IB SYLLABUS

1.1 Mole Concept and Avogadro's Constant

1.1.1. Describe the mole concept and apply it to substances.
The mole concept applies to all kinds of particles: atoms, molecules, ions, formula units etc. The amount of substance is measured in units of moles. The approximate value of Avogadro's constant !", #.$% x 1$%& mol'1, should be kno(n.

1.1.% )alculate the number of particles and the amount of substance in moles".
)onvert bet(een the amount of substance in moles" and the number of atoms, molecules or formula units.

1.2 Formulas
1.%.1 Define the term molar mass *" and calculate the mass of one mole of a species. 1.%.% Distinguish bet(een atomic mass, molecular mass and formula mass.
The term molar mass in g mol'1" can be used for all of these.

1.%.& Define the terms relative molecular mass *r" and relative atomic mass Ar".
The terms have no units.

1.%.+ ,tate the relationship bet(een the amount of substance in moles" and mass, and carry out calculations involving amount of substance, mass and molar mass. 1.%.- Define the terms empirical formula and molecular formula.
The molecular formula is a multiple of the empirical formula.

1.%.# Determine the empirical formula and.or the molecular formula of a given compound.
Determine the : empirical formula from the percentage composition or from other suitable experimental data percentage composition from the formula of a compound molecular formula (hen given both the empirical formula and the molar mass.

1.3 Chemical Equations

1.&.1 /alance chemical e0uations (hen all reactants and products are given.
Distinguish bet(een coefficients and subscripts.

1.&.% 1dentify the mole ratios of any t(o species in a balanced chemical e0uation.
2se balanced chemical e0uations to obtain information about the amounts of reactants and products.

1.&.& Apply the state symbols s", l", g" and a0".
3ncourage the use of state symbols in chemical e0uations.

1.4 Mass and Gaseous

olume !elationships in Chemical !eactions

1.+.1 )alculate stoichiometric 0uantities and use these to determine experimental and theoretical yields.
*ass is conserved in all chemical reactions. 4iven a chemical e0uation and the mass or amount in moles" of one species, calculate the mass or amount of another species.

1.+.% Determine the limiting reactant and the reactant in excess (hen 0uantities of reaction substances are given.
4iven a chemical e0uation and the initial amounts of t(o or more reactants : identify the limiting reactant calculate the theoretical yield of a product calculate the amount s" of the reactant s" in excess remaining after the reaction is complete.

1.+.& Apply Avogadro's la( to calculate reacting volumes of gases.

1." #olutions
1.-.1 Define the terms solute, solvent, solution and concentration g dm'&" and mol dm'&" )oncentration in mol dm'& is often represented by s0uare brackets around the substance under consideration, eg 5)6&)7768. 1.-.% )arry out calculations involving concentration, amount of solute and volume of solution. 1.-.& ,olve solution stoichiometry problems.
4iven the 0uantity of one species in a chemical reaction in solution in grams, moles or in terms of concentration", determine the 0uantity of another species.

2.1 The Atom

%.1.1 ,tate the relative mass and relative charge of protons, electrons and neutrons.
The accepted values are : :roton <eutron 3lectron 9elative *ass 1 1 1.1=+$ )harge ;1 $ '1

%.1.% ,tate the position of protons, neutrons and electrons in the atom. %.1.& Define the terms mass number (A), atomic number (Z) and isotope. %.1.+ ,tate the symbol for an isotope given its mass number and atomic number. A 2se notation , Z X eg. 12 6C %.1.- 3xplain ho( the isotopes of an element differ.
1sotopes have the same chemical properties but different physical properties. 1 2 3 12 14 35 37 3xamples such as 1 H, 1 H, 1 H, 6 C, 6 C, 17 Cl, 17 Cl should be considered.

%.1.# )alculate and explain non'integer atomic masses from the relative abundance of isotopes. %.1.> )alculate the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in atoms and ions from the mass number, atomic number and charge.

2.2 Electron Arrangement

%.%.1 Describe and explain the difference bet(een a continuous spectrum and a line spectrum. %.%.% 3xplain ho( the lines in the emission spectrum of hydrogen are related to the energy levels of electrons.
,tudents should be able to dra( an energy'level diagram, sho( transitions bet(een different energy levels and recogni?e that the lines in a line spectrum are directly related to these differences. An understanding of convergence is expected. ,eries should be considered in the ultraviolet, visible and infrared

regions of the spectrum. )alculations, kno(ledge of 0uantum numbers and historical references are not re0uired.

%.%.& Describe the electron arrangement of atoms in terms of main energy levels.
,tudents should kno( the maximum number of electrons that can occupy a main energy level up to @ A 1=". <o kno(ledge of sublevels s, p, d and f is re0uired. The term valence electrons is used to describe the electrons in the highest main energy level.

%.%.+ Determine the electron arrangement up to @ A %$.

Bor example, %.=.> or %.=.> for @ A 1>.

3.1 $he %eriodic $a&le

&.1.1 Describe the arrangement of elements in the periodic table in order of increasing atomic number.
<ames and symbols of the elements are given in the Chemistry Data Booklet. The history of the periodic table is not re0uired.

&.1.% Distinguish bet(een the terms group and period.

The numbering system for groups in the periodic table is sho(n in the data booklet. ,tudents should also be a(are of the position of the transition metals in the periodic table.

&.1.& Deduce the relationship bet(een the electron configuration of elements and their position in the periodic table.
3xplanations are only re0uired for the first %$ elements, although general principles can extend tot he (hole of the periodic table. Bor example, students should kno( or be able to predict that C is in group 1 using @ A 1D, but need only kno( that since )s is in group 1, it has one electron in its outer shell.

3.2 %h'sical %roperties

&.%.1 Describe and explain the periodic trends in atomic radii, ionic radii, ioni?ation energies, electronegativity and melting points for the alkali metals !i )s", halogens B 1" and period & elements <a Ar".
)ross reference (ith topics %, + and -. Data for all these properties are listed in the data booklet. 3xplanations for the first four trends should be given in terms of the balance bet(een the attraction of the nucleus for the electrons and the repulsion bet(een electrons. 3xplanations based on effective nuclear charge are not re0uired. 1oni?ation energy is defined as the minimum energy re0uired to remove one electron from an isolated gaseous atom.

3.3 Chemical %roperties

&.&.1 Discuss the similarities in chemical nature of elements in the same group.
The follo(ing reactions should be covered : alkali metals !i, <a and C" (ith (ater and (ith halogens )l% and /r%". halogens )l%/r% and 1%" (ith halide ions )l', /r' and 1'" halide ions )l', /r' and 1'" (ith silver ions.

9eactions of the halogens (ith alkali and confirmation of the silver halide by reaction (ith ammonia solution are not re0uired.

&.&.% Discuss the change in nature, from metallic to non'metallic, of the elements across period &.

2se the study of the period & oxides to illustrate, for example, the change from basic through amphoteric to acidic oxides and their reaction (ith (ater. 6alides and hydrides are not re0uired.

4.1 Ionic Bond

+.1.1 Describe the ionic bond as the result of electron transfer leading to attraction bet(een oppositely charged ions. +.1.% Determine (hich ions (ill be formed (hen metals in groups 1, & and & lose electrons. +.1.& Determine (hich ions (ill be formed (hen elements in groups # and > gain electrons. +.1.+ ,tate that transition metals can form more than one ion.
9estrict examples to simple ions eg Be%; and Be&;.

+.1.- :redict (hether a compound of t(o elements (ould be mainly ionic or mainly covalent from the position of the elements in the periodic table, or form their electronegativity values. +.1.# Deduce the formula and state the name of an ionic compound formed from a group 1, % or & metal and a group -, # or > non'metal.

4.2 Covalent Bond

+.%.1 Describe the covalent bond as the result of electron sharing.
The electron pair is attracted by both nuclei leading to a bond (hich is directional in nature. /oth single and multiple bonds should be considered. Dative covalent bonds are not re0uired.

