Electronic Devices and Circuits

ES154 Lecture Notes
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Lecture Notes:
No. Lecture Course Info and Overview Review of Circuit Analysis Amplifier Models and Freq Response Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits Introduction to Semiconductors PN Junctions and Diode Circuits MOSFET Devices and Circuits Single-Stage MOSFET amps and High-Freq Model Bipolar Junction Transistor No. Lecture
1 2 3
Integrated Circuit 11 Design (Current Mirrors) 12 Differential Amplifiers 13 14 High-Gain Differential Amplifiers High-Frequency Analysis (OCT)
Course-Related Links Useful Information
4 5 6 7 8 9
15 Feedback and Stability Overview and 16 Examples of Op Amp Design
Single-Stage BJT 10 amps and High-Freq Model
2003 Edited by: Gu-Yeon Wei (December 06, 2004 )
http://www.deas.harvard.edu/courses/es154/lectures.html11/12/2004 17:25:52
ES154
Lecture 1
ES 154 Electronic Devices and Circuits Fall 2004

Gu-Yeon Wei Division of Engineering and Applied Sciences Harvard University guyeon@eecs.harvard.edu
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Course Objectives
The objective of this course is to provide you with a comprehensive understanding of electronic circuits and devices. The course presents a basic introduction to physical models of the operation of semiconductor devices and examines the design and operation of important circuits that utilize these devices. We will look at how to design circuits using discrete components and as integrated circuits. Due to the varying background of students in the class, we will start with a review of some basics (of circuit theory), review the operation and characteristics of semiconductor devices (namely, BJTs and MOSFETs), and build up to more advanced topics in analog circuit design. Due to time constraints, we will concentrate on analog circuits, amplifiers in particular. Digital CMOS circuits and VLSI design issues are covered more extensively in CS148.
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Course Material
The lecture notes and the textbook, Electronic Circuit Design by Comer & Comer (C&C) will be the principle reference materials used in the class. The notes will cover specific material in the textbook that I find important and interesting. The notes will also include material (for more detail) not covered in the textbook. You are responsible for all of the material in the notes and sections in C&C that are assigned as reading. Assigned reading will be indicated at the beginning of each set of lecture notes. Supplementary reading may also be assigned. They will usually be in the form of supplementary web pages found on the course web site or sections in reference books that can be found in the Gordon McKay Library.
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Additional Reading
To provide additional information and/or an alternative explanation of the material in the notes and C&C, supplemental reading from other textbooks will be included in the notes. While these readings are not required, they are often helpful in understanding the material. References (found in G. McKay Library) Electric Circuits, Nilsson and Riedel, Prentice, 6th Ed., 2001. Electric Circuit Analysis, Johnson et al, Prentice Hall, 1997. The Art of Electronics, Horowitz and Hill, Cambridge, 1989. Analysis and Design of Analog Integrated Circuits, Gray et al, Wiley, 2001. The Design of CMOS Radio-Frequency Integrated Circuits, Lee, Cambridge, 1998. Device Electronics for Integrated Circuits, Muller and Kamins, Wiley, 1986. Design with Operational Amplifiers and Analog Integrated Circuits, Franco, McGraw Hill, 2002. Design of Analog CMOS Integrated Circuits, Razavi, McGraw Hill, 2001.
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Course Information
Lectures Tues and Thurs 10 11:30AM in MD 221 Lecture notes will be handed out in class and will be available on the course web page (www.deas.harvard.edu/courses/es154) Homework Assigned on Tuesdays and due the following Tuesday in class You allotted a total of three late days that you can use throughout the semester. Lab Maxwell Dworkin B129 and B123 (in the basement) There will be several experimental laboratory assignments throughout the semester. You may be required to complete pre-lab assignments prior to going into lab. Lab write-ups due with homework assignments on Tuesdays Final Project There will be final project due at the end of reading period You have the option to work on anything that pertains to the material taught in this class, i.e., analog circuits Exams Take-home midterm Final exam
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Homework Grading
One additional requirement that I have is for each of you to participate in at least one homework grading session. Several reasons why they are useful Forces you to revisit the homework assignment at least once Provides insight into alternate ways of thinking about a problem Shows you how difficult (and easy) it can be grade ones homework write-up Pizza and drinks! Organization We will provide the solutions and point distribution TF will schedule them
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Class Participation and Office Hours

ASK QUESTIONS!!! I will make an effort to periodically stop and see if everyone understands the lecture material. However, you should stop me at any time if you have any questions. If you are confused about something, chances are so is someone else. OFFICE HOURS You are also encouraged to stop by our office hours. Or, if you are around on the 3rd floor of MD and you see my door open, stop by and say hello. My office is MD333. Take advantage of office hours. Its a resource that too many students seem to neglect.
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Lecture 1: A Brief Overview of Electronic Devices and Circuits
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Lecture 1
Overview
Reading C&C: Chapter 1 Supplemental Reading Lee: Chapter 1 A nonlinear history of radio Nilsson: Chapters 1-4 (basic circuit analysis) Background This lecture is intended to give you a brief overview of what you can expect to learn from this course. There are additional interesting tidbits of historical trivia sprinkled into the lecture for fun. At the end, we review basic circuit theory that you shouldve all seen before in a physics course or ES50. If not, do the Nilsson reading above. It should be pretty straight forward if you have seen the material before.
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Why Electronics?
Why use electronics Electrons are easy to move / control
Easier to move/control electrons than real (physical) stuff Discovered by J.J. Thomson in 1898
Move information, not things

phone, fax, WWW, etc. Takes much less energy and $
Development of modern electronics has been driven by Communication Computation
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Lecture 1
Communication Alternatives
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Origins of Radio
Marconi generally regarded as the inventor of the radio in 1896 Used a spark gap transmitter (used by Heinrich Hertz to verify Maxwells prediction that electromagnetic waves exist and propagate with a finite velocity) and Eduardo Branlys coherer as the receiver.
Demonstrated transatlantic wireless communication in 1901

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Computing Alternatives
Abacus Babbage Difference Engine
Mechanical Cash Register
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BIG Electronic Computers

ENIAC (Electrical Numerical Integrator And Calculator developed by Mauchly and Eckert in 1946 17,468 vacuum tubes, 70,000 resistors, 10,000 capacitors, 1500 relays, 6000 manual switches, and 5 million solder joints; covered 1800 sq. feet of floor space; weighed 30 tons; consumed 160kW Built to calculate ballistic trajectories (ballistic firing tables)
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Lecture 1
Early Electronic Devices

Building electronics: Started with tubes, then miniature tubes Transistors, then miniature transistors
Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley invent the first germanium pointcontact transistor at Bell Labs in 1947 (they received a Nobel prize for this discovery). Built an amplifier
Components were getting cheaper, more reliable but: There is a minimum cost of a component (storage, handling ) Total system cost was proportional to complexity
Beginning of Modern Devices

Then along came the Integrated Circuit (IC) Invented by Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments in 1958 (received a Nobel Prize in Physics 2000)
Independently, Robert Noyce of Fairchild Semiconductor had an idea for unitary circuits
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Modern ICs
The IC industry has been able to continue to reduce the size of transistors and increase the number of devices that can be integrated onto a single device
3mm
Itanium 2 2002 1-GHz 130-W 4mm 0.18-um 221M transistors 421-mm2 (~20 x 21 mm)
intel 4004 (71, 2.3K transistors, 10-um technology, 108-kHz)

Where Do We Start?
Ostensibly from the beginning. Volts and Amps (basic circuit analysis) Independent voltage sources and current sources Dependent sources Passive elements resistors, capacitors, inductors Operational Amplifier (op amp) A general purpose, closed-loop amplifier used to implement linear functions. Its performance and function are defined by the external components (feedback network or loop) surrounding it. First introduced in early 1940s Originally comprised of vacuum tubes Used for computation (i.e., addition, subtraction, multiplication, etc.)
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Whats inside these op amps?

Brief introduction to semiconductors Conductors vs. Insulators vs. Semiconductors P-type, N-type PN Junctions Diodes and diode circuits Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT) How they work Different types of BJT circuits Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors (MOSFET) How they work Different types of MOSFET circuits
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Modeling the Operation of Circuits

Frequency Response Analysis Circuits operate over a limited frequency range of the incoming and output signal We will construct models for the circuits and look at gain and bandwidth relationships w.r.t frequency
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Feedback
Once weve looked at the frequency response of circuit operation, it becomes important to spend some time on basic feedback theory. At this point, we shouldve seen feedback at work in op amp circuits, but we didnt worry about frequency response and stability b/c we assumed an ideal amplifier. We will spend some time on open-loop and closed-loop response characteristics of circuits with feedback. Then, we will investigate stability and compensation techniques for extending the bandwidth of amplifiers
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CAD Tools
We will rely on two sets of tools to help us design and verify circuits in various homework and lab assignments. Circuit Simulations HSPICE an analog circuit simulator SUE Schematic User Environment is a graphical tool for drawing circuits and then creating a netlist from HSPICE MATLAB Mathematical tool for frequency response analysis and create pretty graphs
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SUE looks like.
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Review of Circuit Basics

Some basic circuit elements (and their symbols) that we will be using extensively in the class
i i i
v = constant i= v i = constant v= Ideal Independent Sources
v=iR Ideal Dependent Sources Resistor
i = C dv/d t Capacitor
v = L di/dt Inductor
Examples from Nilsson, Electric Circuits, 3rd ed., 1991
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Kirchhoffs Laws
Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL): The algebraic sum of all of the currents at a node in a circuit equals zero. Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL): The algebraic sum of all of the voltages around any closed path in a circuit equals zero.
R1 is vs v1
i1 i2 v2 R2 KVL: v s - v 1 - v2 = 0 KCL: is - i1 = 0 i 1 + i2 = 0
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Example with a Dependent Source

Heres a quick example of a circuit that we will see later when we model the operation of transistors. For now, lets assume ideal independent and dependent sources
iCC We can write the following equations: i1 R1 iC RC V CC i1 + iC - iCC = 0 iB + i 2 - i1 = 0 iE - i B - iC = 0 iC = iB iE RE V 0 + iE R E - i2 R 2 = 0 -i1 R 1 + V CC - i2R 2 = 0
iB
iB V0
i2
R2
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Resistive Circuits
Series vs. Parallel Resistors
R1 is v R4 v R2 R3 is R eq_series
R7
R6
R5
is v R1 R2 R3
is R eq_parallel
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Divider Circuits
Current and voltage divider circuits using resistors
i1 is R1 i2 v R2
i R1 vs R2 vo
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How can we measure current and voltage?

dArsonval meter movement consists of a movable coil placed in the field of a permanent magnet. Current in the coil creates a torque in the coil, which rotates until torque is balanced by restoring spring. Designed so deflection of the pointer is directly proportional to current in the movable coil.
(from Nilsson, 3rd edition)

Ammeter, Voltmeter, and Ohmmeter

DC Ammeter: The shunting resistor RA and dArsonval movement form a current divider DC Voltmeter: Series resistor RV and dArsonval movement form a voltage divider Ohmmeter: Measures the current to find the resistance
RV d'Arsonval movement d'Arsonval movement
Ammeter terminals
RA
Voltmeter terminals
d'Arsonval movement
Rb R unknown
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Wheatstone Bridge
Used for precise measurements One example is to measure resistance of Runknown Adjust R3 until imeter = 0, then Runkown = R2R3/R1
R1
R2 imeter
R3
R unkown
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Source Transformations
Source transformations can be a useful way to simplify circuits Thevenin and Norton Equivalents Can represent any sources made up of sources (both independent and dependent) and resistors Converting to a Thevenin equivalent
Rs
vs
v = vs
Rs
vs
i = vs / Rs
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Thevenin and Norton
Thevenin and Norton are equivalent from the terminals
Rs
vs
is
Rp
But, if I gave you two black boxes and said one is a Thevenin and one is Norton, could you tell them apart? What would you do?
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Maximum Power Transfer

It is often important to design circuits that transfer power from a source to a load. This will be an important concept when we are designing amplifiers. There are two basic types of power transfer: Efficient power transfer (e.g., power utility) Maximum power transfer (e.g., communication circuits)
Transfer an electrical signal (data, information, etc.) from the source to a destination with the most power reaching the destination. There is limited power at the source and power is small so efficiency is not as much of a concern. Assume there is a source that can be represented as a Thevenin equivalent circuit. Determine RL so that the maximum power is transferred.
source
RT
vT
iL
RL
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Superposition
A distinguishing characteristic of linear systems is the principle of superposition: Whenever a linear system is excited, or driven, by more than one independent source of energy, we can find the total response by finding the response to each independent source separately and then summing the individual responses. Mathematically, A system specified by T[] is linear if for all a1, a2, x1(n), and x2(n), we have:
Technique: short circuit voltage sources and open circuit current sources calculate for one source at a time and then sum
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Example of Superposition
R1 = 8 vs = 3 V i2 = ? R2 = 4 is = 2 A
Find i2 using superposition

R1 = 8 vs = 3 V i2 ' R2 = 4
R1 = 8 i2'' R2 = 4 is = 2 A
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Lecture 1
Next Lecture
We will continue to review basic concepts in electric circuits. In particular, we will review circuits containing inductors, capacitors, and resistors, and some analytical tools to deal with them in the frequency domain.
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Lecture 2
Step Response of an RC Circuit

Lets find the step response of an RC circuit using the following example circuit.
A t=0
is
R i
vC
Summing the current around node A gives
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Lecture 3
Lecture 3 Amplifier Models and Frequency Response

