Modeling of Wave Propagation Induced by Underground

Explosion
G.W. Ma,
a
* H. Hao
a
& Y.X. Zhou
b
a
School of Civil and Structural Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798,
Singapore
b
Lands and Estates Organization, Ministry of Defense, 1 Depot Road, Singapore 109679, Singapore
(Received 12 November 1997; revised version received 30 May 1998; accepted 15 June 1998)
ABSTRACT
A piecewise linear DruckerPrager strength criterion and an isotropic
continuum damage model with the damage scalar depending on an equiva-
lent tensile strain are suggested to model rock mass behavior under blast
loading. A rate-dependent constitutive relation is employed to model the
energy dissipation caused by two sources, namely irreversible degradation
of damage and permanent deformation caused by plasticity. The suggested
model is incorporated with a commercially available software AUTODYN
through its user's subroutine function. Coupling of Euler and Lagrange
processors are used to include all the materials under consideration such as
explosive, air and rock mass, in the calculation. Using AUTODYN and the
suggested model, shock wave propagation in rock mass induced by an
underground explosion is simulated. Numerical results obtained agree
favorably well with those obtained from an independently conducted eld
test. It demonstrates that the suggested model can be used to predict the
damage area, plastic zone and ground motions generated by underground
explosions. # 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved
INTRODUCTION
The mechanism of dynamic failure of rock mass is very complicated since
discontinuities such as cleavage cracks and defects with dierent shapes and
orientations are commonly encountered in rock mass and they have sig-
nicant inuence on the deformation and failure characteristics of rock [1].
Computers and Geotechnics, Vol. 22, No. 3/4, pp. 283303, 1998
# 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved
Printed in Great Britain
P I I : S 0 2 6 6 - 3 5 2 X ( 9 8 ) 0 0 0 1 1 - 1 0266-352X/98/$see front matter
283
*To whom correspondence should be addressed.
The pre-existing cracks and defects will be nucleated and evolve until mate-
rial loses strength when subjected to dynamic loading. It is not a straight-
forward process and will be very costly to simulate the dynamic failure of
every crack or defect in rock mass in numerical computation. It is not prac-
tical either to consider the eects of rock cracks and defects individually in
studying underground seismic wave propagation. Therefore, a reliable
equivalent continuum model for rock mass under dynamic loading, which
takes into account the rock constitutive relation, strength and failure char-
acteristics, as well as strain rate eect, will be extremely useful.
It is clear that the commonly used elasto-plastic and perfectly brittle
models are simplications of the actual behavior of a material. As shown in
Fig. 1, where the unloading path (a) indicates a perfectly brittle property of
rock material and the unloading path (b) associates with the elasto-plastic
permanent deformation. The returning line of path (b) is exactly parallel to
the original elastic loading line, which has been popularly assumed for
metals. However, as pointed out in ref. [2], the unloading stressstrain curve
for perfectly brittle materials might be close to reality in tensile tests only. In
brittle materials with disordered microstructure such as rock or concrete the
stress-strain curve only occasionally returns to the origin [3]. A 20% loss of
axial stiness has been observed after a few compressive cycles in laterally
conned porous rocks [4]. The curve relating the increment of damage per
cycle is sigmoidal in shape and depends on the stress amplitude [5]. Those
observations make it reasonable to employ unloading path (c) in simulating
dynamic property of rock, which combines the two models, implying rock
mass consists of perfectly brittle and elasto-plastic properties so that both
stiness degradation and irreversible plastic strain take place. This type of
material behavior can be modeled based on damage mechanics, as it was
already proposed by a number of authors [6, 7]. Unfortunately, those
Fig. 1. Elastic brittle and elasto-plastic properties of rock.
284 G. W. Ma et al.
damage models do not take into consideration the pressure sensitive strength
criterion. Elasto-plastic theory has been well established in the past. Some
pressure sensitive strength criteria such as Mohr-Coulomb criterion and
Drucker-Prager criterion were suggested and used to model the plastic ow
of brittle materials such as rock, concrete and soil [8]. To model the non-
linear relationship between eective stress and hydrostatic pressure (or of
curve in q p plane), some modied MohrCoulomb criteria and modied
DruckerPrager criteria have been suggested [9, 10]. It should be noted,
nevertheless, that those models do not consider the elastic degradation and
the rate-dependent properties of rock mass.
Previous research work showed that continuum damage models are eec-
tive numerical methods to simulate the elastic degradation caused by pre-
existing microcracks in rock mass [1]. Although rock always exhibits aniso-
tropy after macrocracks occur, isotropic damage model is proved as an
eective method to estimate the gross damage of rock mass subjected to blast
[1] [1113]. Among the continuum damage models, the damage scalar is
dened as functions of the damaged Poisson's ratio [11], or extensional strain
[12], or volumetric tensile strain [13]. However, these models consider only
