. )9aselight from 4ilm@ight is often used for tereo;% and I: color grading because of its powerful cluster architecture.

External links
)%a7inci ystems history )*4rom "ne @ight To 4inal 1rade*, and other articles from finalcolor.com about color grading techniques and equipment )7ideo demo of #utodesk @ustre at I9$ D??A, using the e!ample of grading *Tsotsi*, the outh #frican film from D??<. )The T:$olorist Internet 1roup, since >==D with associated mailinglist for colorists. )The #rt and $raft of $olor 1rading, blog by %ado 7alentic chief colorist at -ytherapy.

$omposer
# co%poser &@atin comeponere, literally *one who puts together*' is a person who creates music, either by musical notation or oral tradition, for interpretation and performance, or through direct manipulation of sonic material through electronic media. The level of distinction between composers and other musicians varies, which affects issues such as copyright and the deference given to individual interpretations of a particular piece of music. In the development of ,uropean music, the function of composing music initially did not have much greater importance than that of performing it. The preservation of individual compositions did not receive enormous attention and musicians generally had no qualms about modifying compositions for performance. "ver time, however, the written notation of the composer came to be treated as strict instructions from which performers should not deviate without good practical or artistic reason. /erformers do, however, play the music and interpret it in a way that is all their own. In fact, in the concerto form, the soloist would often compose and perform a cadenza as a way to e!press their individual interpretation of the piece. In as much as the role of the composer in western art music has seen continued solidification, in alternative idioms &i.e. 2azz, e!perimental music' it has in some ways become increasingly comple! or vague. 4or instance, in certain conte!ts the line between composer and performer, sound designer, arranger, producer, and other roles - can be quite blurred. The term *composer* is often used to refer to composers of instrumental music, such as those found in classical, 2azz or other forms of art and traditional music. In popular and folk music, the composer is usually called a songwriter, since the music generally takes the form of a song. ince the mid-D?th century, the term has e!panded to accommodate creators of electroacoustic music, in which composers directly create sonic material in any of the various electronic media. This is distinct from instrumental composition, where the work is represented by a musical score to be interpreted by performers. 4amous composers have tended to cluster in certain cities throughout history. 9ased on over >D,??? prominent composers listed in 1rove -usic "nline and using word count measurement techniques the most important cities for classical music can be quantitatively identified.>B<

>B<:arol 8an 9orowiecki and 8ohn "'5agan &D?>D'. *5istorical /atterns 9ased on #utomatically ,!tracted %ata( the $ase of $lassical $omposers*. Historical Social 6esearch KSection *Cliometrics*L' 2%)2' E>K2L? 2(MPE)4. . 3etrieved D?>D->?->;.

/aris has been the main hub for classical music of all times. It was ranked fifth in the ><th and >Ath centuries but first in the >Cth to D?th centuries inclusive. @ondon was the second most meaningful city( eight in the ><th century, seventh in the >Ath, fifth in the >Cth, second in the >Bth and >=th centuries, and fourth in the D?th century. 3ome topped the rankings in the ><th century, dropped to second in the >Ath and >Cth centuries, eight in the >Bth century, ninth in the >=th century but back at si!th in the D?th century. 9erlin appears in the top ten ranking only in the >Bth century, and was ranked third most important city in both the >=th and D?th centuries. Gew Hork entered the rankings in the >=th century &at fifth place' and stood at second rank in the D?th century. The patterns are very similar for a sample of <DD top composers.>BA

References
)-erriam-0ebster dictionary on 'composer', accessed >C Govember D?>?

External links
)$omposer societies at the "pen %irectory /ro2ect )$omposers at the "pen %irectory /ro2ect )$omposers and arrangers at the "pen %irectory /ro2ect

ideo editin!
The term video editin can refer to( )@inear video editing, using video tape )Gon-linear editing system &G@,', using computers with video editing software )"ffline editing )"nline editing )7ision mi!ing, when working within live television and video production environments

>BA8ohn "'5agan and :arol 8an 9orowiecki &D?>?-?C-?B'. *9irth @ocation, -igration, and $lustering of Important $omposers*. Historical ethods' :olume 4E' Issue 2' 2%)%. . 3etrieved D?>D->?->;.

4ack!round
7ideo editing is the process of editing segments of motion video production footage, special effects and sound recordings in the post-production process. -otion picture film editing is a predecessor to video editing and, in several ways, video editing simulates motion picture film editing, in theory and the use of linear video editing and video editing software on non-linear editing systems &G@,'. 6sing video, a director can communicate non-fictional and fictional events. The goals of editing is to manipulate these events to bring the communication closer to the original goal or target. It is a visual art. ,arly video tape recorders &7T3' were so e!pensive, and the quality degradation caused by copying was so great, that D inch Muadruple! videotape was edited by visualizing the recorded track with ferrofluid and cutting with a razor blade or guillotine cutter and splicing with video tape. The two pieces of tape to be 2oined were painted with a solution of e!tremely fine iron filings suspended in carbon tetrachloride, a to!ic and carcinogenic compound. This *developed* the magnetic tracks, making them visible when viewed through a microscope so that they could be aligned in a splicer designed for this task. Improvements in quality and economy, and the invention of the flying erasehead, allowed new video and audio material to be recorded over the material already recorded on an e!isting magnetic tape and was introduced into the linear editing technique. If a scene closer to the beginning of the video tape needed to be changed in length, all later scenes would need to be recorded onto the video tape again in sequence. In addition, sources could be played back simultaneously through a vision mi!er &video switcher' to create more comple! transitions between scenes. There was a transitional analog period using multiple source videocassette recorder &7$3's with the ,dit%roid using @aser%isc players, but modern G@, systems edit video digitally captured onto a hard drive from an analog video or digital video source. $ontent is ingested and recorded natively with the appropriate codec which will be used by video editing software such as ony 7egas, $yber@ink /ower%irector, #vid Technology's -edia $omposer and Ypress /ro, #pple's 4inal $ut /ro &4$/', #dobe ystems's /remiere, and ,dit hare's @ightworks to manipulate the captured footage. 5igh-definition video is becoming more popular and can be readily edited using the same video editing software along with related motion graphics programs. 7ideo clips are arranged on a timeline, music tracks, titles, digital on-screen graphics are added, special effects can be created, and the finished program is *rendered* into a finished video. The video may then be distributed in a variety of ways including %7%, web streaming, MuickTime -ovies, i/od, $%-3"-, or video tape.

*ome video editin!


@ike many other technologies, the cost of video editing has declined by an order of magnitude or more. The D* Muadraple! system cost so much that many television production facilities could only afford a single unit and editing was a highly involved process requiring special training. In contrast, nearly any home computer sold since the year D??? has the speed and storage capacity to digitize and edit standard-definition television & %T7'. The two ma2or retail operating systems include basic video editing software - #pple's i-ovie and -icrosoft's 0indows -ovie -aker. There are also more advanced commercial products such as #7 7ideo ,ditor, #dobe /remiere ,lements, #7I% ,!press %7, $yber@ink /ower%irector, 4inal $ut /ro Y, ony 7egas, /innacle tudio, 6lead 7ideo tudio, 3o!io, Gero 7ision ,asy -edia $reator, muvee auto/roducer, and 7ideopad. #dditionally, there are free, opensource video-editing programs. These include #videmu!, 7irtual%ub, :denlive, /iTi7i, :ino, "penshot and $inelerra. # new free and collaborative video editing platform called 0e7ideo was introduced to the market in eptember D?>>, which allows multiple users and editors for a unified video reel. #utomatic video editing products have also emerged, opening up video editing to a broader commercial audience of amateurs and reducing the time it takes to edit videos. -uvee Technologies introduced their /$-based automatic video editing platform, auto/roducer, in D??>. "ther early solutions included onyNs -ovie haker, which released its final version in D??D and 3o!io $inematic.>BC In eptember D?>>, -agisto introduced a cloud-based automatic video editing solution that uses proprietary intelligence technology to automatically analyze and understand userNs videos and edit them together with music and effects.>BB

Foley 2filmmakin!3
/oley is the reproduction of everyday sound effects which are added in post production to enhance the quality of audio for films, television, video, video games and radio.>B= These reproduced sounds can be anything from the swishing of clothing and footsteps to squeaky doors and breaking glass. The best foley art is so well integrated into a film that it goes unnoticed by the audience.>=? It helps to create a sense of reality within a scene. 0ithout these crucial background noises, movies feel unnaturally quiet and uncomfortable.