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Overview
Reading Chapter 3 Background In this course, we will be spending a lot of time on looking at how to use and build amplifiers. So, it is important to understand what an amplifier basically is and what its characteristics are. This lecture will review some basic amplifier models and then see how we can characterize their operation across different frequencies by creating Bode plots.
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Lecture 3
Basic Amplifier Model
Characteristics Amplify signals that vary about zero volts Powered by one or more DC voltages (power supply voltages) Requires proper DC biasing to operate Amplifies small incremental input signal and produces a magnified signal at the output with some gain
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Practical Example
DC bias voltage Vbias sets DC operating point and results in DC output bias VQ (quiescent voltage) Small input signal vin is amplified
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Lecture 3
DC Blocking
The DC operating point of the input signal may not be the same as the desired DC input voltage for the amplifier. May also be true for the output. We would like to set the DC operating point for the amplifier independently. Use coupling capacitors (or DC blocking caps), Cc1 and Cc2, to block out the DC component of input and output signals DC input and output operating points set by the amplifier We later see how this affects the amplifier gain vs. frequency
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Example
Example of a single-stage amplifier (using a transistor) C blocks DC component of signals from vin DC operating point of amplifier input is set by R1 and R2 (resistor divider) Equivalent circuit for the amplifier for small signals (small-signal model) for midband frequencies C is a short Model MOSFET as a voltagecontrolled current source
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Lecture 3
Gain Elements
There are different types of gain elements Voltage, current, transconductance, transimpedance Lets focus on voltage gain elements for now Characteristics Ideal voltage amplifier has infinite input impedance and zero output impedance
Real amplifiers have finite input and output impedance
Coupling caps used to isolate DC voltages of amplifiers input and output, but cause low-frequency gain rolloff Parasitic capacitances (inside amplifier circuitry) cause highfrequency gain rolloff
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Ideal Voltage Amplifier
Model amplifier with a voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS) VCVS has infinite input impedance and zero output impedance Gain is set by A
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Lecture 3
Non-Ideal Voltage Amplifier w/ Coupling Caps
Still use VCVS to model amplifier, but add resistors and capacitors to model non-idealities Finite input impedance (Cin and Rin) Finite output impedance (Rout and Cout) Coupling caps (Cc1 and Cc2) are large (F range) while parasitic caps (Cin and Cout) are small (pF range) This allows us to create different (simpler) models depending on frequency of signals
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Midband Model
Rs vin Rin Rout A*vab c RL vout
a vab b
d For midband frequecies, model Coupling capacitors (Cc1 and Cc2) as short circuits Parasitic capacitors (Cin and Cout) as open circuits How do the parasitic resistors affect gain?
Usually, Rin >> Rs and Rout << RL (or what we would like)
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Low-Frequency Model
At low frequencies Cannot ignore coupling caps Ignore parasitic caps How do the coupling caps affect gain?
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High-Frequency Model
Rs vin Cin Rin a vab b
At high frequencies Coupling caps are shorts Cannot ignore parasitic caps What happens to the gain?
Rout A*vab
c Cout d RL vout
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Lecture 3
Poles and Zeros of H(s)

Rewriting a rational function as the ratio of two factored polynomials enables us to identify the poles and zeros of H(s). Later, we will see what poles and zeros mean for circuits. For now, here is the general form
The roots of the denominator are poles () and the roots of the numerator are zeros (). The poles and zeros can have both real and imaginary components and we can visualize them as points on a complex s-plane.
X-axis = real Y-axis = imaginary
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Bode Plots
Plotting the frequency response of H(s) can be a very useful tool for analyzing circuit behavior. A Bode plot is a graphical technique that gives a feel for the frequency response of a circuit. Later, we will use MATLAB to create accurate Bode plots from transfer function equations But, we should know the basics behind how Bode plots are created Lets start with a simple example assume real, first-order Poles and Zeros
Substituting j for s gives
To understand the response of H(s) or H(j), we need to look at its magnitude |H(j)| and phase (j) with respect to frequency .
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Bode Plots Primer

First, rearrange the equation into a standard form.
Then, solve for |H(j)| and ()
90o comes from the pole at =0.
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Amplitude Plots
Amplitude plot involves the multiplication and division of factors. To simplify, we present the amplitude in terms of a logarithmic value decibels (dB). Amplitude of H(j) in dB is
So, going back to our example, the amplitude in dB is
The best way to plot the effects of these poles and zeros is to plot them individually and then put it together. We will estimate the plots with straight line approximations each pole causes the plot to slope downward at 20dB/dec or (-6dB/oct) each zero causes the plot to slope upward at +20dB/dec or (+6dB/oct)
* Note: the book uses octaves

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Lecture 3
Amplitude Plots (2)

1. 2. 20log10K is a straight line since it is independent of For the zero, at z1, the plot increases at 20dB/dec
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Amplitude Plots (3)

3. 4. The plot of 20log10() is a straight line that decreases at 20dB/dec and intersects 0dB at =1 For the pole, the plot is a flat line until p1 and then decreases at 20dB/dec
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Amplitude Plots (4)

Now, put them all together (multiplication = addition in dB). (2)
(3) (1)
(4)
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More Accurate AdB Plot

We can make the straight-line approximation plots more accurate for first order poles and zeros by correcting the amplitudes at the corner frequency of the poles and zeros. At the corner,
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Phase Plots
We can again use the straight-line approximation for phase plots.
Some rules phase associated with constant = 0 phase associated with poles or zeros at origin (w=0) is +/- 90 degrees phase associated with first order poles or zeros not at origin is: < corner /10 phase = 0 > 10 * corner phase = +/- 90 degrees = corner phase = +/- 45 degrees NOTE: + for zeros and - for poles
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Phase Plots (2)

Putting them together
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Bode Plots of Complex Poles and Zeros

Complex Poles and Zeros make the Bode plots a little more challenging to draw, but we can still make some approximations. Complex poles and zeros always come in conjugate pairs
If < 1, then roots are complex. If 1, can factor into ( s+p1 )( s+p2 ) and plot as we did before. The complex poles and zeros come in pairs and so: Causes +/- 40dB/dec changes in slope in magnitude plots Causes +/- 180 degree phase shifts also.
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Complex Poles (Amplitude)

Changes the actual amplitude plots depending on the damping coefficient .
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Complex Poles (Phase)

It also changes the phase plot
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Summary of Bode Plot Characteristics

Given a transfer function that is a ratio of a product of factors, where the factor is in the form ( s+a ) factors in the numerator correspond to zeros
causes amplitude plot to slope upward at 20dB/dec starting at the zero corner frequency causes +90 degree phase shift after the zero corner frequency
factors in the denominator correspond to poles

causes amplitude plot to slope downward at -20dB/dec starting at the pole corner frequency causes -90 degree phase shift after the pole corner frequency
a can be a complex number but must come in conjugate pairs Bode plots work best for poles and zeros spaced apart by a 10 in frequency b/c then there is little interaction between them.
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Example: Low-Frequency Response
Lets look at how the coupling capacitor (Cc1) at the input affects the lowfrequency response of the amplifier
p sets the lower cutoff frequency

Example: High-Frequency Response I
Consider the effect of Cin (assume Cout = 0)
This circuit has a single-pole response and the upper 3dB bandwidth (upper cutoff frequency) is at p
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Example: High-Frequency Response II

Rg vin Cin Rin a vab b Rout A*vab c Cout d RL vout
If we now also consider Cout, the gain has the following form
If p1 << p2, then 3dB bandwidth is set by p1 (dominant pole) If p2 << p1, then 3dB bandwidth is set by p2 (dominant pole) If p1 p2, then solve for cutoff where the denominator = sqrt(2)
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Miller Effect
An impedance bridging the input and output nodes of an inverting amplifier can drastically affect the input impedance of an amplifier
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Miller Equivalent Circuit

The bridging impedance can be simplified with an equivalent circuit
Zy Av Av
Zy 1-Av Zy 1-1/Av
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Capacitive Miller Effect
Equivalent circuit
The Miller equivalent circuit is easier to solve Weve already solved this circuit
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Multistage Amplifier
Often a single amplifier stage does not provide enough amplification Can achieve higher gain by cascading amplifier stages Must consider the effects of input and output impedances If coupling caps are used between stages, how do you calculate the lower cutoff frequency? With parasitic capacitances, how do you calculate the upper cutoff frequency? Later, we will see how cascading multiple amplifier stages can lead to wider overall bandwidth (higher upper cutoff frequency)
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Lecture 4
Lecture 4 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

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Overview
Reading Chapter 4 Supplemental Reading Sedra&Smith: Ch. 2 Background Armed with our circuit analysis tools and basic understanding of amplifiers, lets now look at operational amplifiers (op amps). Op amps were initially constructed out of vacuum tubes, then discrete transistor components. With the advent of the integrated circuit, op amp ICs came out in the 60s (e.g., from Analog Devices Inc.). They are extremely useful because they are versatile and one can do almost anything with op amps. We will begin by looking at an ideal version of the op amp and see how they are useful. Then, we will investigate various non-idealities of real amplifier designs and how they affect op amp circuits.
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Lecture 4
Op Amp Terminals
V+ 1 3 2 2 Vop amp symbol with power supply connections 1 3
op amp symbol (we will use most often)

At a minimum, op amps have 3 terminals: 2 input and 1 output. An op amp also requires dc power to operate. Often, the op amp requires both positive and negative voltage supplies (V+ and V-).
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Ideal Op Amp
1
v1
i1=0 A(v2-v1) i2=0

2 3
v2
The op amp is designed to sense the difference between the voltage signals applied to the two input terminals and then multiply it by some gain factor A such that the voltage at the output terminal is A(v2-v1). One of the input terminals (1) is called an inverting input terminal denoted by - The other input terminal (2) is called a non-inverting input terminal denoted by + The gain A is often referred to as the differential gain or open-loop gain We can model an ideal amplifier as a voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS)
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Lecture 4
Ideal Op Amps Characteristics

Ideal op amp characteristics: Does not draw input current so that the input impedance is infinite (i.e., i1=0 and i2=0) The output terminal can supply an arbitrary amount of current (ideal VCVS) and the output impedance is zero The op amp only responds to the voltage difference between the signals at the two input terminals and ignores any voltages common to both inputs. In other words, an ideal op amp has infinite common-mode rejection. The frequency response of an ideal op amp is flat for all frequency. In other words, it amplifies signals of any and all frequencies by the same amount A. Lastly, A is or can be treated as being infinite. Useful b/c we can easily specify a closed-loop gain (using feedback) as will see later. We will see later that real op amps do not have the characteristics above, but we strive to make them behave as close to an ideal op amp as possible.
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Op Amps in the Inverting Configuration

Lets look at an op amp in an inverting closed-loop configuration. There are two resistors R1 and R2 R2 is called the (negative) feedback resistor and also closes the loop. (A resistor between terminals 2 and 3 would be a positive feedback resistor.)
i2
R2
R1
1 3 i=0 2
vI
i1
vO
Closed-Loop Gain G Defined, Assume A is infinite and the amp is trying to produce a finite voltage on terminal 3. Then, the voltage difference between terminals 1 and 2 should be very small, v2-v10 and Ainf. By definition
So, we say there is a virtual short between the two terminals (1 and 2) and that terminal 1 is a virtual ground since terminal 2 is grounded.
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Lecture 4
Inverting op amp contd

Use KCL to solve for the close-loop gain.
i2
R2
R1
1 3 i=0 2
vI
i1
vO
We can adjust the closed-loop gain by changing the ratio of R2 and R1 If the input is a sine wave, then the output is a sign wave phase-shifted by 180 degrees The closed-loop gain is (ideally) independent of op amp open-loop gain A (if A is large enough) and we can make it arbitrarily large or small and of desired accuracy depending on the accuracy of the resistors. This is a classic example of what negative feedback does. It takes an amplifier with very large gain and through negative feedback, obtain a gain that is smaller, stable, and predictable. In effect, we have traded gain for accuracy. This kind of trade off is common in electronic circuit design as we will see more of later.
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ES154 - Lecture 4
Finite Open-Loop Gain

i2=i1 R2
Since infinite A is not physically possible, what happens when A is finite? Instead of a virtual ground, assume input terminal 1 has potential vO/A
R1
-vO A
1 i=0 2
vI
i1
vO
As A infinity, G -R2/R1 and the voltage at terminal 1 goes to 0 the virtual ground assumption we made earlier To minimize the effects of openloop gain on G, we want
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ES154 - Lecture 4
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Lecture 4
Input Resistance
Assuming an ideal op amp (open-loop gain A = ), in the closed-loop inverting configuration, the input resistance is R1.
To make Rin high, need to make R1 high which is not practical What happens when A = finite? From the last slide
Solve for Rin = vI/i1
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ES154 - Lecture 4
Output Resistance
Now, lets look at the output resistance To solve for output resistance, zero out the input and figure out the resistance looking into the output terminal
R2 R1 v1 i2 v2 A(v2-v1) = -Av1 Roa i1 Rout vt
Roa is usually small and so Rout is negligible when A is large

ES154
Lecture 4
Model of Closed-Loop Inverting Amplifier

We can model the closed-loop inverting amplifier (with A = ) with the following equivalent circuit using a voltage-controlled voltage source
RO= 0
vI
Rin= R1
-(R2/R1)vI
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Inverting Configuration with General Impedances

Z2
1
Z1 Vi
Vo
Lets replace R1 and R2 in the inverting configuration with impedances Z1(s) and Z2(s). We can write the closed-loop transfer function as
By placing different circuit elements into Z1 and Z2, we can get interesting operations. Some examples Integrator Differentiator Summer UnityGain Buffer
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Lecture 4
Inverting Integrator
C
|Vo/Vi| (dB)
vC R vi Vi
2 1 -20db/dec
Vo
1/RC (log scale)
We replace Z2 (the negative feedback impedance) with a capacitor and Z1 is a resistor.
How about in the time domain?
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Integrator contd
R2 C R1
Vi
2
Vo
While the DC gain in the previous integrator circuit is infinite, the amplifier itself will saturate. To limit the low-frequency gain to a known and reliable value, add a parallel resistor to the capacitor.
What does the magnitude response look like?
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Lecture 4
Differentiator
R AdB C Vi
2 1
20dB/dec
Vo (log scale)
1/RC
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How would you set a nominal low-frequency gain?

