EPRI Transmission Line Reference Book115-345 kV Compact Line Design

CHAPTER 1

Introduction to Compact Lines

Dale Douglass Jim Stewart

This chapter presents some of the background and motivation for compact lines, and describes the key features of typical compact line designs.
Dr. Dale A. Douglass is a Principal Engineer of Power Delivery Consultants, Inc. based in Niskayuna, New York. He has over 30 years of experience in transmission line engineering and conductor design, having worked with Power Technologies, Inc., Kaiser Aluminum, and Bell Laboratories. He is presently the Vice Chairman of IEEE's Towers, Poles, and Conductors Subcommittee and the convener of CIGRE Working Group B2-12 on Electrical Aspects of Transmission Lines. He has been involved in studies of overhead line sag-tension, high temperature operation, and both current and voltage upgrading of existing lines. In 1996 he was elected a Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers for contributions to understanding the characteristics and applications of overhead power transmission conductors. Dr. James Stewart is an independent consultant based in Scotia, New York. He has more than 40 years of experience in power systems and transmission lines, having worked for Niagara Mohawk Power Corporation and Power Technologies, Inc. He was heavily involved in the analytical and experimental research in Saratoga, New York that culminated in the publication of the first EPRI compact transmission line book. He contributed to subsequent EPRI compact line research, and was project engineer and lead technical contributor to the DOE high-phase-order transmission line research, also conducted at Saratoga. He also contributed to voltage-upgrading and compact transmission line projects for several utility companies. He was elected a Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers in 1987 for advances in transmission line theory and its reduction to practice through prototype demonstration.

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EPRI Transmission Line Reference Book115-345 kV Compact Line Design

1.1

INTRODUCTION

1.2

TRANSMISSION LINE DESIGN TRENDS

This introductory chapter presents some of the background and motivation for compact lines, defines and describes the key features of typical 69- to 230-kV compact line designs, and provides a roadmap to the other more detailed chapters on the details of compact line design. It should be noted that the present book is concerned with those aspects of transmission line design that may be more or less unique to compact lines. Those issues that are identical to conventional lines are not addressed, and the reader is referred to one of the standard references. For example, the engineering of mechanical loading of structures is the same whatever the line spacing, and the civil engineering aspects of structures and foundations are not discussed herein. This does not mean that structures and foundations are unimportant; it merely means that sufficient information on structure and foundation design is available elsewhere. The purpose of the present book is to provide the user with a tool kit of options to consider when designing an overhead transmission line with reduced dimensions. In many cases the design process is interactive. Making a change in one area may result in concerns in a different area. For example, addition of dampers to reduce conductor vibration affects the phase-to-phase switching surge insulation strength of the conductor-to-conductor air gap. It is necessary to balance all the requirements to arrive at a successful overall design. As part of the design process, care must be given to the assignment of proper criteria for assessment of the different factors. Depending on the reason for construction of the line, some performance issues may be more important than others and should be given different weighting. Section 1.2 below briefly notes some trends in transmission line design over the years, and Section 1.3 identifies public concerns over new overhead transmission lines. Section 1.4 provides a definition of compact lines, and Section 1.5 compares compact and conventional lines. Section 1.6 reviews some of the factors to be considered in reducing line dimensions. Section 1.7 describes several basic compact line designs. Section 1.8 offers a short summary of compaction benefits for reduced conductor sag. Sections 1.9, 1.10, 1.11, and 1.12 review a few key aspects of compact lines, including insulation, electrical environmental effects, the economics of compaction, and system impact of compact lines. Section 1.13 recounts the EPRI research background that led up to the publication of the first edition of the Blue Book. Section 1.14 outlines a roadmap for this new edition of the Blue Book.
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In the design of any overhead transmission line, the designer must meet multiple constraintssome electrical, some mechanical, and some environmental. The lines must always meet minimum electrical clearance requirements to ground and buildings, not exceed maximum audible noise and radio/TV interference limits, survive whatever combination of high winds and/or heavy ice loads that occur, avoid excessive flashover rates even when directly struck by lightning, and be easily maintained. The economic constraints include minimal capital investment (typically using basic materials such as aluminum, steel and glass), low electrical losses per mile, and unusual durability, since overhead transmission lines are designed for an expected life of 30 to 40 years and often remain in service for much longer. Given these multiple constraints and the long anticipated service life, line designers have traditionally built in a bit of margin to be certain that the line operates successfully and safely over its long anticipated life. The margin has decreased, however, over time, as calculation tools to estimate corona-induced noise, electrical insulation, electric and magnetic fields, surge propagation, and conductor sag-tension behavior have improved, and as better materials such as steel and concrete poles, new types of conductor reinforcement, and composite insulators have been introduced. The introduction of new tools and materials for overhead lines has occurred gradually over the last hundred years and paralleled the introduction of higher transmission voltages. 115/138-kV lines were first built in the 1920s. 345-kV lines were introduced in the 1950s, and 765-kV lines in the 1970s. As illustrated in Figure 1.2-1, the ratio of typical phase-phase spacing (between conductors) to the spacing required to prevent power frequency voltage flashover, decreased by a factor of nearly