>BC#pril D;, D??D- $inematic T>IU 9y 8an "zer >BB4#M about video editing by -agisto. D?>> >B=* tinson, 8im. *3eal-time ound ,ffects( The 4oley 0ay.* 7ideomaker 8ul >=== 0eb.>? 8ul D??=*. 7ideomaker.com. >===-?C-?>. . 3etrieved D?>?-?<-D?. >=? inger, /hilip 3. *#rt "f 4oley.* -arblehead /ublishing $o. 0eb. > 8uly D?>?. bhttp(..www.marblehead.net.foley.c

4oley artists look to recreate the realistic ambient sounds that the film portrays. The props and sets of a film do not react the same way acoustically as their real life counterparts.>=> 4oley sounds are used to enhance the auditory e!perience of the movie. 4oley can also be used to cover up unwanted sounds captured on the set of a movie during filming, such as overflying airplanes or passing traffic. >=D The term *4oley* is also used to describe a place, such as /oley"sta e or /oley" studio, where the 4oley process takes place.

*istory of Foley
8ack %onovan 4oley &>B=>->=AC' began what is now known as 4oley art in >=DC.>=; 5e had started working with 6niversal tudios in >=>I during the silent movie era. 0hen 0arner studios released its first film to include sound, "he 1aBB Singer, 6niversal knew it needed to get on the bandwagon and called for any employees who had radio e!perience to come forward.>=I 4oley became part of the sound crew that would turn 6niversalNs then upcoming OsilentP musical Sho4 &oat into the musical that it is known as today. 9ecause the microphones used for filming could not pick up more than dialogue, other sounds had to be added in after the film was shot.>=< 4oley and his small crew would pro2ect the film on a screen while recording a single track of audio that would capture their live sound effects in real time.>=A Their timing had to be perfect so that footsteps and closing doors would sync with the actors' motions in the film. 8ack 4oley created sounds for films until his death in >=AC.>=C 5is methods are still employed today. -odern 4oley art has progressed as recording technology has progressed. Today, sounds do not have to be recorded live on a single track of audio. They can be captured separately on individual tracks and carefully synced with their visual counterpart.>=B 4oley studios employ hundreds of props and digital effects to recreate the ambient sounds of their films.

>=> >=D >=;$onsidered, #ll Things. * 8ack 4oley( 4eet to the tars( G/3.* G/3 ( Gational /ublic 3adio ( Gews Q #nalysis, 0orld, 6 , -usic Q #rts ( G/3. -ar.-#pr. D???. 0eb. D 8uly D?>?. >=I >=< >=A >=C >=B9loom, @eslie. *HouTube - @eslie 9loome - 4oley #rtist.* HouTube - 9roadcast Hourself. Gov.%ec. D??=. 0eb. > 8uly D?>?. bhttp(..www.youtube.com.watchJvKw!;D@=t8c,QfeatureKrelatedc.

%ses
The purpose of 4oley is to complement or replace sound recorded on set at the time of the filming &known as field recording'. The soundscape of most films uses a combination of both. # 4oley artist is the person who creates this sound art. 4oley artists use creativity to make viewers believe that the sound effects are actually real. The viewers should not be able to realize that the sound was not actually part of the filming process itself. 4oley sounds are added to the film in post production after the film has been shot.>== The need for replacing or enhancing sounds in a film production arises from the fact that, very often, the original sounds captured during shooting are obstructed by noise or are not convincing enough to underscore the visual effect or action. 4or e!ample, fistfighting scenes in an action movie are usually staged by the stunt actors and therefore do not have the actual sounds of blows landing. $rashes and e!plosions are often added or enhanced at the post-production stage. The desired effect is to add back to the original soundtrack the sounds that were intended to be e!cluded during recording. 9y e!cluding these sounds during field recording, and then adding them back into the soundtrack during post-production, the editors have complete control over how each noise sounds, its quality, and the relative volumeD?? 4oley effects add depth and realism to the audio quality for multimedia sources, and they simplify the synchronizing of sounds that would otherwise be tedious or downright impossible to manage.D?> The 4oley artist reviews the film as it runs to figure out what sounds are needed to achieve the desired sound and results. "nce the material is gathered and prepared to be used, the 4oley artist practices the sounds. 0hen the desired sound is accomplished, it is the 4oley artist's task to watch the film and add in the sound effects at the same time. This is similar to when actors have to add dialogue over the movement of the lips in filming. cenes where the dialogue is replaced using dubbing will also have to feature 4oley sounds. #utomatic dialogue replacement &#%3' is when voice sounds are recorded in post production. This is done by a machine that runs the voice sounds with the film forward and backward to get the sound to run with the film. The ob2ective of the #%3 technique is to add sound effects into the film after filming, so the voice sounds are synchronized. Got only are many of the sounds not added at the time of filming, the microphones may not capture the sound the same way the audience would predict to hear.D?D The need for 4oley rose dramatically when films began to be distributed internationally and dubbed in foreign languages. #s dialogue is replaced, all sound effects recorded at the time of the dialogue are lost as well.

>== ound Ideas. *0hat is 4oleyJ by kevos -avros*. ound Ideas. . 3etrieved D?>?-?<-D?. D?? ound Ideas. *-avros, kevos. * ound Ideas + 0hat is 4oleyJ.* -av#rt /roductions D??? 0eb.>? 8ul D??=*. ound-ideas.com. . 3etrieved D?>?-?<-D?. D?> D?D/ramaggiore, -aria, and Tom 0allis. 4ilm( # $ritical Introduction. D ed. @ondon( @aurence :ing /ublishing @td., D??B. /rint.

*o) Foley is created


4oley is created by the sound artist mimicking the actual sound source in a recording studio.D?; "ften there are many little sound effects that happen within any given scene of a movie. The process of recording them all can be tedious and time consuming. 4oley art can be broken down into three main categories( D?I /eet, Props, and Cloth. To illustrate these categories, we will use the following e!ample( Two actors are walking down a marble staircase in a film, having a discussion while fishing in their pockets for their car keys.

Feet
The O4eetP category entails the sound of footsteps.D?< In the e!ample given the actors are walking down a staircase. 0hat is heard are two 4oley artists stamping their feet on a marble slab in a recording studio, they do this while watching the footage to make sure that their foot strikes happen at the same time as the actorNs steps on the screen. 4oley studios carry many different types of shoes and several different types of floors to create footstep sounds.D?A These floors vary from marble squares to gravel and rock pits.D?C $reating 2ust the right sound of footsteps can greatly enhance feel of a scene.

$lot(
The O$lothP category makes up many of the more subtle sounds heard in films. 4oley artists will have to add the swishing of clothing as the actorNs pant legs rub together as they descend the stairs.D?B This sound is created by rubbing two pieces of the same material together near the microphone at the same rate that the actorNs legs cross.D?= $loth is not always used and tends to be recorded at the discretion of the dubbing mi!er who ultimately controls the final outcome of the audio post-production process.

0t(er effects
4oley can also include other sounds such as doors closing and doorbell rings, however these tend to be done more efficiently using stock sound effects, arranged by *tracklayers*.
D?; D?I D?< D?A D?C*#udio Tips( It's 4oley Time.* @ow-/riced %7, -ini%7, -ini %7 Tapes by ,dgewise -edia. 0eb. D 8uly D?>?. bhttp(..www.edgewise-media.com.autiitfoti.htmlc. D?B D?=

The scene is only complete when a little reverb is added onto the new 4oley audio and any dialog recorded at the set in order to recreate the sound of the hard, empty walls of the staircase.D>? 3everb and echo can enhance the feeling of space in a scene. 9oth of these effects are subtle but descriptive to the human ear. #coustically, these effects are how we 2udge the size of a given space. 4or e!ample, a large hall will have strong reverberation, while a small room may have only slight reverberation.D>> "pen outdoor spaces usually have no echo.reverb at all.