Weighted Summer
R1 v1 R2 v2
1
Rf
Rn vn
You can also building a summer.
vo
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Lecture 4
Non-Inverting Configuration
To avoid the inversion, shown is a non-inverting configuration
R1
1
Rf
vI
vo
Whats the input impedance?
Now what happens as R1 infinity and Rf 0
Unity-Gain Amplifier Useful for buffering between stages
vI
vo
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Difference Amplifier
Now, we can combine the non-inverting amplifier and inverting amplifier configurations to be able to take a difference between two inputs. You can use superposition or brute force it Rf
R1 v1 R2 v2 R3
vv+
vo
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ES154
Lecture 4
Finite Open-Loop Gain and BW

So far, we have assumed infinite gain and infinite bandwidth (BW) for the amplifier, but that is not reality. Amplifiers have finite gain and BW. Heres an example of the open-loop gain vs. frequency plot of an amplifier.
Notice that the gain can be very high at low frequency, but starts to roll off at a low frequency also. They are also frequency compensated to roll off at -20dB/dec (or a single pole) to guarantee that op amp circuits will be stable (more on this later in the semester when we talk about the guts of building amplifiers and feedback stability).
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Finite Open-Loop Gain and BW contd

We can represent frequency response characteristics of this amplifier as we did for a singletime constant low-pass filter.
For frequencies much greater than b ( >> b) we can approximate the gain as
t is called the unity-gain BW. So the gain can be represented as
assuming b is very small (low)
So given this equation, we can find the gain at any frequency (assuming a single-pole magnitude response)
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Lecture 4
Frequency Response of Closed-Loop Amplifiers

Lets look at the closed-loop gain equation we derived earlier for for an amplifier with finite op-amp open-loop gain A.
if A0 >> 1+R2/R1, then we can approximate the equation as
Therefore, the closed-loop gain has a response that rolls off at 20dB/dec at a frequency, -3dB, that is a function of the gain set by the input and feedback resistors. Plot the magnitude response vs. different R2/R1
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Gain-Bandwidth Tradeoff
Gain dB
RF
Open Loop
A0
RF/R1 large
R1
vin vout
RF/R1 small
RF/R1 = 1 0 dB
b t
= A0
With real amplifiers, there is a tradeoff between gain and BW For multi-stage amplifiers, the maximum BW can be achieved for a desired gain when the BW of each stage is equal. For identical stages, the BW for each stage is equal when gain per stage is equal.
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Lecture 4
Gain BW Product (GBW)
The product of gain and BW is a very useful value when designing amplifiers and amplifier circuits Provides a measure of how good you amplifier is (want higher GBW) GBW is constant anywhere along the plot above for a particular design
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BW for Multi-Stage Amps

We define the bandwidth of an amplifier to be
Now, consider multiple amplifier stages (iterative stage amp)
Assume we use identical stages and we can write the expression for gain of each stage as:
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Lecture 4
BW for Multi-Stage Amps (2)

Then, the overall gain is the product of the gain for each stage
The upper cutoff frequency is when the overall gain magnitude drops by 3bB or
and so
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Notice the overall -3dB BW shrinks with more stages (BW shrinkage)
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ES154 - Lecture 4
Optimizing BW
So, do we want to cascade a large number of low-gain amplifiers (w/ high BW) or a small number of high-gain amps (w/ low BW)? To optimize BW for a specified gain, we need to balance two trends Smaller number of stages = less BW shrinkage Higher gain per stage = lower BW per stage For n 3, we can approximate BW shrinkage as
If we use identical stages, then we know that each stages has
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Lecture 4
Optimizing BW (2)
Now, we can find the optimum number of stages (n) by differentiating the expression for the overall BW with respect to n and solving for when the derivative = 0. To simplify the math, let Ao = ek (k = ln Ao)
So, you first need to figure out the optimal n for a desired Ao and then calculate the gain for each stage and the resulting BW you get due to BW shrinkage.
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ES154 - Lecture 4
Output Saturation
So far, we have been looking at the amplification that can be achieved for relatively small (amplitude) signals. For a fixed gain, as we increase the input signal amplitude, there is a limit to how large the output signal can be. The output saturates as it approaches the positive and negative power supply voltages. In other words, there is limited range across which the gain is linear.
From Sedra&Smith
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Lecture 4
Slew Rate (BW limited)

Another source of nonlinear distortion comes from the limited slew rate of the amplifier. Remember, we modeled the amplifier as a single time constant circuit. Thus, an input signal sees attenuation beyond the BW of the op amp. Lets look at the time domain response of the circuit by taking the inverse Laplace transform of the amplifiers transfer function multiplied by a step with magnitude Vin.
The output does not change instantaneously. Rather, we see an exponential response that slews the output up. The maximum output slew rate is defined as the derivative of the output voltage at t=0.
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Voltage Offsets
The circuit implementation of amplifiers is subject to a variety of imperfections during its fabrication. This imperfection can be due to physical imbalances that occurs even at DC (or zero frequency). To understand this problem, assume the two inputs to the amplifier are connected together. Instead of a zero output, in real circuits, we get a non-zero positive or negative voltage at the output.
Vout = 0
One can model the imbalance by adding a DC voltage offset on one of the terminals. This is an input offset voltage (VOS) in the amplifier which can be compensated for with a voltage of equal magnitude and opposite polarity to make the output voltage go to zero.
Vout = 0 VOS
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Lecture 4
Input Bias Currents

In real amplifiers, the two input terminals sometimes have to be supplied with dc currents called input bias currents. They can be represented by two current sources IB1 and IB2. Furthermore, there can be mismatch between these currents IOS.
IB1 Rf
0 R1 0V
IB1
IB1
IB2
IB2
VO=IB1Rf
We can reduce the output voltage effects from the input bias current by adding a resistor into the positive terminal. However, mismatches between IB1 and IB2 (IOS = IB1 - IB2) results in an offset voltage VOS=IOSRf.
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Lecture 5
Lecture 5 Semiconductor Basics

Gu-Yeon Wei Division of Engineering and Applied Sciences Harvard University
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Semiconductors
Reading: Chapter 5 Supplemental Reading: Streetman, Solid State Electronic Devices, Ch. 3, App. IV Sedra&Smith Ch. 3 Background The electronics industry today is based on semiconductors, due to our well-developed ability to affect the electronic properties of the solid. Understanding semiconductors allows us to understand the functioning of circuit elements, as well as grasp future possibilities and limitations. These notes were originally created by Kathy Aidala (TF in 2002)
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Lecture 5
Band Theory
Analogy to atoms From chemistry, we are familiar with the idea of electron clouds orbiting the nucleus. The energy of the different clouds, or levels, is discrete. Adding energy can cause an electron to jump into a higher level. In the same way, an electron can lose energy and emit a specific wavelength of light when falling to a lower energy level. (Atomic spectra) Pauli Exclusion Principle: no two electrons can occupy the same exact state at the same time. This is why electrons fill the energy levels in the way they do. Valence electrons are the electrons bound farthest from the nucleus
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Band Theory
What is a crystalline solid? A volume of atoms covalently bonded in a periodic structure with well defined symmetries. Example: Silicon
Face-Centered Cubic (FCC) structure Group-IV elements (4 valence electrons)
Where are the electrons? Covalent bonds share electrons. The e- are delocalized, they can move around the crystal, orbit any atom, as long as there is an open state (cannot violate Pauli Exclusion) This forms discrete energy bands. Solving Schroedingers Equation in the specific periodic structure reveals these bands.
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Lecture 5
Specifics of Crystals
Econduction EFermi Egap Evalence
Atom

Semiconductor
In an atom, electrons orbit in their shell, at a given energy. In a crystal, many electrons occupy a small energy band. There is a width to the energy band, which is why Pauli Exclusion is not violated. Within the band, electrons can move easily if there are available states, because the difference in energy is tiny. Between bands, electrons must get energy from another source, because the band gap can be significant.
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Fermi Energy
The highest energy an electron reached if you were to fill the solid with the intrinsic number of electrons at absolute zero. (No added thermal energy) Meaningful! There is a sea of electrons sitting beneath this energy. If you bring two solids together with different Fermi energies, the electrons will move around to reach an equilibrium. (Foreshadowing: PN junction) If you try to put a lower energy electron into a solid (at absolute zero) with a higher Fermi energy, it wont fit. It cannot be done due to Pauli Exclusion. If the highest energy electron exactly fills a band, the Fermi Energy is near the center of the bands.
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ES154
Lecture 5
Beyond 0 K: Fermi-Dirac Statistics

Fermi Energy: The energy state whose probability of being occupied is exactly 1/2 . Electrons obey Fermi-Dirac statistics, which describe the probability of an electron being present in an allowed energy state. Note that if there are no states at a given energy (i.e., in the band gap) there will be no electrons, even if there is finite probability.
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Different Types of Solids
Fermi level falls between Fermi level falls between bands, with a large band gap. bands, with a small band gap. SiO2: 9 eV. Si: 1.11 eV, Ge:0.67 eV, GaAs: 1.43
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Fermi level falls inside the energy band. Easy for electrons to move around
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Lecture 5
Transport in Semiconductors
Econduction Egap Evalence EFermi
Electrons that get excited into the conduction band carry current. The space left behind in the valence band is called a hole. Holes also conduct current. In reality, its the movement of all the other electrons. The hole allows this motion. (Bubbles) Holes can easily travel up in energy. Holes have positive charge. Current flows in the same direction as the holes move. Holes have different mass (effective mass) and mobility compared to electrons.
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Intrinsic Semiconductor Summary

Econduction EFermi Egap Evalence
Fermi Level: All solids are characterized by an energy that describes the highest energy electron at 0K, the level which has 1/2 probability of being occupied at finite temperature. Semiconductors: A solid with its Fermi level exactly between bands, with a band gap small enough to be overcome at room temperature. Both electrons and holes carry current.
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ES154
Lecture 5
Controlling the properties of a Semiconductor Silicon: 4 valence electrons. Each Si atom bonds to four others.
Doping
Replace some Si atoms with atoms that do not have four valence electrons.
ee-
These atoms will have an extra electron (group IV), or an extra hole (group III). Doping increases the number of carriers and changes the Fermi level.
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Phosphorus Doping (N-type)
Econduction EFermi
Evalence
Phosphorus has 5 valence electrons. P atoms will sit in the location of a Si atom in the lattice, to avoid breaking symmetry, but each will have an extra electron that does not bond in the same way. These electrons form their own band. Exactly where depends on the amounts of the two materials. This new band is located closer to the conduction band, because these extra electrons are easier to excite (and can move around more easily)
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ES154
Lecture 5
Boron Doping (P-type)

Econduction
EFermi Evalence
Boron has 3 valence electrons. B will sit at a lattice site, but the adjacent Si atoms lack an electron to fill its shell. This creates a hole. These holes form their own energy band. This band is located closer to the valence band, because these extra holes are easy to excite down into the valence band.
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Doping
N-type Econduction EFermi EFermi Evalence Econduction P-type
Evalence
N-type materials: Doping Si with a Group V element, providing extra electrons (n for negative) and moving the Fermi level up. P-type materials: Doping Si with a Group III element, providing extra holes (p for positive) and moving the Fermi level down.
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Lecture 5
Equilibrium Concentrations: electrons

N(E) f(E) Carrier concentration
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Equilibrium Concentrations: holes

Carrier concentration
N(E)
f(E)
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ES154
Lecture 5
Intrinsic Semiconductors
In intrinsic semiconductors (no doping) the electron and hole concentrations are equal because carriers are created in pairs
This allows us to write
As the Fermi level moves closer to the conduction [valence] band, the n0 [p0] increases exponentially
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Temperature Dependence of Carrier Concentrations

The intrinsic concentration depends exponentially on temperature. The T3 dependence is negligible. Ionization: only a few donors [acceptors] are ionized. Extrinsic: All donors [acceptors] are ionized Intrinisic: As the temperaure increases past the point where it is high enough to excite carriers across the full band gap, intrinsic carriers eventually contribute more. At room temp (300K), the intrinsic carrier concentration of silicon is:
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ES154
Lecture 5
Moving Carriers (i.e., current)

There are two mechanisms by which mobile carriers move in semiconductors resulting in current flow Drift
Carrier movement is induced by a force of some type
Diffusion
Carriers move (diffuse) from a place of higher concentration to a place of lower concentration
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Drude Model of Conductivity

Electrons are assumed to move in a direct path, free of interactions with the lattice or other electrons, until it collides. This collision abruptly alters its velocity and momentum. The probabilty of a collision occuring in time dt is simply dt/, where is the mean free time. is the average amount of time it takes for an electron to collide.
The current is the charge*number of electrons*area*velocity in a unit of time. For j = current density, divide by the area. The drift velocity (vd) is a function of charge mobility (n) and electric field (E). At equilibrium, there is no net motion of charge, vavg = 0. With an applied electric field, there is a net drift of electrons [holes] against [with] the electric field resulting in an average velocity. This model allows us to apply Newtons equations, but with an effective mass. The effective mass takes the interactions with the rest of the solid into account.
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ES154
Lecture 5
Drude Model
Consider an electron just after a collision. The velocity it acquires before the next collision will be acceleration*time
We want the average velocity of all the electrons, which can be obtained by simply averaging the time, which we already know is . We can also write this in terms of mobility:
Taking both holes and electrons into account, we end up with the following formula for current density due to drift.
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- Hall Effect
Moving electrons experience a force due to a perpendicular B field
An electric field develops in response to this force. The sign of this field perpendicular to the flow of current determines the carrier type. Density and mobility can also be calculated.
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Lecture 5
Diffusion
Diffusion results in a net flux of particles from the region of higher concentration to the region of lower concentration This flux leads to current (movement of charged particles) Magnitude of current depends on the gradient of concentration
Dn is the diffusivity coefficient Diffusivity is related to mobility by Einsteins relationship
Typical values for Si at room temp

Dn = 34 cm2/s and Dp = 13 cm2/s
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Lecture 6 PN Junctions and Diode Circuits
Gu-Yeon Wei Division of Engineering and Applied Sciences Harvard University
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Overview
Reading: Chapter 5 Supplementation Reading: Streetman, Solid State Electronic Devices, Ch. 5 Sedra&Smith Ch. 3.1~5 Background Now that we have learned the semiconductor basics, we will look at one of the simplest semiconductor devices that can be built by abutting two pieces of semiconductors (silicon) each doped with different dopants. Given that the two pieces are n-type and p-type semiconductors, the device is called a PN junction. The interaction between the two material types at the boundary (or junction) results in some very interesting and useful properties. A PN junction is one way to build diodes. We will take a brief look at what can be built with diodes.
ES154 - Lecture 6: PN Junctions and Diode Circuits 2
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Ideal Diode
Lets begin with an ideal diode and look at its characteristics
From Sedra&Smith
Wei ES154 - Lecture 6: PN Junctions and Diode Circuits 3
Characteristics of PN Junction Diodes

