ELECTROCHEMISTRY

by Giorgio Carboni, January 1998 Translate by G!L! Stuart

CO"TE"TS
I"TRO#$CTIO" CO"#$CTORS %&TTERIES THE LEMO" %&TTERY #&"IELL'S CELL THE CO"CE"TR&TIO" CELL (OLT&'S )ILE ME&S$RI"G )OTE"TI&LS O* RE#$CTIO" G&L(&"IC #E)OSITIO" CO"CL$SIO"

I"TRO#$CTIO"
In 1+91 Luigi Gal,ani is-o,ere ele-tri-al a-ti,ity in t.e ner,es o/ t.e /rogs t.at .e 0as isse-ting! He t.oug.t t.at ele-tri-ity 0as o/ ani1al origin an -oul be /oun only in li,ing tissues! & /e0 years later, in 1822 &lessan ro (olta is-o,ere t.at ele-tri-ity -oul be 3ro u-e t.roug. inorgani- 1eans! In /a-t, by using s1all s.eets o/ -o33er an 4in- an -lot. s3a-ers soa5e in an a-i solution, .e built a battery 6 t.e /irst a33aratus -a3able o/ 3ro u-ing ele-tri-ity! "aysayers 0ere 7ui-5 to 3re i-t t.at ele-tri-ity 0oul ne,er ser,e a use/ul 3ur3ose! Ob,iously t.ey 0ere ,ery 0rong! Ele-tri-ity .as a -entral role in our li,es an to t.is ay Ele-tro-.e1istry is a stan ar -ourse o/ stu y! 8.ile listening to lessons on Ele-tro-.e1istry, 1any stu ents 1ay 0on er 0.y it 0as e,er in,ente , i/ it 0as really e,er ne-essary to in,ent it an i/ t.e 0orl 0oul be better o// 0it.out it! 8it. t.e s1all e93eri1ents t.at /ollo0, 0e .o3e to 1a5e 3ea-e bet0een t.ese stu ents an t.e stu y o/ Ele-tro-.e1istry! T.ese /un an si13le e93eri1ents -an tea-. t.e /un a1ental -on-e3ts o/ Ele-tro-.e1istry 0it.out as5ing 1u-. o/ t.e stu ent! &s you 0ill see, 1any o/ t.ese e1onstrations are easily a a3te to ,arious -on/igurations an ea-. -an be one in e3en ently or as 3art o/ t.e /ull -urri-ulu1! POROUS VASE 6 &n a-tual 3orous ,ase 1a e /or t.e 3ur3ose 1ay be i//i-ult to a-7uire! It is use to 3re,ent t.e 7ui-5 1i9ing o/ ,arious solutions, 0.ile 3er1itting

t.e e9-.ange o/ ions! *or our 3ur3oses you -an a a3t a terra-otta 3ot o/ t.e ty3e use in gar ening si13ly by 3lugging t.e .ole in t.e botto1 0it. 1olten 0a9 an allo0ing it to -ool! &not.er e,en 1ore e-ono1i-al ans0er lies in -onstru-ting a barrier o/ 3a3er! &s s.o0n in /igure :, roll t.e 3a3er to /or1 a -ylin er an glue it in 3la-e on t.e botto1 o/ t.e 1ain -ontainer using a sili-one a .esi,e su-. t.at li7ui s -annot 3ass bet0een t.e t0o areas e/ine by t.e 3a3er! & barrier o/ ;ust one s.eet 0oul be too 3er1eable, t.ere/ore use at least t.ree layers o/ 3a3er 0.en buil ing t.is e,i-e! DISTILLED WATER 6 #on't use e6ioni4e 0ater in 3la-e o/ a-tual istille 0ater! Many ti1es 0ater sol /or use in .ouse.ol irons is e6ioni4e rat.er t.an istille 0ater! ).ar1a-ies sell a-tual istille 0ater! 8.at is t.e i//eren-e< Many substan-es are soluble in 0ater an a /e0 o/ t.ese substan-es se3arate into 3ositi,e an negati,e ions in 0ater! Generally t.ese are 1a e u3 o/ 1ole-ules t.at .a,e ioni- bon s, 0.ile non6ioni- 1ole-ules re1ain inta-t, ;ust in solution! *or e9a13le, sugar issol,es easily in 0ater an t.e sugar 1ole-ules re1ain inta-t as sugar! #e6ioni4e 0ater -an .a,e any nu1ber o/ issol,e substan-es t.at o not result in ions, yet are 3resent nonet.eless! &3art /ro1 t.is, a 3oor 7uality sa13le o/ e6ioni4e 0ater -an -ontain signi/i-ant a1ounts o/ ions! On t.e ot.er .an , istille 0ater is usually ,ery 3ure 6 -ontaining only a-tual 0ater 1ole-ules! WHERE TO OBTAIN THE MATERIALS - You -an buy t.e -.e1i-als in a store t.at sells -.e1i-als an laboratory e7ui31ent! O/ten, t.is ty3e o/ store is lo-ate near uni,ersities! So1e gro-ery or .ar 0are store are able to get you t.e -.e1i-als nee e /or t.ese e93eri1ents! You -an o/ten 3ur-.ase -o33er an 4in- stri3s at a .obby retailer or .ar 0are store! You -an also as5 a /ir1 0.i-. 0or5s 0it. s.eets o/ t.ese 1etals /or so1e 3ie-es, /or e9a13le a gutter63i3e /ir1 an a 4in- gal,ani- treat1ents /ir1! *or t.e /irst trials, you -an also use a 3ie-e o/ -o33er an a 4in-6gal,ani4e nail or s-re0! CATHODE AND ANODE - In t.e -ourse o/ t.ese e93eri1ents, o/ten I'll s3ea5 o/ -at.o es an ano es! &s you 1ay noti-e, in so1e -ases t.e -at.o e .as been assigne a 3ositi,e 3olarity an , in ot.er -ases, a negati,e one! T.is is ue to t.e -at.o e being t.e ele-tro e 0.ere t.e rea-tion o/ re u-tion o--urs! In t.e -ase o/ a battery, t.is re u-tion o--urs s3ontaneously an -onsu1es ele-trons, so t.e -at.o e garners a 3ositi,e -.arge! In t.e -ase o/ an ele-trolyti- -ell, t.e re u-tion is /or-e , 3ro u-ing ele-trons, so t.e -at.o e -arries a negati,e -.arge! T.e ano e 0ill .a,e in ea-. -ase t.e 3olarity o33osite t.e -at.o e's! SOLUTIONS (IMPORTANT) - T.e ilution o/ a-i s is angerous! I/ 0ater is a e to a -on-entrate a-i , it -an e93lo e ,iolently -ausing se,ere in;uries! "e,er 3our 0ater into -on-entrate a-i ! &l0ays a t.e a-i to t.e 0ater! I/ you nee to ilute an a-i , get .el3 /ro1 a C.e1ist! 8.en 1a5ing a solution o/ -o33er sul/ate or 4in- sul/ate, a t.ese -.e1i-als to 0ater rat.er t.an a ing t.e 0ater to t.e -.e1i-al! OTHER PRECAUTIONS 6 #o not allo0 any o/ t.e -.e1i-als is-usse in t.ese e93eri1ents to get on your .an s or s5in! #o not 3ut t.e1 in your 1out. or eat t.e1! #o not breat.e any ,a3ors /ro1 t.ese -.e1i-als! #o not 5ee3 t.e1 in bottles or -ontainers t.at -oul be -on/use 0it. a /oo or rin5 -ontainer! #o not lea,e t.ese -.e1i-als in su-. a 3la-e t.at it 1ig.t be -on/use 0it. a /oo or rin5 =su-. as on a