Figure 1.2-1 Ratio of typical phase-phase spacing to spacing to prevent power frequency voltage flashover as a function of line voltage.

EPRI Transmission Line Reference Book115-345 kV Compact Line Design

Chapter 1: Introduction to Compact Lines

2 as newer calculation tools and line materials were applied and transmission voltages increased. It is this reduction in margin in the design of higher voltage transmission lines that led to the concept of redesigning lower voltage lines with the same techniques as were developed for EHV lines. These redesigned HV lines, with reduced phase-phase spacing and other dimensions, are called compact lines. Similar margins have been noted in structure design where the ratio of maximum wind load to transverse structure load capability has decreased as tools for analyzing structure strength and probabilistic wind loading have improved. 1.3 PUBLIC OPPOSITION TO NEW OVERHEAD TRANSMISSION LINES

1.4

DEFINITION OF A COMPACT LINE

This book is primarily about designing and constructing compact, high-voltage (HV, 69 to 230 kV) transmission lines. Some of the techniques discussed can be applied at higher and lower transmission voltages, but the design of newer extra high voltage (EHV) lines generally already reflects many of these calculation and material advances. Public opposition to lines of 69 kV and below is generally much less, because such lines are much less visible and similar to those distribution lines that people see in most neighborhoods. The techniques and materials discussed can also be applied to the process of line voltage upgrading, especially in going from 69 to 138 kV and 115 to 230 kV, but public opposition to such voltage upgrades is normally much less than it is to the construction of new lines. One definition of the word compact is given by Merriam-Webster as occupying a small volume by reason of efficient use of space. A compact transmission line may, therefore, be defined as a line where the lateral dimensions of the linetower height, tower width, and minimum right-of-way widthare reduced relative to older existing lines of the same voltage class. Some people use the term compact for any line made smaller than previous practice. For example, a 500-kV line, might be said to have been compacted by the application of horizontal Vee insulators in place of suspension strings. We will reserve the term for new HV lines designed to be less visible and environmentally intrusive than traditional designs. Compact overhead transmission line technology is simply taking the best engineering data and making an optimum balanced design for the voltage under consideration. In this sense there is really nothing extremely different about compact lines. They have the same basic components as other lines. They are, however, more carefully designed. Some of these principles include the use of post insulators to restrain conductor motion at structures, and careful consideration of corona and field effects (e.g., application of corona-free hardware). In-span insulating spacers are not necessarily a part of compact lines, but they may be used in some cases. The fundamental purpose of compact lines is to make the lines fit where they otherwise would not and to make them more visually appealing, or at least not so unappealing. The cost of the line itself is not the driver. The cost may be similar to conventional lines. Permitting and permitting costs are the driver. Non-standard designs for specific purposes are also in the realm of compact line design.

Over this same period of time, public opposition to the construction of new lines has increased, and the sophistication of such opposition has grown. The publics concerns over the construction of new overhead transmission lines in residential and scenic areas are summarized in Figure 1.3-1, which is taken from a study entitled Perception of Transmission Lines written by Thomas Priestly and Kenneth Craik and sponsored by an international group of utilities (Priestley and Craik 1993). As summarized in this bar chart, people are concerned about a wide range of issues, but the their major concerns center on the appearance of these lines (Aesthetics and Property Values) particularly near residential areas and on fear of being near them (Health and Safety).

Figure 1.3-1 Public concerns about overhead transmission lines (Priestley and Craik 1993).