the material damage in volumetric tensile state, namely the volumetric strain
is in tension; and they assume the material satisfying the von Mises criterion
in volumetric compressive state, which is a pressure insensitive strength cri-
terion and is not suitable to rock mass but to metals.
In volumetric compressive state, an abundance of experimental evidence
attests to the fact that, with the exception of very highly conned triaxial
states of compressive loading, the response of brittle materials is highly
inuenced by the magnitude of the maximum principal tensile strain [14, 15].
This implies damage (the material stiness degrading or softening) to rock
mass may occur either by tensile or compressive stress although it is in
volumetric compressive state at the near eld of detonation. The damage of
rock mass under shock loading was observed by the stressstrain tests both
on shock-damaged gabbro and limestone [16]. It was found that the eective
Young's modulus decreases with increasing initial damage parameter value,
and an apparent work-softening process occurs before failure. The decrease
of P-wave velocity and eective Young's modulus is also observed in the
borehole experiment [12]. Thus, properly considering rock damage char-
acteristics in numerical simulation of wave propagation is very important
since the dissipation of energy by damage and plastic ow will cause rapid
attenuation of shock wave.
Another phenomena that needs to be appropriately considered in simula-
tion of wave propagation is the strain rate eect. Naturally, the failure
mechanism is quite dierent in dynamic loading case from that in quasi static
loading case. It has been proven that the response of many rock-like mate-
Modeling of wave propagation induced by underground explosion 285
rials to tensile loading is strongly aected by strain rate. At very low strain
rates, a few large fractures dominate the fragmentation process, and only a
few large fragments will be formed. Under high strain rates, on the other
hand, numerous small fractures simultaneously grow and interact, resulting
in many small fragments (Fig. 2) [1].
In the present study, an isotropic continuum damage model based on
equivalent tensile strain is suggested. Damage to rock medium is dened as
the probability of fracture at a given crack density with respect to the
equivalent tensile strain. Material damage could occur in either volumetric
tensile state or volumetric compressive state in the suggested model. The
damage scalar in the model is determined by three parameters, namely
threshold strain and other two material constants that will be discussed later.
The threshold strain is modeled by an equivalent static tensile strain, and the
other two damage parameters are determined based on those obtained from
uniaxial tensile experiments with constant strain rates. Piecewise linear
DruckerPrager strength criterion which is pressure sensitive is adopted to
simulate plastic ow of rock mass. The loading surface reduces proportion-
ally with the degradation of rock stiness. The strength parameters used are
those obtained from uniaxial tensile, uniaxial compressive and conned
triaxial laboratory experiments. The present damage model and strength
model is implemented by modifying the user subroutine of AUTODYN, a
nite dierence, nite volume and nite element code for solving a wide
variety of non-linear problems in solid, uid and gas dynamics [17]. AUTO-
DYN can be used to analyze highly time dependent problems with both
geometric non-linearities (e.g. large strains and deformations) and material
non-linearities (e.g. plasticity failure, strain-hardening and softening).
Response of rock mass induced by an explosion in an underground chamber
is simulated by using the AUTODYN with the suggested damage and
strength model. Numerical results are compared with those obtained from an
independent eld test [18]. The damaged rock area, plastic zone around the
Fig. 2. The eect of dierent strain rates on the fracture mode of rock mass: (a) attributed
microcracks; (b) slow strain rate; (c) faster strain rate.
286 G. W. Ma et al.
rock chamber, velocity response history as well as peak ground velocities and
accelerations at various points from detonation all agree favorably well with
eld observed test data [18].
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
The constitutive model proposed is based on the hypothesis of uncoupled
elasticity [2]. According to this hypothesis, the thermodynamic potential ,[
is a function of elastic strain tensor c
e
ij
, plastic strain tensor c
p
ij
and some
internal variables such as temperature T, and damage variable D, where , is
the mass density of the material. At constant temperature ,[ consists of two
independent parts, namely an elastic part ,[
e
and a plastic part ,[
p
as
,[ = ,[
e
,[
p
(1)
Accordingly, the total strain consists of elastic and plastic parts as
c
ij
= c
e
ij
c
p
ij
(2)
Based on this approach, the returning path (a) in Fig. 1 is due to material
damage at present elastic strain level. Combining elastic damage and classi-
cal plastic ow leads to an uncoupled plastic-damage constitutive relation for
a ductilebrittle material [unloading path (c) in Fig. 1]. Plastic strains and
damage are irreversible processes and they lead to the conversion of
mechanical energy into heat and surface creation, respectively. According to
Clausius Duhem inequality, the rate of energy dissipation
_
must remain
positive, that is
_
= o
ij
_ c
ij
,
_
[
e
,
_
[
p
_ 0 (3)
The rate of energy dissipation
_
consists of two parts, namely
_