$ommon Foley tricks


)$orn starch in a leather pouch makes the sound of snow crunching D>D )# pair of gloves sounds like bird wings flappingD>; )#n arrow or thin stick makes a whooshD>I )#n old chair makes a controllable creaking soundD>< )# water soaked rusty hinge when placed against different surfaces makes a creaking sound. %ifferent surfaces change the sound considerablyD>A )# heavy staple gun combined with other small metal sounds make good gun noisesD>C )# metal rake makes a fence sound &it can also make a metallic screech when dragged across a piece of metal'D>B )# heavy car door and fender can create most of the car sounds needed but having a whole car in the studio is betterD>= )9urning plastic garbage bags cut into strips makes a cool sound when the bag melts and drips to the groundDD? )qP audio tape balled up sounds like grass or brush when walked onDD> )1elatin and hand soap make squishing noisesDDD )4rozen romaine lettuce makes bone or head in2ury noisesDD; )$oconut shells cut in half and stuffed with padding makes horse hoof noisesDDI
D>? D>> D>D D>; D>I D>< D>A D>C D>B D>= DD? DD> DDD DD; DDI

)$ellophane creates crackling fire effectsDD< )# selection of wooden and metal doors are needed to create all sorts of door noises but also can be used for creaking boat soundsDDA )# heavy phone book makes body-punching soundsDDC

ocabulary
# list of vocabulary words(DDB )$ue sheet( # list of the necessary sound effects, along with their cues. $ues are either time code signals or film footage signals &such as the slate' that indicate when the sound begins and ends. )%ialogue( $onversation or verbalizations in a film. ),cho chamber( # bo! or container used to create illusion of distance and reverberation. )Incidental( $asual, everyday sounds that aren't necessarily special. )-i!ing console( # machine that is capable of taking in different sounds, then mi!ing them at different levels to create a single sound. )3everberation( # reechoed sound which fades until it becomes inaudible. )3ough cut( The first draft of a film. ) core( The background music throughout a film. ) plash tank( # container filled with water for wet sound effect. )0alla( 9ackground crowd noises in a movie, T7 or radio.

References
8otes )"'$onnell, %an. *%an "'$onnell "ne tep 6p 4oley ound ,ffects at ounddogs.com.* %ownload ound ,ffects g ound%ogs.com. 0eb. D 8uly D?>?. bhttp(..www.sounddogs.com.suppliers.D.htmc.

DD< DDA DDC DDB**-ovie ound ,ffectsF 0hat is a 4oley 4ilmsound.org. . 3etrieved D?>?-?<-D?.

tudioJ.* Gewtons #pple 0eb.>? 8ul D??=* .

#ublicist
# publicist is a person whose 2ob is to generate and manage publicity for a public figure, especially a celebrity, a business, or for a work such as a book, film or album. -ost top-level publicists work in private practice, handling multiple clients. In the world of celebrities, unlike agents or managers, publicists typically take a monthly fee for serving a client &whereas agents and managers tend to take a percentage of their client's gross income'. /ublicists can be at local, regional or national level. They can also have special e!pertise in areas such as entertainment or literary publicity. "ne of the publicist's main functions is to generate press coverage on behalf of clients and to serve as the bridge between clients, their public and media outlets. # publicist writes press releases, manages campaigns and performs other public relations functions. It usually takes many years to develop the media contacts, e!perience and relationships necessary to be an effective publicist. ome publicists specialize in representing 'ordinary' members of the public to procure the ma!imum possible fee for stories they wish to sell to newspapers, television stations and magazines. # number have now sprung up on the internet and work as media agents gaining members of the public multiple 'deals' with publications. #n older meaning of the term is closer to pamphleteer( someone who circulates ideas by publishing them, perhaps in ephemeral forms.

#rofessional et(ics
#s a publicist it is e!tremely important to conduct business with the most professionalism and ethical mannerism as possible. ,thics *is concerned with how we should live our lives. It focuses on questions about what is right or wrong, fair or unfair, caring or uncaring, good or bad, responsible or irresponsible, and the like.* DD= /ublicist have the responsibility of making ethical decisions that take into consideration &>' the public interest, &D' the employer's self interests, &;' the standards of the publicists profession, and &I' their personal values. The most common issue for a publicist is ethically communicating while at the same time serving as an advocate for a particular client or organization. 4or some, traditional ethics prevent a person from taking an advocacy role because that person is *biased* and trying to *manipulate* people. 9ecause of the concept of role differentiation, society is understanding of the advocate operating within an assigned role, much like a defense lawyer or prosecuting attorney in court. The giving of gifts or services for favoritism in return is condemned because it undermines the media's credibility and the public trust.
DD=%ennis @. 0illco! and 1len $ameron, */ublic 3elations &Gew Hork( #llyn Q 9acon, /ublishers, D??A' trategies and Tactics*,=th ,dition

Types of publicists
)/ress representative )/ublic relations publicist - -anages the public image of a client or a work of art such as a film. ) pecial publicity consultant )6nit publicist - The unit publicist brings attention to the production phase of making a film or other work of art by organizing media kits, sending out press releases, and arranging media visits to the production. )-edia agent - liaises between the ordinary person &interviewee' and publications or T7 to 'sell' their story.

#ublicists in t(e *olly)ood -ndustry


5ollywood publicists create and manage relationships between film stars and the array of other media channels through which the identities of stars are circulated. tars have a dual relationship with publicity, for they publicize films but also, and importantly in the freelance market, have an interest in self publicity. It is for the latter reason that while many stars continue to regard managers as an optional lu!ury, today the ma2ority of stars in 5ollywood hire publicists to manage their media visibility. In other words, celebrities hire publicists who will be able to get their name out to the public preferably in a positive light. 9etween >==C and D??> the power of public relations firms in shaping 5ollywood stardom increased as a succession of acquisitions changed the ownership of ma2or /3 companies.D;? $ompared to channels of paid advertising, publicity generates e!posure which is relatively *free.* /ublicity is at work whenever stars make personal appearances at press conferences or film premieres, give television interviews, are displayed on magazine covers, or allow the press to cover a private event. Independent publicists include 5ollywood stars and studios as their clients, alongside corporations and individuals from the worlds of entertainment, sports, finance, technology, retailing, and other business sectors. /ublicists are on a monthly fee, averaging in the region of R;,??? per month, instead of a percentage. D;>

D;?-c%onald, /aul, and 8anet 0asko. *The tar ystem( The /roduction of 5ollywood tardom In The /ost- tudio ,ra.* The $ontemporary 5ollywood 4ilm Industry. "!ford( 9lackwell, D??B. >CI-C<. /rint. D;>-c%onald,/aul Q 0asko,8anet, /aul &D??B'. O"he Contemporary Holly4ood ,ilm IndustryO. -alden,-#( 9lackwell /ublishing. pp. >C;->CI.

The role of a publicist in 5ollywood has changed and become more challenging in recent years. 0ith the enormous increase of entertainment news outlets such as /erez 5ilton, T-], and /age i!, it has become much more difficult for publicists to control negative stories. In addition, 2ournalists of prominent publications like the @# Times are rarely consulting with publicists before running a potentially damaging story about one of their clients. /ublicists must also work much harder to keep some of their star clients relevant in the media with the entertainment options in 5ollywood continuously growing. ,ven booking a star for an interview or on a television talk show has become a challenging task, because if something goes awry, the publicist and the star could both be highly criticized by the mediaD;D

References
)0ignall, #lice, The 1uardian, >B #ugust D??B( http(..www.guardian.co.uk.media.D??B.aug.>B.pressandpublishing

External links
)-edia #gent

Audio en!ineerin!
#n audio en ineer, also called audio technician, audio technolo ist, recordin en ineer, sound en ineer, sound operator, or sound technician, is a specialist in a skilled trade that deals with the use of machinery and equipment for the recording, mi!ing and reproduction of sounds. The field draws on many artistic and vocational areas, including electronics, acoustics, psychoacoustics, and music. #n audio technician is proficient with different types of recording media, such as analog tape, digital multitrack recorders and workstations, and computer knowledge. 0ith the advent of the digital age, it is becoming more and more important for the audio technician to be versed in the understanding of software and hardware integration from synchronization to analog to digital transfers.

D;D iegel, Tatiana &D?>?' /3( the first line of defenseJ :ariety. ID?&>'. >-D<

#udio engineering concerns the creative and practical aspects of sounds and music, in contrast with the formal engineering discipline known as acoustical engineering. /roducer, engineer, mi!er /hil ,k has described audio engineering as the *technical aspect of recording+the placing of microphones, the turning of pre-amp knobs, the setting of levels. The physical recording of any pro2ect is done by an engineer... the nuts and bolts.*D;; -any recording engineers also invented new technology, equipment and techniques, to enhance the process and art.D;I

Terminolo!y
Terms such as *audio technician*, *sound technician*, *audio engineer*, *audio technologist*, *sound mi!er* and *sound engineer* can be ambiguousF depending on the conte!t they may be synonymous, or they may refer to slightly different roles in audio production. uch terms can refer to a person working in sound and music production, as well as to technicians who design professional equipment for these tasks. $ertain 2urisdictions specifically prohibit the use of the title engineer to any individual not a registered member of a professional engineering licensing body. Individuals who design acoustical simulations of rooms, shaping algorithms for digital signal processing and computer music problems, perform institutional research on sound, and other advanced fields of audio engineering are most often graduates of an accredited college or university, or have passed a difficult civil qualification test. "ther languages, such as 1erman and Italian, have different words to refer to these activities. 4or instance, in 1erman, the "ontechni0er &audio technician' is the one who operates the audio equipment and the "onmeister &sound master' is a person who creates recordings or broadcasts of music who is both deeply musically trained &in 'classical' and non-classical genres' and who also has a detailed theoretical and practical knowledge of virtually all aspects of sound, whereas the "oningenieur &audio engineer' is the one who designs, builds and repairs it.