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EPRI Transmission Line Reference Book115-345 kV Compact Line Design

1.5

COMPACT VERSUS CONVENTIONAL LINES

Whether compact (Figure 1.5-1) or conventional (Figure 1.5-2), overhead transmission lines are intended to move electrical power from remote generating facilities to urban and residential load areas. HV lines are typically closer to residential areas and more likely than EHV lines to be approved in scenic areas. While dc lines and EHV ac lines of 345 kV or more are usually intended to move large blocks of power for long distances, high-voltage (HV, 69 to 230 kV) lines are used

to move smaller blocks of power over shorter distances in closer proximity to the load centers. EHV lines have already been designed to reduce phase spacing compared to older HV designs in per unit of the spacing required to withstand power frequency voltage. Because of insulation requirements and the already high electric fields at the surface of phase conductor bundles, there is limited opportunity to further reduce phase-to-phase spacing at these voltage levels. Even if it were possible to reduce the phase spacing, the large number of conductors strung in close proximity is unlikely to reduce the lines visual impact. HV lines do not normally require the use of multiple conductor bundles to limit corona at the surface of the phases. Given the relatively low ice and wind conductor loads, the structures and foundations can be lighter and thinner than for EHV lines. Nonetheless, public opposition to the appearance of HV lines can be fierce, given their proximity to urban and suburban residential areas. This book concerns the design of compact HV lines that fit in smaller spaces, reduce visual and environmental concerns, and are thus more likely than conventional HV line designs to be approved and built. 1.6 REDUCING LINE DIMENSIONS

Figure 1.5-1 Compact line in a residential area.

In any transmission line, certain minimum distances must be maintained between energized bare conductors and grounded structure parts, grounded shield wires, other energized conductors, the ground and any objects on it, and the edge of the utility right-of-way. As shown in Figure 1.6-1, the shield wire(s) must be supported above the phase conductors at the highest point on the structure. The phase conductors must be far enough from the shield wire(s) and from each other to avoid flashovers under normal conditions, high wind or ice conditions, and during switching events. The phase conductors must also be kept far enough off the ground under the line to meet minimum clearance requirements under all electrical loads and weather conditions. Under strong crosswinds, the phase conductor support at the bottom of the insulators will be blown toward the structure poles. The line must, therefore, be far enough away that there is no flashover to the ground lead that runs down the pole under high winds. Also, in response to these same crosswinds, the phase conductor at midspan will blow out to the side, and the distance to the edge of the right-of-way (ROW) must be sufficient to maintain minimum electrical clearance to buildings and other lines in parallel with this line.

Figure 1.5-2 Conventional 115-kV line with 12-ft phase-phase spacing.

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Chapter 1: Introduction to Compact Lines

Maintaining these minimum distances for single- and double-circuit lines determines the cross-sectional phase diagram, as shown in Figure 1.6-1. The letters in Figure 1.6-1 represent some of the critical dimensions of the line design:

1.7

BASIC COMPACT DESIGNS

A and A are the distances, from the at-rest position and the maximum blowout position, respectively, of the outer phase conductor to the edge-ofROW.

As an alternative to the typical HV line design shown in Figure 1.5-2, there are many design compaction options. Two quite different options are shown in Figure 1.7-1 and1.7-2. Both of these designs constrain conductor motion at the structures under high wind conditions by restricting free movement of the insulator configuration. The single-pole design is attractive since only a single pole is required, the width of the ROW is reduced, and the hardware is simple. On the other hand, the maximum span length is probably less than 500 ft, and the horizontal spacing of the phase conductors is limited by the insulator length and the pole diameter. The possibilities for performing various maintenance operations, including live-line maintenance, are enhanced if maintenance is considered as part of the line design process. Although some of the basic maintenance principles are similar for conventional and compact lines, reduction in clearances brings challenges that may require creativity to meet successfully.

B is the spacing between the attachment points of the

phase conductors.

C and C are the distances from the at-rest position

and the maximum wind deflection, respectively, of the phase conductor attachment point to the nearest structure member.

D is the distance between the phase conductor

attachment point and the ground under the phase.

E is the vertical distance from the phase conductor

attachment point to the shield wire attachment point. Notice that these geometric distances determine the width of the ROW (2*( A+B )) and the height of the structure/conductor assembly (D+E).

Figure 1.6-1 Dimensional diagram for a conventional HV line.