Given a semiconductor PN junction we get a diode with the following current-voltage (IV) characteristics.
Turn on voltage based on the built-in potential of the PN junction Reverse bias breakdown voltage due to avalanche breakdown (on the order of several volts)
From Sedra&Smith
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ES154 - Lecture 6: PN Junctions and Diode Circuits
Current Equations
The forward bias current is closely approximated by
where VT is the thermal voltage (~25mV at room temp) k = Boltzmans constant = 1.38 x 10-23 joules/kelvin T = absolute temperature q = electron charge = 1.602 x 10-19 coulombs n = constant dependent on material, between 1 and 2 (we will assume n = 1) IS = scaled current for saturation current that is set by dimensions Notice there is a strong dependence on temperature We can approximate the diode equation for i >> IS
In reverse bias (when v << 0 by at least VT ), then
In breakdown, reverse current increases rapidly a vertical line
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ES154 - Lecture 8
Mobile Carriers
Now lets look at physical mechanisms from which the current equations come. Weve seen that holes and electrons move through a semiconductor by two mechanisms drift and diffusion
In equilibrium, diffusion current (ID) is balanced by drift current (IS). So, there is no net current flow. Drift current comes from (thermal) generation of hole-electron pairs (EHP).
Band Diagrams
When the P-type material is contacted with the N-type material, the Fermi levels must be at equilibrium. Band bending: The conduction and valence bands bend to align the Fermi levels. Electrons diffuse from the N-side to the P-side and recombine with holes at the boundary. Holes diffuse from the P-side to the N-side and recombine with electrons at the boundary. There is a region at the boundary of charged atoms called the space-charge region (also called the depletion region b/c no mobile carriers in this region) An electric field is created which results in a voltage drop across the region called the barrier voltage or built-in potential
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P-type
Ec Ei Efp Ev
N-type
Ec Efn Ei Ev
p E-field qV0 Ec Ef Ei Ev
7
What happens when P-type meets N-type?

Holes diffuse from the p-type into the n-type, electrons diffuse from the n-type into the p-type, creating a diffusion current. The diffusion equation is given by
Once the holes [electrons] cross into the n-type [p-type] region, they recombine with the electrons [holes]. This recombination strips the n-type [p-type] of its electrons near the boundary, creating an electric field due to the positive and negative bound charges. The region stripped of carriers is called the space-charge region, or depletion region. V0 is the contact potential that exists due to the electric field.
Some carriers are generated (thermally) and make their way into the depletion region where they are whisked away by the electric field, creating a drift current.
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Equilibrium motion of carriers

In equilibrium, diffusion current is balanced by drift current. Moreover, the builtin potential (electric field) stops the diffusion by imposing a larger barrier to holes and electrons. The diffusion current is determined by the # of carriers able to overcome the potential barrier. The drift current is determined by the generation of minority carriers (in the depletion region) which then move due to the E-field. This generation is determined by the temperature.
At equilibrium, the two components are equal
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E-field and Built-in Potential

Diffusion is balanced by drift due to bound charges at the junction that induce an E-field. Integrating the bound charge density gives us the E-field
Integrating the E-field gives the potential gradient
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Junction Built-In Voltage

With no external biasing, the voltage across the depletion region is:
Typically, at room temp, V0 is 0.6~0.8V

How does V0 change as temperature increases?
Interesting to note that when you try to measure the potential across the pn junction terminals, the voltage measured will be 0. In other words, V0 across the depletion region does not appear across the diode terminals. This is b/c the metal-semiconductor junction at the terminals counteract and balance V0 . Otherwise, we would be able to draw energy from an isolated pn junction, which violates conservation of energy.
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Width of Depletion Region

The depletion region exists on both sides of the junction. The widths in each side is a function of the respective doping levels. Charge-equality gives:
P-type -xp 0 xn
Wdepl N-type
The width of the depletion region can be found as a function of doping and the built-in voltage
E(x) -xp xn E0 x
s is the electrical permittivity of silicon = 11.70

(units in F/cm)
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pn Junction in Reverse Bias (1)

Lets see how the pn junction looks with an external current, I (less than IS), applied electrons leave the n side and holes leave the p side depletion region grows V0 grows ID decreases in equilibrium, there is a VR across the terminals (greater than V0) If I > IS, the diode breaks down As the depletion region grows, the capacitance across the diode changes.
Treating the depletion region as a parallel plate capacitor
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Reverse Bias (2)

p V + n
Reverse bias: apply a negative voltage to the ptype, positive to n-type. Increase the built-in potential, increase the barrier height. Decrease the number of carriers able to diffuse across the barrier. Diffusion current decreases. Drift current remains the same (due to generation of EHP). Almost no current flows. Reverse leakage current, IS, is the drift current, flowing from n to p.
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Reverse Breakdown
Zener Breakdown: The bands bend so much that carriers tunnel through the depletion region. This will occur in heavily doped junctions when the n-side conduction band appears opposite the p-side valence band. Avalanche Breakdown: carriers have enough energy to ionize an electron-hole-pair (EHP), creating more highly energetic carriers, which collide to form more EHPs, which creates
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pn Junction in Forward Bias (1)

Now lets look at the condition where we push current through the pn junction in the opposite direction. Add more majority carriers to both sides shrink the depletion region lower V0 diffusion current increases Look at the minority carrier concentration lower barrier allows more carriers to be injected to the other side Note that np0 = ni2/NA and pn0 = ni2/ND This comes from two equations
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Excess minority carrier concentration is governed by the law of the junction (proof can be found in device physics text). Lets look at holes.
The distribution of excess minority hole concentration in the n-type Si is an exponentially decaying function of distance from xn
where Lp is the diffusion length (steepness of exponential decay) and is set by the excess-minority-carrier lifetime, p. The average time it takes for a hole injected into the n region to recombine with a majority carrier electron
The diffusion of holes leads to the following current density vs. x
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In equilibrium, as holes diffuse away, they must be met by a constant supply of electrons with which they recombine. Thus, the current must be supplied at a rate that equals the concentration of holes at the edge of the depletion region (xn). Thus, the current due to hole injection is:
Current due to electrons injected into the p region is
Combined
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Minority Carrier Concentration and Current Densities in Forward Bias

Current is due to the diffusion of holes and electrons. Current is dominated by holes or electrons depending on the relative doping of NA vs. ND Is NA > ND or NA<ND in this example?
n or p pn0*exp(qV/kT)
np0*exp(qV/kT) pn0 np0 x p-bulk region depletion region n-bulk region JP(xn) J (amps/cm2)
Jn(-xp)
JP
Jtotal=JP+JN
JN -xp
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xn
x
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Forward Bias (2)

+ V
p
Forward bias: apply a positive voltage to the p-type, negative to n-type. Decrease the built-in potential, lower the barrier height. Increase the number of carriers able to diffuse across the barrier Diffusion current increases Drift current remains the same Current flows from p to n
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Review of Biasing
Applying a bias adds or subtracts to the built-in potential. This changes the diffusion current, making it harder or easier for the carriers to diffuse across. The drift current is essentially constant, as it is dependent on temperature.
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Photodiodes
Diodes have an optical generation rate. Carriers are created by shining light with photon energy greater than the bandgap. One wants large depletion widths and long diffusion lengths, as it is only in these areas that excited carriers will make it across the junction. Photodetector: operate in third quadrant. Compromise between speed and junction width leads to a p-intrisic-n junction, where carriers will be rapidly swept across, and can quickly diffuse in the p and nregions. Solar Cell: operating in the fourth quadrant generates current, though small.
Light Emitting Diodes

When electrons and holes combine, they release energy. This energy is often released as heat into the lattice, but in some materials, known as direct bandgap materials, they release light. Engineering LEDs can be difficult, but has been done over a wide range of wavelengths. This illustration describes the importance of the plastic bubble in directing the light so that it is more effectively seen.
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Diode Circuits
Look at the simple diode circuit below. We can write two equations:
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Diode Small-Signal Model

Some circuit applications bias the diode at a DC point (VD) and superimpose a small signal (vd(t))on top of it. Together, the signal is vD(t), consisting of both DC and AC components Graphically, can show that there is a translation of voltage to current (id(t)) Can model the diode at this bias point as a resistor with resistance as the inverse of the tangent of the i-v curve at that point
And if vd(t) is sufficiently small then we can expand the exponential and get an approximate expression called the small-signal approximation (valid for vd < 10mV)
So, the diode small-signal resistance is
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Perform the small signal analysis of the diode circuit biased with VDD by eliminating the DC sources and replacing the diode with a small signal resistance The resulting voltage divider gives:
Separating out the DC or bias analysis and the small-signal analysis is a technique we will use extensively
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Rectifier Circuits
One of the most important applications of diodes is in the design of rectifier circuits. Used to convert an AC signal into a DC voltage used by most electronics.
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Simple Half-Wave Rectifier

Only lets through positive voltages and rejects negative voltages This example assumes an ideal diode What would the waveform look like if not an ideal diode?
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Full-Wave Rectifier
To utilize both halves of the input sinusoid use a center-tapped transformer
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Bridge Rectifier
Looks like a Wheatstone bridge. Does not require a centertapped transformer.
Requires 2 additional diodes and voltage drop is double.
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Peak Rectifier
To smooth out the peaks and obtain a DC voltage, add a cap across the output
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Lecture 7 MOSFET Devices and Circuits

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Overview
Reading Chapter 6 Supplemental Reading Sedra&Smith: Chapter 5.1~5.4 Background Now that we have a basic understanding of semiconductors and PN junctions, we will build on that knowledge to look at a transistor device called a MOSFET. This is the first of two transistors types that we will be studying in this course. Most modern ICs are built using these transistors. While they are commonly used to implement digital circuits, we will look at their analog characteristics and talk about how to build amplifiers with them. We begin with the physical structure and a qualitative understanding of how MOSFETs operate. We will derive some current-voltage equations for the transistor. We will also use band diagrams to provide some theoretical rigor to our initial qualitative understanding. Then, we will look at some non-ideal characteristics of the transistor. Lastly, we will analyze the DC operation of MOSFETs.
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ES154 - Lecture 7 - MOSFETs
Enhancement-Type MOSFET
Most widely used field effect transistor (enhancement type) Lets look at its structure and physical operation
3 terminal device (gate, source, drain) Additional body (or bulk) terminal (generally at DC and not used for signals) Two types:
nMOS and pMOS
Wei ES154 - Lecture 7 - MOSFETs 3
nMOS Transistor
Four terminal device: gate, source, drain (and body) No connection between the gate and drain/source (separated by oxide) Voltage on gate controls current flow between source and drain Gate-oxide-body stack looks like a capacitor Gate and body are conductors SiO2 (oxide) is a good insulator Called Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (MOS) capacitor
Gate no longer made out of metal, but poly
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Basic nMOS Operation

Body is commonly tied to ground (0V) When the gate is at a low voltage (VG = 0): P-type body is at low voltage Source-body and drain-body diodes are OFF (reverse bias)
Depletion region between n+ and p bulk
No current can flow, transistor is OFF
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Basic nMOS Operation Contd

When the gate is at a high voltage Positive charge on gate of MOS capacitor Negative charge attracted to oxide in the body (under the gate) Inverts channel under the gate to n-type Now current can flow through this n-type channel between source and drain Transistor is ON
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pMOS Transistor
Similar to nMOS, but doping and voltages reversed Body tied to high voltage (Vdd) Gate low: transistor is ON
inverted channel of positively charged holes
Gate high: transistor is OFF Bubble indicates inverted behavior of the pMOS
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MOSFET in More Detail

An ON transistor passes a finite amount of current Depends on terminal voltages and mode of operation We will derive current-voltage (I-V) relationships To enhance our understanding of MOS devices, lets take quick aside to look the characteristics of a MOS capacitor and at band diagrams
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Aside MOS Capacitor

Gate and body form a MOS cap Operating modes Accumulation
Depletion
Repels positive charge
Inversion
Inversion layer forms under the gate
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Aside MOSFET Band Diagrams

A more rigorous look at MOSFETs requires us to again use band diagrams energy diagram drawn relative to the vacuum level at equilibrium (no voltage applied) metal work function, M, energy required to completely free an electron from the metal electron affinity, , is the energy between the conduction band and vacuum level
Vacuum Level
Ef Ei
metal oxide
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semiconductor
N-type semiconductor
10
Aside Block Charge diagram

Provides information about the charge distribution inside a MOS structure no charges at equilibrium when bias is applied, charge appears within the metal and semiconductor at the interfaces to the oxide
voltage drop across the oxide and there is an electric field due to the +Q and Q charge separated by the oxide
charge
+Q
position
-Q M O S
We will use band diagrams and block charge diagrams to better understand how MOS devices work
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Aside Applying Bias

Look at a pMOS (n-type bulk) device and see how applying a bias on the gate affects the band and block charge diagrams
Accumulation (VG > 0)
+Q -Q
Onset of Inversion (VG = Vt)

S
+Q -Q M O S
M O
Depletion (small VG < 0)
+Q -Q M O S
Inversion (VG < Vt)
holes +Q -Q M O S
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Terminal Voltages
The modes of operation depend on terminal voltages Vg, Vd, and Vs Vgs = Vg - Vs Vgd = Vg - Vd Vds = Vd - Vs = Vgs - Vgd Source and drain are symmetric diffusion terminals (transistors are symmetric devices) By convention, source is the terminal at the lower (higher) voltage for the nMOS (pMOS) transistor Hence, Vds > 0 nMOS body is grounded. First assume that source is grounded as well Three regions of operation Cutoff Linear Saturation
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nMOS Cutoff Mode

Vgs < Vt and so there is no channel Source tied to body at 0V Need a channel for current to flow Ids = 0
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nMOS Linear Mode

