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Challenges of PHEV Penetration to the Residential Distribution Network

Shengnan Shao, Student Member, IEEE, Manisa Pipattanasomporn, Member, IEEE, and Saifur Rahman, Fellow, IEEE
PHEVs would place increased pressure on peak units with an uncontrolled charging strategy. However, no additional generation capacity would be required for a large penetration of PHEVs when charging cycles start in the off-peak periods. Other research and development (R&D) in this field includes basic research related to PHEV technology development. For example, the author in [6] compared the use of lithium-ion batteries and carbon/carbon ultra capacitors as the energy storage technology for PHEVs. Authors in [7] developed a bipolar battery utilizing a wafer cell design for meeting the high-energy demands of modern PHEVs. Authors in [8, 9] developed optimal power management of PHEVs. The other aspects of PHEV research, which are as Index Terms-- Demand management, household load control, important as the two aspects mentioned above, but have not PHEVs and stagger charge. been discussed in the literatures at the time of writing this paper, are to evaluate the adaptability of the residential I. INTRODUCTION distribution network to support PHEVs. This paper addresses ITH a recent hike in gas price and the concern about this issue as it is very important to understand the implications global warming, major automotive manufacturers have of adding PHEVs onto the electrical grid at the distribution introduced plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) into the level. Depending on the location and time the vehicles are world market. A plug-in hybrid is a vehicle that can be plugged in, usage patterns of local distribution grids will be plugged in to the electricity grid and can be driven by changed. The objective of this paper is to evaluate the impacts of electricity for at least 10 miles without consuming any gasoline [1]. It is expected that by 2010, plug-in hybrids will charging PHEVs on a residential distribution network with different charging strategies. The distribution transformer be widely available in the United States [2]. Since early 2007, plug-in hybrids have become a very loading levels with PHEVs are analyzed and some possible popular topic for research and development. Most of the demand management strategies are investigated. This paper is previous published studies related to PHEVs aimed at organized as follows: section II discusses the residential studying the potential impacts of PHEV at the generation level. distribution network of interest, together with the daily load Findings from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) curves in both summer and winter months. Section III [3] indicated that existing electric power generation plants describes the battery model developed in MATLAB/Simulink, would be used at full capacity for most hours of the day to together with its charging and discharging characteristics. The support up to 84% of the nations cars, pickup trucks and battery model developed is based on the specifications of SUVs for a daily drive of 33 miles on average. Conclusions Chevy Volt Li-ion battery. Section IV presents the hourly load from Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) [4] indicated curves seen by a distribution transformer when PHEVs are that most regions would need to build additional generation charged based on different charging strategies. The analysis capacity to meet the added demand when PHEVs are charged points out that charging PHEVs in a residential distribution in the evening. A National Renewable Energy Laboratory network will create new load peaks for a distribution (NREL) [5] study showed that a very large penetration of transformer. However, charging PHEVs at different times of the day may result in a slight increase or decrease in the This work was supported in part by the U.S. Department of Defense under distribution transformer efficiency, depending upon the Grant W912HQ-08-C-0037. existing transformer loading levels, time of charge and the S. Shao is with Virginia Tech Advanced Research Institute, Arlington, PHEV charging strategy used. Furthermore, allowing quick VA 22203 USA (e-mail: sshao@vt.edu). M. Pipattanasomporn is with Virginia Tech Advanced Research Institute, charge may easily result in overloading of a distribution Arlington, VA 22203 USA (e-mail: mpipatta@vt.edu). transformer even with the low PHEV penetration level being S. Rahman is professor and director of Virginia Tech Advanced discussed here. In Section V, some simple algorithms for Research Institute, Arlington, VA 22203 USA (e-mail: srahman@vt.edu).
AbstractAs Plug-in Hybrid Vehicles (PHEVs) take a greater share in the personal automobile market, their penetration levels may bring potential challenges to electric utility especially at the distribution level. This paper examines the impact of charging PHEVs on a distribution transformer under different charging scenarios. The simulation results indicate that at the PHEV penetration level of interest, new load peaks will be created, which in some cases may exceed the distribution transformer capacity. In order to keep the PHEVs from causing harmful new peaks, thus making the system more secure and efficient, several PHEV charging profiles are analyzed and some possible demand management solutions, including PHEV stagger charge and household load control, are explored.