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EPRI Transmission Line Reference Book115-345 kV Compact Line Design

The compact two-pole design in Figure 1.7-2 allows the use of longer spans (fewer structures per mile), because the structure is stronger and allows even closer phasephase spacing. This design may also be maintained with the line in service, even when pole-climbing access is limited. Nonetheless, the structure is more complex to assemble and requires setting two poles. The two-pole design was intended for use with a single shield wire, although a shorter pole design without shield wires is possible. The key dimensions for the compact two-pole design are shown in Figure 1.7-3. Here the conductor sag per unit span, the span length, and the blowout angle of the conductor are assumed to be the same as for the conventional HV two-pole design. Therefore, the distance from the attachment point of the energized conductors to ground (D) is the same. The other dimensions, however, are reduced:

The vertical distance to the top of the structure (E) is

reduced if the design has no shield wires.

The horizontal distance between the phase conductor

Figure 1.7-1 Single-pole compact design.

attachment points (B) is reduced by moving the supporting poles to the outside of the phase array.

The distance from the outer phase attachment at-rest

position to the structure pole (C) is reduced, because the attachment position is constrained from moving in strong winds.

The horizontal distance from the outer phase at-rest

attachment point to the edge-of-ROW (A) is reduced by stopping the attachment point from moving in the wind. The combined effect of these changes is to reduce the cross-sectional height and ROW width required for the line. 1.8 COMPACTION BENEFITS OF REDUCED CONDUCTOR SAG

The compact line footprint can be further reduced in a variety of ways without sacrificing reliability or increasing cost dramatically. One of the keys to further compaction is reducing the percentage of sag of the phase conductors. To understand how the phase conductor sag affects line compaction, consider the diagrams shown in Figure 1.8-1.

If the everyday final unloaded sag (D1) can be

Figure 1.7-2 Two-pole 115-kV compact line design.

reduced, then the high-temperature sag (D2) and the maximum mid-span blowout (H3) would also be less.

If the thermal elongation of the conductor could be

reduced, then the reduction in maximum sag (D2) would allow the use of shorter or fewer structures.

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Chapter 1: Introduction to Compact Lines

Figure 1.7-3 Schematic of two-pole 115-kV compact line design with shield wires removed and MOV-type lightning arrestors installed as required.

Figure 1.8-1 Phase conductor sag under final everyday conditions with no load, under maximum temperature, and with high transverse wind.

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EPRI Transmission Line Reference Book115-345 kV Compact Line Design

If the sag under high wind is reduced, then the corresponding reduction in mid-span blowout (H3) would allow a reduced distance to the edge-of-ROW. Other advantages of reduced percentage of sag that are not obvious from the figure include:

the choice of insulators and may be a limiting factor in the available mechanical strength. Lightning phenomena are similar for conventional and compact lines; however, with smaller, compact designs, the details may change. Smaller structures would receive fewer strokes, but reduced clearances may increase the flashover rate for those that do occur. Surge arrester developments since the publication of the first compact line reference book have enabled a new range of consideration of compact line designs with surge arresters and no shield wires. In one sense there is nothing radically different about insulation design for compact lines than there is for insulation design for any other transmission line. The distinction for compact lines is that design principles and data usually reserved for EHV lines are now required for HV lines. When dimensions are reduced, the electrical stresses can approach EHV levels, and considerations not previously apparent can come into play. 1.10 ELECTRICAL ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS

A reduction in the magnitude of ice galloping

motions that would allow a reduction in phase-phase spacing and phase-shield wire spacing.

A reduction in ice dropping magnitude, which can

reduce vertical spacing of the phases and any shield wires. High-temperature low-sag conductors seem particularly well suited for use in compact lines. For example, ACSS has a number of characteristics that help the designer in minimizing the line height and width. It has high self-damping so it can be installed with less sag than standard ACSR and without the need for dampers, which may be difficult to use (because of corona or reduction of phase-to-phase switching surge strength) at minimal phase spacing. It also has low thermal elongation so that the sag at high temperature is minimized, and structure height can be reduced or fewer structures used per mile. It is tolerant of operation at temperatures as high as 200oC, which yields a high thermal capacity for modest diameter conductors. This is particularly helpful with compact lines, because their low reactance often yields somewhat larger current flows relative to conventional designs at the same voltage. 1.9 INSULATION