D
due to
damage and
_

p
due to plasticity, where
_
= o
ij
_ c
e
ij
,
_
[
e
;
_

p
= o
ij
_ c
p
ij
,
_
[
p
(4)
A sucient condition to satisfy the Clausius Duhem inequality is both
_

D
_ 0 and
_
p _ 0. For small strain and thermally stable problems, the
elastic part of the thermodynamics potential can be written in a quadratic
form as follows
Modeling of wave propagation induced by underground explosion 287
,[
e
=
1
2
c
e
ij

ijkl
D ( )c
e
kl
(5)
where
ijkl
D ( ) is a fourth-order symmetric tensor which can be interpreted as
the secant stiness matrix aected by the evolution of non-plastic damage
scalar D. According to the isotropic damage theory, the secant constitutive
tensor can be expressed as

ijkl
D ( ) =
0ilkl
1 D ( ) (6)
where
0ijkl
is the initial stiness of material and D is damage.
Based on plastic theory, the plastic strain rates are expressed as
_ c
p
ij
=
_
l
o[
p
oo
ij
(7)
where
_
l is the plastic consistency factor; [
p
is plastic potential in Eqn (1). At
a certain damage level, according to classical plastic theory, the incremental
elasto-plastic constitutive matrix can be obtained as
_ o
ij
=
ep
ijkl
_ c
kl
(8)
where
ep
ijkl
is elasto-plastic stressstrain tensor and has the following
expression

ep
ijkl
=
ijkl
D ( )