PHEV charge control and demand management are explored for the utility companies to deal with new load peaks caused by PHEV penetration. II. RESIDENTIAL DISTRIBUTION NETWORK MODEL AND HOURLY LOAD CURVES In general, a distribution network is referred to as all distribution-level components located downstream of a distribution substation. In the context of the Virginia Tech Electric Service (VTES) in Blacksburg, VA, the distribution substation steps down the voltage from 69kV to 12.47kV. The distribution voltage is at 12.47kV and lower. There are several distribution transformers, which step down the voltage further to customer utilization voltages of 110V, 240V or 480V. Depending on load sizes and types, distribution transformers typically range in size from 25kVA to 75kVA per phase. A typical 25kVA distribution transformer generally serves four to seven homes in a neighborhood. The residential distribution network studied in this paper is a typical 25kVA distribution transformer that serves a neighborhood of five homes. Hourly residential load curves of an average household are available from the RELOAD database [10], which is used by the Electricity Module of the National Energy Modeling System (NEMS). The hourly residential load curve data are available for twelve months (January to December), three day types (typical weekday, typical weekend and typical peak day) and nine load types (space cooling, space heating, water heating, cooking, cloth drying, refrigeration, freezing, lighting and others). As the load curves in the RELOAD database represent hourly fractions of the yearly load, the load curves will need to be scaled up by the annual household consumption and divided by the number of hours in a year, which is 8760. Therefore, the adjustment made to the hourly RELOAD residential load curves for each load type can be represented by (1):

efficiency curve, which represents the relationship between transformer efficiency and its loading level in percent. This relationship is quantified by assuming that the core loss (no load loss) is 51 Watts [11] and the internal resistance (winding loss) is 0.01 Ohm.

Fig. 1. Hourly winter load seen by a 25kVA distribution transformer, serving five homes.

Fig.2. Hourly summer load seen by a 25kVA distribution transformer, serving five homes.

Lhour = f

Lannual 8760

(1)

It can be seen that the distribution transformer efficiency varies from 97.2% to 98.7% during various loading conditions and that a distribution transformer operates at its highest efficiency when it is loaded at roughly 35%.

where: Lhour = Average hourly load (kWh/h) f = Hourly fraction of yearly load Lannual = Average annual household load Since in Blacksburg, VA, the winter peak load appears in January and the summer peak load appears in August, the hourly load data used in this paper are taken from these two months. Using (1) and the assumption that all houses have the same hourly load shape, the load shape of five houses in both winter and summer months can be illustrated in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2, respectively. In this case, the peak load in the winter month is about 14kW while that in the winter month is about 13kW. It is apparent that a typical distribution transformer (in this case, a 25kVA transformer) is lightly loaded at about 35% on average and about 52-57% at the peak. Fig. 3 shows a typical 25kVA distribution transformer

Fig. 3. Transformer efficiency curve.

III. PHEV BATTERY CHARACTERISTICS To investigating the impacts of charging PHEVs on the

distribution network, PHEV and its charging characteristics are discussed in this section. A. PHEV Battery Specifications The battery model used in this paper is based on the specifications of the Chevy Volts battery. Chevy Volt is a hybrid electric vehicle expected to be available in 2010. Chevy Volt uses a lithium-ion battery that can provide all electric driving range of 40 miles and has a plug-in recharge capability. A gasoline-power engine is also used as an onboard range extender for battery. Chevy Volt battery specifications are shown in Table I.
TABLE I. CHEVY VOLT BATTERY SPECIFICATIONS [12]

C. Battery Charge Characteristics The charging circuit is designed such that the recharge time at 110V outlet from 30% to 80% is approximately 6 to 6.5 hours according to the battery specifications provided by Chevy Volt [14]. Fig. 5 displays four battery parameters during the charging period, namely the battery recharge current (A), battery voltage (V), battery SOC (%) and battery recharge power (kW). Notice that it takes about 6.5 hours for the battery to be fully charged.

Description Battery type Energy Voltage Full recharge time at 110V outlet Electric range

Characteristics Lithium-ion 16 kWh 320 to 350V 6 to 6.5 hours 40 miles

In general, there are two basic modes of PHEV operation, namely charge depleting and charge sustaining modes. Within the electric range, i.e. 40 miles for Chevy Volt, the fully charged PHEV is driven in the charge-depleting mode. During this period, energy stored in the battery is used to power the vehicle causing the battery state of charge (SOC) to gradually decrease. Once the battery is depleted to its minimum level, the vehicle switches to the charge-sustaining mode [13]. During this mode, electricity is transferred from the gasoline engine generator to maintain the battery SOC to be higher than the minimum level. In the case of Chevy Volt, the gasoline engine is only used to charge the battery and is not designed to drive the vehicle directly. B. Battery Discharge Characteristics The PHEV battery model is developed in Matlab/Simulink based on the battery specifications described in Table I. The discharge characteristic of the developed battery model is displayed in Fig.4 as the relationship between battery voltage (V) and battery capacity (Ah).
Fig. 5. Charging characteristics of normal charge from a standard 110V/15A outlet: (a) battery recharge current (A); (b) battery voltage (V); (c) battery SOC (%); and (d) battery recharge power (kW).