Electrical insulation design must consider power frequency voltage, switching surges, and lightning. Design considerations to obtain desired transmission line performance for these three effects are different. Tradeoffs may be found necessary between these different insulation factors. For example, for a specified overall line size, longer insulators with longer leakage distance and improved contamination performance may result in smaller air gaps and reduced switching surge performance. Control of switching surge overvoltages may allow a more compact line design while still providing sufficient electrical performance. It is necessary to consider all the insulation factors together to arrive at the optimum compact line design. Specification of insulators requires consideration of both electrical and mechanical requirements. Different insulator materials have different electrical properties, and different insulator types may be selected for different line designs. The requirement in line compaction for restraint of conductor motion at the structures limits

Corona and field effects draw heavily on previous EHV research. The conductor surface electric field increases for the same line voltage as conductors are brought closer together. As a result, a compact 138-kV line may have an electric field at the conductor surface that is more typical of a traditional 345-kV line. Higher conductor surface electric fields mean increased audible noise and electromagnetic interference (radio noise and television interference) compared to conventional designs of the same voltage. Audible noise is not normally a factor to be considered for lines in the high-voltage range, but the higher conductor surface electric field associated with compact lines means audible noise must be considered as a factor in compact line design. Radio and television interference are always of concern in any transmission line project. Success in designing transmission lines that have operated successfully from a corona standpoint must not lull the designer into complacency that compact lines will have the same result. The increased conductor surface electric field associated with compact lines results in increased hardware and insulator corona. EHV or corona-free hardware, usually not specified in the high-voltage range, may be necessary for adequate noise performance of a high-voltage compact line. Laboratory testing of insulators and hardware for use on a compact line must be based on the anticipated electric field rather than the line voltage. Another concern relates to spark noise sources on the line. Especially for wood pole lines, it is necessary to ensure that the higher electric fields surrounding the line

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EPRI Transmission Line Reference Book115-345 kV Compact Line Design

Chapter 1: Introduction to Compact Lines

conductors do not translate into leakage currents in the poles that could cause sparking noise sources or pole fires. Because the three-phase currents sum to zero in an electrically balanced three-phase system, electric and magnetic fields would cancel and sum to zero if the threephase conductors were in the same spatial location. Of course this is impossible for practical insulation reasons, but it illustrates the important fact that electric and magnetic field cancellation increases when conductors are brought closer together. Compact lines have reduced ground-level electric and magnetic field profiles as compared to conventionally spaced lines of the same voltage and current. This difference has the beneficial effect of reducing induction to nearby objects, at the price of insulation stress and increased corona effects. 1.11 ECONOMICS OF COMPACTION

sequence series inductive reactance of the line per unit length. At the same time, decreasing the phase spacing also decreases the positive sequence shunt capacitive reactance per unit line length. The positive sequence surge impedance

ZS =

X L XC

also decreases as phase spacing decreases. Changes in series and shunt reactance do not change the thermal limit of a transmission line, because the thermal limit is a function of the ampacity of the line conductors. If the loading limit of the line is a function of syst e m c o n s i d e r at i o n s s u c h a s vo l t ag e d ro p, t h e n alterations in the line reactance can have an effect. Reduced series reactance results in lower voltage drop for the same line current, and the possibility for greater circuit loading. As a rule-of-thumb for reactance limited lines, lower surge impedance gives higher surge impedance loading for the same line voltage, and a higher power loading limit. 1.13 EPRI RESEARCH BACKGROUND

The cost of materials and labor to construct an overhead transmission line consists of roughly one-third conductors, one-third structures, and the remainder hardware, insulators, and right-of-way acquisition. Of course, given the level of opposition to the construction of new overhead lines and the cost of acquiring land in certain regions of North America and Europe, the cost of materials and labor may actually turn out to be a minor part of the total cost of studying, engineering, permitting, and answering various legal challenges. With regard to materials and labor, compact lines are likely to be somewhat more expensive than conventional lines at the same system voltage. But given the reduced visual impact and enhanced public acceptance of these smaller lines, the cost savings in permitting efforts and public hearings may be significant. In fact, in those locations where opposition to the construction of new overhead lines is particularly fierce, the choice may be between designing and building a compact overhead line or installing underground cables. In that situation, the compact line is likely to be very much cheaper to design and build than the underground alternative. The long-term costs of maintaining and repairing a compact line should be comparable to the cost of a conventional line, though incorrect design decisions could lead to more frequent outages and difficulty in performing live-line maintenance. In this sense, the application of compact lines is similar to the introduction of any new technology. Design errors can be expensive. 1.12 SYSTEM IMPACT OF COMPACT LINES