#ractitioners
#n audio engineer is someone with e!perience and training in the production and manipulation of sound through mechanical or electronic means. #s a professional title, this person is sometimes designated as a sound engineer or recording engineer instead. # person with one of these titles is commonly listed in the credits of many commercial music recordings &as well as in other productions that include sound, such as movies'.
D;;*Interview with /hil ,k*. 5itMuarters. D< -ay D??=. . 3etrieved ep ;, D?>?. D;I%aley, %an, *The ,ngineers 0ho $hanged 3ecording( 4athers "f Invention*, Sound on Sound magazine, "ctober D??I

#udio engineers are generally familiar with the design, installation, and.or operation of sound recording, sound reinforcement, or sound broadcasting equipment, including large and small format consoles. In the recording studio environment, the audio engineer records, edits, manipulates, mi!es, or masters sound by technical means in order to realize an artist's or record producer's creative vision. 0hile usually associated with music production, an audio engineer deals with sound for a wide range of applications, including postproduction for video and film, live sound reinforcement, advertising, multimedia, and broadcasting. 0hen referring to video games, an audio engineer may also be a computer programmer. In larger productions, an audio engineer is responsible for the technical aspects of a sound recording or other audio production, and works together with a record producer or director, although the engineer's role may also be integrated with that of the producer. In smaller productions and studios the sound engineer and producer is often one and the same person. In typical sound reinforcement applications, audio engineers often assume the role of producer, making artistic and technical decisions, and sometimes even scheduling and budget decisions.D;<

Different professional branc(es


There are four distinct steps to commercial production of a recording( recording, editing, mi!ing, and mastering. Typically, each is performed by a sound engineer who specializes only in that part of production. ) tudio engineer E an engineer working within a studio facility, either with a producer or independently. )3ecording engineer E engineer who records sound. )#ssistant engineer E often employed in larger studios, allowing them to train to become full-time engineers. They often assist full-time engineers with microphone setups, session breakdowns and in some cases, rough mi!es.D;A )-i!ing engineer E a person who creates mi!es of multi-track recordings. It is common for a commercial record to be recorded at one studio and later mi!ed by different engineers in other studios. )-astering engineer E typically the person who mi!es the final stereo tracks &or sometimes 2ust a few tracks or stems' that the mi! engineer produces. The mastering engineer makes any final ad2ustments to the overall sound of the record in the final step before commercial duplication. -astering engineers use principles of equalization and compression to affect the coloration of the sound. )1ame audio designer engineer E deals with sound aspects of game development.

D;<5uber, %.-. &>==<'. D;A

odern 6ecording "echni/ues. &<th ed.'. 9urlington, -#( 4ocal /ress

)@ive sound engineer E a person dealing with live sound reinforcement. This usually includes planning and installation of speakers, cabling and equipment and mi!ing sound during the show. This may or may not include running the foldback sound. # live.sound reinforcement engineer hears musical material and tries to correlate that sonic e!perience with system performance.D;C )4oldback or -onitor engineer E a person running foldback sound during a live event. The term *foldback* is outdated and refers to the practice of folding back audio signals from the 4"5 &4ront of 5ouse' mi!ing console to the stage in order for musicians to hear themselves while performing. -onitor engineers usually have a separate audio system from the 4"5 engineer and manipulate audio signals independently from what the audience hears, in order to satisfy the requirements of each performer on stage. In-ear systems, digital and analog mi!ing consoles, and a variety of speaker enclosures are typically used by monitor engineers. In addition most monitor engineers must be familiar with wireless or 34 &radio-frequency' equipment and must interface personally with the artist&s' during each performance. ) ystems engineer E responsible for the design setup of modern /# systems which are often very comple!. # systems engineer is usually also referred to as a *crew chief* on tour and is responsible for the performance and day-to-day 2ob requirements of the audio crew as a whole along with the 4"5 audio system. This is a sound-only position concerned with implementation, not to be confused with the interdisciplinary field of system engineering which requires a college degree. )#udio post engineer E a person who edits and mi!es audio for film and.or television programs.

Education
#udio engineers come from backgrounds such as fine arts, broadcasting, music or electronics. -any colleges and accredited institutions around the world offer degrees in audio engineering, such as a 9 c in audio production. The 6niversity of -iami's 4rost chool of -usic was the first university in the 6nited tates to offer a four-year 9achelor of -usic degree in -usic ,ngineering Technology. #, Institute was the first college in #ustralia to provide specialized audio courses and now offers accredited audio degrees and diplomas in many worldwide locations. In the last D< years, some contemporary music schools have initiated audio engineering programs, usually awarding a 9achelor of -usic degree emphasizing the use of audio technology as opposed to the mathematics and physics of acoustics and electrical engineering that is part of a traditional engineering program at an engineering college or department within a university. ome audio engineers are autodidacts with no formal training.
D;C%avis, 1., 8ones 3. &>==?'. 3amaha Sound 6einforcement Handboo0. &Dnd ed.' -ilwaukee, 0I( 5al @eonard $orp.

E9uipment
#udio engineers in their daily work operate and make use of( )-i!ing consoles )-icrophones ) ignal processors )#nalog-to-digital converters )Tape machines )%igital audio workstations &%#0' )-usic sequencers )%igital-to-analog converters )@oudspeakers )/reamplifiers )#mplifiers )%ynamic range compression

External resources
)#udio ,ngineering ociety )#udio engineering formulas and calculators )3ecording engineer video interviews )# free collection of online audio tools for audio engineers )0iki3ecording's #udio ,ngineer %irectory )#udio ,ngineering online course under $reative $ommons @icence )#udio 0hite /apers, #rticles and 9ooks )3ane /ro #udio 3eference

Sound editor 2filmmakin!3


# sound editor is a creative professional responsible for selecting and assembling sound recordings in preparation for the final sound mi!ing or mastering of a television program, motion picture, video game, or any production involving recorded or synthetic sound. ound editing developed out of the need to fi! the incomplete, undramatic, or technically inferior sound recordings of early talkies, and over the decades has become a respected filmmaking craft, with sound editors implementing the aesthetic goals of motion picture sound design. The #cademy of -otion /icture #rts and ciences recognizes the artistic contribution of e!ceptional sound editing with the #cademy #ward for 9est ound ,diting.

There are primarily ; divisions of sound that are combined to create a final mi!, these being dialogue, effects, and music. In larger markets such as Gew Hork and @os #ngeles, sound editors often specialize in only one of these areas, thus a show will have separate dialogue, effects, and music editors. In smaller markets, sound editors are e!pected to know how to handle it all, often crossing over into the mi!ing realm as well. ,diting effects is likened to creating the sonic world from scratch, while dialogue editing is likened to taking the e!isting sonic world and fi!ing it. %ialogue editing is more accurately thought of as *production sound editing*, where the editor takes the original sound recorded on the set, and using a variety of techniques, makes the dialogue more understandable, as well as smoother, so the listener doesn't hear the transitions from shot to shot &often the background sounds underneath the words change dramatically from take to take'. #mong the challenges that effects editors face are creatively adding together various elements to create believable sounds for everything you see on screen, as well as memorizing their sound effects library.

E9uipment
The essential piece of equipment used in modern sound editing is the digital audio workstation, or %#0. # %#0 allows sounds, stored as computer files on a host computer, to be placed in timed synchronization with a motion picture, mi!ed, manipulated, and documented. The standard %#0 system in use by the #merican film industry, as of D?>D, is #vid's /ro Tools, with the ma2ority running on -acs. #nother system in use presently is Hamaha owned teinberg's cross platform %#0 Guendo running on -acs using operating system -ac " Y but also on 0indows Y/. "ther systems historically used for sound editing were( )0ave4rame, manufactured by 0ave4rame of ,meryville, $# ) everal %#0s have been manufactured by 4airlight ) onic olutions )#- -Geve #udiofile )#udio7ision manufactured by #vid The 0ave4rame, 4airlights, and #udiofile were of the *integrated* variety of %#0, and required the purchase of e!pensive proprietary hardware and specialized computers &not standard /$s or -acs'. "f the two surviving systems, /ro Tools still requires some proprietary hardware &either a low cost portable device such as the *-bo!* or the more e!pensive multichannel #.%,%.# converters for more professional high end applications', while Guendo &a successor to $ubase' is of the *host based* variety.