ijpq
D ( )
o[
p
oo
pq
oF
p
oo
rs

rskl
D ( )
A
oF
p
oo
ij

ijkl
D ( )
o[
p
oo
kl
(9)
in which F
p
is a strength function which will be dened in next section; A is a
hardening function, and A = 0 if the material is taken as perfect plastic ow
[8]. The ow rule employed in AUTODYN is volume independent of the
PrandtlPeuss type. Scaling back the stress deviators to the yield surface,
the scaled stress deviators fall on the deviatoric plane and are normal to the
circle formed by the intersection of the yield surface with this plane. This,
however, is not the normal to the yield surface in the three-dimensional (o
1
,
o
2
, o
3
) space [17]. It means that AUTODYN employs non-associated ow
rule and the von Mises strength function being its plastic potential function.
288 G. W. Ma et al.
The non-associated ow rule avoids the problem of resulting in unstable
non-unique solutions.
The rate-dependent constitutive relation depends on the damage evolution
and plastic ow. Damage evolution and plastic ow are controlled by two
surfaces,
F
D
c
ij
. K
D
. D
_ _
= f
D
c
ij
_ _
K
D
D) _ 0 ( (10)
F
p
o
ij
. K
p
. c
p
_ _
= f
p
o
ij
_ _
K
p
c
p
_ _
_ 0 (11)
where K
D
and K
p
are the thresholds of damage surface and failure surface,
respectively; f
D
c
ij
_ _
and f
p
o
ij
_ _
are damage function and failure function,
respectively, expressed in strain space and stress space. Loading and
unloading conditions are derived from KuhnTucker relations formulated
for problem with unilateral restrictions as
_
D _ 0. F
D
_ 0 and
_
DF
D
= 0 for damage evolution (12)
and
_
l _ 0. F
p
_ 0 and
_
lF
p
= 0 for plastic flow (13)
DAMAGE CRITERION
The isotropic continuum damage model assumes rock mass as an isotropic,
homogeneous and continuous medium [1113]. It models the overall eects
of crack system by using an equivalent material stiness. The damage growth
is governed by a loading surface of equation expressed in strain space which
denes a unique relationship between the size of damage surface and the
accumulated damage [2, 7]. In the present study, a damage loading surface is
dened based on an equivalent tensile strain,
F
D
c
ij
. K
D
. D
_ _
= c K
D
D ( ) _ 0 (14)
where c is the equivalent tensile strain and
Modeling of wave propagation induced by underground explosion 289
c =

3
1
c
i
)

_ _
2
;

_
x)