The research that led up to the publication of the first EPRI Transmission Line Reference Book 115-138 kV Compact Line Design book in 1978 and subsequent EPRI reports is described in Section 2.2.1. The objectives of this sequence of projects were to investigate:

How existing research into development of EHV

transmission voltages might be used to optimize the design of overhead transmission lines at the lower transmission voltages, specifically 115-138 kV. 115-138 kV was selected for the research based on the number of miles of line installed and the potential need for additional lines in this voltage range. This voltage range also appeared to present significant possibilities for line compaction to be successfully applied. The existing research focused on electrical issues such as insulation and corona and field effects.

What technical knowledge was lacking and needed to

be researched. This involved answering the question: What really limits the phase-to-phase spacing of an overhead transmission line in this voltage range? The answer to this question turned out to be the general area of mechanical conductor motions as a result of wind, ice, and magnetic forces resulting from the passage of through fault currents. Accordingly, much of the effort at that time was expended in the area of investigating conductor motions.

One consequence of decreasing the phase spacing of transmission lines, all other factors remaining the same (conductor, configuration, etc.), is to reduce the positive

Switching surge behavior of compact lines. Switching

surges were identified as a possible design limitation at lower voltages than heretofore had been consid-

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EPRI Transmission Line Reference Book115-345 kV Compact Line Design

ered. Basic switching surge design information was developed for compact lines. At the same time, phaseto-phase switching surge withstand strength of the conductor-to-conductor air gap was identified as another relatively unknown area. Data for phase-tophase switching surge design was developed in two subsequent projects and is reported in Chapter 5 of the present book.

Novel extensions to the basic compact line designs.

Several novel design concepts were investigated, including application of possible designs of composite insulators to support more than one phase from a single insulator, and extreme compaction through use of covered conductor. Neither of these areas has progressed to the point of practical application. Because the 1970s compact transmission line research was focused on determining the limits of compaction rather than developing a comprehensive range of practical designs, 138 kV test lines were constructed with phase spacings as little as 2 or 3 ft. The line with 2 ft phase spacing was unsuccessful, but one with horizontally configured phases spaced 3 ft operated successfully for the test period. Subsequent application of the compact line work, as reported in Chapter 2, built on this research with somewhat greater phase spacings as a conservative measure. The present book extends the earlier book (and related EPRI reports) to include research and experience since the time of its publication. The book focuses on technology: What happens when you make lines smaller? What considerations get better? What considerations get worse? What can be done to improve performance? For example, in the area of lightning, what makes lightning performance better, and what makes it worse, and what we can do to make lines smaller and still have them work to whatever criteria the designer needs? Some technical areas have seen little subsequent development since the publishing of the first compact transmission line reference book, specifically conductor motion resulting from ice shedding and magnetic forces resulting from through faults. Other areas have experienced considerable advancement. Improvements in composite insulators since the 1970s have led to an increased body of information of value to the compact line designer. Lightning, corona and field effects, and maintenance have received considerable attention. For example, at the time of the original compact line research, there was some interest in electric field profiles of overhead transmission lines, but magnetic field profiles were of no interest and were not considered. Any discussion of corona and field effects at the present time must also include magnetic field levels.
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The present volume draws heavily on two previous EPRI books and applies the information presented in them to the specific needs of the compact line designer. Electrical considerations are given in the EPRI AC Transmission Line Reference Book 200 kV and Above, Third Edition (the so-called Red Book). Mechanical considerations related to conductor motion are given in the EPRI Transmission Line Reference Book: WindInduced Conductor Motion, Second Edition (the socalled Orange Book). While material has been extracted from these two books as necessary to explain the features specific to compact overhead lines, the reader is referred to them for a more complete treatment of the technical background. 1.14 CHAPTER PREVIEW

In the present book each chapter starts with a roadmap, which gives an overview of the contents of the chapter. Each chapter then ends with a Highlights section, which summarizes the major points developed in the chapter. The reader can easily determine the subject matter of each chapter by perusal of the roadmap and highlights presented therein. The individual chapters and the subjected treated in them are: 1.14.1 Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 1 introduces the subject of compact overhead power transmission lines and presents an overview of the parameters and considerations involved in the design of compact lines. 1.14.2 Chapter 2 Compact Line Experience