+.%.% Dra( the electron distribution of single and multiple bonds in molecules.
3xamples should include 7%, <%, )7%, )%6+ ethene" and )%6% ethyne".

+.%.& ,tate and explain the relationship bet(een the number of bonds, bond length and bond strength.
The comparison should include bond lengths and bond strengths of : - t(o carbon atoms Eoined by single, double and triple bonds - the carbon atom and the t(o oxygen atoms in the carboxyl group of a carboxylic acid.

+.%.+ )ompare the relative electronegativity values of t(o or more elements based on their positions in the periodic table.
:recise values of electronegativity are not re0uired.

+.%.- 1dentify the relative polarity of bonds based on electronegativity values.

1n a covalent bond, electron distribution may not be symmetrical and the electron pair may not be e0ually shared.

+.%.# Dra( and deduce !e(is electron dot" structures of molecules and ions for up to four electron pairs on each atom.
A pair of electrons can be represented by dots, crosses, a combination of dots and crosses or by a line. Bor example, chlorine can be sho(n as :
G G GG GG

)l

G G

)l

G G

or

)l )l

or

)l

)l

GG

GG

<ote : )l ' )l is not a !e(is structure.

+.%.> :redict the shape and bond angles for molecules (ith four charge centres on the central atom.
2se the valence shell electron pair repulsion F,3:9" theory to predict the shapes and bond angles of molecules and ions having four pairs of electrons charge centres" around the central atom. ,uitable examples are <6&, 6%7 and alkanes eg )6+".

+.%.= 1dentify the shape and bond angles for species (ith t(o and three negative charge centres.
3xamples should include species (ith non'bonding as (ell as bonding electron pairs, eg )7%, ,7%, )%6%, )%6+, )7&%' and <7%'.

+.%.D :redict molecular polarity based on bond polarity and molecular shape.
The polarity of a molecule depends on its shape and on the electronegatives of its atoms, eg )7%, 6%7.

4.3 Intermolecular Forces

+.&.1 Describe the types of intermolecular force hydrogen bond, dipole'dipole attraction and van der Haals' forces" and explain ho( they arise from the structural features of molecules.
All these intermolecular forces are (eaker than covalent bonds. Bor substances of similar molar mass, hydrogen bonds are stronger than dipole' dipole attractions (hich are stronger than van der Haals' forces. Fan der Haals' forces arise from the electrostatic attraction bet(een temporary induced dipoles in both polar and non'polar molecules.

+.&.% Describe and explain ho( intermolecular forces affect the boiling points of substances.
The hydrogen bond can be illustrated by comparing physical properties of 6%7 and 6%, <6& and :6& )&6=, )6&)67 and )%6-76

4.4 Metallic Bond

+.+.1 Describe metallic bond formation and explain the physical properties of metals.
*etallic bonding is explained in terms of a lattice of positive ions surrounded by delocali?ed valence electrons. The delocalised electrons should be related to the high electrical conductivity, malleability and ductility of metals.

4.5 h!sical ro"erties

+.-.1 )ompare and explain the follo(ing properties of substances resulting from different types of bonding: melting and boiling points, volatility, conductivity and solubility.
)onsider melting points, boiling points and volatility of similar substances, such as B%, )l%, /r% and 1%, and substances (ith different types of bonding and different intermolecular forces. ,tudents should be a(are of the effect of impurities on the melting point of a substance. The solubilities of compounds in non'polar and polar solvents should be compared and explained. )onsider also the solubilities of alcohols in (ater as the length of the carbon chain increases.

+.-.% :redict the relative values of melting and boiling points, volatility, conductivity and solubility based on the different types of bonding in substances.

".1 #tates o( Matter

-.1.1 Describe and compare solids, li0uids and gases as the three states of matter.
The movement of particles, the attractive forces bet(een particles and the interparticle spacing should be described. A molecular level description of (hat happens (hen evaporation, boiling, condensing, melting and free?ing occur should be given. ,tudents should understand (hat is meant by the term diffusion.

-.1.% Describe kinetic energy in terms of the movement of particles (hose average energy is proportional to absolute temperature. ,tudents should be able to describe (hat happens (hen the temperature is changed.
Cinetic theory should be interpreted in terms of ideal gases consisting of point masses in random motion (hose energy is proportional to absolute temperature. ,tudents should be able to describe (hat happens (hen the temperature is changed.

-.1.& Describe the *ax(ell'/oltmann energy distribution curve. -.1.+ Dra( and explain 0ualitatively *ax(ell'/oltmann energy distribution curves for different temperatures.II -.1.- Describe 0ualitatively the effects of temperature, pressure, and volume changes on a fixed mass of an ideal gas. -.1.# ,tate the ideal gas e0uation, :FAn9T. -.1.> Apply the ideal gas e0uation in calculations.
2se the relationship bet(een :, F, n and T for gases. ,tudents should be P PV 1V1 = 2 2 and be able to calculate molar volume. familiar (ith T1 T2

).1 E*othermic and Endothermic !eactions

#.1.1 Define the terms e othermic reaction, endothermic reaction and standard enthalpy change of reaction H "
,tandard enthalpy change is heat transferred under standard conditions ' pressure 1$1.& k:a, temperature %D= C. 7nly H can be measured, not ! for the initial or final state of a system.

#.1.% ,tate the relationship bet(een temperature change, enthalpy change and (hether a reaction is exothermic or endothermic.
)ombustion of organic compounds are good examples of exothermic reactions.

#.1.& Deduce, from an enthalpy level diagram, the relative stabilities of reactants and products and the sign of the enthalpy change for the reaction.
1f the final state is more stable lo(er on the enthalpy level diagram", this implies that !final J !initial and H must be negative. 3nergy must be released in going to a more stable state.

#.1.+ Describe and explain the changes (hich take place at the molecular level in chemical reactions.
9elate bond formation to the release of energy and bond breaking to the absorption of energy.

#.1.- ,uggest suitable experimental procedures for measuring enthalpy changes of reactions in a0ueous solution.
3xplore different reactions operating at constant pressure open containers". 2se of the bomb calorimeter is not re0uired.

).2 Calculation o( Enthalp' Changes

#.%.1 )alculate the heat change (hen the temperature of a pure substance is altered.
,tudent should be able to calculate the heat change for a substance given the mass, specific heat and temperature change.

#.%.% 3xplain that enthalpy changes of reaction relate to specific 0uantities of either reactants or products.
3nthalpy changes are measured in Eoules K" and are often 0uoted in kK mol'1 or either a reactant or a product.

#.%.& Analyse experimental data for enthalpy changes of reactions in a0ueous solution. #.%.+ )alculate the enthalpy change for a reaction in a0ueous solution using experimental data on temperature changes, 0uantities of reactants and mass of solution.
3nthalpy change of an acid'base reaction could be investigated.

).3 +ess's ,a#.&.1 Determine the enthalpy change of a reaction (hich is the sum of t(o or more reactions (ith kno(n enthalpy changes.
2se examples of simple t(o'and three'step processes. ,tudents should be able to construct simple enthalpy cycles, but (ill not be re0uired to state 6ess's la(.

).4 .ond Enthalpies

#.+.1 Define the term average bond enthalpy.
/ond enthalpies are 0uoted for the gaseous state and should be recognised as average values obtained from a number of similar compounds. )ross reference (ith 11.%.#.

#.+.% )alculate the enthalpy change of a reaction using bond enthalpies.

)." Entrop'
#.-.1 ,tate and explain the factors (hich increase the disorder entropy" in a system.
An increase in disorder can result from the mixing of different types of particles, change of state increased distance bet(een particles", increased movement of particles or increased numbers of particles. An increase in the number of particles in the gaseous state usually has a greater influence than any other possible factor.