Sound Effects "ibrary


ound effects editors typically use an organized catalog of sound recordings from which sound effects can be easily accessed and used in film soundtracks. There are several commercially distributed sound effects libraries available, the two most well-known publishers being ound Ideas and The 5ollywood ,dge. There are also online search engines, such as ounddogs, which allow users to purchase individual sound effects from a large online database. -any sound effects editors make their own customized sound recordings which are accumulated into highly prized personal sound effects libraries. "ften, sound effects used in films will be saved and reused in subsequent films. "ne particular case in point is a recording known as the *0ilhelm cream* which has become known for its repeated use in many famous films such as "he Charge at ,eather 6iver &>=<;', "he Ampire Stri0es &ac0 &>=B?', 6aiders of the -ost +r0 &>=B>', and 6eservoir !ogs &>==D'. ound designer 9en 9urtt is credited with naming and popularizing the *0ilhelm cream*.

*istory
Early Talkies
The first sound process to substantially displace silent films in the moviegoing market was the 7itaphone process. 6nder the 7itaphone process, a microphone recorded the sound performed on set directly to a phonograph master, which made 7itaphone recordings impossible to cut or resynchronize, as later processes would allow. This limited the 7itaphone process to capturing musical acts or one-take action scenes, like 7audeville routines or other re-creations of stage performancesF essentially, scenes that required no editing at all. 5owever, 0arner 9rothers, even as early as "he 1aBB Singer, began e!perimenting with the mi!ing of multiple phonograph recordings and intercutting between the *master* sync take and coverage of other angles. The original mi!ing console used to make the master recording of "he 1aBB Singer, still viewable in the 0arner 9ros. tudio -useum, has no more than four or five knobs, but each is still visibly labeled with the basic *groups* that a modern sound designer would recognize( *music*, *crowd*, and so on. 0arner 9ros. developed increasingly sophisticated technology to sequence greater numbers of phonograph sound effects to picture using the 7itaphone system, but these were rendered obsolete with the widespread adoption of sound-on-film processes in the early >=;?s.

Mec(anical Editin!
In a sound-on-film process, a microphone captures sound and converts it into a signal that can be photographed on film. ince the recording is imposed linearly on the medium, and the medium is easily cut and glued, sounds recorded can be easily re-sequenced and separated onto separate tracks, allowing more control in mi!ing. "ptions e!panded further when optical sound recording processes were replaced with magnetic recording in the >=<?s. -agnetic recording offered a better signal-to-noise ratio, allowing more tracks to be played simultaneously without increasing noise on the full mi!. The greater number of options available to the editors led to more comple! and creative sound tracks, and it was in this period that a set of standard practices became established which continued until the digital era, and many of the notional concepts are still at the core of sound design, computerized or not( ) ounds are assembled together onto trac)s. -any tracks are mi!ed together &or *dubbed together*' to create a final film. )# track will generally contain only one *type* or roup of sound. # track that contains dialogue only contains dialogue, a track that contains music should only contain music. -any tracks may carry all the sound for one group. )Tracks may be mi!ed a group at a time, in a process called predubbin . #ll of the tracks containing dialogue may be mi!ed at one time, and all of the tracks containing foley may be mi!ed at another time. In the process of predubbing, many tracks can be mi!ed into one. )/redubs are mi!ed together to create a final dub. "n the occasion of the final dub, final decisions about the balance between different groups of sounds are made. 5istorically the &ubbin (ixer &6:' or *e"*ecordin (ixer &6 ' was the specialist who mi!ed all the audio tracks supplied by the %ubbing ,ditor &with the addition of 'live sounds' such as 4oley' in a special %ubbing uite. #s well as mi!ing, he would introduce equalization, compression and filtered sound effects, etc. while seated at a large console. "ften two or three mi!ers would sit alongside, each controlling sections of audio, e.g., dialogue, music, effects. In the era of optical sound tracks, it was difficult to mi! more than eight tracks at once without accumulating e!cessive noise. #t the height of magnetic recording, D?? tracks or more could be mi!ed together, aided by %olby noise reduction. In the digital era there is no limit. 4or e!ample, a single predub can e!ceed a hundred tracks, and the final dub can be the sum of a thousand tracks.

Di!ital Sound
The mechanical system of sound editing remained unchanged until the early >==?s, when digital audio workstations acquired features sufficient for use in film production, mainly, the ability to synchronize with picture, and the ability to play back many tracks at once with $%-quality fidelity. The quality of >A-bit audio at a IB k5z sampling rate allowed hundreds of tracks to be mi!ed together with negligible noise. The physical manifestation of the work became computerized( sound recordings, and the decisions the editors made in assembling them, were now digitized, and could be versioned, done, undone, and archived instantly and compactly. In the magnetic recording era, sound editors owned trucks to ship their tracks to a mi!ing stage, and transfers to magnetic film were measured in hundreds of thousands of feet. "nce the materials arrived at the stage, a dozen recordists and mi! technicians required a half an hour to load the three or four dozen tracks a predub might require. In the digital era, D<? hours of stereo sound, edited and ready to mi!, can be transported on a single >A? 19 hard drive. #s well, this D<? hours of material can be copied in four hours or less, as opposed to the old system, which, predictably, would take D<? hours. 9ecause of these innovations, sound editors, as of D??<, face the same issues as other computerized, *knowledge-based* professionals, including the loss of work due to outsourcing to cheaper labor markets, and the loss of royalties due to ineffective enforcement of intellectual property rights.

Animation Sound Editin!


In the field of animation, traditionally the sound editors have been given the more prestigious title of *film editor* in screen credits. #s animated films are more often than not planned to the frame, the traditional functions of a film editor are often unnecessary. Treg 9rown is known to cartoon fans as the sound effects genius of 0arner 9ros. #nimation. "ther greats of the field have included 8immy -ac%onald of the 0alt %isney tudios, 1reg 0atson and %on %ouglas at 5anna-9arbera, and 8oe iracusa of 6/# and various T7 cartoon studios.

0t(er fields
In the production of radio programs and music, persons who manipulate sound recordings are known simply as *editors,* in cases where the producers themselves do not perform the task.

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Film cre)
# fil% crew is a group of people hired by a production company for the purpose of producing a film or motion picture. Cre4 are distinguished from cast, the actors who appear in front of the camera or provide voices for characters in the film. Cre4 are also separate from producers, those who own a portion of either the film company or the film's intellectual property rights. # film crew is divided into different sectors, each of which specializes in a specific aspect of the production. $elevision crew positions are derived from those of film crew.

#roduction
.roduction is generally not considered a department as such, but rather as a series of functional groups. These include the front office staff such as the /roduction -anager, the /roduction $oordinator, and their assistantsF the accounting staffF the various #ssistant %irectorsF and sometimes the @ocations -anager and their assistants. The %irector is considered to be a separate entity, not within the departmental structure and time. )Producer # 4ilm /roducer creates the conditions for making movies. The /roducer initiates, coordinates, supervises, and controls matters such as raising funding, hiring key personnel, and arranging for distributors. The producer is involved throughout all phases of the film making process from development to completion of a pro2ect. )Executive Producer

#n ,!ecutive /roducer &,/' is a producer who is not involved in the technical aspects of the filmmaking process, but has played a crucial financial or creative role in ensuring that the pro2ect goes into production. There may be several ,!ecutive /roducers on a film who may take the lead role in a number of areas, such as development, financing or production. ,!ecutive /roducers must be e!cellent negotiators. They need a keen business sense, and an intimate knowledge of all aspects of film production, financing, marketing and distribution. ,!ecutive /roducers are responsible for the overall quality control of productions. "n some productions the ,!ecutive /roducer role may be combined with other roles, so that as well as raising the finance they may also be responsible for managing the budget during production. ,!ecutive /roducers must be able to identify commercial, marketable pro2ects. ,!ecutive /roducers have overall responsibility for the successful financing and marketing of these pro2ects. %uring production, ,!ecutive /roducers may be involved in some aspects of scripting, casting, and crewing. ,!ecutive /roducers often work on a number of pro2ects simultaneously. They are e!perienced industry practitioners, who have usually worked previously for a number of years in any one of a variety of roles, such as producer, writer, director or script editor. -ost have some hands on e!perience of producing. )'ine Producer The @ine /roducer is the liaison between the /roduction -anager. )Production (ana er The /roduction -anager supervises the physical aspects of the production &not the creative aspects' including personnel, technology, budget, and scheduling. It is the /roduction -anager's responsibility to make sure the filming stays on schedule and within its budget. The /- also helps manage the day-to-day budget by managing operating costs such as salaries, production costs, and everyday equipment rental costs. The /- often works under the supervision of a @ine /roducer and directly supervises the /roduction $oordinator. )9nit (ana er The 6nit -anager fulfills the same role as the production manager but for secondary *unit* shooting. In some functional structures, the 6nit -anager subsumes the role of the Transport $oordinator. tudio or /roducer and the