According to Fig. 5, the required maximum charging power for a PHEV is approximately 1.45kW, which can be drawn from a standard 110V/15A outlet. IV. HOURLY LOAD CURVES WITH PHEVS Based on the hourly load curves seen by a distribution transformer during summer and winter months (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2) and the PHEV battery charging model developed in MATLAB/Simulink (Fig. 5), hourly load curves with PHEVs can be derived. For the purpose of this study, we consider a 25kVA distribution feeder that serves five houses with two PHEVs as per our case study. The reason behind this assumption can be explained as follows: There are about 20 million cars sold every year in the US and the market share of PHEVs is expected to rise to 25% between now and 2020 [4]. Assuming that the PHEV market share increases linearly, we can roughly estimate

Fig. 4. Discharge characteristic of the developed battery model according to the battery specifications described in Table I.

that there will be about 25 million PHEVs by the year 2020. The projected number of passenger vehicles in 2020 is calculated to be 285 million, according to the linear regression analysis using the data [15] from 1990 to 2006. 25 million PHEVs out of 285 million passenger vehicles is equivalent to the PHEV penetration rate of about 9%. In 2006, there were about 235 million passenger vehicles registered in the U.S. [15]. It is estimated that there are about 110 million households in 2006 [16]. This is equivalent to about two cars per household. Since the PHEV penetration rate is estimated at 9%, there is likely to be at least one PHEV in every 5 households. Since it is possible that there will be at least two PHEVs per distribution transformer in the near future, the number of PHEV per transformer considered here is two. Two different PHEV charging strategies are considered, namely normal charging and quick charging strategies. Each charging strategy is described below: A. Normal Charging Strategy The normal charge is defined as the standard PHEV charge from the 110V/15A outlet as specified in Chevy Volts specifications. a) All PHEVs start charging at 6 pm In this case, two PHEVs are charged whenever they are plugged in. During a typical weekday, we assume that all vehicle owners arrive home close to 6 pm with the initial PHEV SOC of 30%. Therefore, both PHEVs are plugged in to household electrical outlets at 6 pm. Fig. 6 illustrates the PHEV charging profile added to the winter and summer loads. The blue line represents the total household load (kW), as discussed in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. The horizontal red line represents the rated power (kW) for a 25 kVA distribution transformer with 0.95 lagging PF load, which is 23.75 kW.

SOC to 80% SOC. Therefore, both PHEVs are charged from 6 pm and will stop around 12:30 am. However, charging all PHEVs at 6 pm coincides with the evening load peaks in both summer and winter months. Hence, charging all PHEVs at 6 pm illustrates the worst case scenario that all PHEVs come home with the minimum SOC and start charging at the same time. However, this is possible and very likely to happen. In this case, the maximum transformer loading levels increase to 68% in winter and 52% in summer. b) All PHEVs are charged during off-peak hours This case simulates the scenario when PHEV owners are sensitive to the time-of-use rate structure. In this case, PHEV owners will wait to charge their PHEVs during off-peak hours. According to the Dominion Virginia Power (DOM) [17], the off-peak hours during summer months start from 10 pm to 11am; and the off-peak hours during winter months start from 9 pm to 7am and 11 am to 5 pm. Although winter months has two off-peak periods, the off-peak period during the day time will not be taken into consideration because PHEVs are not likely to be at the house during that time. Fig.7 illustrates the off-peak PHEV charging profile added to the winter and summer loads.

Hourly load (kW) Transformer kW loading capacity Total loads with PHEVs
Fig. 7. Hourly load profiles seen by a 25kVA transformer serving five houses and two PHEVs (all PHEVs are charged during off-peak hours).

Hourly load (kW) Transformer kW loading capacity Total loads with PHEVs
Fig. 6. Hourly load profiles seen by a 25kVA transformer serving five houses and two PHEVs (all PHEVs are charged at 6 pm - normal charge).