#.-.% :redict (hether the entropy change ,"' for a given reaction or process (ould be positive or negative.
Brom a given e0uation, identify a single factor (hich affects the value of , and predict the sign of ,.

).) #pontaneit'
#.#.1 Define standard free energy change of reaction 4 ". #.#.% ,tate (hether a reaction or process (ill be spontaneous by using the sign of " .

#.#.& ,tate and predict the effect of a change in temperature on the spontaneity of a reaction, given standard entropy and enthalpy changes.
2se the e0uation "# !$ % &

/.1 !ates o( !eaction

>.1.1 Define the term rate of reaction and describe the measurement of reaction rates.
9ate of reaction can be defined as the decrease in the concentration of reactants per unit time or the increase in the concentration of product per unit time.

>.1.% Analy?e data from rate experiments.

4raphs of changes in concentration, volume or mass against time should be interpreted 0ualitatively.

/.2 Collision $heor'

>.%.1 Describe and explain the collision theory.
,tudents should kno( that not all collisions lead to a reaction.

>.%.% Define activation energy 3a" and explain that reactions occur (hen reacting species have 3 L 3a.
*olecules must have a minimum energy and appropriate collision geometry in order to react. A simple treatment is all that is re0uired. )ross reference (ith -.1.& and -.1.+.

>.%.& :redict and explain, using collision theory, the 0ualitative effect of particle si?e, temperature, concentration and catalysts on the rate of reaction.
1ncreasing the temperature increases the fre0uency of collisions but, more importantly, the proportion of molecules (ith 3 L 3a increases.

>.%.+ 3xplain that reactions can occur by more than one step and that one step can determine the rate of reaction.
Be( reactions involve Eust one step although one step in the reaction, the rate determining step, determines the reaction rate. 7rders of reactions and rate la(s are not re0uired.

#.1 $!namic e%uili&rium

=.1.1 7utline the characteristics of a system in a state of e0uilibrium.
*any chemical reactions are reversible and never go to completion. 30uilibrium can be approached from both directions. Bor a system in e0uilibrium the rate of the for(ard reaction e0uals the rate of the reverse reaction and the concentrations of all reactants and products remains constant. The system is closed and macroscopic properties remain constant. 2se phase e0uilibrium as an example of dynamic e0uilibrium involving physical changes.

#.2 The "osition o' e%uili&rium

=.%.1 ,tate the e0uilibrium constant expression Cc" for a homogeneous reaction.
)onsider e0uilibria involving one phase, gases or species in a0ueous solution. The e0uilibrium constant is specific to a given system and varies (ith temperature. <o calculation is re0uired.

=.%.% Deduce the extent of reaction from the magnitude of the e0uilibrium constant.
Hhen Cc 1, products exceed reactants at e0uilibrium. Hhen Cc 1, reaction goes almost to completion. Hhen Cc 1, reactants exceed products at e0uilibrium. Hhen Cc 1, reaction hardly proceeds.

=.%.& Describe the 0ualitative effects of changes of temperature, pressure and concentration on the position of e0uilibrium and value of the e0uilibrium constant.
2se !e )hatelier's principle to predict the effects of these changes on the position of e0uilibrium. The value of the e0uilibrium constant Cc" is only affected by temperature. The position of e0uilibrium may change (ithout the value of the Cc changing.

=.%.+ ,tate and explain the effect of a catalyst on an e0uilibrium reaction. =.%.+ Describe and explain the application of e0uilibrium and kinetics concepts in the 6aber process and the )ontact process.

0.1 %roperties o( Acids and .ases

D.1.1 7utline the characteristic properties of acids and bases in a0ueous solution.
The properties that must be considered are : effects on indicators and reactions of acids (ith bases, metals and carbonates. /ases (hich are not hydroxides, such as ammonia, soluble carbonates and hydrogencarbonates, should be included. Alkalis are bases that dissolve in (ater.

0.2 #trong and 1ea2 Acids and .ases

<ote : /ronsted'!o(ry definitions of acids and bases are not re0uired for this sub'topic.

D.%.1 Describe and explain the differences bet(een strong and (eak acids and bases in terms of the extent of dissociation, reaction (ith (ater and conductivity.
The term ioni'ation can be used instead of dissociation. ,olutions of e0ual concentration can be compared by p6 and.or conductivity.

D.%.% ,tate (hether a given acid or base in strong or (eak.

,pecified strong acids are hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and sulfuric acid. ,pecified (eak acids are ethanoic acid and carbonic acid a0ueous carbon dioxide". ,pecified strong bases are all group 1 hydroxides and barium hydroxide. ,pecified (eak bases are ammonia and ethylamine.

D.%.& Describe and explain data from experiments to distinguish bet(een strong and (eak acids and bases, and to determine the relative acidities and basicities of substances.

0.3 $he p+ #cale

D.&.1 Distinguish bet(een a0ueous solutions that are acidic, neutral or basic using the p6 scale. D.&.% 1dentify (hich of t(o or more a0ueous solutions is more acidic or basic, using p6 values.

*easures p6 using a p6 meter or p6 paper. ,tudents should kno( that p6 paper contains a mixture of indicators. The theory of p6 meters is not re0uired.

D.&.& ,tate that each change of one p6 unit represents a tenfold change in the hydrogen ion concentration 56; a0"8.
9elate integral values of p6 to 56; a0"8 expressed as po(ers of ten. )alculation of p6 from 56; a0"8 is not re0uired.

D.&.+ Deduce changes in 56; a0"8 (hen the p6 of a solution changes by more than one p6 unit.

0.4 .u((er #olutions

D.+.1 Describe a buffer solution in terms of its composition and behaviour.
A buffer resists change in p6 (hen a small amount of a strong acid or base is added. ,uitable examples include ammonium chloride.ammonia solution and ethanoic acid.sodium ethanoate. /lood is an example of a buffer solution.

D.+.% Describe (ays of preparing buffer solutions.

0." Acid3&ase $itrations

D.-.1 Dra( and explain a graph sho(ing p6 against volume of titrant for titrations involving strong acids and bases.

14.1 5*idation and !eduction

1$.1.1 Define o idation and reduction in terms of electron loss and gain.
1ntroduce the concept of half'e0uation

1$.1.% )alculate the oxidation number of an element in a compound.

7xidation numbers should be sho(n by a sign ; or '", eg. ;> for *n in C*n7+

1$.1.& ,tate and explain the relationship bet(een oxidation numbers and the names of compounds.
7xidation numbers in the names of compounds are represented by 9oman numerals, eg. 1ron 11" oxide, 1ron 111"oxide

1$.1.+ 1dentify (hether an element is oxidised or reduced and identify simple redox reactions using oxidation numbers.
Appropriate reactions to illustrate this can be found in topics & and 11. :ossible examples: iron 11" and 111", manganese 11" and F11", chromium 111" and F1", copper 1" and 11" oxides of sulfur and oxyacids, halogens and halide ions.

Define the terms oxidising agent and reducing agent.

14.2 !eactivit'
1$.%.1 Deduce a reactivity series based upon the chemical behaviour of a group of oxidising and reducing agents
Displacement reactions of metals and halogens see &.&.1" provide a good experimental illustration of reactivity. ,tandard electrode potentials or reduction potentials are not re0uired.

1$.%.% Deduce the feasibility of a redox reaction from a given reactivity series. 1$.%.& Describe and explain ho( a redox reaction is used to produce electricity in a voltaic cell.

,tudents should be able to dra( a diagram of a simple half'cell and sho( ho( t(o half'cells can be connected by a salt bridge to form a (hole cell. ,uitable examples of half'cells are *g, @n, Be and )u in solutions of their ions.

14.3 Electrol'sis
1$.&.1 Dra( a diagram identifying the essential components of an electrolytic cell.
An electrolytic cell converts electrical energy to chemical energy. The diagram should include the source of the electric current and conductors, positive and negative electrodes and electrolyte.