)Production Coordinator The /roduction $oordinator is the information ne!us of the production, responsible for organizing all the logistics from hiring crew, renting equipment, and booking talent. The /$ is an integral part of film production. )Post"production Supervisor /ost-production upervisors are responsible for the post-production process, during which they maintain clarity of information and good channels of communication between the /roducer, ,ditor, upervising ound ,ditor, the 4acilities $ompanies &such as film labs, $1I studios and Gegative $utters' and the /roduction #ccountant. #lthough this is not a creative role, it is pivotal in ensuring that the film's post-production budget is manageable and achievable, and that all deadlines are met. 9ecause large amounts of money are involved, and most of a film's budget is spent during production, the post-production period can often be difficult and challenging. )Production !ssistant /roduction #ssistants, referred to as /#s, assist in the production office or in various departments with general tasks, such as assisting the 4irst #ssistant %irector with set operations. )Screenwriter The creenwriter, or Scriptwriter, may pitch a finished script to potential /roducers, or may write a script under contract to a /roducer. # 0riter may be involved, to varied degrees, with creative aspects of production. )Script Supervisor #lso known as the continuity person, the cript upervisor keeps track of what parts of the script have been filmed and makes notes of any deviations between what was actually filmed and what appeared in the script. They make notes on every shot, and keep track of props, blocking, and other details to ensure continuity from shot to shot and scene to scene. The cript upervisor's notes are given to the ,ditor to e!pedite the editing process. The cript upervisor works very closely with the %irector on set.

)Stunt Coordinator 0here the film requires a stunt, and involves the use of stunt performers, the tunt $oordinator will arrange the casting and performance of the stunt, working closely with the %irector. )Castin &irector

The $asting %irector chooses the #ctors for the characters of the film. This usually involves inviting potential #ctors to read an e!cerpt from the script for an audition.

Directin!
)&irector The %irector is responsible for overseeing the creative aspects of a film, including controlling the content and flow of the film's plot, directing the performances of #ctors, organizing and selecting the locations in which the film will be shot, and managing technical details such as the positioning of cameras, the use of lighting, and the timing and content of the film's soundtrack. Though directors wield a great deal of power, they are ultimately subordinate to the film's /roducer or /roducers. ome %irectors, especially more established ones, take on many of the roles of a /roducer, and the distinction between the two roles is sometimes blurred. )/irst !ssistant &irector The 4irst #ssistant %irector &>st #%' assists the /roduction -anager and %irector. The ultimate aim of any >st #% is to ensure the film comes in on schedule while maintaining a working environment in which the %irector, principal artists &#ctors' and crew can be focused on their work. They oversee day-to-day management of the cast and crew scheduling, equipment, script, and set. # >st #% may also be responsible for directing background action for ma2or shots or the entirety of relatively minor shots, at the %irector's discretion. )Second !ssistant &irector

The econd #ssistant %irector &Dnd #%' is the chief assistant of the >st #% and helps carry out those tasks delegated to the >st #%. The Dnd #% may also direct background action and e!tras in addition to helping the >st #% with scheduling, booking, etc. The Dnd #% is responsible for creating $all heets that let the crew know the schedule and important details about the shooting day. In $anadian and 9ritish functional structures there are ;rd #%s and even Trainee #%sF in the #merican system there are Dnd Dnd #%s.

"ocations
)'ocation (ana er "versees the @ocations %epartment and its staff, typically reporting directly to the /roduction -anager and.or #ssistant %irector &or even %irector and.or ,!ecutive /roducer'. @ocation -anager is responsible for final clearing &or guaranteeing permission to use' a location for filming and must often assist /roduction.4inance %ept&s' in maintaining budget management regarding actual location.permit fees as well as labor costs to production for himself and the @ocations %epartment at large. )!ssistant 'ocation (ana er 0orks with the @ocation -anager and the various departments in arranging technical scouts for the essential staff &grips, electric, camera, etc.' to see options which the @ocation -anager has selected for filming. The #ssistant @ocation -anager will be onset during the filming process to oversee the operation, whereas the @ocation -anager continues preproduction from elsewhere &generally an office' on the upcoming locations. &Gote( "n most location-based television shows, there will be two #ssistant @ocation -anagers that alternate episodes, allowing one to prep an upcoming episode while the other is on-set with the current one.' )'ocation Scout %oes much of the actual research, footwork and photography to document location possibilities. "ften the @ocation -anager will do some scouting himself, as well as the #ssistant @ocation -anager. )'ocation !ssistant

5ired by the @ocation -anager to be on-set before, during, and after the filming process. 1eneral responsibilities include arriving first at the location to allow the et %ressers into the set for preparationF maintaining the cleanliness of the location areas during filmingF fielding complaints from neighborsF and ultimately, at the end of the filming, making sure it seems as though the film crew was never there. There is generally one to three assistants on a shoot at any given time. )'ocation Production !ssistant This position e!ists generally on larger budget productions. The @ocations /# is the assistant who is almost never on-set, but instead is always prepping a location or 4rapping a location. That is, when a location requires several days of set up and breakdown prior and following the day&s' of filming. # @ocation /roduction #ssistant is what a et /roduction #ssistant is in $anada.

Additional production credits


ince the turn of the D>st century, several additional professionals are now routinely listed in the production credits on most ma2or motion pictures. )'e al Counsel ,ntertainment @awyers negotiate contracts, clear licensing rights for any intellectual property used in the film, obtain ta! credits from local governments, and take care of immigration paperwork when cast and.or crew cross international borders to shoot on location. )!ccountant /roduction #ccountants manage the money and ensure the production comes in on budget and everyone gets paid. The industry is notorious for unusual accounting methods which are collectively labeled 5ollywood accounting. )Insurance #ro)er

%ue to the rising cost of computer-generated special effects, shooting on location, and #-list talent, ma2or motion picture budgets continue to set new records each decade. #s a result, most investors will not commit to financing a film unless an insurer can be found to protect them against the risk that the film ultimately cannot be released as a result of a total catastrophe such as total loss of film negatives &or digital media', death of the %irector or tars during production, natural disasters destroying the sets, and so on. Insurance brokers help arrange for the insurance coverage that in turn makes a production financially feasible. )Syste% ad%inistrator # ystem #dministrator or sysadmin, is a person employed to maintain and operate a computer system or network. This role is increasingly important for digital monitors on set, digital intermediate editing and post production, digital effects, digital sound, and sometimes for full digital production.

Art Department
The #rt %epartment in a ma2or feature film can often number hundreds of people. 6sually it is considered to include several sub-departments( the #rt %epartment proper, with its #rt %irector, et %esigners and %raughtsmenF et %ecoration, under the et %ecoratorF /rops, under the /ropmasterF $onstruction, headed by the $onstruction $oordinatorF cenic, headed by the :ey cenic #rtistF and pecial ,ffects. )Production &esi ner #lso known as the Creative &irector, the /roduction %esigner is responsible for creating the physical, visual appearance of the film - settings, costumes, character makeup, all taken as a unit. The /roduction %esigner works closely with the %irector and the $inematographer to achieve the loo0 of the film.

Art
0ithin the overall #rt %epartment is a sub-department, called the #rt %epartment, which can be confusing. This consists of the people who design the sets and create the graphic art. )!rt &irector

The #rt %irector reports to the /roduction %esigner, and more directly oversees artists and craftspeople, such as the et %esigners, 1raphic #rtists, and Illustrators who give form to the production design as it develops. The #rt %irector works closely with the $onstruction $oordinator to oversee the aesthetic and te!tural details of sets as they are realized. )!ssistant !rt &irector The 4irst, econd and Third #ssistant #rt %irectors carry out the instructions of the #rt %irector. Their work often involves measuring locations, collecting information for the /roduction %esigner. ometimes a et %esigner is also the 4irst #ssistant #rt %irector. In this capacity, they manage the work flow and act as the foreman of the drawing office. )Illustrator The Illustrator draws or paints visual representations of the designs to communicate the ideas imagined by the /roduction %esigner.