In this case, charging PHEVs during off-peak hours will create new load peaks at the start of off-peak hours in both summer and winter months. The new load peaks created during off-peak hours are a little higher than the original peaks, i.e. 58% in winter and 52% in summer. This may imply a slight increase in transformer efficiency during off-peak periods (after midnight) because charging PHEVs during offpeak will increase transformer loading level close to 35% - the loading level that yields maximum transformer efficiency. B. Quick Charging Strategy Although the distribution transformer in both normal charging strategies is not overloaded, there is another case that should not be neglected. This is when the PHEVs are allowed to be quick charged.

It takes about 6.5 hours to fully charge PHEVs from 30%

Quick charge is a PHEV charging strategy when PHEVs are allowed to be charged at a higher voltage and/or current to achieve a faster charging duration. This characteristic is allowed by several vehicle manufacturers. For example, the body of Mitsubishi i-MiEV has two charging inlets: one for standard 110V and the other for quick charge at a higher voltage. While it takes 14 hours to fully charge Mitsubishi iMiEV with standard 110V outlet, it only takes 30 minutes to fully charge the vehicle with the quick charge. Since some vehicle owners may not want to wait 6 to 6.5 hours for the recharge, it is possible that they will upgrade their household electrical outlets to allow a quick charge at home. The quick charge is usually done through a 240V/30A outlet [4], which is available in some houses or can be easily acquired through rewiring. Fig. 8 shows the PHEV quick charging characteristics from a 240V/30A outlet, namely battery recharge current (A), battery recharge voltage (V), battery state of charge (SOC) and battery recharge power (kW).

will overload the transformer, i.e. it increases the peak load to 103% in winter and 98% in summer. It is important to note that the load curves used in this study represent average loads of a typical weekday in a residential distribution network. In reality, the instantaneous distribution loads fluctuate much more. Therefore, the new peak caused by quick charging PHEVs at household outlets as shown in Fig. 9 may be higher when instantaneous load demands are considered. Allowing PHEVs to be quick-charged apparently will increase the transformer loss, thus reducing the system operating efficiency. As shown in Fig. 3, increasing the transformer loading from 35% to 100% reduces the transformer operating efficiency by at least 1 percent. This will result in adverse affects to the distribution utility as a whole, if there is a large-scale PHEV penetration.

Hourly load (kW) Transformer kW loading capacity Total loads with PHEVs
Fig. 9. Hourly load profiles seen by a 25kVA transformer serving five houses and two quick-charge PHEVs (All PHEVs are quick charged starting at 6 pm).

b) All PHEVs are quick-charged during off-peak hours In this case, both PHEVs will be charged during off-peak hours. Fig. 10 illustrates the PHEV quick-charging profiles added to winter and summer load respectively.

Fig. 8. Charging characteristics of quick charge from a 240V/30A outlet: (a) battery recharge current (A); (b) battery voltage (V); (c) battery SOC (%); and (d) battery recharge power (kW).

It is apparent that it takes less than 1.8 hours to recharge the vehicle from 30% SOC to 80% SOC. However, higher peak power is required, i.e. roughly 5.8 kW. a) All PHEVs are quick-charged at 6 pm To compare with the normal 6 pm charging scenario, two PHEVs are assumed to start quick charging at 6 pm. Fig. 9 shows the PHEV charging profile added to the winter and summer loads. Fig. 9 illustrates that quick charging both PHEVs at 6 pm
Hourly load (kW) Transformer kW loading capacity Total loads with PHEVs
Fig. 10. Hourly load profiles seen by a 25kVA transformer serving five houses and two quick-charge PHEVs (all PHEVs are quick charged during off-peak).

The analysis shows that when two PHEV quick charges occur during off-peak hours, a new peak created by new PHEV loads is much higher than the original peak. The peak loads increase to 93% in winter and 86% in summer. V. PHEV CHARGE CONTROL AND DEMAND MANAGEMENT Although allowing transformer overloads for a short time is not an unusual practice for some utilities, this can become a serious issue when a number of PHEVs are connected to a distribution transformer, i.e. five PHEVs per distribution transformer. To deal with the challenges caused by high PHEV penetration, one apparent solution is to upgrade the distribution transformers. However, there are more than 100 existing distribution transformers even in a small distribution circuit in a small town like Blacksburg, VA. Upgrading these distribution transformers will require new resources. Instead of installing additional transformer capacity, another possible approach is to perform demand management, which can be accomplished by (a) staggering the PHEV charging time, or (b) performing household load control. The implementation of the demand management with PHEVs is built upon an existing infrastructure and is mainly a softwarebased solution. In most cases, the software-based solution can be considered more cost effective than a hardware-based solution, i.e. upgrading distribution transformer. The proposed demand management strategies requires Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI) to monitor household loads, together with a PHEV control unit and remote switches. These remote switches are used to control the ON/OFF status of PHEV outlets and household loads. Fig. 11 depicts the infrastructure required to implement demand management strategies at a distribution transformer serving five houses.