1$.&.% Describe ho( current is conducted in an electrolytic cell.

,tudents should describe ho( reactions occur.

1$.&.& Deduce the products for the electrolysis of a molten salt.

30uations sho(ing the formation of products at each electrode should be given.

1$.&.& Distinguish bet(een the use of a spontaneous redox reaction to produce electricity in a voltaic cell and the use of electricity to carry out a non' spontaneous redox reaction in an electrolytic cell.
,ome teachers may (ish to describe reactions at the electrodes in a cell in terms of reduction at the cathode and oxidation at the anode, but this is not re0uired.

1$.&.+ Describe and explain the use of electrolysis in electroplating.

9estrict this to copper plating.

11.1 +omologous #eries

11.1.1 Describe the features of a homologous series.
Beatures include a general formula and neighbouring members differing by )6%, (ith similar chemical properties and (ith a gradation in physical properties.

11.1.% :redict and explain the trends in boiling points of members of a homologous series.
1n a homologous series there is a gradual increase in boiling points as the number of carbon atom increases. )ross reference (ith +.&.

11.2 +'drocar&ons
11.%.1 Dra( structural formulas for the isomers of the non'cyclic alkanes up to ) #.
,tructural formulas should indicate clearly the bonding bet(een atoms. Bor example, for pentane :

H 7r H )6& C

H )6C %"&

H C H H or )6&)6%)6%)6%)6&

)6& C C

11.%.% ,tate the names up H of alkanes H H to )H #.

<ame these using 12:A) rules. )onsider both straight and branch'chained alkanes. 9efer to bond enthalpies. ,ee #.+.

11.%.& 3xplain the relative inertness of alkanes.

11.%.+ Dra( structural formulas and state the names for straight'chain alkenes )n6%n, (here n is bet(een % and -".
4eometric (cis$trans) isomers are not re0uired.

11.%.- Describe complete and incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons.

The formation of )7 and ) during incomplete combustion should be related to environmental impacts and oxidation'reduction.

11.%.# ,tate that the combustion of hydrocarbons is an exothermic process. ,ee #.& and #.+.

11.3 5ther Functional Groups

Along (ith alkanes and alkenes, compounds containing one or more functional groups have been chosen to introduce students to : interrelationships involving significant functional groups important reaction types such as addition, substitution, oxidation, condensation, esterification and polymeri?ation. This is expressed in the follo(ing scheme : CH2Br CH2Br 11.3.5 CH3 CH3 11.3.5 CH2 11.3.7 H C H H C H n CH2 11.3.9 11.3.9 CH3CH2Br 11.3.5

CH3CH2OH

CH3CHO 11.3.8

CH3COOH

CH3COOCH2CH3

11.&.1 Dra( and state the names of compounds containing up to five carbon atoms (ith one of the follo(ing functional groups : aldehyde, ketone, carboxylic acid, alcohol, amide, amine, ester and halogenoalkane.
Bunctional groups in full and condensed forms are re0uired, eg :

Aldehyde:

C H O

or 9)67

)arboxylic acid:

C OH

or 9)776

11.&.% 3xplain that functional groups can exist as isomers.

3xamples include :

ethanoic acid )6&)776" and methyl methanoate 6)77)6&" propanal )6&)6%)67" and propanone )6&)7)6&".

11.&.& 7utline the existence of optical isomers.

9estrict this to the fact that, if a carbon atom has four different substituents, the molecule exists in t(o enantiomeric forms that rotate the plane of polari?ed light in opposite directions. ,tudents should be able to identify a chiral asymmetric centre".

12.1 $he Mass #pectrometer

1%.1.1 ,tate the principles of a mass spectrometer and outline the main stages in its operation.
A simple diagram of a single beam mass spectrometer is re0uired. The follo(ing stages of operation should be considered : vapori?ation, ioni?ation, acceleration, deflection and detection.

1%.1.% Describe ho( the mass spectrometer may be used to determine relative isotopic, atomic and molecular masses using the 1%) scale.
,tudents should be able to calculate the relative atomic mass from the abundance of the isotopes see %.1.#". 1nterpretation of fragmentation patterns is not re0uired.

12.2 Electron Con(iguration o( Atoms

1%.%.1 ,tate and explain ho( evidence from first and successive ioni?ation energies accounts for the existence of the main energy levels and sub'levels.
1nterpretation of graphs of first ioni?ation and successive ioni?ation energies versus atomic number provides evidence for the existence of the main energy levels and sub'levels.

1%.%.% ,tate ho( orbitals are labelled.

!imit this to n J -.

1%.%.& ,tate the relative energies of s, p, d and f orbitals. 1%.%.+ ,tate the number of orbitals at each energy level. 1%.%.- Dra( the shape of an s orbital and the shapes of the p x, py and p? orbitals. 1%.%.# ,tate the Aufbau principle.
9eference should be made to 6und's rule.

1%.%.> Apply the Aufbau principle to electron configurations.

Apply the Aufbau principle for an atom up to @ A -+, eg for @ A %& the electronic configuration is 1s%%s%%p#&s%&p#+s%&d& or 5Ar8 +s%&d& or 5Ar8 &d&+s%. 3xceptions to this rule are not expected.

1%.%.= 9elate the electron configuration of an atom to its position in the periodic table.
,tudents should be able to label the s, p, d and f blocks of the periodic table.

13.1 %eriodic $rends 6a Ar 7the third period8

1&.1.1 3xplain the physical properties of the chlorides and oxides of the elements in the third period <a Ar" in terms of their bonding and structure. 9efer to the follo(ing oxides and chlorides :
7xides : <a%7, *g7, Al%7&, ,i7%, :+7# and :+71$, ,7% and ,7&, )l%7 and )l%7%. )hlorides : <a)l, *g)l%, Al%)l#, ,i)l+, :)l& and :)l- and )l% sulfur chloride is not re0uired".

!imit the explanation to the physical states of the compounds under standard conditions and electrical conductivity in the molten state only.

1&.1.% Describe the chemical trends for the chlorides and oxides referred to in 1&.1.1. 1nclude relevant e0uations.
!imit this to acid'base properties of the oxides and the reactions of the chlorides and oxides (ith (ater.

13.2 d3&loc2 Elements 7(irst ro-8

1&.%.1 !ist the characteristic properties of transition elements.
9estrict this to variable oxidation states, complex ion formation, coloured compounds and catalytic properties.

1&.%.% 1dentify (hich elements are considered to be typical of the d'block elements. ,c and @n are not typical. 1&.%.& Describe the existence of variable oxidation states in d'block elements.
The +s and &d sub'levels are close in energy. ,tudents should kno( that all d'block elements can sho( an oxidation state of ;%. 1n addition, they should be familiar (ith the oxidation states of the follo(ing : )r ;&,;#", *n ;+, ;>", Be ;&" and )u ;1".

1&.%.+ Define the term ligand. 1&.%.- Describe ho( complexes of d'block elements are formed.
,uitable examples are : 5Be 6%7"#8&;, 5Be )<"#8&', 5)u <6&"+8%;, 5Ag <6&"%8;. 7nly monodentate ligands are re0uired.

1&.%.# 3xplain (hy some complexes of d'block elements are coloured.

,tudents need only kno( that in complexes the d orbitals are split into t(o sets at different energy levels and the electronic transitions that take place bet(een them are responsible for their colours.

1&.%.> 7utline the catalytic behaviour of d'block elements and their compounds. !imit this to :
*n7% in the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide F%7- in the )ontact process Be in the 6aber process <i in the conversion of alkenes to alkanes. The mechanisms of action are not re0uired.

14.1 #hapes o( Molecules and 9ons

1+.1.1 ,tate and predict the shape and bond angles using the F,3:9 theory for -' and #'negative charge centers.
The shape of the molecules . ions and bond angles if all pairs of electrons are shared, and the shape of the molecules.ions if one or more lone pairs surround the central atom, should be considered. 3xamples such as :)l-, ,B# and GeB+ can be used.