Chapter 2 presents a summary of research conducted throughout the world relevant to compact lines and gives examples of experience of compact lines as they were actually constructed and operated. One of the original applications of the 1978 compact lines book was to give technical information for, and confidence in applying, voltage upgrading to existing transmission lines, and examples of this application are provided. 1.14.3 Chapter 3 Conductor Motions

The range of conductor motion phenomena are described and applied to compact line design. Conductor blowout due to wind, differential conductor motion, wake-induced oscillation, aeolian vibration, galloping, conductor jump due to ice shedding, and motion due to passage of through fault currents are considered. Increases in power transmission voltage followed upon gains in knowledge about insulation and corona phenomena. When design principles developed for EHV lines were applied to lower voltage (HV) lines for compaction purposes, it was discovered that the limiting phenomena might become conductor motions. For

EPRI Transmission Line Reference Book115-345 kV Compact Line Design

Chapter 1: Introduction to Compact Lines

proper operating performance, it is necessary to maintain sufficient spacing between the phase conductors, and between the phase conductors and grounded structural members to withstand power frequency voltage under conditions of low relative insulation strength of the air. Phase conductors must not be allowed to move to within power frequency voltage flashover distance of other phase conductors or grounded members to prevent tripouts. Conductor motion is discussed in detail in Chapter 3. Some conductor motions have been considered for some time for traditional line designs. Motions induced by aeolian vibration, ice galloping, and ice shedding have long been known to be factors in designing lines and in setting phase spacing. Compact line research has included emphasis on ice shedding to develop more accurate methods of predicting conductor motion following release of ice to allow closer vertical conductor spacing than previously employed based on earlier models. Other mechanical conductor motion factors that are new for compact lines are differential conductor motion during wind and conductor motion resulting from magnetic forces caused by passage of through fault currents. Wind swing of insulators, a concern for suspension insulators in conventional designs, is not a factor for compact lines, where conductor motion is restrained at the structures by post insulators or other insulator arrangements that do not allow swinging. Differential conductor motion occurs when the swinging of the individual phase conductors does not track one another so interphase spacing is reduced. The worst case would be out-of-phase swinging, where one phase is entirely in one direction and a horizontally adjacent phase is in the opposite direction. While out-of-phase swinging can be a factor in distribution line flashovers, it is less important for transmission lines because of the increased stability of the heavier transmission line conductors and the more careful sagging in transmission line construction. Nevertheless, differential conductor motion is a factor to consider for minimum phase spacing. When a fault occurs on a transmission line, the fault current may flow through lines not immediately involved in the fault. If the magnetic forces resulting from this fault current (through fault current) cause the conductors to move to a distance within power frequency voltage flashover spacing, the line will fault and trip out, even though it was not involved in the original fault. This will cause an additional line trip, further compromising the system. This is an especial issue for compact lines because magnetic forces on conductors carrying fault current are inversely proportional to the distance between the conductors. Thus, bringing con-

ductors closer together simultaneously increases the forces that cause conductor swinging and reduces the amount of space for the conductors to swing without impinging on power frequency voltage flashover distance. While a consideration for any conductor configurat i o n , t h ro u g h f a u l t s a re o f m os t c o n c er n for horizontally arranged conductors, because the swinging is greatest for this conductor arrangement. Anecdotal reports have indicated that line trip-outs have occurred for compact lines as a result of through fault current. Mechanical conductor motion considerations for compact line design are developed in Chapter 3. The EPRI Orange Book is dedicated to conductor motion and is also applicable to compact line design. 1.14.4 Chapter 4 Electrical Performance of Insulators and Air Gaps under AC Voltage

Power frequency voltage is present at all times, so it is necessary for the insulation to be able to withstand power frequency voltage at all times and weather conditions. Insulator performance under contamination is a limiting power frequency voltage consideration, the same as for all transmission lines. Contamination performance is related to the insulator type and leakage distance. For some compact applications, composite insulators, fogtype (high-leakage) insulators, or insulators with resistive glaze may be appropriate to improve contamination performance in minimum space. Because of the higher electric field on conductors and hardware on compact lines compared to traditional line designs, the electric field stress is comparatively increased on the insulators. Especially for composite insulators, it may be necessary to invoke corona protection for compact HV lines that previously may have been reserved for EHV lines. Advances in insulator technology have led to improved performance, allowing higher voltage withstand in smaller space. At the same time there are important technical considerations related to the performance of insulators under the higher electric fields inherent in compact line designs. Application of insulators is an important component of line design. Also, sufficient air gap spacing must be provided to prevent flashover. 1.14.5 Chapter 5 Insulation for Switching Surges