=
[ x [ x
2
. c
i
are principal strains
_ _
(15)
The threshold strain K
D
D ( ) takes the largest value of the equivalent tensile
strain c ever reached by the material at the considered point during the pre-
vious loading cycles. The above suggested loading surface can be determined
by rate-dependent uniaxial tensile strain experiments since the equivalent
tensile strain c here is just the uniaxial tensile strain. The strain-rate dependent
damage model used in the present paper will be determined in the following.
For damage process, it is assumed that damage is caused by the activation
and growth of pre-existing micro cracks [1], which is accumulated over time
and is irreversible. When a rock material is subjected to tensile stress, it will
not fail unless the value of the stress is larger than its static strength. This is
accounted for by setting a critical value for the equivalent tensile strain.
Since blast damage is accumulated as a function of time and applied stress [1]
[12, 13], crack density is expressed as a function of the equivalent tensile strain
and time which is similar to the model dened by Liu and Katsabanis [13],
C
d
= oc c
cr
)
[
t (16)
where the angular bracket ) denotes the function is valid only when the
value inside the bracket is larger than zero, C
d
is the total number of cracks
per unit volume V, o, [ are material constants and c
cr
is the static critical
tensile strain at which the probability of failure is zero, t is the accumulated
time of damage.
According to the denition suggested by Whittaker et al. [19], the prob-
ability of fracture is related to the crack density and is expressed as
P
f
= 1 e
C
d
V
(17)
The damage scalar can then be directly dened as the probability of fracture
[12, 13, 19],
D = P
f
= 1 e
C
a
V
(18)
Thus, if the maximum principal strain is less than the critical value c
cr
, there
is no damage in the rock mass and the probability of fracture is equal to
zero. On the other hand, if the maximum principal strain exceeds c
cr
, the
material stiness will degrade and the secant stiness matrix
i.j.k.l
(D) will be
290 G. W. Ma et al.
used to replace the initial stiness matrix
0ijkl
. The damage scalar D is from
0 to 1 according to the denition in Eqn (18). With the increase of damage
surface (controlled by the threshold of equivalent tensile strain), the damage
of rock material will evolve and the stiness will decrease. This satises the
damage evolution law expressed in Eqn (12).
In the present damage model, three material parameters, namely o, [ and
c
cr
, need be determined from the dynamic fracture properties of rock mass.
Since most rate-dependent rock tests performed are uniaxial, the static fail-
ure strain c
cr
is easily determined from uniaxial static tensile test results,
c
cr
= o
st
,E (19)
where o
st
is the static tensile strength and E is Young's modulus for intact
rock. The other two parameters are determined by using results obtained
from constant strain rate experiments. This is discussed in the following.
If the tensile strain and crack density corresponding to the fracture stress
are denoted by c
f
and C
df
, respectively, from Eqn (16), it has
C
df
= o c
f
c
cr
_ _
[
t t
c
( ) (20)
where t is the total time to reach the fracture stress; t
c
is the time duration
needed for the tensile strain c to reach the critical value c
cr
. Since uniaxial
strain rate _ c is constant, the c
f
and c
cr
can be expressed as
c
f
= _ ct. c
cr
= _ ct
c
or c
cr
= _ c t t
c
( ) (21)
Substituting Eqn (21) into Eqn (20), the time beyond critical time t
c
required
for stress to reach the fracture stress is