14.2 +'&ridi:ation
1+.%.1 Describe and bonds.
Treatment should be restricted to : bonds ' electron distribution has axial symmetry around the axis Eoining the t(o nuclei bonds resulting from the combination of parallel p orbitals double bonds formed by a and a bond triple bonds formed by a and t(o bonds.

1+.%.% ,tate and explain the meaning of the term hybridisation.

6ybridi?ation should be explained in terms of the mixing of atomic orbitals to form ne( orbitals for bonding. ,tudents should consider sp, sp% and sp& hybridisation, and the shapes and orientation of these orbitals.

1+.%.& Discuss the relationships bet(een !e(is structures, molecular shapes and types of hybridisation sp, sp% and sp&".
2sing examples from inorganic as (ell as organic chemistry, students should (rite the !e(is structure, deduce the shape of the molecule and recognise the type of hybridisation.

14.3 ;elocalisation o( Electrons

1+.&.1 ,tate (hat is meant by the delocalisation of electrons and explain ho( this can account for the structures of some substances.
3xamples such as <7&', <7%', )7&%', 7&, 9)77' and ben?ene can be used. These could also be dealt (ith through the resonance approach".

14.4 #tructures o( Allotropes o( Car&on

1+.+.1 Describe and explain the structures and properties of diamond, graphite and fullerene.
,tudents should recogni?e the type of hybridisation present in each allotrope and the delocalisation of electrons in graphite and )#$ fullerene.

1".1 #tandard Enthalp' Changes o( !eaction

1-.1.1 Define and use the terms standard state and standard enthalpy change of formation 6f ". 1-.1.% )alculate the enthalpy change of a reaction using standard enthalpy changes of formation.

1".2 ,attice Enthalp'

1-.%.1 Define the term lattice enthalpy.
The sign of 6lattice indicates (hether the lattice is being formed or broken.

1-.%.% )ompare the effect of both the relative si?es and the charges of ions on the lattice enthalpies of different ionic compounds.
The relative value of the theoretical lattice enthalpy increases (ith higher ionic charge and smaller ionic radius due to increased attractive forces.

1-.%.& )onstruct a /orn'6aber cycle and use it to calculate an enthalpy change. 1-.%.+ Analy?e theoretical and experimental lattice enthalpy values.
A significant difference bet(een the t(o values indicates covalent character.

1".3 #pontaneit' o( a !eaction

1-.&.1 )alculate the standard entropy change for a reaction , " using values of absolute entropies. 1-.&.% )alculate " for a reaction using the e0uation "# !$# % & or by using values of the standard free energy change of formation, "f. .

1).1 !ate E*pression

1#.1.1 Define the terms rate constant and order of reaction. 1#.1.% Derive the rate expression for a reaction from data.

9ate A k5A8m5/8n (here k A rate constant, 5A8 A concentration of A in mol dm'& etc. m and n A integers, m ; n A overall order of the reaction.

1#.1.& Dra( and analy?e graphical representation for ?ero', first' and second' order reactions. 1#.1.+ Define the term half$life and calculate the half'life for first'order reactions only.
The half'life should be calculated from graphs and by using the integrated form of the rate e0uation. The integrated rate e0uation for second'order reactions is not re0uired.

1).2 !eaction Mechanism

1#.%.1 Define the terms rate'determining step, molecularity and activated complex. 1#.%.% Describe the relationship bet(een mechanism, order, rate'determining step and activated complex.
!imit examples to one' or t(o'step reactions (here the mechanism is kno(n. ,tudents should understand (hat an activated complex transition state" is and ho( the order of a reaction relates to the mechanism.

1).3 Activation Energ'

1#.&.1 Describe 0ualitatively the relationship bet(een the rate constant k" and temperature T". 1#.&.% Describe ho( the Arrhenius e0uation can be used to determine the activation energy and the Arrhenius constant A".
Arrhenius e0uation :

k = Ae

Ea ) RT

A relates to the geometric re0uirements of the collisions see >.%". Direct substitution using simultaneous e0uations and a graphical method can be used. The logarithmic form of the Arrhenius e0uation is :

ln k =

Ea + ln A RT

/oth methods should be explained, but actual calculations are not needed.

1#.&.& Dra( and explain enthalpy level diagrams for reactions (ith and (ithout catalysts. 1#.&.+ Distinguish bet(een homogeneous catalysts and heterogeneous catalysts.
6omogeneous catalyst ' reactants and catalyst are in the same phase. 6eterogeneous catalyst ' reactants and catalyst are in different phases.

1#.&.- 7utline the use of homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts.

3xamples include hydrogenation using metals see 1&.%.>" and acid cataly?ed formation of esters.

1/.1 %hase Equili&rium

1>.1.1 ,tate and explain the e0uilibrium established bet(een a li0uid and its o(n vapor.
!i0uid'vapor e0uilibrium is a dynamic e0uilibrium established (hen the rate of condensation e0uals the rate of vapori?ation. The vapor pressure is independent of the volume of the container, li0uid or vapor.

1>.1.% ,tate and explain the 0ualitative relationship bet(een vapor pressure and temperature.
,tudents should be able to sho( the relationship graphically and explain it in terms of kinetic theory.

1>.1.& ,tate and explain the relationship bet(een enthalpy of vapori?ation, boiling point and intermolecular forces.
,tudents should be able to predict the relative strength of intermolecular forces of different li0uids (hen given the physical properties, or vice versa. )ross reference (ith +.&.

1/.2 $he Equili&rium ,a1>.%.1 ,olve homogeneous e0uilibrium problems using the expression for C c.
)alculate Cc given all e0uilibrium concentrations. 4iven Cc and other appropriate concentrations, find an e0uilibrium concentration. Cp and Csp are not re0uired, nor is use of the 0uadratic expression.

1<.1 .ronsted3,o-r' Acids and .ases

1=.1.1 Define acids and bases according to the /ronsted'!o(ry theory. 1=.1.% 1dentify (hether or not a compound could act as a /ronsted'!o(ry acid or base. 1=.1.& 1dentify the conEugate acid'base pairs in a given acid'base reaction. 1=.1.+ Determine the structure for the conEugate acid or base" of any /ronsted' !o(ry base or acid".
The members of a conEugate acid'base pair al(ays differ by a single proton 6;". ,tructures of conEugate acid'base pairs should al(ays make clear the approximate location of the proton transferred, eg. )6&)776.)6&)77' rather than )%6+7%.)%6&7%'.

1<.2 ,e-is $heor'

1=.%.1 Define and apply the terms (e)is acid and (e)is base.
A !e(is acid'base reaction involves the formation of a ne( covalent bond in (hich both electrons are provided by one species. ,uch bonds are called dative covalent bonds. The formation of complexes see 1&.%.+ and 1&.%.-" is usually a !e(is acid'base reaction.

1<.3 Calculations 9nvolving Acids and .ases

<ote : A proton in (ater can be (ritten as 6; a0" or 6&7; a0"M the former is adopted here. 1=.&.1 ,tate the expression for the ionic product constant of (ater C (".
C( A 56; a0"8576' a0"8 A 1.$ x 1$'1+ mol% dm'# at %D= C but this varies (ith temperature.

1=.&.% Deduce 56; a0"8 and 576' a0"8 for (ater at different temperatures given C ( values. 1=.&.& Define p6, p76 and pC(. 1=.&.+ )alculate 56; a0"8, 576' a0"8, p6 and p76 from specified concentrations.
The values of 56; a0"8 or 576' a0"8 are directly related to the concentration of the acid or base.