Vgs > Vt and so a channel forms underneath the gate Vt is the threshold voltage that sets when a channel forms Current flows from d to s Electrons flow from s to d Ids increases with Vds Similar to a linear resistor
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nMOS Saturation Mode

Vds > Vgs Vt and channel pinches off at the drain side b/c Vgd < Vt at the drain side (no channel at drain side) We say current saturates and Ids is independent of Vds Transistor operates similar to a current source
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I-V Characteristics
In the Linear region of moderation, Ids depends on How much charge is in the channel How fast the charge is moving
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Channel Charge
MOS structure looks like a parallel plate capacitor while operating in inversion Gate-oxide-channel
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Carrier Velocity
Charge is carried by eCarrier velocity v is proportional to the lateral E-field between source and drain
Time for carriers to cross the channel is
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nMOS Linear I-V

Combine the channel charge and velocity to find the current flow Current = amount of charge in the channel / time it takes the carriers to get across the channel
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nMOS Saturation I-V

If Vgd < Vt, channel pinches off near the drain When Vds > Vdsat = Vgs Vt Now, drain voltage no longer increases current and current saturates (Idsat)
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Device Operation Review

No gate voltage (vGS = 0) Two back to back diodes both in reverse bias no current flow between source and drain when voltage between source and drain is applied (vDS >0) There is a depletion region between the p (substrate) and n+ source and drain regions Apply a voltage on vGS > 0 Positive potential on gate node pushes free holes away from the region underneath the gate and leave behind a negatively charged carrier depletion region
transistor in depletion mode
As vGS increases, electrons start to gather at the surface underneath the gate (onset of inversion) When vGS is high enough, a n-type channel is induced underneath the gate oxide where there are more electrons than holes (strong inversion)
This induced region is called an inversion layer (or channel) and forms when vGS > some threshold voltage Vt and current can flow between S & D Transistor is in inversion mode When vDS = 0, no current flows between source and drain
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Linear Operation
iD vGS = Vt + 3 V
vGS = Vt + 2 V
vGS = Vt + V vGS <= Vt vDS (small)
With vGS large enough to induce a channel, apply a small potential vDS Causes current to flow between source and drain (electrons flow from source to drain) Magnitude of iD depends on density of electrons in channel which depends on vGS (larger vGS = higher density of electrons) Conductance of channel is proportional to vGS-Vt (called excess gate voltage or effective voltage or gate overdrive) Current is proportional to vGS-Vt and vDS that causes current to flow i-v curve shows the transistor operates like a voltage-controlled linear resistor Notice iD = iS and iG = 0 due to the gate oxide
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Triode to Saturation Region
Assume vGS is at a constant value > Vt and increase vDS vDS appears as a voltage drop across the channel and at different points along the channel, the voltage is different Voltages between the gate and points along the channel are also different ranging from vGS at the source to vGS-vDS at the drain
Induced channel is a function of voltage across the oxide at the different points and so channel depth varies across the length of the transistor
i-v curve bends over as vDS increases due to the smaller channel depth At vDS = vGS-Vt channel depth is almost zero at the drain side
Current stays flat for higher voltages vDS > vGS-Vt The transistor is said to now operate in the saturation region (not to be confused with the saturation region in BJTs)
ES154 - Lecture 7 - MOSFETs 24
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Saturation Region
vDS >= vGS - Vt source channel vDS drain
vDS = 0
As vDS increases, the channel gets smaller and smaller on the drain side until vDS = vGS Vt at which point the channel is said to be pinched off Increasing vDS beyond this point as little (ideally no) effect on the channel shape Current remains constant and said to saturate Transistor enters saturation at vDSsat = vGS Vt
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Deriving the iD-vDS Relationship
First consider the linear (triode) region of operation vDS < vGS - Vt (vGS > Vt is assumed) Consider a point along the channel of infinitesimal width dx at x and voltage v(x) The electron charge at this point is: where Cox is the parallel-plate cap formed by the gate electrode and the channel
vDS produces as electric field along the channel (in the negative x direction)
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The electric field causes electron charge dq(x) to drift with a velocity dx/dt
Where n is the electron mobility in the channel Current is the movement of charge and so
Rearrange the equation and integrate along the length of the channel
Gives the current in the linear (triode) region:
When vDS=vGS-Vt, we get the saturation current equation
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nMOS I-V Summary

Shockley 1st order model of transistors Cutoff
Linear
Saturation
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+ Ideal Quadratic nMOS i-V

linear saturation Vg = 2.5V
ids
saturation starts
Vg = 2.0V
Vg = 1.5V Vg = 1.0V
Vds
nMOS and pMOS
Weve just seen how current flows in nMOS devices. A complementary version of the nMOS device is a pMOS shown above pMOS operation and current equations are the same except current is due to drift of holes The mobility of holes (p) is lower than the mobility of electrons (n) Current is lower in pMOS devices given the same dimension and voltages.
30
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Circuit Symbols
nMOS or nFET pMOS or pFET
We represent MOSFETs with the following symbols The book specifies nMOS vs. pMOS with arrows (direction of current flow) I will use bubbles b/c they are easier to distinguish quickly
a digital circuit designers way of drawing symbols
These are symmetric devices and so drain and source can be used interchangeably
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i-v Characteristics
For small values of vDS, vDS2 is small and so near the origin, we can approximate the transistor as a linear resistor
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We can get a relationship between iD and vGS when the transistor is in saturation Let vGS-Vt = VDS
MOS vs. BJT Current is quadratic with voltage in MOS vs. exponential relationship in BJT
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Some Non-Ideal Characteristics

Channel-length modulation Body effect Velocity saturation
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Channel-Length Modulation
Like the Early effect in BJTs, there is an effect in MOSFETs that causes drain current to vary with vDS in saturation (finite output resistance) As vDS increases beyond vDSsat, the pinch off point moves away from the drain by L and has the effect of changing the effective channel length in the transistor Account for this effect with a (1+vDS) term in the saturation current equation
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Channel-length modulation makes the output resistance in saturation finite
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Body Effect
So far, we have been ignoring the substrate (or bulk or body) of the transistor and assumed that is it tied to the source. However, we cannot always make that assumption. In integrated circuits, the body is common to many MOS transistors and is connected to the most negative (positive) supply for nMOS (pMOS) transistors. The resulting reverse-bias voltage between the source and substrate affects device operation. Reverse bias will widen the depletion region and reduces channel depth which can be modeled as changing the threshold voltage
where Vth0 is the threshold voltage when VSB=0, f is a physical parameter, is a fabrication-process parameter
is typically 0.5-V1/2 As VSB increases, Vt increases which affects the transistors i-v characteristics
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Temperature Effects
Vt and mobility n,p are sensitive to temperature Vt decreases by 2-mV for every 1C rise in temperature mobility n,p decreases with temperature Overall, increase in temperature results in lower drain currents
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Velocity Saturation
So far, the saturation current equation is quadratic with overdrive voltage (vGS-Vth) and said to obey the square law which is valid for long channel length (>1-m) devices As transistor dimensions decrease, gate oxide gets thinner and there is a higher vertical and horizontal electrical field that the electrons moving through the channel experience Causes electrons to bounce up to the oxide (more scattering) and saturates the velocity at which current flows across the channel Can approximate the effect of velocity saturation with the following powerlaw equation for saturation current
ranges from 1 to 2 depending on process technology (transistor length) This approximation is not rigorous, but convenient to use. More accurate models of the velocity saturation equation can be found in more advanced courses that cover MOS devices and circuits
Real nMOS i-V Curve
i-v curves of nMOS transistor in 0.5-m CMOS technology W = 2.5-m, L = 0.6-m
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Depletion-type MOSFETs
Depletion-type MOSFETs have a channel with zero vGS (symbol is drawn with channel) must apply negative vGS to turn off device Can be used as resistor loads (will see later)
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MOSFET at DC Example
Current Mirror What is vGS? How is ID related to ISRC? What is ID vs. VD?
ID ISRC VD vGS
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MOSFET Amplifier
The MOSFET can be configured to operate as an amplifier. One of the simplest amplifier configurations one can build with a MOSFET is a common-source amplifier. Requirements for proper operation MOSFET must operate in saturation
Depends on RD and voltage biasing VGS
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Load Line
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Use a load line to see the operating point of the transistor w.r.t. RD and VGS
DC Biasing
There are many ways to bias the CS nMOS Amp. Here are two ways

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What is VIN (or VGS) for the circuit on the right? What is the cap for?
DC Bias
First bias MOSFET in saturation region (equivalent to active region in BJTs) to operate as an amplifier set vgs = 0 and find ID (for now, assume =0)
To be in saturation,
Apply a small signal, vgs, to the gate
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Three components of iD
First term = DC current Second term = current proportional to vgs Third term = undesired nonlinear distortion Make vgs small to reduce effect of third term
This is the small-signal condition and lets us use the following approximation
and we can relate id to vgs with a transconductance
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Small-Signal Voltage Gain (vd/vgs)
This gain equation hold for small signals Notice that the output is 180 out of phase w.r.t. the input Again, we can separate out the DC bias conditions and the small-signal operation of the circuit Look at the small-signal equivalent circuit for a MOSFET biased in the saturation region
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Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit

A MOSFET operates like voltage controlled current source (for small signals)
Like the Early effect in the BJT, channel length modulation results in an output resistance, ro
where VA = 1/ When using small-signal equivalent circuits, all DC sources are set to 0 since they do not change
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Transconductance
Lets take a closer look at transconductance, gm
Depends on process technology nCox physical geometry W/L

make short and wide for high gm
DC bias VGS
making VGS large increases gm, but can limit voltage range on drain
Another way to write gm
gm is proportional to the square root of the DC bias current
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T-Model
Sometimes easier to analyze circuits using a different model T-Model and -Model are equivalent circuits Resistance looking into the source is 1/gm Resistance looking into G is still since ig=0
T-Model
Wei ES154 - Lecture 7 - MOSFETs
-Model
51
Body Effect
D G vgs gmvgs ro gmbvbs vbs B
Body Effect We saw that the substrate bias VBS affects Vt which has the effect of influencing current like another gate
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Example 1: CS Amp with Resistor Biasing

VDD
RD vDS
R1 Rs
Lets look at another CS amplifier example What does the mid-band small-signal equivalent circuit look like? What is vbs? What is Rin seen by the source? What is Rout?
Rs gmvgs gmbvbs ro RD vds
vin
R2
vin
R1||R2
vgs
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Example 1 contd
Use the small-signal equivalent circuit to figure out small-signal gain, Rin and Rout
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In Pursuit of More Gain

How can we make the gain bigger? Can we arbitrarily increase RD?
Would like to make the load line shallow and shifted up

Example 2: Common-Source Amplifier w/ Active Load

Active load uses current source instead of load resistor
Biasing so that Q2 in saturation and its output resistance is the effective resistor load for Q1 Combine the I-V curves
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Look at the Voltage Transfer Characteristics (VTC) of the circuit Operates like a high-gain amplifier (steep slope) in region III
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CS Amplifier low-frequency small-signal model

gmvgs
vi
vgs
ro1
ro2
vo
What is the voltage gain?
Output Resistance of Current Source
What are Rin and Rout?
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Supplemental Slides on MOS Transistors from CS148
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Fabricating CMOS Transistors

CMOS transistors are fabricated on a silicon wafer Lithography process similar to printing press On each step, different materials are deposited and etched Multiple steps per layer drawn in layout Understand by viewing both top and cross section of wafer in a simplified manufacturing process
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Inverter Cross Section

Typically use p-type substrate (wafer) where nMOS transistors are drawn Need to create n-well for body of pMOS transistors
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Well and Substrate Taps

Substrate (p-type) must be tied to Gnd and nwell tied to Vdd Metal to lightly-doped semiconductor forms a poor contact connection (Shottky Diode) Use heavily doped well and substrate contacts (taps)
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Inverter Mask Set

Transistors and wires are defined by masks Cross section taken along dashed line
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Detailed Mask Views

Six masks nwell polysilicon (gate) n+ diffusion p+ diffusion contact
metal
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Fabrication Steps
Start with blank wafer Build inverter from bottom up First step will be form the nwell Cover wafer with protective layer of SiO2 (oxide) Remove layer where nwell should be Implant or diffuse n dopants into exposed portion of wafer Strip off SiO2 Grow SiO2 on top of Si wafer 900-1200 C with H2O or O2 in oxidation furnace
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Photoresist
Spin on photoresist Photoresist is a light-sensitive organic polymer Softens where exposed to light
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Lithography
Expose photoresist through nwell mask Strip off exposed photoresist
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Etch
Etch oxide with hydrofluoric acid (HF) Seeps through skin and eats bone not something you want to have around in your bathroom Only attacks oxide where photoresist has been exposed
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Strip Photoresist
Strip off remaining photoresist Use mixture of acids called piranah etch Needed so that resist doesnt melt in next step
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nwell
Nwell is formed with diffusion or ion implantation Diffusion Place wafer in a furnace with arsenic gas Heat until As atoms diffuse into exposed Si Ion implantation Blast wafer with beams of As ions Ions blocked by SiO2, only enter where Si exposed
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Strip Oxide
Strip off the remaining oxide with HF Back to bare wafer with nwell Subsequent steps involve similar series of steps
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Polysilicon
Depost very thin later of gate oxide < 20 angstoms (6-7 atomic layers) Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) of silicon layer Place wafer in furnace with Silane gas (SiH4) Forms many small Si crystals called polysilicon Heavily doped to be a good conductor
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Polysilicon patterning
Use same lithography process to pattern polysilicon
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Self-Aligned Process
Use oxide and masking to expose where n+ dopants should be diffused or implanted N-diffusion forms nMOS source, drain, and nwell contact
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N-diffusion
Pattern oxide and form n+ regions Self-aligned process where gate blocks diffusion Polysilicon is better than metal for self-aligned gates b/c it doesnt melt during later processing
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N-diffusion contd
Historically, dopants were diffused Usually ion implantation is used today But regions still called diffusion
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N-diffusion contd
Strip off oxide to complete patterning step
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P-Diffusion
Similar set of steps to form p+ diffusion regions for pMOS source and drain and substrate contact
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Contacts
Now we need to wire the devices together Cover chip with thick field oxide Etch oxide where contact cuts are needed
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Metalization
Sputter on aluminum over entire wafer Patter to remove excess metal, leaving wires
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Layout
Chips are specified with set of masks Minimum dimensions of masks determine transistor size (and hence speed, cost, and power) Feature size f = distance between source and drain Set by minimum width of polysilicon (minimum channel length) Feature size improves 30% every three years or so Normalize for feature size when describing design rules Express rules in terms of = f/2 We will use \lambda = 0.3m in 0.6 m process (actually a 0.5 m process but drawn as 0.6 m) Next time: Learn SUE and Magic to draw your own layouts!
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Lecture 8 Single-Stage MOS Amplifiers and High-Frequency Model of MOSFETs