t t
c
=
C
df
o
_ _
1,1[
_ c
[,1[
(22)
Then, the fracture stress o
f
at a certain strain rate in uniaxial tensile state can
be obtained as,
o
f
= 1 D
f
_ _
o
st
E 1 D
f
_ _
C
df
o
_ _
1,1[
_ c
1,1[
(23)
From Eqn (23), it has
o =
1 D
f
_ _
E
o
f
1 D
f
_ _
o
st
_ _
1[
_ c
C
df
(24)
Modeling of wave propagation induced by underground explosion 291
where D
f
is the damage scalar corresponding to the fracture stress. Since
fracture stress for many brittle materials such as rock and concrete depends
on the cube root of the strain rate [1, 13], [ can be taken as equal to 2.
According to the test results [1] and some of the numerical investigations
of rock blasting [4, 12], the damage value is about 0.22 when the dynamic
tensile stress reaches the dynamic failure stress, implying C
df
= 0.25 from
Eqn (18). Then, the parameter o can be determined by Eqn (24) at any given
tensile strain rate. Laboratory test shows the initial bulk modulus, initial
shear modulus and initial Young's modulus of limestone at the near eld of
detonation analyzed in this paper are 41, 27 and 67 GPa, respectively. The
mass density of rock sample obtained from the test site is 2650 kg m
3
and
the uniaxial static tensile strength is 19 MPa. Thus the critical tensile strain
c
cr
is calculated as 0.28710
3
according to Eqn (19). Although the dynamic
failure data for most rock materials are rarely available, some general results
were obtained from the strain-rate dependent experiments [1, 13], such as the
failure stress of various rock was found depending on the cube root of the
strain rate. Assuming the strain rate of quasi-static experiments is at an order
of 10
2
, the constant o calculated by Eqn (24) is 6.910
10
, which is very close
to the value of 7.110
10
as predicted by Liu and Katsabanis [13]. In the lat-
ter study, the damage scalar is assumed depending on the volumetric tensile
strain and the constant o is obtained by a calibrating borehole test.
The damage model suggested above is implemented into the commercial
software AUTODYN through its user subroutine EXFAIL which allows
user to dene a material model. The present damage model can predict
damage area either in volumetric tensile state or volumetric compressive
state. It can also simulate the strain-rate dependent damage property of rock
mass by the damage loading surface in strain space.
STRENGTH CRITERION
A simple pressure-sensitive strength model for rock is a linear MohrCou-
lomb envelope. However, in triaxial stress state, the DruckerPrager strength
criterion has advantage to represent the strength property of a material since
it includes all the six stress components in its expression. It has the following
form

J
2
_
= a bp (25)
where

J
2
_
=

1
2
s
ij
s
ij
_
, is the second invariant of the stress deviator tensor s
ij
;
p is hydro-pressure and p =
1
3
I
1
, in which I
1
is the rst invariant of stress
292 G. W. Ma et al.
tensor o
ij
; a and b are material constants. Some researchers have modied
the linear relationship between

J
2
_
and p based on empirical results and this
leads to the modied MohrCoulomb and DruckerPrager strength criteria
[9, 10]. Unfortunately, those modied criteria do not have an uniform form
and they are dicult to be implemented into a numerical program. In the
present study, the non-linearity is modeled by a piecewise linear variation of
yield stress as shown in Fig. 3. Since rock has little tensile strength, the yield
stress drops rapidly to zero when rock is under tension.
The piecewise DruckerPrager strength criterion shown in Fig. 3 has the
following form,
F
p
=