1=.&.- ,tate the e0uation for the reaction of any (eak acid or (eak base (ith (ater, and hence derive the ioni?ation constant expression.
1n general 6A a0" 6; a0" ; A' a0" / a0" ; 6%7' l" /6; a0" ; 76' a0" base hydrolysis"

[ H A (aq )][ A (aq)] [ BH ( aq )][OH (aq)] and K b = [ HA(aq)] [ B (aq )] 3xamples used should involve the transfer of only one proton.
Then K a =

1=.&.# Derive the expression Ca x Cb A C( and use it to solve problems for any (eak acid and its conEugate base and for any (eak base and its conEugate acid. 1=.&.> ,tate and explain the relationship bet(een C a and pCa and bet(een Cb and pCb. 1=.&.= Determine the relative strengths of acids or their conEugate bases from C a or pCa values. 1=.&.D Apply Ca or pCa in calculations.
)alculations can be performed using various forms of the acid ionisation constant expression see 1=.&.-". ,tudents should state (hen approximations are used in e0uilibrium calculations. 2se of the 0uadratic expression is not re0uired.

1=.&.1$ )alculate the p6 of a specified buffer system.

)alculations (ill involve the transfer of only one proton. )ross reference (ith D.+.

1<.4 #alt +'drol'sis

1=.+.1 ,tate and explain (hether salts form acidic, alkaline or neutral a0ueous solutions.
3xamples should include salts formed from the four possible combinations of strong and (eak acids and bases. The effect of the charge density of the cations in groups 1, %, & and d'block elements should also be considered, eg. 5Be 6%7"#8&; 5Be 76" 6%7"-8%; ; 6;.

1<." Acid 3&ase $itrations

1=.-.1 Dra( and explain the general shapes of graphs of p6 against volume of titrant for titrations involving monoprotic acids and bases.
All combinations should be covered : strong acid ; strong base, strong acid ; (eak base, (eak acid ; strong base and (eak acid ; (eak base.

1<.) 9ndicators
1=.#.1 Describe 0ualitatively ho( an acid'base indicator (orks.
2se 6ln a0" 6; a0" ; 1n' a0" or similar colour A colour /

1=.#.% ,tate and explain ho( the p6 range of an acid'base indicator relates to its pCa value. 1=.#.& Determine an appropriate indicator for a titration, given the e0uivalence point of the titration and Ca or pCa" values for possible indicators.

10.1 !edo* Equations

1D.1.1 /alance redox e0uations in acid solution.
6alf'e0uations and oxidation numbers may be used. 6; a0" and 6%7 should be used (here necessary to balance half'e0uations.

10.2 #tandard Electrode %otentials

Note: In 19.2.1 to 19.2.4 half-equations can be used to int oduce edo! cou"les# includin$ %&'%2 and a selection of co((on cou"les f o( the elect oche(ical se ies. )he *aniell cell " o+ides a $ood illust ation of the " inci"les unde conside ation he e. 1D.%.1 Describe the standard hydrogen electrode.
!aboratory (ork using the standard hydrogen electrode is not re0uired.

1D.%.% Define the term standard electrode potential and explain the measurement of standard electrode potentials to produce the electrochemical series. 1D.%.& Define the term cell potential and calculate cell potentials using standard electrode potentials. 1D.%.+ :redict (hether a reaction (ill be spontaneous using standard electrode potential 3 " values. 9elate positive * values for spontaneous reactions to negative " values see #.#".
,tudents should be able to predict the direction of electron flo( in an external circuit and the reaction taking place in a cell.

10.3 Electrol'sis
1D.&.1 !ist and explain the factors affecting the products formed in the electrolysis of a0ueous solutions.
Bactors to be considered are position in the electrochemical series, nature of the electrode and concentration. ,uitable examples for electrolysis include (ater, a0ueous sodium chloride and a0ueous copper 11" sulfate.

1D.&.% !ist the factors affecting the amount of product formed during electrolysis.
Bactors are charge on the ion, current and duration of electrolysis.

1D.&.& Determine the relative amounts of the products formed during the electrolysis of a0ueous solutions.

24.1 ;etermination o( #tructure

%$.1.1 ,tate that the structure of a compound can be determined using information from a variety of spectroscopic and chemical techni0ues.
,tudents should reali?e that information from only one techni0ue is usually insufficient to determine or confirm a structure.

%$.1.% Describe and explain ho( information from an infrared spectrum can be used to identify functional groups in a compound.
9estrict this to using infrared spectra to sho( the presence of the functional groups : 7

76,

) 776,

6,

and

and to match the fingerprint region to a kno(n spectrum.

%$.1.& Describe and explain ho( information from a mass spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound.
9estrict this to using mass spectra to determine the relative molecular mass of a compound and to identify simple fragments, for example : *r ' 1-"' loss of )6& *r ' %D"' loss of )%6- or )67 *r ' &1"A loss of )6&7 *r ' +-"; loss of )776

%$.1.+ Describe and explain ho( information from a i6 <*9 spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound.
9estrict this to using <*9 spectra to determine the number of different environment in (hich hydrogen is found the number of hydrogen atoms in each environment. ,plitting patters are not re0uired.

24.2 +'drocar&ons
%$.%.1 ,tate and explain the lo( reactivity of alkanes in terms of the inertness of )'6 and )') bonds. %$.%.% ,tate that alkanes can react (ith halogens and distinguish bet(een homolytic and heterolytic fission.
,tudents should be able to define and recogni?e a free radical. *echanisms are not re0uired.

%$.%.& Describe and explain the structure of ben?ene using chemical and physical evidence.
)onsider the special stability of the ring system heat of combustion or hydrogenation of )#6# in comparison to that of cyclohexene, cyclohexadiene and cyclohexatriene", as (ell as ben?ene's tendency to undergo substitution rather than addition reactions.

24.3 6ucleophilic #u&stitution !eaction

%$.&.1 Distinguish bet(een primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes. %$.&.% Describe and explain the ,<1 and ,<% mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution.
,tudents must be able to dra( a step(ise mechanism. 3xamples of nucleophiles should include ' )<, '76 and <6& for each reaction type.

%$.&.& Describe and explain the molecularity for the , <1 and ,<% mechanisms.
The predominant mechanism for tertiary halogenoalkanes is ,<1 and for primary halogenoalkanes it is ,<%. /oth mechanisms occur for secondary halogenoalkanes.

%$.&.+ Describe ho( the rate of nucleophilic substitution in halogenoalkanes depends on both the identity of the halogen and (hether the halogenoalkane is primary, secondary or tertiary.

24.4 Alcohols
%$.+.1 Describe the dehydration reaction of alcohols to form alkenes. 20.4.2 Determine the products formed ! the o"id#tion of prim#r!$ second#r! #nd terti#r! #%coho%s usin& #cidified pot#ssium dichrom#te '()* so%ution.
A.1 Determination of ,tructure

A.1.1 ,tate that the structure of a compound can be determined using information from a variety of spectroscopic and chemical techni0ues.
,tudents should reali?e that information from only one techni0ue is usually insufficient to determine or confirm a structure.

A.1.% Describe and explain ho( information from an infrared spectrum can be used to identify functional groups in a compound.
9estrict this to using infrared spectra to sho( the presence of the functional groups :

O C

C OH$ C C

C OOH$
and

C C

C C

H$

and to match the fingerprint region to a kno(n spectrum.

A.1.& Describe and explain ho( information from a mass spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound.
9estrict this to using mass spectra to determine the relative molecular mass of a compound and to identify simple fragments, for example : *r ' 1-"' loss of )6& *r ' %D"' loss of )%6- or )67 *r ' &1"A loss of )6&7 *r ' +-"; loss of )776

A.1.+ Describe and explain ho( information from a i6 <*9 spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound.
9estrict this to using <*9 spectra to determine the number of different environment in (hich hydrogen is found the number of hydrogen atoms in each environment. ,plitting patters are not re0uired.