exceed its original peak load. In the stagger charge method, the PHEV control unit monitors the distribution transformer load information (based on household loads from AMI) and continuously compares it with a pre-determined loading value. PHEVs will be charged if the transformer load is less than the pre-determined loading value, i.e. original peak load. However, if the transformer loading is greater than the pre-determined loading value, charging PHEVs will be delayed until the transformer loading falls below the threshold. To simulate the stagger charge method, it is assumed that PHEVs will be plugged in any time between 6 pm and midnight. The simulation setup can be described as follows: 1. Two random numbers are generated to characterize the PHEV plug-in time, which can be any time between 6 pm and midnight. 2. The transformer load is constantly monitored. The threshold to delay the PHEV charge is set at the average original peak seen by the distribution transformer. In this case, if the transformer load is less than the original peak load, charging PHEVs is allowed. However, if the transformer load is over the limitation, charging PHEVs is delayed. Fig. 12 shows the staggered PHEV charging at normal rate added to winter and summer loads.

Hourly load (kW) Transformer kW loading capacity Total loads with PHEVs
Fig. 12. Hourly load profiles seen by a 25kVA transformer serving five houses and two PHEVs (staggered charge at normal rate).

Fig. 11. Infrastructure required to implement PHEV charge control and demand management, including AMI, a PHEV control unit and a remote switch for PHEV control.

The same analysis could be conducted to quantify the impact of stagger charge on the distribution transformer load profile when the quick charge is allowed. The simulation setup for the quick charge analysis is similar to that of the normal charge case described above. Fig. 13 shows load profiles with two quick-charge PHEVs when the stagger charge methodology is used.

A. Methodology for PHEV stagger charge In our study, the stagger charge implies that the PHEVs are allowed to be charged only when the current load (kW) seen by the distribution transformer is less than a specified value, i.e. when the current distribution transformer load does not

TABLE II. IMPACT OF VARIOUS CHARGING SCENARIOS ON FINANCIAL AND TRANSFORMER OPERATING EFFICIENCY

Charging strategies

Additional annual cost to charge a PHEV $0 $269.83 $40.97 $438.12 $40.97 $40.97-$269.83 $40.97-$438.12 $40.97-$438.12

Peak load (% of transformer rating) Winter 57.0% 68.5% 58.0% 103.1% 92.8% 62.7% 80.0% 82.5% Summer 52.0% 63.5% 52.0% 98.1% 86.2% 57.7% 75.1% 78.5%

Transformer efficiency at peak load (%) Winter 98.53% 98.38% 98.52% 97.84% 98.00% 98.46% 98.21% 98.17% Summer 98.59% 98.45% 98.59% 97.92% 98.11% 98.53% 98.28% 98.23%

Base case: without PHEVs Case 1: Normal charge a) Charging at 6 pm b) Charging during off-peak Case 2: Quick charge a) Charging at 6pm b) Charging during off-peak Case 3: PHEV charge control and demand management a) Staggered normal charge, random plug-in time b) Staggered quick charge, random plug-in time c) Demand control-quick charge, random plug-in time

Hourly load (kW) Transformer kW loading capacity Total loads with PHEVs
Fig. 13. Hourly load profiles seen by a 25kVA transformer serving five houses and two quick-charge PHEVs (staggered)

short time to support the PHEV quick charge. Because there exist only minimal impacts when a small number of PHEVs are charged at the normal rate, this analysis will only consider the household load control option with the PHEV quick charging strategy. Fig. 14 shows the result from the household load control method with PHEV quick charge. According to Fig. 14, the new peak increases to about 15 kW. In contrast to the stagger charging method, the PHEV owners will not have to wait longer for their quick charge. The vehicles can finish charging within 1.8 hours from the time they are plugged in. This household load control option requires that a utility gives users who are willing to let their non-critical loads be controlled some discounts. Additionally, the utility could charge the demand charge to the PHEV owners with quick-charge capability.