Switching surges have previously only been concerns for EHV lines and have not been a factor in HV line design due to the relatively more generous conductor spacing. When dimensions are made smaller, the ability of the line to handle switching surge overvoltages on a statistical basis may become limiting to the amount of compaction possible. Switching surges have been researched for many years, and methods are available for controlling surge overvoltages. While previously used for EHV
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Chapter 1: Introduction to Compact Lines

EPRI Transmission Line Reference Book115-345 kV Compact Line Design

lines, these methods are applicable for compact HV line design to design for minimum phase spacing. These control methods include synchronized pole closing, circuit breaker resistor preinsertion, and use of surge arresters. Switching surges were initially considered in the design of EHV lines, because other factors tended to limit the spacings first at the lower transmission voltages. However, with reduction of spacings as a result of line compaction (or voltage upgrading of existing lines), both phase-to-ground and phase-to-phase switching surges can become important, or even limiting to the line design. Some of the information presented in this chapter is unique to this book, especially for phase-to-phase switching surge design. 1.14.6 Chapter 6 Lightning Performance of Compact Lines

requirements is essential in the maintenance process. Because of the tight clearances, maintenance can be more difficult for a compact line than for one with more generous spacings. Attention in the design phase can frequently make maintenance easierfor example, by redesigning hardware so it can be readily grasped with live-line tools. Maintenance is one area where construction of a few spans of prototype line can pay off with large dividends. Involvement of maintenance people at this stage of compact line design can generate refinements that will reduce cost and improve reliability of the line once it is placed in service. 1.14.9 Chapter 9 Aesthetic and Environmental Aspects of Compact Lines

The smaller dimensions of compact lines reduce the stroke incidence to the line, but reduced clearances also reduce the electrical strength of the line. Fewer strokes mean an improved tripout rate, but reduced electrical strength means an impaired tripout rate. The tradeoffs must be investigated to ensure adequate lightning performance. Reduced footing resistance lowers the tripout rate, and is a measure that may be employed to improve the lightning performance. For some compact line applications, it may be desirable to consider unshielded line designs to minimize the structure size. In locations with low lightning activity, unshielded lines may give adequate performance. In other locations there may be sufficient natural shielding, as for example from trees. In other situations it may de desirable to consider structure-mounted surge arresters on the top phase or phases to improve the lightning performance. 1.14.7 Chapter 7 Corona and Field Effects

Environmental factors of compact overhead power transmission lines include electrical factors of corona and field effects (Chapter 7) and harder-to-quantify effects such as aesthetics and effects on birds. There is some overlap between these areas, because there is evidence that the electric fields surrounding compact lines may deter birds from approaching the line conductors. Visual considerations can be significant in the process of obtaining approval for construction for a new overhead transmission line. Visual issues include structure selection and methods for hiding the line, including screening and integration with the surroundings. Sometimes the opposite approach of a bold design is appropriate in select locations. Issues related to flora, birds, and animals also can become important. The issue of birds arises in two areas: impact of birds on structures, and bird-induced line outages. Both are considerations in certain locations. Aesthetic issues are harder to quantify, but one of the motivations for compact lines is their reduced size and consequent reduced visual impact. This is an area where it is difficult to generalize, and local considerations are important. These are issues that come up in the permitting process and so must be considered in a compact line project. REFERENCES Priestley, T. and K. Craik. 1993. Perception of Transmission Lines: Summary of Surveys and Framework for Further Research. International Electric Transmission Perception Project.

Transmission line compaction (for the same voltage) reduces electric and magnetic fields at the earth's surface, but increases the electric field at the conductor surface. Thus, corona considerations may become more significant for compact lines than for conventional lines at the same voltage. A very important factor is hardware and insulator corona, and laboratory testing of insulators and hardware for corona must be carefully conducted to replicate the electric field at the surface rather than merely considering the line voltage. 1.14.8 Chapter 8 Maintenance and Safety

An issue easily overlooked in the design process is provision for maintenance, especially if live-line maintenance is desired. Adherence to safety considerations and code

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