A.1.- Describe and explain the structure of ben?ene using chemical and physical evidence.
Consider the speci#% st# i%it! of the rin& s!stem 'he#t of com ustion or h!dro&en#tion of C+H+ in comp#rison to th#t of c!c%ohe"ene$ c!c%ohe"#diene #nd c!c%ohe"#triene*$ #s ,e%% #s en-ene.s tendenc! to under&o su stitution r#ther th#n #ddition re#ctions.

A.2 !ate E*pression

A.%.1 Define the terms rate constant and order of reaction. A.%.% Derive the rate expression for a reaction from data.
9ate A k5A8m5/8n (here k A rate constant, 5A8 A concentration of A in mol dm'& etc. m and n A integers, m ; n A overall order of the reaction.

A.%.& Dra( and analyse graphical representation for ?ero', first' and second' order reactions.

A.%.+ Define the term half$life and calculate the half'life for first'order reactions only.
The half'life should be calculated from graphs and by using the integrated form of the rate e0uation. The integrated rate e0uation for second'order reactions is not re0uired.

A.3 !eaction Mechanism

A.&.1 Define the terms rate'determining step, molecularity and activated complex. A.&.% Describe the relationship bet(een mechanism, order, rate'determining step and activated complex.
!imit examples to one' or t(o'step reactions (here the mechanism is kno(n. ,tudents should understand (hat an activated complex transition state" is and ho( the order of a reaction relates to the mechanism.

A.4 6ucleophilic #u&stitution !eaction

A.+.1 Distinguish bet(een primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes. A.+.% Describe and explain the ,<1 and ,<% mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution.
,tudents must be able to dra( a step(ise mechanism. 3xamples of nucleophiles should include ' )<, '76 and <6& for each reaction type.

A.+.& Describe and explain the molecularity for the , <1 and ,<% mechanisms.
The predominant mechanism for tertiary halogenoalkanes is ,<1 and for primary halogenoalkanes it is ,<%. /oth mechanisms occur for secondary halogenoalkanes.

A.+.+ Describe ho( the rate of nucleophilic substitution in halogenoalkanes depends on both the identity of the halogen and (hether the halogenoalkane is primary, secondary or tertiary.

A." Calculations 9nvolving Acids and .ases

<ote: A proton in (ater can be (ritten as 6; a0" or 6&7; a0"M the former is adopted here.

A.-.1 ,tate the expression for the ionic product constant of (ater C (".
C( A 56; a0"8576' a0"8 A 1.$ x 1$'1+ mol% dm'# at %D= C but this varies (ith temperature.

A.-.% Deduce 56; a0"8 and 576' a0"8 for (ater at different temperatures given C ( values. A.-.& Define p6, p76 and pC(. A.-.+ )alculate 56; a0"8, 576' a0"8, p6 and p76 from specified concentrations.
The values of 56; a0"8 or 576' a0"8 are directly related to the concentration of the acid or base.

A.-.- ,tate the e0uation for the reaction of any (eak acid or (eak base (ith (ater, and hence derive the ioni?ation constant expression.
1n general 6A a0" 6; a0" ; A' a0" / a0" ; 6%7' l" /6; a0" ; 76' a0" base hydrolysis"

[ H A (aq )][ A (aq)] [ BH ( aq )][OH (aq)] and K b = [ HA(aq)] [ B (aq )] 3xamples used should involve the transfer of only one proton.
Then K a =

A.-.# ,tate and explain the relationship bet(een C a and pCa and bet(een Cb and pCb. A.-.> Determine the relative strengths of acids or their conEugate bases from C a or pCa values. A.-.= Apply Ca or pCa in calculations.
)alculations can be performed using various forms of the acid ionisation constant expression see 1=.&.-". ,tudents should state (hen approximations are used in e0uilibrium calculations. 2se of the 0uadratic expression is not re0uired.

A.-.D )alculate the p6 of a specified buffer system.

)alculations (ill involve the transfer of only one proton. )ross reference (ith D.+.

..1 %harmaceutical %roducts

/.1.1 !ist the effects of drugs and medicines
4enerally a drug or medicine is any chemical (hich does one or more of the follo(ing: - alters incoming sensory sensations - alters mood or emotions - alters physiological state, including consciousness, activity level or coordination. ,tress the importance of the body's natural healing processes and the placebo effect.

/.1.% 7utline the stages involved in research, development and testing of ne( pharmaceutical products.
9efer to the Thalidomide case as an example of (hat can go (rong. The use of combinatorial chemistry is not re0uired here, but is covered in /.=.+.

/.1.& Describe the different methods of administering drugs.

The four main methods are oral, rectal, inhalation, and parenteral by inEection". 1nEection may be intravenous, intramuscular, or subcutaneous.

/.1.+ Discuss terms lethal dosage !D-$" tolerance, and side effects.
!D-$ is the lethal dose re0uired for -$N of the population. A person (ho developes tolerance re0uires a larger dose of a drug in order to achieve the effect originally obtained by a smaller dose. ,tress that the difference bet(een the main effect and the side effects is relative. Bor example, morphine is often used as a pain killer (ith intestinal constipation being a side effect. Bor a person (ith diarrhoea the constipation induced becomes the main effect, (ith the pain relief being the side effect. The risk:benefit ratios should be considered.

..2 Antacids
/.%.1 ,tate and explain ho( excess acidity in the stomach can be reduced by the of different bases.
3xamples should include aluminum and magnesium compounds and sodium hydrogen carbonate. ,tudents should be able to (rite balances e0uations for neutrali?ation reactions and kno( that antacids are often combined (ith

alginates (hich produce a neutrali?ing layer preventing the acid in the stomach from rising into the esophagus and causing heartburn", and (ith anti'foaming agents such as dimethicone".

..3 Analgesics
/.&.1 Describe and explain the different (ays that analgesics prevent pain.
*ild analgesics function by intercepting the pain stimulus at the source, often by interfering (ith the production of substances eg prostaglandins" that cause pain, s(elling or fever. ,trong analgesics (ork by temporarily bonding to receptor sites in the brain, preventing the transmission of pain impulses (ithout depressing the central nervous system.

/.&.% describe the use of derivatives of salicylic acid as mild analgesics and compare the advantages and disadvantages of using aspirin and paracetamol acetaminophen"
Aspirin has been found to be useful in preventing the recurrence of heart attacks. The disadvantages of aspirin include ulceration and stomach bleeding, allergic reactions and 9eye's syndrome in children a potentially fatal liver and brain disorder". :aracetamol is very safe in the correct dose but can, rarely, cause blood disorders and kidney damage. 7verdosage can lead to serious liver damage, brain damage and even death.

/.&.& )ompare the structures of morphine, codeine and the semi'synthetic opiate, heroin.
,tress the simple modification to the structure of morphine (hich results in the semi'synthetic drug, heroin.

/.&.+ Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using morphine and its derivative as strong analgesics.
1nclude the social as (ell as physiological effects of both short ' and long' term use.

..4 ;epressants
/.+.1 Describe the effects of depressants.
At lo( doses a depressant may exert little or no effect. At moderate doses the compound may induce sedation soothing, reduction of anxiety". At higher doses it may induce sleep and at extremely high doses it may cause death. Depressants are often prescribed as anti'depressants because they relieve depression.

/.+.% Discuss the social and physiological effects of the use and abuse of ethanol.
1nclude effects on the family, cost to society and the short' and long'term health effects.

B.4., *esc ibe and e!"lain the techniques used fo the detection of ethanol in the b eath and in the blood o u ine.
Include "otassiu(-.I/dich o(ate in the b eathal01e # anal0sis of the blood o u ine b0 ch o(ato$ a"h0 and abso "tion of inf a- ed adiation in the into!i(ete .

/.+.+ Describe the synergistic effects of ethanol (ith other drugs.

3xamples include increased risk of stomach bleeding (ith aspirin, and increased risk of heavy sedation (ith any drug that has a sedative effect on the central nervous system.