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Overview
Reading Chapter 6 Background So far, we have gotten a basic understanding of how MOSFET devices work. Weve also seen how to build one type of amplifier, a common-source amplifier, using the MOSFET. There are two other single-stage amplifier topologies that we can build with MOSFETs common-drain and common-gate amplifiers. This lecture presents these two amplifier topologies. We will dig into the details of how they work and understand how and why they may be useful. We will then extend our understanding of amplifier design by augmenting the small-signal equivalent circuit model of a MOSFETs with parasitic capactiors and looking at their highfrequency behavior.
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ES154 - Lecture 8
Single-Stage Amplifier Configurations

There are three basic configurations for single-stage MOSFET amplifiers: Common-Source (CS)
We saw this in the last lecture
Common-Gate (CG) Common-Drain (CD)

Also called a source follower
Lets look at these amplifier configurations and their small-signal operation
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ES154 - Lecture 8
Common-Source Amplifier
Another way to bias the CS amp (using discrete transistors) ISRC sets the gm of the transistor, assuming that device is in saturation for R1,R2 and R3 used What are VG, VS, and VD?
1
DD
OUT
Cbig is needed to make sure source node is a small-signal gnd

in 2 SRC big
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ES154 - Lecture 8
CS Amp Small-Signal Model

If nMOS is in saturation, the resulting small-signal model is the same as before
1 in
2 gs
m gs D o out
Source is grounded (small-signal) through Cbig
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ES154 - Lecture 8
Common-Drain Amplifier
DD
Source-Follower or CD Amp Drain node is common (DC) Input: gate node

Needs DC biasing. What determines whether nMOS is in saturation?
OUT in 2 L
Output: source node
What is VGS? VOUT? Assuming the nMOS is in saturation
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ES154 - Lecture 8
CD Amp Small-Signal Model
m gs in 1 2 gs
mb bs o
bs
m gs in gs
mb s L o
out
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ES154 - Lecture 8
Source Follower Gain
m gs in gs
mb s L o
out
Solve for the gain using KCL
If RL and ro are large and gmb is small, gain 1

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ES154 - Lecture 8
Source Follower Rout
Zero out the input and apply a test voltage
Source follower has low output impedance Set by 1/gm Good for driving low-impedance loads
ES154 - Lecture 8 9
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Source Follower Example

Instead of a resistor load, source followers are often biased with a current source What is VGS?
What is VOUT?
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ES154 - Lecture 8
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Example Contd
m gs in gs
mb s o
out
Current source becomes an open circuit
What is gm?
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ES154 - Lecture 8
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Common-Gate Amplifier
CG Amp Gate is common (held at DC) Input: source node (often a current) Output: drain node
IN
L OUT
BIAS
DC biasing nMOS must be in saturation VGS = VBIAS VIN
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ES154 - Lecture 8
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CG Small-Signal Gain
G gmvgs vgs S gmbvs ro RL D vout
vin
iin
Notice that vgs = -vs and vin = vs
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ES154 - Lecture 8
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CG Small-Signal Transimpedance
G gmvgs vgs S gmbvs ro RL D vout
vin
iin
What if the input is a current, iin?
Figure out the input resistance, vin/iin Lets assume that ro is large enough to ignore
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ES154 - Lecture 8
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CG Small-Signal Output Impedance
gmvgs = 0
gs
gmbvs = 0
o L
What is the output impedance?
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ES154 - Lecture 8
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Common-Gate Amplifier
Lets use a current source load again Bias the gate with a DC voltage and drive the source Small signal into the gate is effectively grounded Need to consider body effect What sets the DC bias conditions?
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ES154 - Lecture 8
16
Small-signal model needs to include body effect Node equation at the output vo can be written to calculate the voltage gain
To find the input resistance
Input resistance increases ~2x due to ro
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ES154 - Lecture 8
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Common-Gate Amp Summary

Basic characteristics High voltage gain Transimpedance set by load Low input impedance Output impedance set by load Often used as a transimpedance amp in combination with a common-source amp called a cascode configuration Cascode configuration enables higher gain and BW
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ES154 - Lecture 8
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Cascode Amp Example
DD
Combine CS and CG amps
CG Amp
1 D OUT
M2
big 2
ix M1 CS Amp
in
Lets take a look at the smallsignal model

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ES154 - Lecture 8
Cascode Amp Small-Signal Model

G2 D2
gm2vgs2 vgs2
S2 G1 ix D1
gmb2vbs2 ro2 RD vout
vin
R2||R3 vgs1
S1
gm1vgs1 ro1 vx
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ES154 - Lecture 8
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MOSFET at High Frequencies

So far, weve been looking at MOSFET operating in the midband frequency range Lets augment our understanding of the MOSFET by taking a look at what parasitic capacitances there are in the device
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MOSFET Internal Capacitances

From our study of the physical operation of MOSFETs, we can see that there are internal capacitances Gate capacitance
from gate oxide (parallel plate and fringing capacitors) Cgs, Cgd, Cgb
Junction capacitances
from source-body and drain-body depletion layer capacitances (reverse biased PN junctions) Csb, Cdb
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ES154 - Lecture 8
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MOS Gate Cap

The three gate capacitances (Cgs, Cgd, Cgb) depend on the transistors mode (region) of operation In triode (linear) region (vDS = small), channel has uniform depth
In saturation region, channel is tapered and pinched off near the drain. We can approximate the capacitances as follows:
In cut off, no channel but model capacitance between bulk and gate
There is also an overlap capacitance that should be added to Cgs and Cgd
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MOS Junction Cap

The depletion-layer capacitances of the two reverse-biased pn junctions are governed by the following equation:
where V0 is the built-in potential of the pn junctions (approx. 0.6~0.8V, a function of the NA and ND doping concentrations)
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MOSFET High-Frequency Model
gd
db ds
gs
sb
gb
High-Frequency Small-Signal Model

We must augment our (low-frequency) small-signal model of the MOS transistor with these capacitors in order to accurately model its operation at high frequencies
complete
simplified
when source is connected to the body, model is simplified (remove Csb) in saturation, Cgb 0 further simplify model by removing Cdb for hand calculations
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Aside MOSFET fT
We can find the fT as a figure of merit for the transistors high-frequency operation (unity current gain frequency) Solve for the short circuit output current w.r.t. an input current
assumes Cgd is small and drops out in above eq.
note that fT is a function of gm
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High-Frequency Response of CS Amp

Lets see how the parasitic capacitances affect circuit operation First, redraw using a high-frequency small-signal model for the nMOS
Notice that there is a capacitor bridging the input and output There are several ways to deal with this capacitor Millers Theorem Brute force it Open-Circuit Time Constant Method (We will see this later) Lets use Millers Theorem
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Millers Theorem
Consider the circuit network below on the right with two nodes, 1 and 2. An admittance Y (Y=1/Z) is connected between the two nodes and these nodes are also connected to other nodes in the network. Millers theorem provides a way for replacing the bridging admittance Y with two admittances Y1 and Y2 between node 1 and gnd, and node 2 and gnd.
1 V1 I1 Y I2 2 V2 1 I1 V1 Y1 Y2 I2 2 V2
The relationship between V2 and V1 is given by K=V2/V1 To find Y1 and Y2
Caveat: The Miller equivalent circuit is valid only as long as the conditions that existed in the network when K was determined are not changed.
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Using Millers Theorem on CS Amplifier

Redraw the high-frequency small-signal model using Millers theorem
Rs
Cgd(1+gmRL')
gmvgs RL' vo
vi
vgs
Cgs Cgd[1+1/(gmRL')] ~= Cgd
CT
Miller multiplication of Cgd results in a large input capacitance CT
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CT usually the dominant pole We will spend more time on high-frequency response of amplifiers later
Lecture 9 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
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Overview
Reading Chapter 7 Supplemental Reading Sedra&Smith: Chapter 4.1~3 Background This lecture looks at another type of transistor called the bipolar junction transistor (BJT). We will spend some time understanding how the BJT works based on what we know about PN junctions. One way to look at a BJT transistor is two back-to-back diodes, but it has very different characteristics. Once we understand how the BJT device operates, we will take a look at the different circuits (amplifiers) we can build with them.
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ES154 - Lecture 9
Bipolar Junction Transistor
NPN BJT shown 3 terminals: emitter, base, and collector 2 junctions: emitter-base junction (EBJ) and collector-base junction (CBJ) These junctions have capacitance (high-frequency model) Depending on the biasing across each of the junctions, different modes of operation are obtained cutoff, active, and saturation
MODE Cutoff Active Saturation EBJ Reverse Forward Forward CBJ Reverse Reverse Forward
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ES154 - Lecture 9
BJT in Active Mode
Two external voltage sources set the bias conditions for active mode EBJ is forward biased and CBJ is reverse biased Operation Forward bias of EBJ injects electrons from emitter into base (small number of holes injected from base into emitter) Most electrons shoot through the base into the collector across the reverse bias junction (think about band diagram) Some electrons recombine with majority carrier in (P-type) base region
ES154 - Lecture 9 4
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Band Diagrams (1)

In equilibrium No current flow Back-to-back PN diodes
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ES154 - Lecture 9
Band Diagrams (2)
Active Mode EBJ forward biased Barrier reduced and so electrons diffuse into the base Electrons get swept across the base into the collector CBJ reverse biased Electrons roll down the hill (high E-field)
Emitter
Base
Collector
Ec Ef
Ev N P N
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ES154 - Lecture 9
Minority Carrier Concentration Profiles
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Current dominated by electrons from emitter to base (by design) b/c of the forward bias and minority carrier concentration gradient (diffusion) through the base some recombination causes bowing of electron concentration (in the base) base is designed to be fairly short (minimize recombination) emitter is heavily (sometimes degenerately) doped and base is lightly doped Drift currents are usually small and neglected
ES154 - Lecture 9 7
Diffusion Current Through the Base
Diffusion of electrons through the base is set by concentration profile at the EBJ
Diffusion current of electrons through the base is (assuming an ideal straight line case):
Due to recombination in the base, the current at the EBJ and current at the CBJ are not equal and differ by a base current
8
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ES154 - Lecture 9
Collector Current
Electrons that diffuse across the base to the CBJ junction are swept across the CBJ depletion region to the collector b/c of the higher potential applied to the collector.
Note that iC is independent of vCB (potential bias across CBJ) ideally Saturation current is inversely proportional to W and directly proportional to AE
Want short base and large emitter area for high currents
dependent on temperature due to ni2 term
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ES154 - Lecture 9
Base Current
Base current iB composed of two components: holes injected from the base region into the emitter region
holes supplied due to recombination in the base with diffusing electrons and depends on minority carrier lifetime b in the base
And the Q in the base is So, current is
Total base current is
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Beta
Can relate iB and iC by the following equation
and is
Beta is constant for a particular transistor On the order of 100-200 in modern devices (but can be higher) Called the common-emitter current gain For high current gain, want small W, low NA, high ND
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Emitter Current
Emitter current is the sum of iC and iB
is called the common-base current gain
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BJT Equivalent Circuits
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Vertical BJT
BJTs are usually constructed vertically Controlling depth of the emitters n doping sets the base width
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Circuit Symbols and Conventions

IC IB IE IB IE
IC pnp
npn
BJTs are not symmetric devices doping and physical dimensions are different for emitter and collector
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I-V Characteristics
IC IC VCE VBE VBE3 > VBE2 > VBE1 VCE VBE3 VBE2 VBE1
Collector current vs. vCB shows the BJT looks like a current source (ideally) Plot only shows values where BCJ is reverse biased and so BJT in active region However, real BJTs have non-ideal effects
Early Effect
Saturation region Active region VBE3
VBE2
VBE1
-VA
VCE
Early Effect Current in active region depends (slightly) on vCE VA is a parameter for the BJT (50 to 100) and called the Early voltage Due to a decrease in effective base width W as reverse bias increases Account for Early effect with additional term in collector current equation Nonzero slope means the output resistance is NOT infinite, but
IC is collector current at the boundary of active region
ro
17
VA IC
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ES154 - Lecture 9
Early Effect Contd

What causes the Early Effect? Increasing VCB causes depletion region of CBJ to grow and so the effective base width decreases (base-width modulation) Shorter effective base width higher dn/dx
EBJ dn/dx
CBJ VCB > VCB
Wbase
BJT DC Analysis
Use a simple constant-VBE model Assume VBE = 0.7-V regardless of exact current value
reasonable b/c of exponential relationship
Make sure the BJT current equations and region of operation match So far, we only have equations for the active region Utilize the relationships ( and ) between collector, base, and emitter currents to solve for all currents
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BJT Amplifier
DC DC + small signal
To operate as an amplifier, the BJT must be biased to operate in active mode and then superimpose a small voltage signal vbe to the base Under DC conditions,
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The DC condition biases the BJT to the point Q on the plot. Adding a small voltage signal vbe translates into a current signal that we can write as
If vbe << VT
The collector current has two components: IC and ic and we can rewrite the small signal current as
gm is the transconductance and corresponds to the slope at Q For small enough signals, approximate exponential curve with a linear line
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Small-Signal Model
We can model the BJT as a voltage controlled current source, but we must also account for the base current that varies with vbe
so, the small-signal resistance looking into the base is denoted by r and defined as
looking into the emitter, we get an effective small-signal resistance between base and emitter, re
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To convert the voltage-controlled current source into a circuit that provides voltage gain, we connect a resistor to the collector and measure the voltage drop across it
So, the small-signal voltage gain is
Remember that gm depends on IC We can create an equivalent circuit to model the transistor for small signals Note that this only applies for small signals (vbe < VT)
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Hybrid- Model
We can represent the small-signal model for the transistor as a voltagecontrolled current source or a current-controlled current source Add a resistor (ro) in parallel with the dependent current source to model the Early effect From our previous example,
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T Model
Sometimes, other small signal models can more convenient to use
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Using Small-Signal Models