J
2
_
b
i
p a
i
_ 0 i = 1 ~ N ( ) (26)
where the parameters a
i
, b
i
for a material can be determined by laboratory
test such as the uniaxial tensile test, uniaxial compressive test or conned
triaxial test; N is the number of linear segments. The piecewise Drucker
Prager strength criterion is available in the AUTODYN strength model
library. Users need to input the material strength parameters a
i
, b
i
. In this
study, four sets (N = 4) of static experimental data, namely: (1) cut-o
hydro-tensile strength f
ttt
f
ttt
= o
1
= o
2
= o
3
. f
ttt
=
1
3
f
t
_ _
; (2) uniaxial tensile
strength f
t
f
t
= o
1
. o
2
= o
3
= 0 ( ); (3) uniaxial compressive strength
f
c
o
1
= o
2
= 0. o
3
= f
c
( ); (4) connement compressive strength
(f
ccc
. f
/
cc
) 0 > o
1
= o
2
= f
/
cc
. 0 > o
3
= f
ccc
_
) are used to determined the
parameters. The uniaxial compressive strength f
c
and the uniaxial tensile
Fig. 3. Piecewise linear druckerPrager model.
Modeling of wave propagation induced by underground explosion 293
strength f
t
are 148 and 19 MPa, respectively. A connement compressive
strength of (2.7 f
c
, 0.5 f
c
) is used as one set of the strength parameters.
Because damage and plastic ow may occur simultaneously, the yield
strength decreases with the degrading of stiness. Assuming the post-failure
surface satises the isotropic softening rule, the constants b
i
remain unchan-
ged, while a
i
will degrade according to
a
id
= a
i
1 D ( ) i = 1 ~ N ( ) (27)
where a
id
(i = 1 ~ N) is the degraded yield strength. This assumption implies
the loading surface expressed by the actual stresses in ``Representative
Volume Element'' is perfect plastic ow [20].
Non-associated plastic ow rule is employed in AUTODYN. The plastic
potential function used is
[
p
=

J
2
_
a
id
i = 1 ~ N ( ) (28)
If von Mises criterion is employed, the plastic ow rule is associated. The
plastic potential function dened in Eqn (28) can avoid unstable integration
of constitutive equation for strength surface with singular integral point.
The AUTODYN provides a piecewise linear DruckerPrager strength
model in its strength model library, but the parameters a
i
and b
i
must be
constants, that is they are not associated with material stiness degradation.
Thus, the piecewise linear DruckerPrager strength model in the current
AUTODYN strength model library can not reect the strength properties of
damaged rock. In the present study, the user subroutine EXYLD in
AUTODYN is modied to allow the constants being able to degrade
according to Eqn (27) in order to more realistically simulate the decrease of
failure strength of rock.
EQUATION OF STATE (EOS)
The equation of state is dened as the relation between the hydrostatic
pressure, the local density (or specic volume) and local specic energy (or
temperature)
p = f ,. [ ( ) (29)
The above equation of state can be determined from knowledge of thermo-
dynamic properties of the material and ideally should not require dynamic
data to establish the relationship. However, in practice, the only practical
294 G. W. Ma et al.
way of obtaining data on the behavior of a material at high strain rates is to
carry out well-characterized dynamic experiments. For a solid, this must be
solved simultaneously with the equation governing the conservation of
energy
,
_
[ = o
ij
_ c
ij
(30)
For ideal gas and explosive with high energy, some more complicated de-
nitions of energy and EOS need be determined.
Equation of state for ideal gas
One of the simplest forms of equation of state is that for an ideal polytropic
gas. It may be derived from the laws of Boyle and GayLussac and has the
form
pV = RT (31)
where the constant R may be taken to be the universal gas constant R
0
divi-
ded by the eective molecular weight of the particular gas. In an ideal gas the
internal energy is a function of the temperature alone. If the gas is poly-
tropic, the internal energy is simply proportional to temperature and it may
be written as
[ = c
v
T (32)
where the constant c
v
is the specic heat at constant volume. Since entropy is
constant on an adiabat and the specic entropy of a particle remains con-
stant except when it is overrun by a shock, the equation of state for a gas
which has uniform initial condition may be written as
pV
,
= constant (33)
and the pressure is related to the energy by
p = , 1 ( ),[. (34)
This is known as the ideal gas equation of state and it is implemented in the
AUTODYN EOS library. Users need to supply the value of , and the mass
density , only. In the present study, the standard material constants of air
, = 1.4, , = 1.225 kg m
3
are used.
Modeling of wave propagation induced by underground explosion 295
Linear equation of state
In many cases, especially when material is a liquid or a solid, p may be con-
sidered as a function of density (or specic volume) alone. An alternative
approach is to consider the initial elastic behavior expressed by an approx-
imation to Hooke's Law which in the present notation can be written as
p = K
d
j (35)
where j = ,,,
0
( ) 1 is called compression, , and ,
0
are density and initial
density of rock mass, respectively, K
d
= 1 D ( )K is the material bulk mod-
ulus which is equal to the initial bulk modulus K if no material damage
occurs. The negative sign for the hydrostatic pressure p follows the usual
notation that stresses are positive in tension and negative in compression (the
opposite to that for pressure). This form of equation of state is of use only
for fairly small compression j and should not be used if it is considered that
large compression may occur. The linear equation of state is also available in
AUTODYN material library, but it again does not take into account bulk
modulus degradation due to damage. In the present study, a subroutine is
developed to include the eect of damage on bulk modulus K. The sub-
routine is linked to AUTODYN through its user subroutine option. The
initial bulk modulus K of limestone near the exploding eld is 41 MPa [18].
JWL equation of state for explosive detonation
The JonesWilkensLee (JWL) equation of state models the pressure gener-
ated by chemical energy in an explosive. It can be written in the form [17],
p = C
1
1
o
r
1
V
_ _
e
r
1
V
C
2
1
o
r
2
V
_ _
e
r
2
V