It can be seen from Fig. 12 and Fig. 13 that the stagger control can reduce the peak load caused by charging PHEV, as opposed to other uncontrolled charging methods. Therefore, the staggered charge method will help smooth the load seen by the distribution transformer, thus mitigating the new peak problem. This method is also suitable for managing a large number of PHEVs in a residential distribution network. As a result, new peaks will not be created. However, people who have the quick-charge facility at home may not always want to wait. Hence, the household load control method discussed below is introduced as an alternative. B. Household Load Control In this study, the household load control implies that the non-critical loads can be shed or deferred when PHEVs are being charged. In the household load control method, realtime electrical energy consumptions of all household loads must be monitored. These household loads can be monitored by AMI. With AMI, PHEV loads can be sensed at the time of plug-in. Then, a PHEV control unit can shed or defer some non-critical loads, like water heaters or clothes dryers, for a
Hourly load (kW) Transformer kW loading capacity Total loads with PHEVs
Fig. 14. Hourly load profiles seen by a 25kVA transformer serving five houses and two quick-charge PHEVs (Quick charge with household load control)

In Table II we summarize the financial and transformer operating efficiency impacts of the various charging scenarios under the time-of-use (TOU) rates offered by the local electric utility. The tariff schedule used is based on that of Dominion

Virginia Power Residential Rates and Tariffs (Schedule 1T). The rate is 15.004 c/kWh for all on-peak kWh and 1.403 c/kWh for all off-peak kWh [17]. Table II indicates that the additional electricity cost due to the charging of the PHEV from the supply at home is as low as $40.97 per car for the whole year, or as high as $438.12 per car annually if quick charging is used during peak hours. Thus, it is advisable to avoid quick charging during peak hours, if possible. On the other hand the impact on transformer overloading due to charging of one or two PHEVs per one distribution transformer is negligible. Therefore, the issues of transformer upgrade will not arise for the level of PHEV penetration being discussed here. However, with a large-scale PHEV penetration, impacts of transformer overloading will be more pronounced. VI. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK In this paper, the challenges of PHEV penetration on a residential distribution network are discussed and evaluated. Research findings indicate that all PHEV charging strategies considered in the paper will create new load peaks seen by a distribution transformer. This will result in a slight decrease in operating efficiency of distribution transformers, and in some cases, the distribution transformer can be overloaded. The paper investigates several possible solutions to deal with the PHEV penetration challenges, including stagger charge or household load control options. These demand management strategies will require AMI and a simple local control (software) infrastructure. Further research needs to be conducted to explore the impact on of the large-scale PHEV penetration the electricity infrastructure, especially at the distribution level. VII. REFERENCES
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VIII. BIOGRAPHIES
Shengnan Shao (S08 - IEEE) is pursuing her Ph.D. degree in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, VA, USA. She received her M.S. degree in 2007 and B.S. degree in 2005 in Electrical Engineering from Tsinghua University (THU), Beijing, China. She is now a research assistant at the Advanced Research Institute of Virginia Tech. She is a member of the team working on Intelligent Distributed Autonomous Power Systems (IDAPS) project at the Virginia Tech Advanced Research Institute. Her fields of interest include power distribution, power system protection and renewable energy systems. Manisa Pipattanasomporn (S'01, M'06 - IEEE) joined Virginia Tech's Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering as an assistant professor in 2006. She received her Ph.D. in electrical engineering from Virginia Tech in 2004. She received the M.S. degree in Energy Economics and Planning from Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Thailand in 2001 and a B.S. degree from the Electrical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand in 1999. She is currently researching the application of a specialized microgrid called the Intelligent Distributed Autonomous Power Systems (IDAPS) to improve the resiliency of electrical energy infrastructures. Her fields of interest are renewable energy systems, distributed energy resources and critical infrastructures. Saifur Rahman (S75, M78, SM83, F98 - IEEE) is the director of the Advanced Research Institute at Virginia Tech where he is the Joseph Loring Professor of electrical and computer engineering. He also directs the Center for Energy and the Global Environment at the university. Professor Rahman has served as a program director in engineering at the US National Science Foundation between 1996 and 1999. He has served on the IEEE PES Governing Board as VP of industry relations, and VP of publications between 1999and 2003. In 2006 he served as the vice president of the IEEE Publications Board, and a member of the IEEE Board of Governors. In 2008 he is serving as the vice president for New Initiatives and Outreach for the IEEE Power & Energy Society and a member of its Board. He is a member-atlarge of the IEEE-USA Energy Policy Committee. He is a distinguished lecturer of IEEE PES, and has published over 300 papers on conventional and renewable energy systems, load forecasting, uncertainty evaluation and infrastructure planning.

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