Steps for using small-signal models 1. Determine the DC operating point of the BJT
in particular, the collector current
2. Calculate small-signal model parameters: gm, r, re 3. Eliminate DC sources

replace voltage sources with shorts and current sources with open circuits Choose most convenient one depending on surrounding circuitry
4. Replace BJT with equivalent small-signal models
5. Analyze
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Graphical Analysis
Can be useful to understand the operation of BJT circuits First, establish DC conditions by finding IB (or VBE) Second, figure out the DC operating point for IC
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27

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Apply a small signal input voltage and see ib See how ib translates into VCE Can get a feel for whether the BJT will stay in active region of operation What happens if RC is larger or smaller?
BJT Current Mirror

We can build current mirrors using BJTs Q2 must be in active mode What is IC2? (Assuming Q1 and Q2 are identical)
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Lecture 10 Single-Stage BJT Amplifiers and BJT High-Frequency Model

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Overview
Reading Chapter 7 Background There are three basic single-stage amplifier configurations using bipolar junction transistors. The three configurations are similar to the ones that we saw for the MOSFET. This lecture will investigate the properties of the common-emitter, common-collector, and common-base amplifier configurations. Once we have these basic amplifier configurations under our belt, we will then look at the high-frequency model of BJTs.
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ES154 - Lecture 10
Single-Stage BJT Amplifier Configurations

There are three basic configurations for single-stage BJT amplifiers: Common-Emitter (Common-Source) Common-Base (Common-Gate) Common-Collector (Common-Drain) Lets look at these amplifier configurations and their small-signal operation
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ES154 - Lecture 10
Common-Emitter Amplifier
First, assume Re = 0 (this is not re, but an explicit resistor) The BJT is biased with a current source (with high output impedance) and a capacitor connects the emitter to ground. Cap provides an AC short at the emitter for small time-varying signals but is an open circuit for DC signals Can redraw the circuit with an equivalent circuit that replaces the BJT with its hybrid- model Rs B C
gmv vs v r r RC vo
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ES154 - Lecture 10
CE Amp with Emitter Degeneration

Now, assume Re 0. First, find Ri voltage applied to the base is across re and Re
base current is
and lets find Ri
this tells us adding Re increases the input resistance
Can design the desired Ri by setting Re

To determine the voltage gain, first find the gain from the base to the collector (ignore ro b/c it complicates the analysis considerably)
NOTE: Voltage gain between base and collector is equal to ratio of total resistance in the collector to the total resistance in the emitter. To find the total gain,
Characteristics with Re : gain is lower, but also less dependent on input resistance is higher allows higher input signal voltage
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ES154 - Lecture 10
Common-Base Amplifier
Ground the base and drive the input signal into the emitter through a coupling capacitor (only passes ac signals)
Model the small signal approximation with a T-model current source is an AC open and CC is an AC short
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First, we can see that
To find the gain, solve for vo
The output impedance is just CB amp characteristics: voltage gain has little dependence on gain depends critically on Rs is non-inverting most commonly used as a unity-gain current amplifier or current buffer and not as a voltage amplifier: accepts an input signal current with low input resistance and delivers a nearly equal current with high output impedance most significant advantage is its excellent frequency response (which we will see later)
Common-Collector Amplifier (Emitter Follower)

The last basic configuration is to tie the collector to a fixed voltage, drive an input signal into the base and observe the output at the emitter
Also called an emitter follower since the emitter follows the input signal Used for connecting a source with a large Rs to a load with low resistance
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ES154 - Lecture 10
Redraw the circuit to have ro in parallel with RL now, find Ri when re << RL << ro notice the amplifier has large input resistance Find the gain with two voltage dividers
gain is less than unity, but close (to unity) since is large and re is small
High-Frequency BJT Model

rb B C r v C gmv r C
In BJTs, the PN junctions (EBJ and CBJ) also have capacitances associated with them C is the reverse-biased CB junction
Where mjc is between 0.2 and 0.5, V0 is between 0.5V and 1V
C represents the capacitance of the forward-biased EBJ which exhibits both the junction cap and diffusion cap
Where Cje is the junction cap and F is the base-transit time
At high frequencies, the base resistance can also an important role in device operation
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Lecture 11 Integrated Circuit Design (Current Mirrors)

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Overview
Reading Chapters 8, 9 and 10 Background So far, weve seen how to design and analyze various amplifier circuits using MOSFETs and BJTs primarily at the discrete level. In this lecture, we will see how some design choices change for integrated circuit designs. For ICs, current mirror circuits play a vital role and so we will focus on them.
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ES154 - Lecture 11
Integrated Circuits vs. Discrete Circuit Design

Many advantages to IC design Put many different components together onto a single chip
Resistors, capacitors, diodes, transistors (MOS and BJT)
Small size with LOTS of components Low cost Better component matching within a chip
Absolute component values can still vary quite a bit
Some disadvantages Limited component value ranges Design cannot be changed once fabricated Limited exposure of internal circuit nodes Limited power capabilities
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ES154 - Lecture 11
Current Mirrors
Lets recap some of the basic current mirrors that weve seen How do the BJT and MOSFET current mirrors differ?
R1 ISRC
Q1 Q2
ILOAD
What conditions must be met for both forms to operate correctly?
VLOAD
What kind of non-idealities should we watch for?
How would you model these current sources for small-signal analysis?
R1 ISRC
ILOAD
Lets take a closer look at some MOSFET and BJT current mirrors.
M1
M2
VLOAD
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ES154 - Lecture 11
Output Resistance and Matching

We have seen that current mirrors are used both as current sources and active loads. There is a limitation to current matching arising from the output resistance, ro, of the devices. There are some techniques that can be used to increase the effective ro of a current mirror circuit utilizing cascoding Lets look at the a couple of commonly used MOS current mirror circuits Cascoded current mirror High-swing (low-voltage) cascode
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ES154 - Lecture 11
Review of Simple Current Mirror

Lets review the original simple current mirror circuit Currents are governed by the following equations:
IREF IOUT
M1 M2
(W/L)1
(W/L)2
While VGS1=VGS2=VDS1, VDS2 can be different. So,
For equal W/Ls current mismatch occurs due to differences in VDS and Using longer Ls can reduce Cascoding can make VDS1 ~= VDS2
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ES154 - Lecture 11
Cascoded Current Mirror

Add a cascode device M3 set VB so that VX = VY IOUT set by current through M2 M3 buffers VY from variations in VP through a form of feedback relying on the gm of M3 Analyze with a small-signal model and find ROUT Apply a test vtst, calculate itst to find ROUT=vtst/itst notice that vbs3 = v= -vx
P M3
IOUT
IREF
X M1
VB Y M2
(W/L)1
(W/L)2
ROUT
gm3v ro3 vtst vx ro2 vbs3 gmb3vbs3
itst
Output resistance is significantly increased by the gm3ro3 of M3 (looks like an impedance amplifier)
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ES154 - Lecture 11
Biasing Cascode Current Mirror

How do we bias VB? Use another diode to set bias on B What is the minimum voltage that P can fall to while keeping M2 and M3 in saturation?
IREF
M0 B X M1 M2 M3
IOUT
Comments: To keep both M2 and M3 in saturation, requires high voltage overhead due to the Vt term If VB can be set arbitrarily, then
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ES154 - Lecture 11
High-Swing Cascode
High-swing cascode b/c it enables large swing on node P Also called low-voltage cascode b/c the voltage across the current source can drop to a lower voltage level Characteristics Set VB so that VX and VY just greater than VGS-Vth for M1 and M2 to be in saturation M1 and M2 set the currents and VX and VY are ~equal and so good current matching can be achieved despite VP variations VPmin = 2VDSsat
IREF
M0 B X M1 M2 M3
IOUT
VB generator
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ES154 - Lecture 11
Alternative Biasing Method

Here is another way to bias the high-swing cascode current source
IREF
P M3 B X M1 M2 Y
M0 Vt
IOUT
Make source follower have very small current to give a Vt drop

In other words, VGS-Vt 0
But, VX not guaranteed equal to VY

worse matching between ISRC and IOUT
Gain Boosting
Another method for increasing the output resistance of a cascode circuit is to use gain boosting (model M1 as just an output resistance ro1 for simplicity)
Rout Vb Vin
M2 M1
Rout Vb ro1
M2
Rout Vb A3 ro1
M2 M3 M2
Rout
ro1
Gain Boosting Circuit
Regulated Cascode
For the gain boosted cascode circuit
Similarly, with a regulated cascode
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Simple BJT Current Mirror

Using our assumption that VBE 0.7V
R1 ISRC
Q1 Q2
ILOAD
If we assume that Q1 and Q2 are identical devices
For these equations to hold, assume VA = (no base-width modulation) and is large
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Advanced BJT Current Mirrors

If you need to drive many current sources and/or base current is appreciable, you can Add a third device where Q_3 supplies the base current
What is VCE1?
VCC
R1 ISRC
Q3 Q1 Q2
ILOAD
Widlar current source to generate small currents Add an emitter resistor
VCC
R1 ISRC ILOAD
Need to use more accurate model

Q1 Q2
RE
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BJT Current Source Small-Signal Model

The small-signal model for a Wildar current source is
The dependent current source is fixed (no AC component) and therefore an open circuit The output resistance increases by RE
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ES154 - Lecture 11
Load Options for Amplifiers

For IC designs, there are several options for implementing the load. Lets review some of these options Resistor Diode (nMOS or pMOS) Current source (current mirror)
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Lecture 12 The Differential Amplifier
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Overview
Reading Chapter 11 Supplemental reading Sedra&Smith Chapter 6 Background The performance of amplifier circuits can be improved by using a differential pair topology. Differential pair amplifiers have two inputs positive and negative terminals. The differential pair amplifier is what we assume for the ideal amplifier when we learned about op amp circuits. We will now investigate how to build these amplifiers.
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ES154 - Lecture 12
BJT Differential Pair

Differential pair circuits are one of the most widely used circuit building blocks. The input stage of every op amp is a differential amplifier Basic Characteristics Two matched transistors with emitters shorted together and connected to a current source Devices must always be in active mode Amplifies the difference between the two input voltages, but there is also a common mode amplification in the nonideal case Lets first qualitatively understand how this circuit works. NOTE: This qualitative analysis also applies for MOSFET differential pair circuits
VCC I/2 RC VCC-IRC/2 I/2 I/2 I/2 RC VCC-IRC/2
vCM
vCM - 0.7
Case 1
Assume the inputs are shorted together to a common voltage, vCM, called the common mode voltage equal currents flow through Q1 and Q2 emitter voltages equal and at vCM-0.7 in order for the devices to be in active mode collector currents are equal and so collector voltages are also equal for equal load resistors difference between collector voltages = 0 What happens when we vary vCM? As long as devices are in active mode, equal currents flow through Q1 and Q2 Note: current through Q1 and Q2 always add up to I, current through the current source So, collector voltages do not change and difference is still zero. Differential pair circuits thus reject common mode signals
VCC I/2 RC VCC-IRC/2 Q1 I/2 Q2 I/2 I/2 RC VCC-IRC/2
vCM
vCM - 0.7
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ES154 - Lecture 12
Case 2 & 3
Q2 base grounded and Q1 base at +1 V All current flows through Q1 No current flows through Q2 Emitter voltage at 0.3V and Q2s EBJ not FB vC1 = VCC-IRC vC2 = VCC
VCC 0 RC VCC -1V Q1 0 Q2 I I RC VCC-IRC
VCC I RC VCC-IRC +1V Q1 I Q2 0 0 RC
0.3V
-0.7V
Q2 base grounded and Q1 base at -1 V All current flows through Q2 No current flows through Q1 Emitter voltage at -0.7V and Q1s EBJ not FB vC2 = VCC-IRC vC1 = VCC
5
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ES154 - Lecture 12
Case 4
Apply a small signal vi Causes a small positive I to flow in Q1 Requires small negative I in Q2
since IE1+IE2 = I
Can be used as a linear amplifier for small signals (I is a function of vi) Differential pair responds to differences in the input voltage Can entirely steer current from one side of the diff pair to the other with a relatively small voltage
Lets now take a quantitative look at the large-signal operation of the differential pair
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ES154 - Lecture 12
BJT Diff Pair Large-Signal Operation

First look at the emitter currents when the emitters are tied together
Some manipulations can lead to the following equations
and there is the constraint:
Given the exponential relationship, small differences in vB1,2 can cause all of the current to flow through one side
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ES154 - Lecture 12
Notice vB1-vB2 ~= 4VT enough to switch all of current from one side to the other For small-signal analysis, we are interested in the region we can approximate to be linear small-signal condition: vB1-vB2 < VT/2
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BJT Diff Pair Small-Signal Operation

Look at the small-signal operation: small differential signal vd is applied
multiply top and bottom by
expand the exponential and keep the first two terms
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ES154 - Lecture 12
Differential Voltage Gain

For small differential input signals, vd << 2VT, the collector currents are
We can now find the differential gain to be
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BJT Diff Pair Differential Half Circuit

We can break apart the differential pair circuit into two half circuits which then looks like two common emitter circuits driven by +vd/2 and vd/2
Virtual Ground
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Small-Signal Model of Diff Half Circuit

We can then analyze the small-signal operation with the half circuit, but must remember parameters r,gm, and ro are biased at I / 2 input signal to the differential half circuit is vd/2
vd/2
gmv
vc1 ro RC
voltage gain of the differential amplifier (output taken differentially) is equal to the voltage gain of the half circuit
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Common-Mode Gain
When we drive the differential pair with a common-mode signal, vCM, the incremental resistance of the bias current effects circuit operation and results in some gain (assumed to be 0 when R was infinite)
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Common Mode Rejection Ratio