o[
V
(36)
The values of the constants C
1
, r
1
, C
2
, r
2
and o for many common explosives
have been determined from dynamic experiments. These values should be
considered as a set of interdependent parameters and one constant cannot be
changed unilaterally without considering the eect of this change on the
other parameters.
The JWL equation of state for common explosives such as TNT is avail-
able in AUTODYN material library. The parameters in JWL equation of
state for TNT used in the present study are listed in Table 1, in which [
0
is
initial CJ (ChapmanJouguet) energy per volume as the total chemical
energy of TNT; VOD is CJ detonation velocity of TNT.
296 G. W. Ma et al.
NUMERICAL ANALYSIS AND COMPARISON WITH TEST DATA
A ground shock test was conducted in limestone independently to determine
the wave attenuation relationship in free eld. The exploding chamber is
located at 115 m below the ground surface. The dimensions of the chamber is
842 m. The eective TNT charge weight is 606 kg with a loading density
of 10 kg m
3
. The measured peak particle velocity (PPV) and peak particle
acceleration (PPA) t the following two equations [18]
PPV = 1.8
R
Q
1,3
_ _
2.5
ms
1
_ _
(37)
and
PPA Q
1,3
= 3430
R
Q
1,3
_ _
3.0
g kg
1,3
_ _
(38)
where Q is the charge weight in kg and R is the distance measured from the
charge center in meters, g is the gravitational constant. The upper bound
curve of peak acceleration is 6 times higher than the average value given in
Eqn (38). These measured data and test setting up are used to check the
validity of the proposed model and suitability of AUTODYN program for
simulating underground explosions in rock medium.
Figure 4 shows the conguration of the numerical model, in which air and
explosive TNT are simulated by Euler processor and are assumed satisfying
EOS of ideal gas and EOS of JWL, respectively. Rock material is assumed to
satisfy the modied linear EOS and simulated by Lagrange processor.
Modied piecewise linear DruckerPrager strength model is utilized to cal-
culate the plastic ow of rock. The whole domain, including rock, air and
TNT, is assumed to be axial symmetric. An equivalent columnar shape
charge chamber with radius 3.2 m and height 2 m was used in the model.
This equivalent charge chamber is obtained on the basis that it has the same
loading density as the original chamber. The transmitting boundary technique
TABLE 1
JWL parameters used for modeling TNT in the present study
C
1
(GPa) C
2
(GPa) r
1
r
2
o c
0
(MJ m
3
) VOD (m s
1
) r
0
(kg m
3
)
373.8 3.747 4.15 0.9 0.35 6000 6930 1630
Modeling of wave propagation induced by underground explosion 297
is used in AUTODYN to reduce reection of shock wave from the specied
boundaries. These transmitting boundary allow outward traveling waves to
pass through without reecting energy back into the computational grid.
Only the normal component of velocity of the wave is dealt with and the
velocity component parallel to the boundary is assumed to be unaected by
the boundary. The above presented material constants for air, TNT and rock
mass are used in numerical simulation.
Figure 5 shows the damage zone where the damage scalar exceeds 0.22 in
the near eld of detonation. As can be seen, the damaged rock at chamber
oor is about 4 m in diameter, which is consistent with the reported damage
of approximately 4 m in diameter and 0.5 m deep as observed at chamber
oor after detonation [18]. Figure 6 shows a wider area of plastic zone
around the chamber where the eective plastic strain exceeds 0.001. It should
be noted that both the plastic ow and damage in the near eld of detona-
tion release the energy transmitted into rock from blast and they attenuate
shock wave intensity signicantly. Figure 7 shows the comparison of calcu-
lated velocity history and test result at 8 m above the detonation. The slightly
faster rise time and the slightly higher peak value of the recorded wave could
Fig. 4. Numerical modeling.
298 G. W. Ma et al.
be attributed to the eect of a 0.2 m diameter instrumentation hole drilled
through the chamber ceiling for placing the sensors. In view of the many
uncertainties in rock mass, the numerical prediction is considered to agree
favorably well with the test result.
Figures 8 and 9 show the measured and numerically simulated peak parti-
cle velocities and peak particle accelerations, respectively. As can be seen, the
simulated attenuation of peak velocities agree very well with the test data.
The calculated attenuation of acceleration is, however, slightly higher than
Fig. 6. Contour of eective plastic strain around the chamber.
Fig. 5. Damage zone simulated by the damage model.
Modeling of wave propagation induced by underground explosion 299
Fig. 7. Comparison of velocity history at point 8 m above detonation.
Fig. 8. Attenuation of peak particle velocity (empirical formula PPV = 1.8
R
Q
1,3
_ _
2.5
).
300 G. W. Ma et al.
the average attenuation curve of the test data, but it is below the upper
bound of the eld measured peak accelerations. The higher values of peak
acceleration at far eld from detonation might be caused by (1) the material
viscous damping is not included in the calculation; (2) complicated site con-
ditions are simplied in the numerical model as an equivalent isotropic and
homogeneous rock mass; and (3) the eect of instrumentation hole which
results in lower wave frequency contents as discussed above. As peak particle
velocities agree well with the test data, higher peak particle accelerations
indicate the numerically simulated results have higher frequency contents
than the measured data. In actual case, the very high frequency components
of propagating wave will be attenuated very fast due to anisotropic proper-
ties of rock mass. Nevertheless, the simulated peak particle accelerations can
still be considered in good agreement with the test data. These observations
indicate the applicability of the proposed model and the suitability of using
AUTODYN to simulate underground explosions in rock medium.
Fig. 9. Attenuation of peak particle acceleration (empirical formula
PPA Q
1,3
= 3430(
R
Q
1,3
)
3.0
).
Modeling of wave propagation induced by underground explosion 301
CONCLUSIONS
Based on thermodynamics theory, a dynamic failure model for rock mass
has been established. The model considers uncoupled elastic damage and
plastic ow of rock material simultaneously. The damage model has been
implemented into the commercially available software AUTODYN through
its user subroutine capability. The piecewise linear DruckerPrager strength
criterion and linear equation of state in AUTODYN material library have
been modied to allow both rock strength and modulus to degrade with
damage. Using the AUTODYN together with the proposed damage model,
an independently conducted eld test has been numerically simulated. It has
been found that the simulated damage zone, wave form, as well as the
attenuation of peak particle velocity and peak particle acceleration all agree
favorably well with test results. The validity of the proposed model for rock
mass under explosive loading has been proved.
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