5it-.en table or -ounter or in t.e re/rigerator>! Store t.e1 in a se3arate, -ontrolle 3la-e a0ay /ro1 /oo s an out o/ t.e rea-. o/ -.il ren! Label ea-. -ontainer -learly 0it. t.e na1e o/ t.e -ontents an as a non6/oo ite1!

CO"#$CTORS
Materials? 6 a battery 6 an ele-tri- lig.t bulb an so-5et 6 t.ree 0ires 0it. alligator -li3s 6 a glass rin5ing -u3 or a bea5er 6 istille 0ater 6 t0o ele-tro es o/ t.e sa1e 1aterial =/or e9a13le -o33er> 6 table salt 6 an a11eter $sing t.e ,arious ite1s liste abo,e, -onstru-t t.e e,i-e s.o0n in /igure 1 =0.i-. is 5no0n as a -ontinuity tester>! &s you -an see, t.ere is a brea5 in t.e ele-tri-al 3at. bet0een t.e battery an t.e la13! $sing ,arious .ouse.ol ite1s =su-. as a 3lasti- 3en, an eraser, a -era1i- 3late, et-!> try to -o13lete t.e -ir-uit an see i/ t.e la13 lig.ts! You 0ill noti-e t.at 1etalli- ite1s -ause t.e la13 to lig.t 0.ile 1ost ot.ers o not! Try using t.e gra3.ite =also 5no0n as t.e 'lea '> /ro1 a 3en-il! You 0ill noti-e t.at t.is 1aterial allo0s t.e bulb to lig.t alt.oug. 3er.a3s not as brig.tly, e3en ing on .o0 long or s.ort t.e gra3.ite is! T.is is be-ause t.e gra3.ite, alt.oug. a -on u-tor 3resents a -ertain a1ount o/ resistan-e to t.e /lo0 o/ ele-tri-ity! $sing t.is e,i-e, 0e -an -.ara-teri4e soli 1aterials as eit.er -on u-tors or non6-on u-tors! "on -on u-tors are also 5no0n as insulators! T.ere are 1any soli 1aterials t.at .a,e inter1e iate 3ro3erties bet0een -on u-tors an insulators, li5e gra3.ite!

8.at about 0ater< Let's 1o i/y t.e -ir-uit 0e use earlier to no0 1easure t.e -on u-ti,ity o/ 0ater =see /igure @>! Instea o/ a lig.t bulb to in i-ate t.e /lo0 o/ ele-tri-ity, no0 0e 0ill use an a11eter set to t.e 1i-roa13 s-ale! T.is setu3 0ill be 1u-. 1ore sensiti,e an 0ill allo0 us to a-tually 1easure t.e ele-tri-al /lo0! *ill t.e -ontainer 0it. distilled water an 3la-e t.e ele-tro es in t.e 0ater as s.o0n! %e -are/ul not to tou-. t.e ele-tro es to ea-. ot.er! I/ t.ere is any in i-ation o/ -urrent /lo0 on t.e 1eter, it s.oul be ,ery s1all! T.is s1all -urrent is ue to t.e 3resen-e o/ HA an OH6 ions 3ro u-e 0.en a /e0 o/ t.e 0ater 1ole-ules isso-iate an re-o13ose s3ontaneously! T.e nu1ber o/ 1ole-ules oing t.is in any gi,en 1o1ent is ,ery s1all an t.is is 0.y istille 0ater is a ,ery 3oor -on u-tor! 8it.out isturbing t.e e,i-e, 3la-e a ,ery s1all a1ount o/ salt in t.e 0ater an 0it. a 3lasti- or glass utensil stir t.e 0ater to 1i9 t.e solution! &s t.e salt -rystals issol,e, t.e nee le on t.e a11eter 0ill 1o,e noti-eably, in i-ating an in-rease -on u-ti,ity o/ t.e 0aterBsalt solution! 8e use t.e sa1e setu3 as be/ore to .el3 illustrate t.e si1ilarity in t.e t0o e,i-es, but you -an also -on u-t t.e sa1e e93eri1ent 0it.out t.e battery, but 0it. an o.11eter set to rea resistan-e, as t.e o.11eter .as an internal battery an 1a5es t.e setu3 less -o13li-ate ! 8.at .a33ene < 8.y i t.e salt 1a5e t.e 0ater 1ore -on u-ti,e to ele-tri-ity< Cit-.en salt -onsists o/ so iu1 an -.lorine 1ole-ules ="aCl>! T.e 0ater not only se3arates t.e salt 1ole-ules one /ro1 anot.er, but also se3arates t.e -.lorine an so iu1 /ro1 ea-. ot.er! T.ere is one -.ange in t.e -.lorine an so iu1 ato1s as

t.ey se3arate! Ele1ental so iu1 0ea5ly .ol s one e9-ess ele-tron an ele1ental -.lorine .as a strong attra-tion /or a /ree ele-tron, t.ere/ore as t.e t0o ele1ents se3arate /ro1 ea-. ot.er t.e so iu1 gi,es u3 one ele-tron to t.e -.lorine! In t.is 0ay, t.e so iu1 be-o1es ele-tri-ally 3ositi,e an t.e -.lorine be-o1es negati,e! T.ey .a,e be-o1e i !s! T.e 1ole-ules o/ salts, a-i s an bases be-o1e ions 0.en issol,e in 0ater! T.ey isso-iate into 3arti-les o/ o33osite -.arges! It is t.e ions t.at ren er t.e 0ater -on u-ti,e to ele-tri-ity! &s a 1atter o/ /a-t, t.e 3ositi,e ions 1igrate to t.e negati,e ele-tro e an ,i-e ,ersa /or t.e negati,e ions! In our e93eri1ent, t.e "aA an Cl6 ions 1a e it 3ossible /or t.e istille 0ater to -on u-t ele-tri-ity! T.is ty3e o/ solution is -alle an ele"tr l#te! "ot only 0ater, but ot.er li7ui s as 0ell -an ioni4e ,arious substan-es an result in ele-trolyti- solutions! I/ you a 1ore salt to t.e solution you .a,e been 0or5ing 0it., you 0ill see t.at t.e nee le in i-ates in-rease -urrent /lo0! T.e -on u-ti,ity o/ a solution is 3ro3ortional to t.e -on-entration o/ ions in t.e solution! Let's try t.e sa1e e93eri1ent again, but in 3la-e o/ salt 0e 0ill use an a-i 6 ,inegar /or e9a13le! Re/ill t.e original -ontainer 0it. /res. istille 0ater an stir in a /e0 ro3s o/ ,inegar 0.ile 0at-.ing t.e a11eter! Try anot.er ti1e 0it. a base su-. as .ouse.ol a11onia! Co13are t.e -on u-ti,ity o/ ta3 0ater to t.at o/ istille 0ater! You 0ill /in t.at t.e ta3 0ater is a goo ele-tri-al -on u-tor! T.is is 0.y it is 0ise to be ,ery -are/ul aroun ele-tri-ity 0.en your .an s are 0et! Many 3eo3le .a,e been 5ille by a33lian-es li5e .air ryers 0.en use aroun 0ater! You s.oul note t.at in -ontrast to t.e -on u-tion o/ ele-tri-ity in a soli , su-. as a 1etal 0ire, -urrent t.at 3asses t.roug. an ele-trolyte 1o,es ions to t.e ele-tro es 0.ere t.ey un ergo -.e1i-al rea-tions! In a 0ire t.is oes not o--ur! & itionally, rea-tions in solution ten to 3olari4e t.e ele-tro es! T.is 3.eno1enon is 0.at -auses a battery to 0ear out 0it. use an t.e 1easure1ents t.at 0e 1a5e 0it. our e93eri1ents to -.ange o,er ti1e! In -o11er-ial -on u-ti,ity 1eters, t.e ele-tro es are 1a e o/ a non6rea-ti,e 1etal an use an alternating -urrent at lo0 ,oltage! Ho0 oes ele-tri-ity /lo0 in a 1etal i/ t.ere are no ions 1o,ing aroun < In 1etals, /ree ele-trons -arry t.e -urrent! In a 1etal 0ire, all t.e ato1s s.are t.e ele-trons in t.eir outer1ost ele-tron s.ell an t.ese ele-trons are /ree to 1o,e any0.ere 0it.in t.e 0ire! I/ a ,oltage is a33lie a-ross a 1etalli- ob;e-t, ele-trons enter one si e, e9it at t.e ot.er an 0it.in t.e ob;e-t t.ere is an ele-tri-al -urrent! T.e 3assage o/ ele-trons in a -on u-tor -auses a rise in t.e os-illations o/ t.e ato1s in t.e -rystal latti-e! T.is -orres3on s to a rise in t.e te13erature o/ t.e ob;e-t =t$e % &le E''e"t>! T.is 3.eno1enon is use to 3ro u-e lig.t in an in-an es-ent la13! T.e -urrent o/ ele-trons /lo0ing t.roug. a la13 /ila1ent -auses a te13erature rise o/ t.ousan s o/ egrees! &t t.is .ig. te13erature t.e /ila1ent e1its intense lig.t! 8.y on't 3lasti-s, rubber an -era1i-s -on u-t ele-tri-ity< T.is is ue to t.e i//erent 1ole-ular bon , -alle a " (ale!t bon t.at bin s t.ese ato1s to one anot.er! In -ontrast to t.e )etalli" * !d t.at 0e is-usse in 1etals, a -o,alent bon oes not allo0 t.e ele-trons to 1o,e /reely 0it.in t.e bo y o/ t.e ob;e-t! Ele-trons are e9-.ange only 0it.in t.e -on/ines o/ ea-. in i,i ual 1ole-ule an -annot 1o,e /ro1 1ole-ule to 1ole-ule! Sin-e t.ere is no 1o,e1ent o/ ele-trons 0it.in t.e 3ie-e,

an no 1o,e1ent o/ ions be-ause t.e 1aterial is soli , t.ere -an be no /lo0 o/ ele-tri-al -.arges t.roug. t.e 1aterial! #es3ite 0.at 0e .a,e sai about -on u-tors an insulators, gi,en a .ig. enoug. ,oltage an a t.in layer o/ t.e 1aterial in 7uestion, all 1aterials 0ill -on u-t ele-tri-ity! T.ere/ore, i/ 0e -onsi er all 1aterials to be -on u-tors, it be-o1es ne-essary to 5no0 ea-. 1aterial's ele"tri"al " !d&"ti(it#! In t.is e93eri1ent 0e .a,e seen t.at ,arious soli s 0ill -on u-t ele-tri-ity better t.an ot.ers 0ill =1etals ,s! rubber, 3lasti-, -era1i-s>! 8e .a,e also seen t.at so1e li7ui s are better -on u-tors t.an ot.ers are! 8.ile a soli 's -on u-ti,ity is e3en ent u3on t.e 1o,e1ent o/ ele-trons 0it.in t.e 1aterial's -rystalline stru-ture, a li7ui 's -on u-ti,ity is e3en ent u3on t.e 1o,e1ent o/ ions!

%&TTERIES THE LEMO" %&TTERY

Materials? 6 a le1on 6 a stri3 o/ -o33er 6 a stri3 o/ 4in6 a ,olt1eter 6 t0o -ables 0it. alligator -li3s 6 a t.er1o1eter or -lo-5 0it. an LC# is3lay

Roll t.e le1on /ir1ly 0it. t.e 3al1 o/ your .an on a tableto3 or ot.er .ar sur/a-e in or er to brea5 u3 so1e o/ t.e s1all sa-5s o/ ;ui-e 0it.in t.e le1on! Insert t.e t0o 1etal stri3s ee3ly into t.e le1on, being -are/ul t.at t.e stri3s not tou-. ea-. ot.er! $sing t.e ,olt1eter, 1easure t.e ,oltage 3ro u-e bet0een t.e t0o stri3s =/igure D>! It s.oul s.o0 to be about one ,olt! It 0oul be ni-e to be able to illu1inate a lig.t bulb using your ne0 le1on 3o0ere battery, but un/ortunately it is not strong enoug.! I/ you 0ere to try to lig.t a bulb using t.is setu3, t.e ,oltage a-ross t.e stri3s 0oul /all i11e iately to 4ero! Gi,en t.is, i/ you 0ant to e1onstrate t.at t.e -urrent 3ro u-e by t.is battery is -a3able o/ 3o0ering so1et.ing, try 0it. a s1all e,i-e t.at uses an LC# is3lay! & -lo-5 or a t.er1o1eter usually 0or5s 0ell! &n LC# is3lay -onsu1es an e9tre1ely s1all a1ount o/ -urrent an your le1on battery is able to a e7uately ri,e t.is ty3e o/ e,i-e! Re1o,e any -on,entional battery t.at is in your -lo-5 or t.er1o1eter an 3o0er it 0it. your le1on battery! You s.oul see t.e e,i-e re-o11en-e /un-tioning nor1ally! I/ not, try s0a33ing t.e 3olarity o/ t.e ele-tri-ity /ro1 your le1on battery!

T.is syste1 allo0s you to e1onstrate t.at t.e battery is 3ro u-ing energy e,en i/ you on't .a,e a ,olt1eter! Ho0 oes t.is battery 0or5< T.e Co33er =Cu> ato1s attra-t ele-trons 1ore t.an o t.e Ein- =En> ato1s! I/ you 3la-e a 3ie-e o/ -o33er an a 3ie-e o/ 4in- in -onta-t 0it. ea-. ot.er, 1any ele-trons 0ill 3ass /ro1 t.e 4in- to t.e -o33er! &s t.ey -on-entrate on t.e -o33er, t.e ele-trons re3el ea-. ot.er! 8.en t.e /or-e o/ re3ulsion bet0een ele-trons an t.e /or-e o/ attra-tion o/ ele-trons to t.e -o33er be-o1e e7uali4e , t.e /lo0 o/ ele-trons sto3s! $n/ortunately t.ere is no 0ay to ta5e a ,antage o/ t.is be.a,ior to 3ro u-e ele-tri-ity be-ause t.e /lo0 o/ -.arges sto3s al1ost i11e iately! On t.e ot.er .an , i/ you bat.e t.e t0o stri3s in a -on u-ti,e solution, an -onne-t t.e1 e9ternally 0it. a 0ire, t.e rea-tions bet0een t.e ele-tro es an t.e solution /urnis. t.e -ir-uit 0it. -.arges -ontinually! In t.is 0ay, t.e 3ro-ess t.at 3ro u-es t.e ele-tri-al energy -ontinues an be-o1es use/ul! &s a -on u-ti,e solution, you -an use any ele-trolyte, 0.et.er it be an a-i , base or salt solution! T.e le1on battery 0or5s 0ell be-ause t.e le1on ;ui-e is a-i i-! Try t.e sa1e setu3 0it. ot.er ty3es o/ solutions! &s you 1ay 5no0, ot.er /ruits an ,egetables also -ontain ;ui-es ri-. in ions an are t.ere/ore goo ele-tri-al -on u-tors! You are not t.en, li1ite to using le1ons in t.is ty3e o/ battery, but -an 1a5e batteries out o/ e,ery ty3e o/ /ruit or ,egetable t.at you 0is.! Li5e any battery, t.is ty3e o/ battery .as a li1ite li/e! T.e ele-tro es un ergo -.e1i-al rea-tions t.at blo-5 t.e /lo0 o/ ele-tri-ity! T.e ele-tro1oti,e /or-e i1inis.es an t.e battery sto3s 0or5ing! $sually, 0.at .a33ens is t.e 3ro u-tion o/ .y rogen at t.e -o33er ele-tro e an t.e 4in- ele-tro e a-7uires e3osits o/ o9i es t.at a-t as a barrier bet0een t.e 1etal an t.e ele-trolyte! T.is is re/erre to as t.e ele-tro es being 3olari4e ! To a-.ie,e a longer li/e an .ig.er ,oltages an -urrent /lo0s, it is ne-essary to use ele-trolytes better suite /or t.e 3ur3ose! Co11er-ial batteries, a3art /ro1 t.eir nor1al ele-trolyte, -ontain -.e1i-als 0it. an a//inity /or .y rogen 0.i-. -o1bine 0it. t.e .y rogen be/ore it -an 3olari4e t.e ele-tro es!

THE #&"IELL'S CELL

Materials? 6 a stri3 o/ -o33er 6 a stri3 o/ 4in6 a large bea5er, bo0l or ot.er suitable -ontainer 6 a 3orous ,ase =as is-usse in t.e Intro u-tion> 6 a 3lasti- tube 6 -otton 6 122g o/ Co33er Sul/ate =CuSO:> 6 122g o/ Ein- Sul/ate =EnSO:> 6 Fg o/ )otassiu1 "itrate =C"OD> 6 Fg o/ So iu1 C.lori e ="aCl> i/ )otassiu1 "itrate is una,ailable 6 a liter o/ istille 0ater 6 a ,olt1eter 6 t0o -ables 0it. alligator -li3s )re3are a -on-entrate solution o/ -o33er sul/ate in istille 0ater an anot.er solution o/ si1ilar -on-entration o/ 4in- sul/ate in istille 0ater! *or bot. o/ t.ese solutions, use about 126D2 gra1s o/ ry -.e1i-al 3er 122-- o/ istille 0ater! Constru-t a setu3 as s.o0n in /igures : an F! )our t.e CuSO: solution in 0it. t.e -o33er ele-tro e an t.e EnSO: solution in 0it. t.e 4in- ele-tro e! 8.en you 1easure t.e ,oltage a-ross t.ese ele-tro es, you s.oul /in it to be about 1!1 ,olts! Co13are to t.e Le1on %attery, t.e #aniell's Cell 3uts out a .ig.er 3o0er an lasts 1u-. longer! E,en so, you 0oul nee ele-tro es 0it. 1u-. greater sur/a-e area an 1ore -on-entrate ele-trolyte to be able to 3o0er a ,ery s1all lig.t bulb 0it. t.is e,i-e!

Ho0 oes t.e #aniell's Cell 0or5< &s 0e .a,e sai , t.e rea-tions at t.e ele-tro es /urnis. -.arges t.at allo0 t.e battery to 3ro u-e ele-tri-al -urrent /or e9ten e 3erio s! In t.e #aniell's Cell, t.e -o33er stri3 attra-ts ele-trons /ro1 t.e 4instri3! T.ese ele-trons 3ass t.roug. t.e 0ires o/ our e9ternal -ir-uit! &s t.e -o33er ele-tro e re-ei,es ele-trons, /ree 3ositi,e ions in t.e solution arri,e to e7uali4e t.e -.arges! )ositi,e -o33er ions =CuAA> are attra-te to t.e -.arge -o33er ele-tro e 0.ere t.ey re-ei,e t0o ele-trons an be-o1e neutral an e3osit on t.e ele-tro e in 1etalli- /or1! T.e 3ositi,e 4inions =EnAA> 1o,e to t.e 3orous ,ase! *or ea-. -o33er ato1 t.at is e3osite on t.e -o33er ele-tro e, a 4inato1 goes into solution, gi,ing u3 t0o ele-trons

to t.e 4inele-tro e! T.e rea-tions at t.e ele-tro es -an be re3resente by t.is /or1ula? En GGH EnAA A @e6 CuAA A @e6 GGH Cu T.ese rea-tions result in t.e issolution o/ 4in- ato1s in t.eir ioni- /or1, 0.i-. -orres3on s to t.e e3osition o/ -o33er ions in t.eir 1etalli- /or1? En A CuAA GGH EnAA A Cu T.e ele-trons 1a e a,ailable by t.e 4in- ato1s 3ass t.roug. t.e la13 /ila1ent, 3ro u-e lig.t t.roug. t.e ;oule e//e-t an e,entually rea-. t.e -o33er ele-tro e! T.ese ele-trons a--ount /or t.e -urrent t.at is 3ro u-e by t.e battery an is use by t.e la13! I/ 0e i n't .a,e t.e 3orous ,ase, t.e CuAA ions 0oul go ire-tly to t.e 4inele-tro e an 3i-5 u3 /ree ele-trons, t.ereby by3assing t.e e9ternal -ir-uit an sto33ing t.e -urrent /lo0 t.roug. t.e 0ires an la13! T.e battery 0oul no longer 0or5! %e-ause t.e -o33er ele-tro e attra-ts ele-trons /ro1 t.e e9ternal -ir-uit, it is -onsi ere t.e 3ositi,e 3ole o/ t.e battery! In a battery, t.ere is al0ays a /lo0 o/ ele-trons in t.e e9ternal -ir-uit =t.e ele-tri-al -ir-uit or e,i-e> an a -orres3on ing /lo0 in t.e internal -ir-uit =t.e ele-trolyti-ir-uit>! Li5e any battery, t.e #aniell Cell oes not last /ore,er, but only as long as t.ere are CuA A ions a,ailable an t.e 4in- ele-tro e is not -onsu1e ! In reality, t.e 3ro u-tion o/ -urrent i1inis.es as t.e -on-entration o/ t.e ele-trolyte bat.ing t.e 4inele-tro e in-reases an t.at bat.ing t.e -o33er ele-tro e e-reases! In /a-t, t.e 3ositi,e ions

3ro u-e by t.e 4inele-tro e nee SO: ions to balan-e t.e -.arges! T.e e9a-t o33osite o--urs in t.e -o33er solution, 0.i-. be-o1es s-ar-e o/ 3ositi,e ions! Sin-e t.e ele-tro1oti,e /or-e o/ a battery is e3en ant not only u3on t.e nature it's -o13onents, but also u3on t.e -on-entration o/ it's ele-trolytes, t.e gra ient o/ -on-entrations t.at results /ro1 t.e 3ro u-tion o/ ele-tri-ity -auses t.e battery to generate lo0er an lo0er ,oltages an -urrents until /inally it is -onsi ere ea ! &t t.e en , EnAA ions /inally rea-. t.e -o33er ele-tro e, surroun ing it an blo-5ing any /urt.er 1o,e1ent o/ CuAA ions by 3olari4ing t.e ele-tro e! You -an also buil a #aniell Cell 0it.out a 3orous ,ase by using 0.at is 5no0n as a Saline %ri ge =/ig! I an +>! T.is e,i-e is 1a e by using a J$J s.a3e tube /ille 0it. saline solution! You -an 1a5e one 0it. t.e 3lastitube -alle out in t.e 1aterials list earlier! *ill t.e tube 0it. a )otassiu1 "itrate =C"OD> or Salt ="aCl> issol,e in istille 0ater =about 12 gra1s o/ -.e1i-al 3er 122 -- o/ 0ater>! )lug t.e en s 0it. t.e -otton so t.at t.e saline solution 0ill re1ain in t.e bri ge an not 1i9 0it. t.e ele-trolytes! T.e bri ge ser,es t.e sa1e 3ur3ose as

t.e 3orous ,ase, a-ting as a barrier bet0een t.e t0o i//erent ele-trolytes 0.ile allo0ing t.e /lo0 o/ -.arges!

I/ you 0ant .ig.er ,oltages, you -an -onne-t 1ulti3le #aniell Cells in series as s.o0n in /igure 8! "ote t.at bet0een one -ell an anot.er, t.e -onne-tion is a 1etalli- 0ire rat.er t.an a saline bri ge!

THE CO"CE"TR&TIO" CELL

Materials? 6 t0o stri3s o/ -o33er 6 a large bea5er, bo0l or ot.er suitable -ontainer 6 a 3orous ,ase =as is-usse in t.e Intro u-tion> 6 a 3lasti- tube =as use in 3re,ious e93eri1ent> 6 -otton 6 F2g o/ Co33er Sul/ate =CuSO:> 6 1B@ liter o/ istille 0ater 6 a ,olt1eter 6 t0o -ables 0it. alligator -li3s

T.e setu3 o/ t.is e93eri1ent =/ig! 9> is ,ery si1ilar to t.e #aniell Cell's setu3 =/ig! : an F>! T.is battery ta5es a ,antage o/ t.e ten en-y o/ t0o solutions .a,ing i//erent -on-entrations to rea-. t.e sa1e -on-entration le,el! In -ontrast to t.e #aniell's Cell, 0e use only one 1aterial /or t.e ele-tro es, in t.is -ase -o33er! &s ele-trolyte, use -o33er sul/ate in t0o -on-entrations, one using D2 gra1s o/ -.e1i-al in 122-- o/ 0ater, t.e ot.er using t0o gra1s o/ -.e1i-al in 122 -- o/ 0ater! &s you 3la-e t.e ,olt1eter in t.e -ir-uit, it s.oul in i-ate t.e ,oltage generate by t.e -ell! 8.at is .a33ening in t.is battery< T.e ele-tro es are un ergoing a si1ilar re u-tion rea-tion, but in t0o i//erent -on-entrations! #ue to t.is i//eren-e, t.ere is a i//eren-e in 3otential =,oltage> bet0een t.e ele-tro es! &t t.e ano e, -o33er ato1s issol,e into solution an gi,e u3 ele-trons, 0.ile at t.e -at.o e, -o33er ions e3osit on t.e ele-tro e an a-7uire ele-trons! Cu GGH CuAA A @e6 CuAA A @e6 GGH Cu You -an buil a s1aller, si13ler ,ersion o/ t.is battery by substituting a J$J s.a3e tube in 3la-e o/ t.e 3orous ,ase! In t.e -enter o/ t.e lengt. o/ tubing, tig.tly 3ress a 7uantity o/ -otton in or er to /or1 a barrier bet0een t.e i//erent -on-entrations o/ solutions an 3re,ent 3re1ature 1i9ing! & t.e solutions an t.e ele-tro es! In t.is 1o el t.e battery 0ill not last ,ery long, ;ust until t.e solutions e7uali4e a-ross t.e -otton barrier!

THE (OLT&'S )ILE

Materials? 6 si9 stri3s or is-s o/ -o33er 6 si9 stri3s or is-s o/ 4in6 /ilter 3a3er 6 one o/ t.e /ollo0ing ele-trolytes? 6 le1on ;ui-e 6 ,inegar 6 a solution o/ so iu1 -.lori e =salt 0ater> 6 a solution o/ -o33er sul/ate 6 a ,olt1eter 6a t.er1o1eter or -lo-5 0it. an LC# is3lay 6 t0o -ables 0it. alligator -li3s In .is /a1ous e93eri1ent in t.e year 1822, &lessan ro (olta use a solution o/ sul/uri- a-i as t.e ele-trolyte! In .ig. -on-entrations, t.is a-i -an be ,ery angerous! I/ it gets on t.e s5in or in t.e eyes, it -an -ause ,ery serious burns an -an 3er1anently blin ! Sin-e 0e -an buil a /un-tioning ,ersion 0it. ot.er ty3es o/ ele-trolytes, in t.is e93eri1ent 0e 0ill use a 1ore benign substan-e, li5e t.ose s3e-i/ie in t.e 1aterials list 6 -o33er sul/ate, /or e9a13le! #es3ite t.is s1all 1o i/i-ation in (olta's )ile, our inten e result 6 t.e 3ro u-tion o/ ele-tri-ity by -.e1i-al 1eans, -an be e//e-ti,ely e1onstrate using our ,ersion o/ t.e 3ile! I/ you e-i e to try t.e e93eri1ent using sul/uri- a-i , use a 2!1 nor1al or less solution! 8ear 3rote-ti,e gear 6 es3e-ially eye 3rote-tion an .a,e a -ontainer o/ so iu1 bi-arbonate saturate solution at .an to 7ui-5ly neutrali4e any s3ills! I/ you use t.e a-i , an a ult 1ust be 3resent! =see t.e note on solutions in t.e intro u-tion>! )la-e ea-. 4in- is- on a -o33er is-! You s.oul .a,e si9 sets o/ Cu6En is- 3airs! &s s.o0n in /ig! 11, buil a sta-5 or J3ileJ o/ t.ese 3airs o/ is-s, 0it. a is- o/ ele-trolyte soa5e /ilter 3a3er se3arating ea-. 3air /ro1 its neig.bors! %e -are/ul t.at t.e solution oes not ribble o0n t.e si e o/ t.e sta-5 as t.is -an -ause a s.ort -ir-uit bet0een t.e ele1ents o/ t.e 3ile! "ote t.at t.e se7uen-e o/ t.e ele1ents is as /ollo0s? Cu, En, ele-trolyte, Cu, En, ele-trolyte, et-! 8.en t.e e,i-e is all arrange

as s3e-i/ie , 1easure t.e ,oltage bet0een t.e t.e botto1 ele1ent o/ Cu an t.e to3 ele1ent o/ En! You s.oul see I!I ,olts or 1!1 ,olt 3er 3air o/ ele1ents! T.e ,oltage generate is also e3en ent u3on t.e ele-trolyte use an it's -on-entration! &s you 1ay .a,e one 0it. t.e le1on battery, try to 3o0er a s1all LC# ele-troni- e,i-e su-. as a -lo-5, t.er1o1eter or e,en a -al-ulator! T.is in,ention in 1822 s3urre intense resear-. in t.e /iel o/ ele-tri-ity! &bout a -entury later, t.is resear-. 0ill .a,e -ul1inate in ele-tri- lig.ts, t.e tele3.one an ra io re-ei,ers in 1illions o/ .o1es! To ay, ele-tri-ity is an i13ortant 3art in e,ery 1o1ent o/ our li,es!

ME&S$RI"G )OTE"TI&LS O* RE#$CTIO"

&not.er 1et.o o/ e93laining t.e /un-tion o/ a battery lies in t.e o9i ation re u-tion rea-tions at t.e ele-tro es! O9i ation re u-tion rea-tions in,ol,e t.e trans/er o/ ele-trons /ro1 one -.e1i-al ele1ent to anot.er! T.e ten en-y o/ an ele1ent to a-7uire or gi,e u3 ele-trons is 1easure as ele-tri-al 3otential -o13are to t.at o/ a s3e-ial .y rogen ele-tro e, 0.i-. is -onsi ere by -on,ention to .a,e 4ero ele-tri-al 3otential at @FKC! &t t.is ele-tro e, t.e /ollo0ing rea-tion o--urs? @HA A @e6 LGGH H@ To 1a5e t.ese 1easure1ents, use is 1a e o/ a -ell 0it. one ele-tro e o/ .y rogen an t.e ot.er o/ t.e 1aterial to be 1easure ! T.e ,oltage 3ro u-e in i-ates t.e 3otential o/ re u-tion o/ t.e ne0 1aterial in ter1s o/ 3ositi,e or negati,e ,olts in res3e-t to t.e .y rogen ele-tro e! C.e1i-al ele1ents t.at .a,e a 3ositi,e 3otential o/ re u-tion ten to be re u-e , t.at is to a-7uire ele-trons, 0.ile ele1ents t.at .a,e a negati,e 3otential ten to o9i i4e, t.at is to gi,e u3 ele-trons! &t t.is 3oint, t.e ,oltage 3ro u-e by a battery -an be -al-ulate by /in ing t.e i//eren-e bet0een t.e 3otentials o/ re u-tion o/ t.e t0o .al/ -ells? E G E1 6 E@ as s.o0n belo0! rea"ti ! E, ECuAA A @e6 G Cu En A @e G En
AA 6

+ te!tial ' red&"ti ! (V) A 2!D:@ 6 2!+I@

In t.is -ase, t.e ,oltage generate 0oul be? E G A2,D:@ 6 =62!+I@> E G A1!12: (! You -an 1a5e a battery /ro1 1any i//erent 1aterials! It is 3ossible to -al-ulate in a ,an-e t.e ,oltage to e93e-t /ro1 ,arious 1aterials by using t.e stan ar 3otential o/ re u-tion /or t.e 1aterials in 7uestion! T.is in/or1ation -an be /oun in any -.e1istry te9tboo5! Let's get starte 0it. t.e e93eri1ent!

Materials? 6 a stri3 o/ -o33er 6 ,arious 1aterials to try as ele-tro es 6 t0o bea5ers or a33ro3riate -ontainers 6 3lasti- tubing 6 -otton 6 F2 g! o/ -o33er sul/ate =CuSO:> 6 F2 g! o/ a sul/ate o/ t.e sa1e ele1ent as t.e ele-tro e you 0ant to try 6 F g! 3otassiu1 nitrate =C"OD> 6 Fg! so iu1 -.lori e ="aCl> as an alternati,e to t.e 3otassiu1 nitrate 6 1B@ liter o/ istille 0ater 6 a ,olt1eter =it is best to use a igital 1o el be-ause t.e .ig. in3ut i13e an-e 0ill not a//e-t t.e ,oltage as 1u-. as a lo0 i13e an-e analog 1o el> 6 a -able 0it. alligator -li3s 6 san 3a3er Constru-t a setu3 su-. as t.at s.o0n in /ig! 1@, ,ery si1ilar to t.e #aniell's Cell 0it. t.e saline bri ge! *ill t.e -ontainer .a,ing t.e -o33er -on u-tor 0it. -o33er sul/ate solution in t.e -on-entration o/ 1M! *ill t.e ot.er -ontainer 0it. t.e a33ro3riate solution also in t.e -on-entration o/ 1M! Conne-t t.e negati,e si e o/ t.e ,olt1eter to t.e -o33er ele-tro e an t.e 3ositi,e si e to t.e ele-tro e o/ test 1aterial an 1easure t.e ,oltage! In or er to get ,ali test 1easure1ents, it is ne-essary to .a,e -lean ele-tro es! $se t.e san 3a3er to -lean o// any o9i es or any ot.er -oatings or -onta1ination so t.at t.e sur/a-es o/ t.e ele-tro es are -lean an brig.t! So1e 1etals o9i i4e ,ery easily, su-. as alu1inu1, titaniu1, an 1agnesiu1! In t.e -ase t.at you are using a 1etal t.at o9i i4es 7ui-5ly, -lean t.e ele-tro e 0it. san 3a3er ;ust be/ore 3la-ing it in t.e ele-trolyte an t.en, uring t.e e93eri1ent, 0ait a /e0 1o1ents /or t.e -.e1i-al rea-tion to re1o,e t.e slig.t a1ount o/ o9i e t.at /or1e 0.ile you 0ere -leaning it! You 0ill see t.e ,oltage slo0ly rise to a 1a9i1u1 ,alue! "ote t.is rea ing as it

re3resents t.e 3otential o/ re u-tion o/ t.e 1aterial un er test 0it. res3e-t to -o33er! I/ t.e ,oltage starts i11e iately to ro3, use t.e .ig.est obser,e rea ing as t.e 1a9i1u1 ,alue! T.e ,oltages t.at you re-or are relati,e to -o33er! In or er to obtain t.e ,alue relati,e to .y rogen, t.at is t.e stan ar ,alue, you 0oul /a-tor out t.e stan ar ,alue o/ -o33er =CuBCuAA>! *or e9a13le, i/ you 1easure t.e ,oltage bet0een 4in- an -o33er 0it. t.is setu3, you s.oul see 61!1 ,olts out3ut! %y a ing 61!1 an A!D: =t.e stan ar ,alue /or -o33er> you get 6!+I ,olts 0.i-. is e9a-tly t.e 3otential o/ re u-tion /or 4in- = EnBEnAA> relati,e to .y rogen! Co13are t.e ,alues you 1easure 0it. your a33aratus to t.e tables o/ stan ar 3otentials o/ re u-tion t.at you /in in a -.e1istry te9t! You 0ill 3robably /in t.at t.e ,alues you get using your setu3 0ill be -lose, but not e9a-t 1at-.es to t.e stan ar ,alues, an -ertainly -lose enoug. to 1a5e interesting obser,ations about ,arious 1aterials! Try 1any i//erent 1aterials 6 ,arious 1etals, i//erent alloys, an e,en -on u-ti,e 3lasti-s, rubber, -era1i-s! So1e resear-.ers are 0or5ing on batteries t.at .a,e ele-tro es 1a e o/ 3lasti-! & battery 1a e o/ 3lasti-s 0oul .a,e t.e a ,antage o/ being ,ery lig.t! Lig.t0eig.t batteries 0oul be ne-essary to reali4e lig.t0eig.t ele-tri- ,e.i-les!

G&L(&"IC #E)OSITIO"

Materials? 6 t0o -o33er stri3s 6 one 4in- stri3 6 one iron stri3 6 one stainless steel stri3 6 a -ontainer 6 F2 g! -o33er sul/ate =CuSO:> 6 1B@ liter o/ istille 0ater 6 a battery 6 an a11eter 6 t0o -ables 0it. alligator -li3s 6 an analyti- balan-e 6 san 3a3er

O9ire u-tion rea-tions in,ol,e t.e e9-.ange o/ ele-trons bet0een one -.e1i-al an anot.er, al0ays 1o,ing to0ar lo0er energy le,els! In an ele-trolyti- -ell, t.e -.e1i-al 3ro-esses in,ol,e -an be re,erse si13ly by su33lying ele-tri-al energy to t.e -ell instea o/ ra0ing it /ro1 t.e -ell! "o0 0e 0ill use t.is 3rin-i3le to e3osit 1etalli- -o33er on an ele-tro e!

EM)ERIME"T 1? CuSO: in solution an -o33er ele-tro es! Constru-t a setu3 su-. as t.at s.o0n in /igure 1D! $se a solution o/ -o33er sul/ate as t.e ele-trolyte =D2g! o/ CuSO: 3er 122 -- o/ 0ater> an stri3s o/ -o33er as t.e ele-tro es! In t.is -ell, t.e sul/ate ions re1ain in solution, 0.ile -o33er ions are e3osite on t.e -at.o e an issol,e /ro1 t.e ano e! &s t.e -o33er is -onstantly being re3lenis.e into solution /ro1 t.e ano e, e,entually it 0ill be -onsu1e entirely an re e3osite ato1 by ato1 on t.e -at.o e! &ny i13urities 3resent in t.e ano e 0ill settle out o/ solution at t.e botto1 o/ t.e -ontainer! T.e -o33er e3osite at t.e -at.o e is ,ery 3ure! In /a-t, t.is 1et.o is use in in ustrial en,iron1ents to 3uri/y 1etals, t.e resultant being -alle Jele-trolyti-ally 3ureJ! You -an easily ,eri/y an 1onitor t.e 3rogress o/ t.is trans/er o/ 1etal /ro1 ano e to -at.o e by 0eig.ing t.e ele-tro es be/ore starting an at ,arious ti1es uring t.e e93eri1ent! %y -.anging t.e ,oltage a-ross t.e -ell, you -an -ontrol t.e -urrent /lo0! Ma5e a -.art o/ t.e rate o/ e3osition on t.e -at.o e as -o13are to t.e -urrent /lo0 o,er /i9e 3erio s o/ ti1e! EM)ERIME"T @? CuSO: solution an stri3s o/ 4in- an iron! )er.a3s you are 0on ering 0.y 0e .a,en't been using a -at.o e o/ 4in0.i-. 0oul 1a5e t.e e3osition o/ -o33er easily ,isible! %y ,irtue o/ it's bol -olor, -o33er 0oul be easily ,isible on 4in- 0.i-. is a ull gray -olor! T.is 0ay, 0e 0oul n't nee to use t.e s-ale to ,eri/y t.e e3osition o/ -o33er! T.e 3roble1 is t.at t.e -o33er 0oul begin e3ositing on t.e 4in- be/ore t.e -urrent is e,en turne on! Co33er ions /ro1 t.e -o33er sul/ate 0oul s3ontaneously e3osit on t.e 4in- stri3! &s you re-all /ro1 earlier e93eri1ents, t.e -o33er ato1s .a,e a 1u-. stronger attra-tion /or ele-trons t.an t.e 4inato1s! &s t.e 4in- stri3 is sub1erge in t.e solution -ontaining -o33er ions, so1e 4in- ato1s are issol,e in solution as EnAA ions an t.e sa1e nu1ber o/ CuAA ions are e3osite on t.e 4in- 0.ere t.ey 3i-5 u3 t.e ele-trons lost by t.e 4inato1s an be-o1e ele-tri-ally neutral! T.e 4in- stri3 gets -o,ere in a ,isible layer o/ -o33er! "or1ally 4in- gets a e3osit t.at a33ears ar5 in -olor, is o/ a 3o0 ery te9ture an .as a en riti-, -rystalline /or1! I/ you use an iron stri3 instea o/ 4in-, you get a 1u-. 1ore -o13a-t, 1etalli- e3osit o/ -o33er =/ig! 1:>! E93eri1ent /reely 0it. t.is 3.eno1enon!

E93eri1ent D? CuSO: solution an -at.o e o/ stainless steel! Stainless steel is 0ell a a3te /or use as a e1onstrator o/ t.e e3osition o/ -o33er on an ele-tro e! It .as a gray -olor t.at 1a5es -o33er e3osits easy to see an it 0ill not s3ontaneously 3i-5 u3 -o33er e3osits /ro1 -o33er sul/ate solution! It is ne-essary to run a -urrent t.roug. t.e solution in or er to ri,e t.e -o33er e3osits onto t.e stainless steel ele-tro e! T.is is ue to t.e /a-t t.at t.e stainless steel .as a 3otential o/ re u-tion greater t.an t.at o/ -o33er! &s s.o0n in /igure 1D, use your stri3 o/ stainless steel as t.e -at.o e an a33ly ele-tri- -urrent to t.e -ir-uit! You 0ill see t.at t.e 3ortion o/ t.e -at.o e sub1erge in t.e ele-trolyte a-7uires a lig.t -oating o/ -o33er, as s.o0n by t.e -.ange in -olor! In t.e -ourse o/ t.ese e93eri1ents, you -an ,eri/y *ara ay's la0, 0.i-. states t.at t.e 7uantity o/ ele-trons /urnis.e is e7ual to t.e ioni- -.arge trans/erre ! T.e 0eig.t o/ t.e 1aterials trans/or1e is ire-tly 3ro3ortional to t.e a1ount o/ -urrent su33lie an t.e 1ole-ular 0eig.t o/ t.e ions an in,ersely 3ro3ortional to t.e nu1ber o/ -.arges t.e 1aterial 3ossesses in t.e ioni- state! %y 0ay o/ e9a13le? a -ertain 7uantity o/ -urrent 0ill e3osit a -ertain nu1ber o/ ions 0it. a -.arge o/ 1, an .al/ as 1any ions t.at .a,e a -.arge o/ @! Ele-trolyti- e3osition is 0i ely use in in ustry as a sur/a-e treat1ent on 1etals! T.ese treat1ents -an 3rote-t t.e un erlying stru-ture /ro1 o9i ation, or -an ser,e a e-orati,e /un-tion! Je0elry 1a5ers e3osit ,ery t.in layers o/ gol on base 1etals to a-.ie,e a 3ro u-t 0.i-. is /ar less -ostly, yet .as all t.e a33earan-e o/ soli gol ! In ele-troni-s, gol is 0i ely use to -oat ele-tri-al -onta-ts an is ,alue /or its resistan-e to o9i ation an it's long6ter1 stability! Gal,ani- te-.ni7ues -an also be use /or ot.er sur/a-e treat1ents o/ 1etals /or e-orati,e an 3rote-ti,e 3ur3oses! &lu1inu1 is o/ten Jano i4e J 0.i-. 1eans t.at it is use as t.e ano e in a 3ro-ess t.at o9i i4es t.e sur/a-e, 3rote-ting it /ro1 -orrosion an a-.ie,ing ,arious -olorations all t.e 0ay to bla-5!

CO"CL$SIO"
In t.e -ourse o/ t.ese e93eri1ents, you .a,e be-o1e /a1iliar 0it. ,arious -on-e3ts su-. as t.e -on u-ti,ity o/ solutions by 0ay o/ issol,e ions! you .a,e seen re o9 rea-tions at 0or5, an t.at t.ey -an be re,erse by running -urrent t.roug. t.e -ir-uit! You .a,e learne to 1easure 3otentials o/ re u-tion o/ ,arious 1aterials an to 3re i-t t.e ,oltage generate by a battery 0.en you 5no0 it's 1aterial -o13onents! You -an buil a 0or5ing battery /ro1 ,arious 1aterials, in-lu ing le1ons, to1atoes, 3otatoes,

al1ost any /ruit or ,egetable! $3 until no0, batteries 1ay .a,e see1e 1ysterious, but no0 0e are a1ong t.e /e0 t.at .a,e a 0or5ing 5no0le ge o/ .o0 an 0.y t.ey 0or5! You -an a1a4e your /rien s by buil ing a battery out o/ al1ost anyt.ing, but 1ore i13ortant t.an t.is, no0 t.e stu y an 1astery o/ t.is sub;e-t 0ill be easier an 1ore 1eaning/ul! 666 oOo 666 T.an5s go to #r! )atri4ia %uttol /or re,ie0ing t.is te9t an /or .er ,aluable suggestions