Sets
)Set &esi ner The et %esigner is the %raftsman, often an #rchitect, who realizes the structures or interior spaces called for by the /roduction %esigner. )Set &ecorator The et %ecorator is in charge of the decorating of a film set, which includes the furnishings and all the other ob2ects that will be seen in the film. They work closely with the /roduction %esigner and coordinate with the #rt %irector. In recognition of the et %ecorator's importance, the #cademy #ward for #rt %irection is given 2ointly to both the /roduction %esigner and the et %ecorator. )#uyer

The 9uyer works with the et %ecorator. The 9uyer locates, and then purchases or rents the set dressing. )'ead (an The @ead -an is the foreman of the sets crew, often referred to as the s4ing gang. 5e or she also assists the et %ecorator. )Set &resser The et %ressers apply and remove the *dressing*, i.e., furniture, drapery, carpets+everything one would find in a location, even doorknobs and wall sockets. -ost of the swing gang's work occurs before and after the shooting crew arrives but one set dresser remains with the shooting crew and is known as the @n-set !resser. In some countries, such as 1reat 9ritain and the 3epublic of Ireland, the et %ressing %epartment is referred to as &ressin Props %epartment. ),reens%an The 1reensman is a specialised et %resser dealing with the artistic arrangement or landscape design of plant material, sometimes real and sometimes artificial, and usually a combination of both. %epending on the scope of the greens work in a film, the 1reensman may report to the #rt %irector or may report directly to the /roduction %esigner. If a significant amount of greens work is required in a film, then the 1reens greens may be an identifiable sub-department, with its own team - often of a size numbering double figures - and hierarchy &e.g. 1reensmaster, 1reens upervisor, 4oreperson, @eading 5and, @aborers'. pecialists from other areas of the #rt %ept. &e.g. 4abricators, culptors, /ainters. cenics' may also be drafted to work e!clusively on 1reens.

$onstruction
)Construction Coordinator

The $onstruction $oordinator oversees the construction of all the sets. The $oordinator orders materials, schedules the work, and supervises the often sizeable construction crew of $arpenters, /ainters and @abourers. In some 2urisdictions the $onstruction $oordinator is called the Construction (ana er. )6ead Carpenter The 5ead $arpenter is the foreman of a gang of $arpenters and @aborers. )0ey Scenic The :ey cenic #rtist is responsible for the surface treatments of the sets. This includes special paint treatments such as aging and gilding, as well as simulating the appearance of wood, stone, brick, metal, stained glass--anything called for by the /roduction %esigner. The :ey cenic #rtist supervises the crew of /ainters, and is often a master craftsperson. In the 6:, the above responsibilities would normally be those of the 6ead Painter, and the cenic #rtist is responsible for producing artist painted backings.D;B

#rops
)Props (aster The /roperty -aster is in charge of finding and managing all the props that appear in the film. The /rops -aster usually has several assistants. )Prop%a)er The /ropmaker, as the name implies, builds the props that are used for the film. /rops 9uilders are often Technicians skilled in construction, plastics casting, machining, and electronics. )+eapons %aster

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The 0eapons -aster, or !r%orer is a specialized /rop Technician who deals with firearms. In most 2urisdictions this requires special training and licenses.

$ostume Department
)Costu%e desi ner The $ostume %esigner is responsible for all the clothing and costumes worn by all the actors that appear on screen. They are also responsible for designing, planning, and organizing the construction of the garments down to the fabric, colors, and sizes. The $ostume %esigner works closely with the %irector to understand and interpret *character*, and counsels with the /roduction %esigner to achieve an overall tone of the film. In large productions, the $ostume %esigner will usually have one or more #ssistant $ostume %esigners. )Costu%e Supervisor The $ostume upervisor works closely with the %esigner. In addition to helping with the design of the costumes, they manage the wardrobe workspace. They supervise construction or sourcing of garments, hiring and firing of support staff, budget, paperwork, and department logistics. #lso called the +ardrobe Supervisor, although this term is used less and less. )0ey Costu%er The :ey $ostumer is employed on larger productions to manage the set costumers, and to handle the tar's wardrobe needs. )Costu%e Standby The $ostume tandby is present on set at all times. It is his.her responsibility to monitor the quality and continuity of the #ctors and #ctresses costumes before and during takes. & 'he will also assist the #ctors and #ctresses with dressing. )!rt /inisher

#n #rt 4inisher, or #rea)down !rtist, may be employed during the preproduction setup to brea0 do4n garments. This specialized 2ob includes making new clothing appear dirty, faded and worn. )Costu%e #uyer "n large productions a 9uyer may be employed to source and purchase fabrics and garments. # 9uyer might also be referred to as a Shopper. This distinction is often made when the @ead #ctor in a production has control over their wardrobe, and they may personally hire this person. )Cutter # $ostume Technician who fits or tailors costumes, usually on-set. They might also be called /itter, Sea%stress or $ailor. ome celebrity #ctors have favorite $utters, and larger productions may hire several and have them on set at the same time, particularly in period film pro2ects that might have complicated or e!pensive e!tras wardrobe.

*air and make'up


ome #ctors or #ctresses have personal -akeup #rtists or 5air )(a)e"up !rtist -ake-up #rtists work with makeup, hair and special effects to create the characters look for anyone appearing on screen. Their role is to manipulate an #ctor's on-screen appearance whether it makes them look more youthful, larger, older, or in some cases monstrous. There are also 9ody -akeup #rtists who concentrate their abilities on the body rather than the head. )6airdresser The 5airdresser, or 6air Stylist, is responsible for maintaining and styling the hair of anyone appearing on screen. They work in con2unction with the -akeup #rtist. tylists.

Special Effects
This department oversees the mechanical effects+also called practical or physical effects+that create optical illusions during live-action shooting. It is not to be confused with the 7isual effects %epartment, which adds photographic effects during filming to be altered later during video editing in the postproduction process. )Special Effects Supervisor The pecial ,ffects upervisor instructs the pecial effects crew on how to design moving set elements and props that will safely break, e!plode, burn, collapse and implode without destroying the film set. .he is also responsible for reproducing weather conditions and other on-camera magic. )Special Effects !ssistant The 4Y #ssistants carry out the instructions of the pecial ,ffects upervisor, building set pieces like breakaway furniture and cities in miniature, lighting pyrotechnics, and setting up rigging equipment for stunts. They also assist in prosthetic makeup.

$amera
)Cine%ato rapher The term Cinematographer has been a point of contention for some time now. It is usually synonymous with !irector of .hotography, though some professionals insist this only applies when the %irector of /hotography and $amera "perator are the same person. )&irector of Photo raphy The %irector of /hotography, %o/ or %/, is the chief of the camera and lighting crew of the film. The %o/ makes decisions on lighting and framing of scenes in con2unction with the film's director. Typically, the %irector tells the %o/ how he or she wants a shot to look, and the %o/ chooses the correct aperture, filter, and lighting to achieve the desired effect as per the %irector's requirements.

)Ca%era Operator The $amera "perator uses the camera at the direction of the $inematographer, %irector of /hotography, or the film %irector to capture the scenes on film or video. 1enerally, a $inematographer or %irector of /hotography does not operate the camera, but sometimes these 2obs may be combined. )/irst !ssistant Ca%era The 4irst #ssistant $amera, >st #$ or /ocus Puller, is responsible for keeping the camera in focus as it is shooting, as well as building the camera at the beginning of the day and taking it apart at the end. They also thread the film when a new magazine is loaded. )Second !ssistant Ca%era The econd #ssistant $amera, Dnd #$ or Clapper loader, operates the clapperboard at the beginning of each take and loads the raw film stock or blank videocassette into the camera magazines between takes, if there is no additional specifically designated 4ilm @oader. The Dnd #$ is also in charge of overseeing the meticulously kept notebooks that record when the film stock is received, used, and sent to the lab for processing. #dditionally, the Dnd #$ oversees organization of camera equipment and transport of the equipment from one shooting location to another. )/il% 'oader The @oader transfers motion picture film from the manufacturer's light-tight canisters to the camera magazines for attachment to the camera by the Dnd #$. #fter e!posure during filming, the @oader then removes the film from the magazines and places it back into the light-tight cans for transport to the laboratory. It is the responsibility of the @oader to manage the inventory of film and communicate with the >st #$ on the film usage and remaining stock throughout the day. "n small production crews, this 2ob is often combined with the Dnd #$. 0ith the prevalence of digital photography, this role is taken on by the %igital Imaging Technician. )Ca%era Production !ssistant

The $amera /#, Ca%era Intern or Ca%era $rainee, assists the crew while learning the trade of the $amera #ssistant, "perator or $inematographer. )&i ital I%a in $echnician

"n digital photography productions the %igital Imaging Technician, or %IT, is responsible for the coordination of the internal workings of the digital camera. 6nder the direction of the $inematographer or %irector of /hotography, the %IT will make ad2ustments to the multitude of variables available in most professional digital cameras to creatively or technically manipulate the resulting image. It may also be the responsibility of the %IT to archive and manage the digital data, create compressed dailies from raw footage and prepare all digital images for post-production. )Steadica% Operator # teadicam "perator is someone who is skilled at operating a teadicam &trademark for a camera stabilization rig'. This person is usually one of the $amera "perators on the production. )(otion Control $echnician:Operator This Technician operates a motion control rig, which essentially is a 'camera robot' able to consistently repeat camera moves for special effects uses. -otion control rigs are typically rented with an e!perienced operator.