If the output is taken differentially, the output is zero since both sides move together. However, if taken single-endedly, the common-mode gain is finite
If we look at the differential gain on one side (single-ended), we get
Then, the common rejection ratio (CMRR) will be
which is often expressed in dB
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CM and Differential Gain Equation

Input signals to a differential pair usually consists of two components: common mode (vCM) and differential(vd)
Thus, the differential output signal will be in general
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MOS Diff Pair

The same basic analysis can be applied to a MOS differential pair
and the differential input voltage is
With some algebra
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We get full switching of the current when
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Another Way to Analyze MOS Differential Pairs

Lets investigate another technique for analyzing the MOS differential pair Vout1 For the differential pair circuit on the left (driven by two independent signals), compute V in1 the output using superposition Start with Vin1, set Vin2=0 and first solve for X w.r.t. Vin1 Reduces to a degenerated common-source amp neglecting channel-length modulation and bodyeffect, RS = 1/gm2 Vout1 so
M1
RD X Y
RD Vout2 Vout1
RD X Y
RD Vout2
Vin2 I
Vin1 I
RD X Y
RD Vout2 Vin1 Vout1
RD X
Vin1 RS
M2
RS
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Contd
Now, solve for Y w.r.t. Vin1 Replace circuit within box with a Thevenin equivalent M1 is a source follower with VT=Vin1 RT=1/gm1 The circuit reduces to a common-gate amplifier where
Vin1 RD Vout1 X
M1
RD Y
M2
Vout2
So, overall (assuming gm1 = gm2)

RD
by symmetry
RT VT
Vout2
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Differential Pair with MOS loads

Can use load resistors or MOS devices as loads Diode-connected nMOS loads = 1/gm load resistance
Load resistance looking into the source
Diode-connected pMOS loads = 1/gm load resistance

Load resistance looking into diode connected drain
pMOS current source loads = ro load resistance

Has higher gain than diode-connected loads
pMOS current mirror

Differential input and single-ended output
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Differential Pair with MOS Loads

Vb Vout Vin I Vin I Vout
Consider the above two MOS loads used in place of resistors Left: a diode connected pMOS has an effective resistance of 1/gmP
Right: pMOS devices in saturation have effective resistance of roP
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Active-Loaded CMOS Differential Amplifier

A commonly used amplifier topology in CMOS technologies Output is taken single-endedly for a differential input with a vid/2 at the gate of M1, i1 flows
M3
M4 i1
i1 is also mirrored through the M3-M4 current mirror a vid/2 at the gate of M2 causes i2 to also flow through M2
M1
i1 M2
vo
i2
vid
Given that ID= I / 2 (nominally)

I
The voltage at the output then is given by
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Differential Amp with Linearized Gain

Use source generation to make the gain linear with respect to the differential input and independent of gm Can build in two ways
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Assuming a virtual ground at node X, we can draw the following small-signal half circuit.
gmv vid v ro RD v
is
RS
vS
Assume ro is very large (simplifies the math)
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Offsets in MOS Differential Pair

There are 3 main sources of offset that affect the performance of MOS differential pair circuits Mismatch in load resistors Mismatch in W/L of differential pair devices Mismatch in Vth of differential pair devices Lets investigate each individually
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Resistor Mismatch
For the differential pair circuit shown, consider the case where Load resistors are mismatched by RD
RD1 VO
RD2
All other device parameters are perfectly matched With both inputs grounded, I1 = I2= I/2, but VO is not zero due to differences in the voltages across the load resistors
I1
I2 I
It is common to find the input-referred offset which is calculated as since Ad = gmRD
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W/L Mismatch
Now consider what happens when device sizes W/L are mismatched for the two differential pair MOS devices M1 and M2
This mismatch causes mismatch in the currents that flow through M1 and M2
This mismatch results in VO
So in the input referred offset is
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Vt Mismatch
Lastly, consider mismatches in the threshold voltage
Again, currents I1 and I2 will differ according to the following saturation current equation
For small Vt << 2(VGS-Vth)
Again, using VOS=VO/Ad (Ad = gmRD and VO =2IRD) we get
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Mismatch Summary
The 3 sources of mismatch can be combined into one equation:
arising from Vt, RD, and W/L mismatches Notice that offsets due to RD and W/L are functions of the overdrive voltage VGS Vt
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Lecture 13 High-Gain Differential Amplifier Design
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Overview
Background This lecture investigates different topologies (and their characteristics) that can be used to implement differential amplifiers with extremely high gain. We will again be using cascoding.
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ES154 - Lecture 13
Review of Amplifier Characteristics

Lets review some of the characteristics of the different (singleended) amplifier topologies that weve looked at so far. We will augment this table when we look at the frequency response characteristics of these amplifiers
Amplifier Type Commonsource/emitter Commongate/base Commondrain/collector
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Rin High
Rout High
Av High
Ai High
Low
High
High
High
Low
<1
High
ES154 - Lecture 13
Multi-Stage Amplifiers (Cascading)

We can cascade different types of amplifiers to get desired overall characteristics. Often want: High input impedance High gain Low output impedance Mix and match cascades of different types of amplifiers to get desired result
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ES154 - Lecture 13
Common-Emitter Emitter-Follower Cascade

A common configuration (for discrete BJT amplifier design) is a common-emitter emitter-follower (common-collector) cascade CE stage has high voltage gain and high input impedance CC stage has low output impedance to drive various load conditions CC stage also presents a high impedance load to the CE amplifier which enables high voltage gain for the CE stage
RC Rs Cin R1
Q1
Q2
vO Cout CE RE2 RLD
vS
R2 REB
REA
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ES154 - Lecture 13
Common-Source Source-Follower Cascade

Similarly, cascade a common-source amplifier with a sourcefollower.
RD
M2
Rs
M1
vO Cout
vS IS1 CS
IS2
RLD
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ES154 - Lecture 13
Building Op Amps
Op amps are an important component of modern CMOS ICs. They used to designed as general purpose amplifiers that can meet a variety of requirements. The main target was extremely high gain (>1e5), high input impedance and low output impedance (like an ideal amplifier). This was done (to some extent) at the expense of different aspects of performance (e.g., speed, output voltage range, power, etc.). Designs these days are much more tailored to have (good enough) performance w.r.t. the specific needs of particular applications. Within an IC, often use Operational Transconductance Amplifiers (OTA). Some performance parameters of op amps Gain and Bandwidth
Want as large as possible Maximize w.r.t. power supply (but supply shrinking in modern processes) Combat non-linearity with feedback Can minimize by trading off other parameters Strong dependence on current source output resistance
Output Swing

Linearity Noise and Offset Supply Rejection
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ES154 - Lecture 13
Simple One-Stage Op Amps

Two differential pair amplifiers that we have already seen can be used as op amps. The low-frequency, small-signal gain of both is gmN(roN||roP). The capacitive loads (CL) usually determine their bandwidth.
Vb Vout CL Vin CL Vin Vout CL
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ES154 - Lecture 13
Cascoded Amplifier
Use cascoding to increase load resistance Cascode both the active loads and the differential pair Higher effective load resistance Higher ro for the differential pair Reduces Miller effect (will see later) However, there are some limitations Reduced output swing (must keep all devices in saturation) What is the output dynamic range?
M7
M8
M5
M6
Vbias
M3 M4
vo
M1
M2
vid
How might one increase the output swing range for vo?
9
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ES154 - Lecture 13
Use High-Swing Cascodes

We can use the high-swing cascode circuit as a load to achieve higher output range in a single-ended output telescopic amp
Vb2 Vout Vb CL Vb1 CL Vout
Vin
Vin
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Cascode Op Amps
Amplifiers that use cascoding are often called telescopic cascode amps. While gain increases, the output range of these devices are limited.
Vb3 Vb2 Vout Vb CL CL Vb1 Vout CL
Vin
Vin
Connecting in unity-gain feedback configuration results in significant reduction of output range

DC Biasing for High-Gain Amplifiers

One of the challenges of using cascodes for high gain is appropriately setting the DC biasing for the circuit. Lets look at an example
ILOAD VBP
VBPC IREF VBNC
vOUT
ILOAD vd VBN ITAIL
Wei
What is the raitio of ILOAD vs. ITAIL?

DC Biasing Contd
Strategy for setting up DC bias All transistors should be saturation Set VBNC so that differential input pair in saturation
Want to set it to the edge with sufficient saturation margin (~300mV)
Set VBP so that ILOAD = ITAIL/2 Set VBPC so that pMOS currnet source loads are close to edge of saturation Need to set VBP and VBPC carefully to keep devices in saturation and the DC common mode of the output nodes to be in the middle of the output swing range
This can be challenging to do due to the high output resistance at the output.
Would be nice if there was a way to automatically set the biasing

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Common-Mode Feedback Biasing

Use an amplifier to set the pMOS current source with respect to some desired output common-mode voltage (VREF).
ILOAD
VBP VREF VBPC IREF VBNC
vOUT
vd VBN ITAIL
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CM FB Biasing
Heres how it works: Use large resistors to find the average (common-mode) output voltage An amplifier compares VREF to VOUT,CM and sets VBP such that VOUT,CM = VREF Lets understand how it works What happens to VBP if VREF increases? What happens to VBP if VOUT,CM increases?
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Folded Cascode Circuit

In order to alleviate some of the drawbacks of telescopic op amps (limited output range), a folded cascode can be used M1 is common-source transconductance amp and M2 is common-gate transimpedance amp Advantage is M2 no longer stacks on top of M1 Possible for either pMOS or nMOS cascodes The output resistance for cascode and folded cascode are roughly equivalent (gmro2)
Vout Vb Vin
M2 M1
Vin
M1 M2
Vout Vb
Vin Vb
M1 M2
Vout
Vin
M1
M2
Vb Vout
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Folded Cascode Amplifier

Turn a differential telescopic cascode amplifier into a folded cascode amplifier
Vout Vb Vin Vb
Vout
Vin
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Full circuit Implementation of Folded Cascode Amplifier
Vbp2 IREF1 Vout Vbn2 IREF2
Vin
IREF3
Reference current sources are set: I REF 3 = I REF 2 + I REF1 2 A version with nMOS differential pair inputs also possible (flip upside down) What sets output common mode? Depends on relative output resistances looking up and down Can vary with process and reference current mismatches
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Gain of a Folded-Cascode Amplifier

Calculate gain using the differential half-circuit. Gain can be calculated as GmRout where Gm is the shortcircuit transconductance of the overall circuit and Rout is the output resistance. Short out Vout to ground and solve for Iout/Vin = Gm Solve for the output resistance
Vbp1 Vbp2 Vin

M1
M5 M4
ro45 Vout
Vbn2 Vbn1
M3 M2
-gm3Vx -Vx ro3
Vout ro45
gm1Vin Vin ro1||ro2
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Common-Mode Feedback
Use feedback to set the output common mode of a folded cascode amplifier, called common-mode feedback Sense the average (common-mode) voltage at the output, compare to a desired reference voltage (Vref), and use it to set the current source
IREF1 IREF2 Vout Vin Vb
CM Sense
IREF2
IFB
Vref
Wei
For Vin=0, feedback sets IFB=IREF2+IREF1/2 and common-mode voltage = Vref

Two-Stage Op Amps
In order to implement amplifiers with high gain and high swing, we must resort to two-stage amplifier designs High-Gain High-Swing First stage used to generate high gain Vin Vout Stage Stage Second stage to generate high swing Use any high-gain first stage and high-swing second stage two simple examples (differential and single-ended output amplifiers)
Vbp
Vbp
Vout1
Vin
Vout2
Vin
Vout
Vbn
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ES154 - Lecture 13
21

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ES154 Lecture Notes

Harvard > DEAS > EECS > ES154 HOME

Course-Related Links Useful Information

15 Feedback and Stability Overview and 16 Examples of Op Amp Design

Single-Stage BJT 10 amps and High-Freq Model

2003 Edited by: Gu-Yeon Wei (December 06, 2004 )

ES 154 Electronic Devices and Circuits Fall 2004

Class Participation and Office Hours

Lecture 1: A Brief Overview of Electronic Devices and Circuits

Move information, not things

Development of modern electronics has been driven by Communication Computation

Demonstrated transatlantic wireless communication in 1901

Mechanical Cash Register

BIG Electronic Computers

Early Electronic Devices

Beginning of Modern Devices

intel 4004 (71, 2.3K transistors, 10-um technology, 108-kHz)

Whats inside these op amps?

Modeling the Operation of Circuits

SUE looks like.

Review of Circuit Basics

v = constant i= v i = constant v= Ideal Independent Sources

v=iR Ideal Dependent Sources Resistor

Examples from Nilsson, Electric Circuits, 3rd ed., 1991

Example with a Dependent Source

How can we measure current and voltage?

(from Nilsson, 3rd edition)

Ammeter, Voltmeter, and Ohmmeter

Thevenin and Norton

Thevenin and Norton are equivalent from the terminals

Maximum Power Transfer

Find i2 using superposition

Step Response of an RC Circuit

Summing the current around node A gives

Lecture 3 Amplifier Models and Frequency Response

Basic Amplifier Model

Ideal Voltage Amplifier

Non-Ideal Voltage Amplifier w/ Coupling Caps

Poles and Zeros of H(s)

Substituting j for s gives

Bode Plots Primer

Then, solve for |H(j)| and ()

90o comes from the pole at =0.

So, going back to our example, the amplitude in dB is

* Note: the book uses octaves

Amplitude Plots (2)

Amplitude Plots (3)

Amplitude Plots (4)

More Accurate AdB Plot

Phase Plots (2)

Bode Plots of Complex Poles and Zeros

Complex Poles (Amplitude)

Complex Poles (Phase)

Summary of Bode Plot Characteristics

factors in the denominator correspond to poles

Example: Low-Frequency Response

p sets the lower cutoff frequency

Example: High-Frequency Response I

Consider the effect of Cin (assume Cout = 0)

Example: High-Frequency Response II

Miller Equivalent Circuit

Capacitive Miller Effect

Lecture 4 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits