Wave CharacteriStic Method

CHAPTER TWO
The Wave Characteristic Method

The WCM is based on the physically accurate concept that the transient pipe
flow results from the generation and propagation of pressure waves that occur
as a result of a disturbance in the pipe system (valve closure, pump trip, etc.). A
pressure wave, which represents a rapid pressure and associated flow change,
travels at sonic velocity for the liquid-pipe medium, and the wave is partially
transmitted and reflected at all discontinuities in the pipe system (pipe
junctions, pumps, open or closed ends, surge tanks, etc). A pressure wave can
also be modified by pipe wall resistance. This description is one that closely
represents the actual mechanism of transient pipe flow. In this chapter,
relationships are presented for the magnitude and propagation velocity and
attenuation of pressure waves, and for the effect of pressure waves impinging
on piping system elements.
2.1 BASIC RELATIONS
The relationship between pressure change ( P ) and flow change ( ), which
is associated with the passage of a pressure wave, defines the transient response
of the pipe system and forms the basis for the development of the required
mathematical expressions. Figure 2-1 depicts the flow and pressure conditions
that exist a short time apart, as a pressure wave of magnitude
Q
t P propagates
a distance x in a liquid filled pipe.

Figure 2-1: Pressure wave propagation in a pipe.
2-2 CHAPTER TWO

During the short time t , the pressure on the left end of the liquid column is
P P + while the right end of the liquid column is P . This unbalanced
pressure causes the fluid to accelerate. The momentum principle gives
( )
t
Q
x A P P P
L
= + (2-1)
where is the pipe cross sectional area;
L
A is the liquid density; and g is the
acceleration of gravity. Canceling and rearranging gives

t A
x
Q P
L
= (2-2)

The term
t
x
is the propagation speed of the pressure wave. The wave

speed is equal to the sonic (acoustic) velocity (c) in the system if the mean
velocity of the liquid in the line is neglected. Since the mean velocity of the
liquid is usually several orders of magnitude smaller than the sonic velocity,
this is acceptable. Thus

L
A
Q
c P

= (2-3a)

or, in terms of pressure head

L
gA
Q
c H

= (2-3b)

This relation was first presented by Joukowsky (1904). The sonic speed c
for a liquid flowing within a line is influenced by the elasticity of the line wall.
For a pipe system with some degree of axial restraint a good approximation for
the wave propagation speed is obtained using

) / 1 ( /
l c f R f
t E D E K E c + = (2-4)

where and are the elastic modulus of the fluid and conduit,
respectively; is the pipe diameter; is the pipe thickness; and is the
coefficient of restraint for longitudinal pipe movement. Typically, three types
of pipeline support are considered for restraint. These are:
f
E
c
E
D
l
t
R
K

Case a: The pipeline is restrained at the upstream end only.

THE WAVE CHARACTERISTIC METHOD 2-3

2 / 1
p R
K = (2-5a)
Case b: The pipeline is restrained throughout.
(2-5b)
2
1
P R
K =
Case c: The pipeline is unrestrained (has expansion joints throughout).
(2-5c) 1 =
R
K
where
P
is the Poisson's ratio for the pipe material.
For thick-walled pipes, the values of the restraint coefficient for the three
types of pipeline support are:

Case a: The pipeline is restrained at the upstream end only.
) 1 (
2
) 2 / 1 ( + +
+
=
D
t
t D
D
K
l
p
l
R
(2-6a)
Case b: The pipeline is restrained throughout.
) 1 (
2
) 1 (
2
+ +
+
=
D
t
t D
D
K
l
P
l
R
(2-6b)
Case c: The pipeline is unrestrained (has expansion joints throughout).

) 1 (
2
+ +
+
=
D
t
t D
D
K
l
l
R
(2-6c)
Table 2-1: Physical properties of common pipe materials.
Material Youngs Modulus
E
c
(GPa)

Poissons Ratio
p
Aluminum 69 0.33
Asbestos Cement 23-24 -
Cast Iron 80-170 0.25-0.27
Concrete 14-30 0.1-0.15
Reinforced Concrete 30-60 -
Ductile Iron 172 0.30
Polyethylene 0.7-0.8 0.46
PVC 2.4-3.5 0.46
Steel 200-207 0.30

2-4 CHAPTER TWO

Figure 2-2: Pressure wave velocity for water in round pipes with different
diameters and thicknesses and K
R
equal to 0.91 (adapted from Thorley,
1991).


Table 2-1 lists physical properties of common pipe materials. These values
should assist in calculating wave speeds in pipes constructed of common
materials. A plot of wave propagation speeds for water flowing in a circular
pipe subjected to a representative pipeline restraint for a variety of materials is
shown in Figure 2-2 (Thorley, 1991), although the values for thick walled pipes
(i.e., for small values on the abscissa) must be taken as approximate only. For
the majority of hydraulic analyses involving transients, the wave speed can be
considered to be constant.
It is important to note that gas dissolved in the liquid can significantly
affect the wave speed. In fact, the presence of even small quantities of air can
significantly reduce the wave propagation speed of water in pipes. At higher
pressures the effect of the trapped air decreases.
In very rigid pipes, in tanks, or in large water bodies, the acoustic velocity
is reduced to .
f
E
c =
For circular section tunnels, the coefficient of restraint for all three cases
above reduces to (Thorley, 1991)

) 1 (
2
+ =
D
t
K
l
R
(2-7)
2.1.1 Exercise Wave Speed
Calculate the wave speed for the three restraints with the following conditions:

Steel Schedule 10 - 6 inch pipe
Inside diameter = 6.357 inches
Outside diameter = 6.625 inches
Modulus of steel = 30,000,000 psi
Modulus of water = 300,000 psi
Poisson ratio = 0.28

Answers:

Expansion joints throughout 3,960 ft/s
Anchored at upstream end only 4,056 ft/s
Anchored throughout 4,013 ft/s

The Wave Speed tool (WaveSpeed.exe) shown below can be used to make the
above calculations. Check the above answers using this tool, which is discussed
in Appendix F.1.

2-6 CHAPTER TWO

2.2 THE WAVE CHARACTERISTIC METHOD
Pressure waves are generated at any point in a pipe system where a disturbance
that results in a change in flow rate is introduced. This can include a valve that
is opening or closing, a pump that is started up or shut down, a change in a
reservoir pressure, or a change in an inflow or outflow for the system. Pressure
and flow conditions at a component are also affected by the impinging pressure
waves. This pressure wave tracking approach to transient analysis forms the
basis of the Wave Characteristic Method and is illustrated using the sequence of
transient events shown in Figure 2-3. For the first transient event, a valve closes
and a pressure wave is generated. For the second event, the pressure wave
travels toward the 3-pipe junction at sonic speed in the pipe. For the third event,
the wave is transmitted into the two connecting (outgoing) pipes and reflected
back into the original pipe producing three new pressure waves. For the fourth
event, each pressure wave travels at sonic speed toward the opposite end of the
pipe and impinges on the elements at those locations. For the last event, the


pressure waves modify conditions at the reservoir, valve, and pump and new
pressure waves are generated and travel back toward the 3-pipe junction. Note:
the pressure wave actions depicted at the opposite ends (4-5) will normally
occur separately at the instant when each wave reaches the element located at
that end.

Figure 2-3: Pressure waves generated following an instantaneous valve
closure.

2-8 CHAPTER TWO

This approach to transient analysis requires the calculation of the effects of
pressure waves impinging on pipe junctions, components (e.g., valves and
pumps) and surge control elements which inject or remove fluid (e.g., surge
tanks and air/vacuum valves) as well as calculating the effect of line friction on
the magnitude of pressure waves. These pressure wave action calculations are
illustrated in Figure 2-4 and discussed in detail in the following sections.
Graphical tools are also provided that allow the reader to better understand the
phenomena of pressure wave propagation and the calculations required to
incorporate their effects on pressures and flows throughout a piping system.

Surge Control Device Junction

Component Effect of Friction

Figure 2-4: Pressure wave action at network discontinuities.
2.3 ILLUSTRATING THE WAVE CHARACTERISTIC METHOD
The Wave Characteristic Method consists of essentially tracking with time the
propagation and attenuation of pressure waves that are moving at sonic speed,
and calculation of their effects on the pressures and flows (in both time and


space) throughout the water distribution piping system. It represents the pipe
system as a connected graph composed of a finite number of discontinuities
connected by frictionless pipe segments, which serve only to transmit pressure
waves.
Starting at an initial steady-state flow condition, the tracking mechanism is
initiated after a disturbance is introduced at a given point in the pipe system
(e.g., closing of a valve). The disturbance produces an incremental change in
the volumetric flow rate, which then results in a transient pressure wave
that is introduced at that location. This pressure wave travels throughout
the pipe network at sonic speed, and is partly reflected and transmitted at all
physical and geometrical discontinuities. Temporal variations of pressures and
flows (velocities) are then computed for any point in the pipe system by
summing with time the contributions of impinging pressure waves.
) ( H
The effects of line friction (or viscous resistance) influence the propagation
of pressure waves and are simulated using the orifice analogy. They are
modeled as square-law friction orifices (or artificial discontinuities) with
properly chosen orifice coefficients. These are placed at a number of discrete
points along each pipe to better approximate the distributed effects of line
losses. Impinging pressure waves are then reflected and transmitted at these
friction orifices, resulting in incremental flow and pressure changes.
Time histories of velocity (flow rate), pressure, and pressure waves leaving
each discontinuity are determined explicitly in terms of the magnitudes of
impinging pressure waves, the nature of the discontinuity, and conditions prior
to wave action. New information at each discontinuity is available only at
discrete time intervals because all of the disturbing functions are approximated
by a series of small time step changes occurring at specified times in the
simulation.
The following definitions are used:

Definition 1. A transient event is an internal (endogenous) event that takes
place when a pressure wave reaches a discontinuity such as a junction node,
pump, valve, or any element of the network that will cause the wave to be
transmitted and reflected.

Definition 2. A transient time step ) ( t takes place between two consecutive
transient events and is a time period during which pressure waves remain
unchanged structurally in the simulation.

The transient time step defines the time interval between successive
computations. Its selection is determined by two factors:
) ( t
(1) t must be sufficiently small to accurately represent all disturbing
functions by a series of step changes; and

2-10 CHAPTER TWO

(2) it is necessary that all modifications of pressures, flows and pressure
waves in the system occur at an integer number of time intervals.
The pressure wave travel times between all adjacent discontinuities will
then be an integer number of transient time steps.
The Wave Characteristic Method is basically a simulation system that uses
the next-transient event scheduling approach; that is, the simulation (clock)
time is advanced to the time of the next transient event when a discontinuity is
reached (in incremental transient time steps). The next-event approach requires
that transient events have a known time at which they are to occur. For each
pressure wave, such time can be easily determined, since the wave speed and
direction, location of network discontinuities, and the topological structure of a
given network are known at all times.
The simulation model is therefore reduced to a role of an intelligent
scheduler that creates, parameterizes, identifies, and arranges transient events in
a chronological order during the lifetime of a given transient simulation.
A graphical Wave Method Calculator (WMC.EXE) is presented to illustrate
the pressure wave tracking mechanism of the Wave Characteristic Method. This
tool is documented in Appendix C, and can be used to visualize the movement
and action of traveling pressure waves at discrete t transient time intervals.
Calculations are carried out at each component or junction. Calculations are
necessary only when a pressure wave impinges on an element or the operating
conditions for the element change (e.g., valve setting or pump speed change).
When a calculation is made, the impinging waves just prior to the calculation
are first shown (Nt-) and then the new pressure waves are displayed (Nt+),
where N is the number of time increments since the calculations were initiated.
The surge pressures are noted at each node and change each time a pressure
wave arrives at the node and wave action occurs.
The location of all traveling pressure waves at each time step is known.
These locations are shown by the Wave Method Calculator (Appendix C).
However, the actual location within the pipe of each pressure wave is not
required for the analysis. It is sufficient to specify the number of time steps
required to traverse each pipe section so that the pressure wave impinging at a
component is known to be the wave which left the adjacent component that
number of time steps earlier.
The Wave Method Calculator toolbox (Figure 2-5) provides an excellent
illustration of the intuitive nature of the Wave Characteristic Method for
transient analysis. It clearly shows how transient disturbances are transmitted as
pressure waves by depicting the location of the pressure waves at each time
step. It also illustrates how the transient calculation process works. Pressure
waves in the connecting pipes impinge on junctions and components
(discontinuities). When this occurs, a transient calculation is needed to compute
the effects of the pressure waves on the pressure and flow and the magnitude of
new pressure waves, which are generated by this action and transmitted down


each of the connecting pipes. When pressure wave action occurs at a junction or
a component, a second schematic is shown depicting the effects of the wave
action. This schematic is identified by adding a + to the time display to indicate
that the wave action occurring at that time has taken place.

Figure 2-5: Wave method calculator toolbox.

For the sample pipe system shown in Figure 2-5 (Example-2.wat), four
transient events are illustrated following the sudden closure of the lower right
valve (node 4), which produced a pressure wave of 500 ft. The transient events
(Figures 2-6 and 2-7) depicted are:
a) 6t+ - the wave has reached the three-pipe junction (node 3) and has
created three pressure waves.
b) 9t - a wave reaches the second three-pipe junction at 8t (node 2) and
creates three pressure waves.
c) 10t - a wave has reached the upper right dead end at 9t (node 6) and
the positive reflection produces a surge pressure of 889 ft.
d) 12t - a wave has reached the upper left dead end at 11t (node 5) and
the reflection produces a surge pressure of 790 ft.

The following sections develop the analysis of the effects of pressure waves
impinging on network discontinuities. There are three types of discontinuities
for which the pressure wave analysis is developed:

2-12 CHAPTER TWO

1) Components (pumps, valves, etc.)
2) Junctions
3) Side discharge orifices (connections to surge control devices that inject
or remove fluid)
These analyses provide the basis for modeling transient flow in complex
piping systems. They incorporate a variety of devices and include the effects of
cavity formation and collapse.

6t+

9t
Figure 2-6: Wave actions at 6 t + and 9 t transient events.


10t

12t
Figure 2-7: Wave actions at 10 t and 12 t transient events.

2-14 CHAPTER TWO

2.4 COMPONENT ANALYSIS
A general analysis of pressure wave action at a component in a pipe system is
presented. This analysis provides relationships to account for a variety of
situations. Figure 2-8 shows a general situation at a component (discontinuity)
where pressure waves
1
H and
2
H are impinging.
At the same time, the characteristics of the component may be changing. It
is assumed that the relationship between flow through the component, Q, and
the pressure head change across the component, H , always satisfies a second
order characteristic head-flow equation for the component having the general
form

Q Q t C Q t B t A H ) ( ) ( ) ( + + = (2-8)

where H is the pressure head difference in feet (meters) between the left and
right side of the component, and is the flow rate in ft Q
3
/s (m
3
/s) through the
component. The terms A, B, and C represent the coefficients for a general
representation of the characteristic equation. The coefficients may be time
dependent but will be known (or can be determined) at all times. The absolute
values of are employed to make the resistance term dependent on flow
direction, and the others independent of flow direction. This representation
applies to both passive resistance elements such as valves, orifices, fittings and
friction elements and active elements such as pumps.
Q

Figure 2-8: Condition at component before and after wave action.

In Figure 2-8, the subscripts 1 and 2 denote conditions on the left and right
hand side of the component before the impinging waves arrive. The subscripts
3 and 4 denote these conditions at the component after the pressure wave


action.
'
and represent the pipe flow rates left of pressure wave H Q
"
Q
1
for
pipe 1 and right of pressure wave H
2
for pipe 2, respectively. An analysis is
carried out to determine conditions at the component due to wave actions, a
change in the characteristics of the component, a change in a reservoir pressure,
or a combination of any of these situations. The Q terms represent volumetric
flow rates in the lines leading to and away from the component and, due to
mass continuity, these values of flow rate are usually equal to each other at any
given time. However, the occurrence of cavitation and the associated growth
and decay of cavity pockets can affect the continuity relationships, and this
makes it necessary to consider the flow rate terms separately. Flow rate terms
must be considered with a proper sign and the convention employed is that flow
in a pipe away from the component is positive. Flow through the component is
positive from left to right.
The basic transient flow relationship for pressure-flow changes is applied to
incoming and outgoing waves and the terms Q and Q are eliminated to yield
the following expressions for the outgoing waves

) (
1 3 1 1 3
Q Q F H H + = (2-9)

) (
2 4 2 2 4
Q Q F H H + = (2-10)

where

1
1
1
gA
c
F = and
2
2
2
gA
c
F = (2-11)

Pressure heads after the wave action are given by

3 1 1 3
H H H H + + = (2-12)

4 2 2 4
H H H H + + = (2-13)

The characteristic equation relating the pressure head change across and the
flow through the discontinuity after the action is

0 0 0 3 4
) ( ) ( ) ( Q Q t C Q t B t A H H + + = (2-14)

The coefficients of the characteristic equation, , and may
vary with time and these represent the values at the time of the wave action.
) (t A ) (t B ) (t C

2-16 CHAPTER TWO

Equations 2-9 to 2-14 can be solved to obtain a quadratic relationship for .
This is,
0
Q

0 ) ( ) ( ) (
0 2 1 0 0 0
= + + + b Q F F Q t B Q Q t C (2-15)

where

) ) ( 2 2 ) ( (
2 1 2 2 1 1 i
Q F F H H H H t A b + + + + = (2-16)

Equation 2-15 may be solved by using the quadratic formula or using the
Newton-Raphson iterative procedure starting with an initial solution .
The solution of Equation 2-15 for the flow rate after the action, , is easily
obtained. If there is no vapor cavity present, the flows in the pipes are
numerically equal to the flow through the component and are
i
Q Q =
0
0
Q

0 3
Q Q = and
0 4
Q Q = (2-17)

Equations 2-9 and 2-10 are solved to compute the magnitude of the pressure
waves produced by the action and Equations 2-12 and 2-13 give the pressure
head after the action takes place. Computer code for a general component
analysis is presented in Section 2.4.4.
This general analysis describes a wide variety of components for a range of
conditions. These applications are discussed and illustrated by examples. Table
2-2 summarizes the initial and computed conditions at a component due to an
action for a variety of situations and these cases are referred to in the following
discussions.
2.4.1 Component Characteristics
The coefficients of the component characteristic equation (2-14) are determined
using head/flow operating data for the component. Some components such as
pumps will utilize all three coefficients to represent the head/flow variation. In
some cases, the characteristic equation will be based on data, which represents
the head/flow relationship for a relatively small range of operation. For these
applications, the coefficients used for the component analysis will be based on
data valid for the operation in the vicinity of the operating point and will be
recalculated as the operating point changes. This is true for the analysis of
variable speed pumps and for pumps using data representing a wide range of
operating conditions, including abnormal situations such as flow reversal.


Many components, such as valves, can be modeled using only the
coefficient. These are referred to as resistive components where the head/flow
relation is adequately described by a single resistive term. For this application,
the coefficient is defined as the component resistance. The term
resistance is used throughout this book to characterize a resistive component,
and is defined as the head drop divided by the flow squared
C
) (t C
) (
2
Q
H
. Here,
the head drop is in feet (meters) and the flow is in ft
3
/s (m
3
/s).
The component resistance is directly related to other resistive parameters
such as minor loss (K
M
), valve flow coefficient (C
v
), sprinkler constant (K
s
) and
others, which characterize the head/flow characteristic of a resistive component.
A number of exercises follow, illustrating the determination of the coefficient
values for the component characteristic curve and the close relationship
between the resistance coefficient C and similar commonly used parameters.
2.4.2 Pipe Leading From a Reservoir to a Closing Valve
This example demonstrates the calculation of the pressure surge generated by a
slow valve closure. Consider a 1,000-ft long 6-in diameter pipeline with a wave
speed c of 4,000 ft/s connecting a reservoir on its upstream end and a valve on
its downstream end (as shown in the figure below).

The downstream valve is initially wide open and closes in 5 seconds (with
the area ratios changing linearly). The initial flow rate through the pipeline is
. Steady state pressure head on the upstream side of the wide
open valve is
s ft Q
i
/ 356 . 2
3
=
ft H 9
0
= and the pipeline discharges into the atmosphere. When
the valve closure is initiated, the generated pressure wave travels towards the
reservoir, gets reflected of the reservoir and reaches the closing valve in 2L/c =
0.5 seconds. Since the valve is closed in 5 seconds, which is greater than 0.5
(2L/c) seconds, this may be classified as a slow valve closure. Once a pressure
wave is generated, the conditions at the valve remain the same until the
pressure wave reflected of the reservoir reaches the valve. Therefore, this
example uses a computational time step of 0.5 seconds (2L/c) to demonstrate
the pressure changes as the valve closes linearly in 5 seconds.

2-18 CHAPTER TWO

This analysis of wave action at the valve is similar to the situation depicted
in Figure 2-8 except that there is no pipe on the right hand side of the
component. Based on the initial flow rate and steady-state heads across the
valve, the valve initial resistance can be calculated as ) (t C

621 . 1 / ) ( ) 0 (
2
0
= = =
i ex
Q H H t C

Based on Equation 2-11, 66 . 632
1
= =
gA
c
F and . 0
2
= F
At time seconds, 0 = t =
1
Q 2.356 ft
3
/s, =
1
H 9 ft, =
1
H 0. At the end of
one computational time period ( 0.5 seconds), the valve area ratio ( )
changes from 1.0 to 0.9. The corresponding valve resistance may be computed
using
= t
R
A

0 . 2 9 . 0 / 621 . 1 / ) 0 ( ) 5 . 0 (
2 2
= = = = =
R
A t C t C

The decreased area ratio will reduce the flow rate across the valve
simultaneously generating a pressure wave that travels toward the reservoir and
gets reflected. The new flow rate across the valve depends on the new head on
the upstream side of the valve, which in turn depends on the change in the flow
rate across the valve.
Equations 2-15 and 2-16 account for the combined effect and, therefore,
may be used to solve for the new flow rate through the valve at the end of one
computational time increment. Note that in Equations 2-15 and 2-16, we have

0 ) ( = t A , 0 ) ( = t B and 2 ) ( = t C
66 . 632
1
= F and 0
2
= F
9
1
= H , 0
2 1
= = H H , 0
2
= =
ex
H H , 0
2
= H , and
356 . 2 =
i
Q

Solving Equations 2-15 and 2-16 result in a new flow of 355 . 2
0
= Q ft
3
/s
at the end of one computational time period. Equation 2-9 is then used to
calculate the magnitude of the resulting pressure wave as 08 . 2
3
= H ft.
Equation 2-12 gives the new head on the upstream side of the valve as 11.08
ft.
3
H
The above procedure may be repeated after updating the to reflect an
area ratio of 0.8, and setting ,
) (t C
355 . 2 =
i
Q 08 . 11
1
= H , and 08 . 2
1
= H


(magnitude of the reflected pressure wave). This process is illustrated in the
computer program below.

'Wave Propagation Program Simple Pipeline System

' Constants:
G = 32.17
PI = 3.14159
' Example Calculation Data:
Length = 1000
Dia = 6# / 12#
Celerity = 4000
Q_ini = 2.356
H_ini = 9
H_Exit = 0#
Tc = 5#
SimTime = 5#

Area_Ini = 0.25 * PI * Dia * Dia
F1 = Celerity / (G * Area_Ini)
If (Tc > (2 * Length / Celerity)) Then ' slow valve closure
Ao = Area_Ini
Qi = Q_ini
Ho = H_ini
He = H_Exit
Co = -(Ho - He) / (Qi * Qi)
Q1 = Qi
Q3 = Qi
H1 = Ho
H3 = Ho
dH1 = 0
dH3 = 0
A = Ao
T = 0
AR = A / Ao
C = Co
Print , "Results:"
Print , "Time", "AR Ratio", "Q1", "H1", "dH1", "Q3",
"dH3", "H3"
For i = 1 To 10
If (AR > 0) Then
b = (H1 + 2 * dH1 + F1 * Qi - He)
e = -F1
Qo = (-e - Sqr(e * e - 4 * C * b)) / (2 * C)
'quadratic
Q3 = Qo
dH3 = dH1 + F1 * (Q1 - Q3)
H3 = H1 + dH1 + dH3
End If
Print , Round(T, 2), Round(AR, 2), Round(Q1, 3),
Round(H1, 2);

2-20 CHAPTER TWO

Print , Round(dH1, 2), Round(Q3, 2), Round(dH3, 2),
Round(H3, 2)
AR = AR - 0.1
C = Co / (AR * AR)
A = Ao * AR
Qi = Qo
Q1 = Q3
H1 = H3
dH1 = -dH3
T = T + (2 * Length / Celerity)
Next i
End If

Results:

Time AR Ratio Q1 H1 dH1 Q3 dH3 H3

0.0 1.0 2.356 9.00 0.00 2.36 0.00 9.00
0.5 0.9 2.356 9.00 0.00 2.35 2.08 11.08
1.0 0.8 2.353 11.08 -2.08 2.34 4.89 13.89
1.5 0.7 2.342 13.89 -4.89 2.32 8.81 17.81
2.0 0.6 2.320 17.81 -8.81 2.28 14.48 23.48
2.5 0.5 2.283 23.48 -14.48 2.22 23.08 32.08
3.0 0.4 2.224 32.08 -23.08 2.13 36.94 45.94
3.5 0.3 2.129 45.94 -36.94 1.97 61.21 70.21
4.0 0.2 1.974 70.21 -61.21 1.71 108.91 117.91
4.5 0.1 1.706 117.91 -108.91 1.19 219.45 228.45

2.4.3 Exercises Component Characteristic Coefficients
1a). Suppose the following data is available for a pump

Flow rate (gpm) Head (ft)
0.0 592
2790.0 480
4180.0 400

Determine the coefficients , A B , and for the relationship C

2
CQ BQ A E
p
+ + =

where is the pump head in feet and Q is the flow rate in ft
P
E
3
/s.

Answer: The component pressure wave analysis requires that the
coefficients be determined for Q in ft
3
/s and the head in feet. Before the
coefficients are determined, the flow rates can be converted to ft
3
/s (by


dividing by the unit conversion factor of 448.8) and this gives the
following for the above data.

Flow rate (ft
3
/s) Head (ft)
0.00 592
6.22 480
9.32 400

A quadratic curve can be passed through these points and three equations
can be obtained for the three data points by inserting the respective flow
and head in the pump characteristic equation. Substituting yields

2
) 32 . 9 ( ) 32 . 9 ( 400 C B A + + =
2
) 22 . 6 ( ) 22 . 6 ( 480 C B A + + =
A = 592

The above equations are solved simultaneously to get , 592 = A
8 . 12 = B and , and the characteristic curve for this pump
can be expressed as
837 . 0 = C

2
837 . 0 8 . 12 592 Q Q E
p
=

At least three data points are required to determine the coefficients. The
first data point is usually the shut off head at zero flow.

1b). Determine the , A B , andC coefficients if this pump is operated at a
speed increase of 10 percent.

Answer: Note that you can produce a modified head-flow table by
multiplying the head by the speed ratio squared (1.21) and the flow by the
speed ratio (1.1). The modified head-flow table is

Flow rate (ft
3
/s) Head (ft)
0.000 716.32
6.840 580.80
10.252 484.00

Using the procedure described above gives

2
835 . 0 1 . 14 32 . 716 Q Q E
p
=

2-22 CHAPTER TWO

1c). Check the results for 1a and 1b using the Head-Flow Characteristic
Calculation Tool (Appendix F.2).

2a). Resistance of a component is defined as the head loss ) ( H in feet
(meters) divided by the flow in ft ) (Q
3
/s (m
3
/s) squared and the resistance
is used for the coefficient for a resistive element ( and C A B are zero).
Calculate the resistance for the following data

a) and gpm Q 500 = psi P 2 =
b) mgd Q 5 . 3 = and feet H 20 =
c) and s L Q / 5 . 2 = bar P 35 . 0 =
d) and hr m Q / 120
3
= meters H 2 =

Answer:
a) 72 . 3
b) 682 . 0
c) 200 , 571
d) 800 , 1

2b). Derive the conversion factor to convert resistance in English units to SI
units.

Answer: MultiplyC (English) by 380 to convert to SI.

2c). Use the Resistance Calculation Tool (Appendix F.3) to check the above
results.

3a). Derive an expression for the resistance for a component in a pipe of
diameter with a known minor loss coefficient . Calculate the
resistance for the following data
d ) (
M
K

a) 5 . 6 =
M
K and in d 6 =
b) 5 . 6 =
M
K and mm d 150 =

Answer: where is the pipe cross sectional area in
square feet (square meters) and
2
2 / gA K C
M
= A
2
/ 17 . 32 s ft g =

) / 807 . 9 (
2
s m .

a) 62 . 2 = C
b) 062 , 1 = C


3b) Use the Resistance Calculation Tool (Appendix F.3) to check the above
results.

4a) Derive an expression for the resistance for a length of a pipe of
diameter with a known friction factor, Note: this is the resistance for
a friction orifice simulating the effects of friction in a line segment with
these characteristics. Calculate the resistance for the following data
L
d . f

a) ft L 550 = , , in d 12 = 02 . 0 = f
b) m L 150 = , , mm d 250 = 02 . 0 = f

Answer:
2
2 / gdA fL C =

a) 269 . 0
b) 254

results.

5a) A valve flow coefficient is defined by the expression = the
flow in gpm (m
v
C ) (
v
K
3
/hr) through the valve with a pressure drop of 1 psi (bar).
Derive an expression for the resistance of a valve as a function of the
valve flow coefficient for English units. Determine the resistance for the
following data

a) 000 , 1 =
v
C (pressure drop = 1.0 psi at a flow of 1000 gpm)
b) 500 =
v
K (pressure drop = 1.0 bar at a flow of 500 cmh)

Answer: where ) ) 000 , 1 / /( / 29 (
2
v
C C = is the liquid specific
weight in lb/ft
3

a) 465 . 0
b) 8 . 40

results.

5c) Figure 2-9 depicts a typical valve performance curve one provided by the
manufacturer (DeZurik/Copes-Vulcan). It gives the percent (%) of the

2-24 CHAPTER TWO

v
C value as a function of the percent ( %) stroke for a butterfly
valve. This shows that for the normal flow direction (into the dome) the
value at 50% open is around 18%.
) (
v
K
v
C ) (
v
K
For case (a) above (C
v
(100%) = 1000) , this means that at
50 % open. Compute the resistance for the valve when it is 40% open.
180 =
v
C

Answer: At 40% open the chart gives a value of around 11% or a
. This gives an equivalent resistance of 38.5. 110 =
v
C

Figure 2-9: BAW AWWA butterfly valves.

6a) The flow through an orifice depends on the orifice diameter, and the
discharge coefficient, for the orifice. Derive the expression for the
0
d
d
C


resistance in terms of these parameters. Calculate the resistance for the
following data.

a) = 1 inch and
0
d 62 . 0 =
d
C
b) = 25 mm and
0
d 62 . 0 =
d
C

Answer: where is the orifice cross sectional area in
ft
2
) ( 2 / 1 A C g C
d
= A
2
(m
2
).

a) 360 , 1
b) 831 , 550

results.

7a) A single resistance value can be used to relate the head drop as a function
of the flow through a section of pipe including fittings. The resistance is
based on the expression

+ =
2 2
) 2 / ) / (( Q gA K d fL H
M

In addition to determining the resistance for a general pipe section, this
expression can be used, for example, for the entrance resistance of the
piping leading to a surge tank, or the resistance for piping in parallel
pump arrangements. Derive an expression for the resistance for a pipe
section of length , diameter , friction factor , and with a known sum
for minor loss coefficient
L d f
) (
M
K . Calculate the resistance for the
following.

a) in d 6 = , ft L 4 = , f = 0.02,
M
K

(2 elbows (0.75) and entrance
from T (1.5) = 3.0)
b) mm d 4 . 152 = , m L 22 . 1 = , f = 0.02,
M
K

(2 elbows (0.75)
and entrance from T (1.5) = 3.0)

Answer:
+ = ) 2 / ) / ((
2
gA K d fL C
M

a) 31 . 1
b) 500

2-26 CHAPTER TWO

results. The results should agree with the factor for converting resistance
from English to SI units (part 2b).
2.4.4 Example Component Computer Routine
The following computer routine illustrates the calculations for Case A-2 (Table
2-2). This routine will handle general situations at a valve or a pump but does
not consider cavitation. It illustrates the wave action when a pressure wave of
100 feet impinges from the upstream side on a valve. The resulting flow rate is
calculated using both the direct solution to a quadratic equation and the iterative
Newton-Raphson procedure, which is carried out until convergence is reached.
The iterative approach is better able to handle situations such as flow reversal.
The notation is the same as used in Equations 2-8 to 2-17.

' SUBROUTINE - COMPONENT ANALYSIS

A = 0#
B = 0#
C = -20#
H1 = 100#
H2 = 20#
D1 = 100#
D2 = 0#
F1 = 400#
F2 = 400#
TOL = 0.001
QI = 2#

C1 = (A + H1 + 2 * D1 - H2 - 2 * D2 + QI * (F1 + F2))
B1 = B - (F1 + F2)
A1 = C

' Quadratic Solution - A1 + B1*Q + C1*Q*Q)
Q = -(B1 + Sqr(B1 * B1 - 4 * A1 * C1)) / (2# * A1)

Print " *** Quadratic Solution ***"
Print
Print " Q = "; Round(Q, 3)

' Newton Raphson Solution - DQ = F(Q)/F'(Q)
J = 1
Q = QI
Print
Print " *** Newton Raphson Solution *** "
Print
Print " Iteration", "Initial Q", "DQ", "Q"
Do
FQ = C * Q * Abs(Q) + B * Abs(Q) - (F1 + F2) * Q + C1


DFQ = 2# * C * Abs(Q) + B * Q / Abs(Q) - (F1 + F2)
DQ = FQ / DFQ
Print " "; J, Round(Q, 3), Round(DQ, 3), Round(Q - DQ, 3)
Q = Q - DQ
ACC = Abs(DQ / Q)
J = J + 1
Loop While (ACC > TOL)

Q1 = -QI
Q2 = QI
Q3 = -Q
Q4 = Q
D3 = D1 + F1 * (Q3 - Q1)
D4 = D2 + F2 * (Q4 - Q2)
H3 = H1 + D1 + D3
H4 = H2 + D2 + D4
Print
Print " H3 = ", Round(H3, 2)
Print " D3 = ", Round(D3, 2)
Print " H4 = ", Round(H4, 2)
Print " D4 = ", Round(D4, 2)

Results:

*** Quadratic Solution ***

Q = 2.226

*** Newton Raphson Solution ***

Iteration Initial Q DQ Q
1 2 -0.227 2.227
2 2.227 0.001 2.226

H3 = 209.56
D3 = 9.56
H4 = 110.44
D4 = 90.44

2.4.5 Illustrating the Wave Action at Components
A general use graphical Wave Action Calculator (WaveAction.EXE) was
developed to illustrate the action of pressure waves impinging on pipe system
components, the effect of a change in the characteristics of the component, or
the combination of these effects. This tool (Figure 2-10) uses the Component
Computer Routine and is documented in Appendix D. Calculations are
necessary only when a pressure wave impinges on the element or the operating
conditions for the element change (valve setting or pump speed change). When
a calculation is made, the conditions and impinging waves just prior to the
calculation are shown (top) and then the new pressure waves are displayed

2-28 CHAPTER TWO

(bottom). The Wave Action Calculator is shown below for Case A-2 (Table 2-
2).

Figure 2-10: Wave Action Calculator Component (Case A-2).
2.4.6 Application to Resistive Elements
The general treatment for wave action at a component is applicable to a variety
of components. A large group of these are essentially resistive elements such as
valves. For these elements, only the C coefficient representing the effect of
irreversible loss is not zero. This coefficient represents the ratio of the head loss
to the square of the flow through the component. For hydraulic considerations,
this type of square-law relationship between head loss and flow is usually
appropriate. The sign of the pressure head change is dependent on the direction
of flow through the component. This necessitates the use of the absolute value
of the flow rates as presented in Equation 2-8.

a) Internal element
A resistive element such as a valve positioned within a pipe (rather than at the
end) is shown in Figure 2-11. The relationship between the pressure head
change and the flow rate is known for various elements.
For an orifice or a valve, this is


2 2
0
2
1 2
) 2 /( 1 Q g A C H H
d
= (2-18)

where is the open area of the element and is a discharge coefficient that is
dependent on the type of element. In this case, the characteristic coefficient for
Equation 2-8 is
0
A
d
C

) 2 /( 1 ) (
2
0
2
g A C t C
d
= (2-19)

Figure 2-11: Valve operation in a pipe.

For an element that stays in a set position, remains constant but this
term varies for an element such as a valve that is opening and closing and
depends on the open area of the valve. Several situations depicting the effect of
pressure wave actions at a resistive element are illustrated in Table 2-2.
) (t C
In each case, the data given before the action plus the values of the
coefficients of the characteristics equation after the action are used to solve
Equation 2-15 for the flow through the element after the action. These are used
to determine pipe flow, pipe pressure heads, and pressure wave magnitudes that
are presented. For these examples, F
1
= F
2
= 400 and C
1
= -20 are used.
Appendix D describes a Wave Action Calculator that can be used to analyze
wave action at components and perform the calculations summarized in Table
2-2.

Case A-1 - Wave generation due to element action
In this example, the open area of the element is reduced (simulating a valve
closure) by 10% (C
2
= C
1
/(0.9)
2
= 24.69) resulting in a reduction of flow
through the element. Pressure waves are generated and line pressures increase
due to this action.

2-30 CHAPTER TWO

Case A-2 - Wave reflection and transmission at the element
In this example, the element remains in the same open position (C
2
= -20) and
the action is due to impinging pressure waves at the valve. These calculations
using the Wave Action Calculator are shown in Figure 2-10.

Case A-3 - Combined action
The situations for Cases A-1 and A-2 are combined in the example in a single
analysis accounting for both effects. It is not possible to superimpose the
separate results because of the non-linear relationships involved. This illustrates
the general situation in the Wave Characteristic Method where the analysis is
set up to account for the effects of impinging waves at the same time that
changes in component characteristics are considered.

Case A-4 - Wave action causes flow reversal
This example illustrates the situation where the flow reverses due to the action
of the impinging pressure wave. The general procedure developed for the
analysis of the component accounts for this, and the results presented in Table
2-2 correspond to this condition.

Case A-5 - Action at element where flow is initially reversed
This illustrates the analysis when the flow is initially in the negative direction.
The general analysis is developed to account for this situation as shown by this
example.

b) Line friction element
The effect of line friction on a pressure wave is easily accounted for by
employing an element in the analysis to represent the pressure drop due to line
friction in a length of pipe . This element will attenuate a pressure wave in a
manner similar to the total attenuation that will occur as the wave travels the
length in the pipe. In this representation, the pressure head change across the
element corresponds to the loss in the pipe and is given by
L
L

(2-20)
2 2
1 2
2 /
L
gDA fLQ H H =

where is the friction factor; is the line diameter; and is the line area. f D
L
A
In this case, the characteristic coefficient for Equation 2-8 for the friction
element is

2
2 / ) (
L
gDA fL t C = (2-21)


Table 2-2: Pressure wave action at components.
Case Conditions before action Conditions after action

i
Q
2 0 1
H
2
H H
1
H Q
3
H
4 3 4
H H H
A-1*

2 0 0 100 20
1.979 8.350 -8.350 108.350 11.650
A-2

2 100 0 100 20
2.226 9.560 90.440 209.560 110.440
A-3*

2 100 0 100 20
2.190 24.000 76.000 224.000 96.000
A-4

2 0 -1000 100 20
-0.396 958.430 91.570 1058.430 1061.570
A-5

-2 100 0 20 100
-1.772 8.620 91.380 128.620 191.380
B-1

2 100 0 100 96
2.249 0.530 99.470 200.530 195.470
B-2

2 0 100 100 96
1.751 99.530 0.470 199.530 196.470
B-3

2 0 1000 100 96
-0.495 997.880 2.120 1097.880 1098.120
C-1*

2 0 0 100 20
1.962 15.070 0.000 115.070 20.000
C-2

2 100 0 100 20
2.410 -63.870 0.000 136.130 20.000
C-3*

2 100 0 100 20
2.357 -42.830 0.000 157.130 20.000
C-4

2 0 -500 100 20
-0.295 418.250 0.000 18.250 20.000
C-5

2 0 0 100 20
1.958 16.700 0.000 116.700 40.000
C-6*

2 100 0 100 20
2.318 -27.310 0.000 172.690 40.000
C-7

2 100 0 100 100
2.500 -100.000 0.000 100.000 100.000
C-8

0 100 0 100 -
0.000 100.000 0.000 300.000 -
D-1

10 100 0 100 300
10.392 60.810 156.750 260.810 456.750
D-2

10 0 100 100 300
9.608 39.240 -56.980 139.240 343.020
D-3*

10 0 0 100 300
9.820 17.970 -71.900 117.970 228.100
D-4*

10 100 0 100 300
10.211 78.910 84.340 278.910 384.340
D-5

10 0 3000 100 300
-1.953 1195.330 -1781.320 1295.330 1518.680
*The component characteristics change for these analyses.

2-32 CHAPTER TWO
Since variations in the friction factor occur due to flow changes, this coefficient
can change. Normally the friction factor will be adequately determined by the
flow rate through the element prior to the wave action. In most simulations, it is
sufficient to treat this coefficient as a constant.
The friction element is analyzed as previously described. The numerical
value of is generally considerably smaller than the corresponding value
for elements such as a valve in the same pipeline. Several situations involving a
friction element are illustrated in Table 2-2.
) (t C
For the calculations, and 400
2 1
= = F F 0 . 1
2 1
= = C C are used.

Case B-1, 2 - Wave reflection and transmission at friction element
These examples illustrate the effect of pressure wave impingement from either
side of a friction element. The effects are similar (a slight attenuation of the
pressure wave) regardless of the direction of wave impingement.

Case B-3 - Wave action causes flow reversal
This is similar to Case A-4 and illustrates the situation when flow reversal in
the pipe (and through the friction element) occurs.

c) Terminal resistive element
The general analysis applies to a situation where the resistive element such as a
valve is located at the end of a pipe adjacent to a pressure reservoir. For this
situation, the values of and F H for the side of the component representing the
reservoir are taken as zero and the analysis is carried out in the normal fashion.
In this manner, conditions on the reservoir side of the component will not be
affected by the wave action that is the proper influence of a pressure reservoir.
Several cases are illustrated in Table 2-2 for a terminal element with the right
side being the pressure reservoir.
For these calculations, 20
1
= C , 400
1
= F and 0
2
= F are used. The first
four cases are similar to those illustrated for the internal element. These are

Case C-1 - Wave generation due to element action ) 69 . 24 (
2
= C
Case C-2 - Wave reflection at element
Case C-3 - Combined valve action and pressure wave impingement
Case C-4 - Action causes flow reversal

For each of these cases, the value of pressure head in the reservoir remains
constant . Additional cases are illustrated. ) (
2 4
H H =

Case C-5- Change in reservoir pressure
For this situation, the action is caused by a 20 ft change in reservoir pressure
(H
2
), from 20 to 40 ft, which produces the action illustrated by this example.

Case C-6- Combined element, pressure wave and reservoir pressure action
A 20 ft change in reservoir pressure can be considered simultaneously with
element action and pressure wave impingement, and this situation is illustrated
by this example.
2.4.7 Application to Active Elements (Pumps)
Elements that alter the fluid energy due to a mechanical means are referred to
as active elements. The general form of the characteristic Equation 2-8 was
chosen to be able to represent pump operation as depicted in Figure 2-12.

Figure 2-12: Pump operation in a pipe.

The characteristics , and may depend on various conditions
including pump speed, flow, pump head and other operating conditions and are
explicitly determined before calculations for the effects of wave action are
made. Various techniques have been suggested to represent transient pump
characteristics. A simple expression that is useful for pump startup or shutdown
is:
) (t A ) (t B ) (t C

Q Q C Q a B a A H H
R R R
+ + =
2
1 2
(2-22)

where , and are the coefficients of a quadratic curve that represents
normal pump operation for a pump operating at full (rated) speed.
R
A
R
B
R
C
For variable speed operation during a start up or shut down,
and represents the ratio of the rotational speed at any time during the
transitional period, , to the full speed rate of rotation, . In this manner, it is
assumed that the first two terms, which represent the gross pump head
developed, are functions of the rotational speed. In addition, these terms are not
dependent on flow direction but rather the rotational direction as determined by
the pump installation. The third term can be considered to represent the
resistance and accounts for the energy loss for the pump and this is taken as
R
N N a / =
N
R
N

2-34 CHAPTER TWO

proportional to the square of the pump flow. This term is dependent on flow
direction, and might be considered also to vary during a period of start up or
shut down, since the resistance to flow through the component would be
affected by the changing conditions.
Transient pump operation is a complex phenomenon that is affected by
many factors. The above description does account for the principal factor
(pump speed) and offers a basis for evaluating unsteady flow in piping systems
that contain pumps operating in a normal manner at both constant and variable
speed. However, there are obvious limitations of this simplification of the pump
operation.
An alternate and more comprehensive treatment of pumps utilizes four
quadrant pump characteristic data (see Section 4.2.3). This data accounts for
abnormal pump operation such as turbining. For this approach, , A B and are
determined at a specific operating point by fitting a quadratic function to the
applicable pump data. The modeling of pumps for abnormal operations is
discussed in detail in Section 4.2.
C
A number of examples are depicted in Table 2-2 to illustrate the type of
pressure wave action that takes place at a pump. For these examples, ,
, , , and
100
1
= F
400
1
= F 200 =
R
A 10 =
R
B 1 =
R
C .

Case D-1, 2 - Action due to the impingement of pressure waves
These illustrate the effect of pressure wave impingement from both the left and
right side of a pump operating at full speed.

Case D-3 - Action due to change in pump speed
A 20% reduction in pump speed is assumed and this changes the
numerical values of the coefficients and
) 8 . 0 ( = a
A B as

2
2
) 8 . 0 (
R
A A = and ) 8 . 0 (
2 R
B B =

The results of this action are presented.

Case D-4 - Combined action at pump
The effects considered in Cases D-1, D-2 and D-3 are combined for this
example.

Case D-5 - Flow reversal at pump
The actions can result in flow reversal at the pump. In this case, the gross pump
head is maintained due to the pump speed and the effect of the resistance term
is reversed due to the flow reversal. These effects are illustrated by this
example.


2.4.8 Exercises - Wave Action at Components
The Wave Action Calculator (Appendix D) can be used for these exercises.
1) Use the results for Exercise 1a (2.4.2 Exercises - Component Characteristic
Coefficients) to calculate the changes in flows and heads due to a 10%
increase in pump speed for the pump initially flowing at 9 ft
3
/s with a
suction head of 50 ft. Use the pump characteristic curve to compute the
initial discharge head and then use the Wave Action Calculator to compute
the new conditions due to the new set of coefficients resulting from the
pump speed increase.

Answer: The initial head change at the pump is 432 ft giving a discharge
head of 482 ft. Using the new coefficients for the pump characteristic curve
the new conditions are

Flow = 9.196 ft
3
/s
Upstream head = 28.2 ft
Downstream head = 560.8 ft
Pressure wave = 78.8 ft

2) Verify Cases A-1, B-1, C-1 and D-1.

Answer: see Table 2-2.

3) Use the results for Exercise 5a and 5b (Component Characteristic
Coefficients) to calculate the changes in flow and head due to a 10%
closure in a butterfly valve (50% to 40%) assuming the valve is initially
flowing at 600 gpm (1.337 ft
3
/s) with an upstream pressure of 50 psi
(111.35 ft). Use the valve characteristic curve to compute the initial
downstream head, and then use the Wave Action Calculator to calculate the
new conditions due to the new value of the C coefficient resulting from the
partial valve closure.

Answer: Based on the valve flow coefficient of 1,000, the wide-open
resistance for the butterfly valve is 0.465. From the performance chart for
the Butterfly valve, the following information is read: % flow = 11 % at 40
% open ) 110 ( =
v
C and 18% at 50% open ) 180 ( =
v
C . The pressure drop
across the valve at 50% open is (600/180)
2
or 11.11 psi. The discharge
pressure = 50 11.11 = 38.89 psi (89.72 ft). The valve resistance at 40%
open is 38.5 as calculated previously. Using the initial head and flow and
the new coefficients for the valve characteristic curve, the new head and
flow conditions are

2-36 CHAPTER TWO

Flow = 1.289 ft
3
/s (579 gpm)
Upstream head = 134.5 ft. (58.3 psi)
Downstream head = 70.6 ft (30.6 psi)
2.5 PIPE JUNCTION ANALYSIS
The effects of pipe junctions on pressure waves are easily handled if continuity
of flow and continuity of pressure at the junctions are employed. This approach
essentially neglects small energy losses at the junction that cause only minor
effects. Figure 2-13 shows the conditions considered.

Figure 2-13: Effect of pipe junction on pressure wave.

A pressure wave of magnitude H impinging in one of the junction legs, i
is transmitted to each of the adjoining legs equally. The magnitude of the
transmitted waves is H T
i
where the transmission coefficient, , is given by
i
T


=
j
j
i
i
F
F
T
) / 1 (
/ 2
(2-23)

where the summation j refers to all legs (pipes) connecting at the junctions. A
reflection back in leg i occurs of magnitude H R
i
where

1 =
i i
T R (2-24)

The derivation of Equations 2-23 and 2-24 for a three-pipe junction is
illustrated in the following.
Consider a pressure wave of magnitude H approaching a three pipe
junction with initial flow rates of Q
1
, Q
2
, and Q
3
and an initial pressure head of
H
1
(Figure 2-13). The wave action at the junction results in a reflected wave of
magnitude R
1
*H into the pipe 1 and a transmitted wave of magnitude T
1
*H
down each of the remaining two legs (pipe 2 and pipe 3). The new flow rates
through the pipelines as a result of the wave action are Q
1
, Q
2
, and Q
3
, and the
resulting pressure head at the junction is H
2
. Based on basic transient flow
relationship for pressure flow changes, one can derive an expression to compute
the magnitude of the transmitted and reflected waves as follows.
For flow change in pipe 1

H * (1-R
1
) = F
1
* (Q
1
-Q
1
) (2-25)

Similarly for pipes 2 and 3

H * T
1
= F
2
* (Q
2
-Q
2
) (2-26)

H * T
1
= F
3
* (Q
3
-Q
3
) (2-27)

The relationship between the transmission coefficient (T
1
) and the reflection
coefficient (R
1
) may be obtained using

H
2
= H
1
+ T
1
* H = H
1
+ H + R
1
* H (2-28)

or

R
1
= T
1
1 (2-29)

The continuity equations for the junction before and after the wave actions are

2-38 CHAPTER TWO

Q
1
= Q
2
+ Q
3
(2-30)

Q
1
= Q
2
+ Q
3
(2-31)

Subtracting 2-31 from 2-30 results in

(Q
1
- Q
1
) = (Q
2
Q
2
)+ (Q
3
Q
3
) (2-32)

Substituting the pressure-flow change relationship in the above equation results
in

((H * (1-R
1
)) / F
1
) = ((H * T
1
) / F
2
) + ((H * T
1
) / F
3
) (2-33)

Substituting the relationship between transmission and reflection coefficients
(R
1
= T
1
-1) in the above equation and simplifying result in

(2-T
1
) / F
1
= (T
1
/ F
2
) + (T
1
/ F
3
) (2-34)

or
3 2 1
1
1
1 1 1
2
F F F
F
T
+ +
= (2-35)

For the simultaneous impingement of waves arriving in more than one leg,
the effects can be superimposed.
Table 2-3 illustrates several situations involving the transmission and
reflection of pressure waves at a three-pipe junction.

Table 2-3: Pressure wave action at pipe junction.
Case Conditions before action Conditions after action

1
H
1
H
2
H
3
H
2
H
4
H
5
H
6
H
E-1 100 100 0 0 214.3 14.3 114.3 114.3
E-2 100 0 100 0 157.1 57.1 -42.9 57.1
E-3 100 0 0 100 128.6 28.6 28.6 -71.4
E-4 100 100 100 100 300 100 100 100
G-1 100 -200 0 0 -30 70 -130 -130
G-2 -30 100 50 -50 -30 -100 -50 50


For these examples, the pipeline constants ) / ( gA c F = are ,
and . Note that these values indicate that the area of pipe 1
is greater than the combined areas of pipes 2 and 3, resulting in a transmission
coefficient greater than 1.0 for a wave approaching in pipe 1.
100
1
= F
200
2
= F 400
3
= F
The notation for this example is shown in Figure 2-14 that also lists the
data used for these illustrations. Cases E-1, E-2, and E-3 consider the
impingement of a pressure wave in each leg separately, while Case E-4
considers the simultaneous impingement of these waves.

Figure 2-14: Wave action at pipe junction for example (Table 2-3).

A computer routine to calculate the effect of pressure waves at junctions is
presented in the next section. This routine is employed by the Wave Action
Calculator that may be used to calculate wave action at a junction and the
calculations for Case E-1 are shown in Figure 2-15.

Figure 2-15: Wave action calculator junction (Case E-1).

2-40 CHAPTER TWO

Equation 2-23 provides the basis for evaluating the effect of wave action at
dead end junctions and open ends or connections to reservoirs. These are
considered to be pipe junctions. In the case of a dead end, it is a two-pipe
junction with 0
2
= A . This gives a 2 =
i
T and 1 =
i
R , which means that the
wave is reflected positively from the dead end. For a reservoir connection,
and gives =
2
A 0 =
i
T and , which means that a negative reflection
occurs at a reservoir.
1 =
i
R
2.5.1 Example Junction Computer Routine
The following computer code illustrates the calculations of wave action at a
junction for Case E-1. This routine will handle pressure wave action
calculations at a multi-pipe junction but does not consider cavitation. The
example calculation shows the wave action when a pressure wave of 100 ft
impinges from one pipe of a three-pipe junction. The notation is similar to that
used in Equations 2-23 and 2-24.

' SUBROUTINE - JUNCTION ANALYSIS


NCONN = 3
SUMF = 0
F(0) = 100
F(1) = 200
F(2) = 400
D(0) = 100
D(1) = 0
D(2) = 0

For J = 0 To NCONN - 1
SUMF = SUMF + 1 / F(J)
D(J + NCONN) = 0
Next J

For J = 0 To NCONN - 1
For K = 0 To NCONN - 1
If (J = K) Then
D(J+NCONN)=D(J+NCONN) + (2/(F(K)*SUMF)-1) * D(K)
Else
D(J+NCONN) = D(J+NCONN) + (2/(F(K)*SUMF)) * D(K)
End If
Next K
Next J

Print " Results:"
Print " "
Print " D(4) = ", Round(D(3), 3)


Print " D(5) = ", Round(D(4), 3)
Print " D(6) = ", Round(D(5), 3)

Results:

D(4) = 14.286
D(5) = 114.286
D(6) = 114.286

2.5.2 Exercises Wave Action at Junctions
1) For the configuration and conditions shown in the 3-pipe junction below,
compute the following:
a) the effect of a pressure wave of 100 ft magnitude approaching the
junction in the 12-in line.
b) the effect of a 100 ft pressure wave approaching the junction in
either of the 6-in lines.

2) Calculate the pressure increase in each pipe due to the combined effect of
a 100 ft pressure wave approaching in the 12-in line and impinging on the
junction and the subsequent reflection of the transmitted waves at the two
dead end pipes.

2-42 CHAPTER TWO

3) Carry out additional calculations to see if a further increase in pressure
will occur when the reflections from the dead ends impinge on the
junction.

4) Use the Wave Action Calculator to do parts 2 and 3.

Answer:

The solutions are illustrated in the diagrams below. These diagrams depict the
locations of pressure waves and their effects on local pressure head at various
transient time steps ( t is the time for a pressure wave to travel 100 ft). This
exercise shows that because of dead ends and the pipe configuration a pressure
wave of magnitude 100 ft impinging on a region with a pressure of 200 ft is
capable of producing pressure increases of 334 ft, 266 ft, and 221 ft in the three
pipes.

1a). This shows the pressure wave action just after the wave (approaching the
junction from the 12-in line) reaches the junction. T is the transmission
coefficient (Equation 2-23) for the wave approaching in the 12-in pipe for
this situation ) ) / 1 ( / / 2 (

=
i i i
F F T .

1b). This shows the pressure wave action just after the wave (approaching the
junction from the left leg of the 6-in line) reaches the junction.


2). Conditions right after the 100 ft wave approaching in the 12-in pipe
transmits through and reflects off of the junction. Time measurement
starts when this wave arrives at the junction and is expressed in terms of
multiples of , where is the time required to travel 100 ft. The +
sign refers to a condition which exists just after the wave action takes
place.
t t

133 ft wave reflects positively from dead end B

Wave reflects positively from dead end A

2-44 CHAPTER TWO

Reflected wave from B arrives at junction and transmits and reflects to
connecting pipes

Secondary negative wave reflects from end B and lowers pressure there

Secondary positive wave reflects from end A to further increase pressure

Wave CharacteriStic Method

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CHAPTER TWO

The Wave Characteristic Method

is the propagation speed of the pressure wave. The wave

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