#roduction Sound
)Production Sound (ixer The /roduction ound -i!er is head of the sound department on set, responsible for recording all sound during filming. This involves the choice and deployment of microphones, operation of a sound recording device, and sometimes the mi!ing of audio signals in real time. )#oo% Operator

The 9oom "perator is an assistant to the /roduction ound -i!er, responsible for microphone placement and movement during filming. The 9oom "perator uses a boom pole, a long pole made of light aluminum or carbon fiber that allows precise positioning of the microphone above or below the #ctors, 2ust out of the camera's frame. The 9oom "perator may also place radio microphones and hidden set microphones. In 4rance, the 9oom "perator is called the /erchman. )9tility Sound $echnician The utility ound Technician has a dynamic role in the ound %epartment, most typically pulling cables, but often acting as an additional 9oom "perator or -i!er when required by comple! filming circumstances. Got all films employ a 6tility ound Technician, but the increasing comple!ities of location sound recording in modern film have made the 2ob more prevalent. This role is sometimes credited as Cable Puller or Python +ran ler.

,rip
1rips are trained @ighting and 3igging Technicians. Their main responsibility is to work closely with the ,lectrical %epartment to put in the non-electrical components of lighting set-ups required for a shot, such as flags, overheads, and bounces. "n the sound stage, they move and ad2ust ma2or set pieces when something needs to be moved to get a camera into position. They may belong to the International #lliance of Theatrical tage ,mployees. )0ey rip

The :ey 1rip is the chief 1rip on a set, and is the head of the et "perations %epartment. The :ey 1rip works with the %irector of /hotography to help set up the set and to achieve correct lighting and blocking. )#est boy -,rip. The 9est 9oy is chief assistant to the :ey 1rip. They are also responsible for organizing the grip truck throughout the day. )&olly rip

The 1rip in charge of operating the camera dollies and camera cranes is called the %olly 1rip. They place, level, and move the dolly track, then push and pull the dolly, and usually a $amera "perator and $amera #ssistant as riders. ),rips 1rips report to the :ey 1rip and are responsible for lifting heavy things and setting rigging points for lights.

Electrical
),affer The gaffer is the head of the ,lectrical %epartment, responsible for the design and e!ecution of the electrical distribution and lighting plan for a production. ometimes the 1affer is credited as Chief 'i htin $echnician. )#est boy -Electrical. The 9est 9oy is the chief assistant to the 1affer. 5e or she is not usually on set, but dealing with the electric truck, rentals, manpower, and other logistics. )'i htin $echnician

@ighting Technicians are involved with setting up and controlling lighting equipment.

#ost'production
Editorial
)/il% Editor

The 4ilm ,ditor is the person who assembles the various shots into a coherent film, with the help of the %irector. There are usually several #ssistant ,ditors. )8e ative Cutter The Gegative $utter cuts and splices the negatives as directed by the 4ilm ,ditor, and then provides the assembled negative reels to the lab in order for prints &positives for pro2ection' to be made. )Colorist 0ith a photochemical process, the color timer ad2usts the color of the film via printer lights for greater consistency in the film's colors. 0ith a digital intermediate process, the $olorist can use digital tools in manipulating the image and has greater creative freedom in changing the aesthetic of a film. )$elecine Colorist # Telecine $olorist is responsible for a grade - that is a look that has been created with a grading system, which ad2usts brightness, contrast and color.

isual Effects
7isual effects commonly refers to post-production alterations of the film's images. The on set 74Y crew works to prepare shots and plates for future 7isual ,ffects. This may include adding tracking markers, taking and asking for reference plates and helping the %irector understand the limitations and ease of certain shots that will effect the future post production. # 74Y crew can also work alongside the pecial effects %epartment for any on-set optical effects that need physical representation during filming &on camera.' )1isual Effects Producer The 7isual ,ffects /roducer works with the 7isual ,ffects upervisor to break down the script into storyboards, and advises the %irector as to how s.he should approach the scenes. Together they determine which sequences are to be shot as live action elements, which would work well in miniature, and which &if any' should be computer generated.

)1isual Effects Creative &irector 74Y $reative %irectors are very much like /roduction %esigners, e!cept they direct and supervise the creative side of the film's visual effects. The position is particularly in demand for films with massive amounts of computer generated imagery and scenes. )1isual Effects Supervisor The 7isual ,ffects upervisor is in charge of the 74Y crew, working with production and the film's %irector to achieve the desired in-camera optical effects of the film. )1isual Effects Editor The 7isual ,ffects ,ditor incorporates visual effects into the current cuts of live action sequences, producing multiple versions of each shot. #ltered scenes are then evaluated by the 7isual ,ffects upervisor and $reative %irector for aesthetic and technical direction, and by the /roducers for review and final editing. )Co%positor # $ompositor is a 7isual ,ffects #rtist responsible for compositing images from different sources such as video, film, computer generated ;-% imagery, D% animations, matte paintings, photographs, and te!t. )*otoscope !rtists: Paint !rtists 3otoscope Q /ainters #rtists may rotoscope the footage, manually creating mattes for use in compositing. They may also paint visual information into or out of a scene, such removing wires and rigs, logos, dust busting, scratch removal, etc.D;= )(atte Painter
D;=-att ilverman &D??I-?A-><'. *#rt of 3oto &compositing and paint'*. f!guide. . 3etrieved D?>?-?=->=.

-atte /ainters draw.paint entire sets or e!tend portions of an e!isting set.

Sound7Music
)Sound &esi ner The ound %esigner, or Supervisin Sound Editor, is in charge of the postproduction sound of a movie. ometimes this may involve great creative license, and other times it may simply mean working with the %irector and ,ditor to balance the sound to their liking. )&ialo ue Editor The %ialogue ,ditor is responsible for assembling and editing all the dialog in the soundtrack. )Sound Editor The ound ,ditor is responsible for assembling and editing all the sound effects in the soundtrack. )*e"recordin (ixer

The 3e-recording -i!er balances all of the sounds prepared by the dialogue, music and effects editors, and finalizes the films audio track. )(usic Supervisor The -usic upervisor, or (usic &irector, works with the $omposer, -i!ers and ,ditors to create and integrate the film's music. In 5ollywood a -usic upervisor's primary responsibility is to act as liaison between the film production and the recording industry, negotiating the use rights for all source music used in a film. )Co%poser

The $omposer is responsible for writing the musical score for a film. )/oley !rtist The 4oley #rtist is the person who creates many of the ambient or routine sound effects for a film.

References
Furt(er readin!
):atz, ,phraim &D??<'. "he ,ilm Ancyclopedia KCedL. $ollins. I 9G ?-?A-?CID>I;. ):no!, %ave &D??<'. Stri0e the &aby and =ill the &londe? +n Insider*s 5uide to ,ilm Slang. Three 3ivers /ress. I 9G >-I???-=C<=-D. )@evy, 4rederick &D???'. Holly4ood )%)? "he ,ilm Industry. 3enaissance 9ooks. I 9G >-<B?A;->D;->.

External links
)The :nowledge 6: 4ilm $rew Q $ompany %irectory # directory of 6: film and T7 crew )4ilm $rew /ro # global 2obs and networking resource for 4ilm and Television /rofessionals )-edia -atch 8obs The premier online networking community and 2obs board for the T7 and 4ilm /roduction Industry

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