/.+.- !ist other commonly used depressants and describe their structure.
!imit this to a brief mention of the use of dia?epam FaliumO", nitra?epam *ogadon O" and fluoxetine hydrochloride :ro?ac O"

.." #timulants
/.-.1 !ist the physiological effects of stimulants. /.-.% )ompare amphetamines and adrenaline.
Amphetamines and adrenaline are chemically similar in that both derive from the phenylethylamine structure. Amphetamines mimic the effects of adrenaline and are kno(n as sympathomimetric drugs.

/.-.& Discuss the short' and long'term effects of nicotine consumption.

,hort'term effects: increased heart rate and blood pressure and reduction of urine output, as (ell as stimulating effects. !ong'term effects: increased risk of heart disease, coronary thrombosis and peptic ulcers. Discuss also the addictive properties of nicotine and the further risks of associated (ith smoking tabacco.

/.-.+ Describe the effects of caffeine and compare its structure (ith that of nicotine.
)affeine is a respiratory stimulant. Hhen consumed in large amounts it can cause anxiety, irritability and sleeplessness. 1t is a (eak diuretic. /oth caffeine and nicotine contain tertiary amine group.

..) Anti&acterials
/.#.1 7utline the historical development of penicillins.
1nclude the discovery by Bleming and the development by Blorey and )hain.

/.#.% )ompare broad$spectrum and narro)$spectrum antibiotics. /.#.& 3xplain ho( penicillins (ork and discuss the effects of modifying the side chain.
:enicillins (ork by interfering (ith the chemicals that bacteria need to form normal cell (alls. *odifying the side chain results in penicillins (hich are more resistant to the penicillinase en?yme.

/.#.+ Discuss and explain the effect overprescription of penicillins has, and the use of penicillins in animal feedstock.

../ Antivirals
/.>.1 ,tate ho( viruses are different from bacteria. /.>.% Describe the different (ays in (hich antiviral drugs (ork.
Antiviral drugs may (ork by altering the cell's genetic material so that the virus cannot use it to multiply. Alternatively they may prevent the viruses from multiplying by blocking en?yme activity (ithin the host cell.

/.>.& Discuss the difficulties associated (ith solving A1D, problems.

,pecific proteins on the 61F virus bind to receptor protein on certain (hite blood cells T cells". /ecause of the ability of the 61F viruses to mutate and because their metabolism is linked closely (ith that of the cell, effective treatment (ith antiviral drugs is very difficult, as is vaccine development.

Higher level
..< #tereochemistr' in ;rug Action and ;esign
/.=.1 Describe the importance of geometrical isomerism in drug action.
,tudents should be a(are that cis$ and trans$isomerism can occur in inorganic complexes and that the t(o different isomers can have different pharmacological effects. The anti'cancer drug cisplatin is a good example.

/.=.% Discuss the importance of chirality in drug action.

The t(o enantiomers in a racemic mixture of a drug may have very different effects, eg. Thalidomide. 7ne enantiomer of Thalidomide alleviates morning

sickness in pregnant (omen, (hilst the other enantiomer causes deformities in the limbs of the fetus.

/.=.& Describe the use of chiral auxiliaries to form the desired enantiomer.
A chiral auxiliary is used to convert a non'chiral molecule into Eust the desired enantiomer, thus avoiding the need to separate enantiomers from a racemic mixture. 1t (orks by attaching itself to the non'chiral molecules to create the stereochemical conditions necessary to force the reaction to follo( a certain path. 7nce the ne( molecule has been formed, the auxiliary can be taken off recycled" to leave the desired enantiomer. An example is the synthesis of Taxol, an anti'cancer drug.

/.=.+ 3xplain the use of combinatorial chemistry to synthesis ne( drugs.

)ombinatorial chemistry is used to synthesi?e a large number of different compounds and screen them for biological activity, resulting in a 'combinatorial library' for example the 'mix and split' process (hereby polypeptides can be made by every combination of amino acids, using polystyrene resin beads". ,tress the importance of solid phase chemistry.

..0 Anesthetics
/.D.1 )ompare local and general anesthetics in terms of their mode of action. /.D.% )ompare the structures and effects of cocaine, procaine and lidocaine. /.D.& Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of nitrous oxide, ethoxyethane, trichloromethane, cyclopropane and halothane.
<itrous oxide is not very potent, trichloromethane leads to liver damage, ethoxyethane and cyclopropane are highly flammable. 6alothane %'bromo'%' chloro'1,1,1'trifluoroethane" is (idely used but is potentially harmful to the o?one layer.

/.D.+ )alculate the partial pressures of component gases in an anesthetic mixture.

Cno(ledge of ho( to use Dalton's la( of partial pressures is re0uired. ,tudents are not expected to state the la(.

..14 Mind3altering drugs

/.1$.1 Describe the effects of lysergic acid diethylamide !,D", mescaline, psilocybin and tetrahydrocannabinol T6)". /.1$.% Discuss the structural similarities and differences bet(em !,D, mescaline, and psilocybin.
,tress the similarity of all three drugs and compare them to the indole ring.

/.1$.& Discuss the arguments for and against legali?ation of cannabis.

Arguments for legali?ation include the ability of cannabis to offer relief for certain diseases. Arguments against legali?ation include the possible harmful effects and the possibility of cannabis users moving on to harder drugs.

;.1 %rimar' Air %ollution

D.1.1 Describe the sources of carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen and sulfur, particulates and hydrocarbons in the atmosphere.
1nclude both natural and man'made sources. /alanced e0uations should be used (here possible.

D.1.% 7utline the effects of primary air pollution on health.

,tudents should be familiar (ith at least one harmful effect of each of the substances in D.1.1.

D.1.& Discuss methods for the reduction of primary air pollution.

!imit this to the follo(ing methods : )7 ' catalytic converters <7x ' catalytic converters, lean burn engines, recirculation of exhaust gases ,7x ' alkaline scrubbing, removal of sulfur'containing compounds from coal and oil, limestone'based fluidi?ed beds :articulates ' electrostatic precipitation 6ydrocarbons ' catalytic converters.

;.2 5:one ;epletion

D.%.1 Describe the formation and depletion of o?one by natural processes.
9efer to the follo(ing e0uations. 7% %7 7% ; 7 7% 7& 7% ; 7 7% ; 7 %7%

D.%.% !ist the pollutants, and their sources, that cause the lo(ering of o?one concentration.
)onsider chlorofluorocarbons )B)s" and nitrogen oxides.

D.%.& ,tate the environmental effects of o?one depletion.

1nclude the increased incidence of skin cancer and eye cataracts, and the suppression of plant gro(th.

D.%.+ Discuss the alternatives to )B)s in terms of their properties.

Alternatives include hydrocarbons, fluorocarbons and hydrofluorocarbons 6B)s". 1nclude toxicity, flammability, the relative (eakness of the )')l bond and the ability to absorb infrared radiation.

;.3 Greenhouse E((ect and Glo&al 1arming

D.&.1 Describe the greenhouse effect.
4reenhouse gases allo( the passage of incoming solar radiation but absorb the heat radiation from the 3arth, maintaining a mean global temperature. The greenhouse effect is a normal and necessary condition for life on 3arth.

D.&.% !ist the main greenhouse gases and their sources, and discuss their relative effects.
The greenhouse gases to be considered are )6+, 6%7, )7% and <%7 (hich have natural and man'made origins. Their effects depend on their abundance and their ability to absorb heat radiation.

D.&.& Discuss the influence of increasing amounts of greenhouse gases on global (arming.
3ffects include climate change, thermal expansion of the oceans and melting of the polar ice caps.

D.&.+ 7utline the influence of particulates on the 3arth's surface temperature.

:articulates can lo(er the temperature by reflecting sunlight.

;.4 Acid !ain

D.+.1 ,tate (hat is meant by acid rain and outline its origins.
9ain is naturally acidic because of dissolved )7%M acid rain has a p6 of less than -.#. Acid rain is caused by oxides of sulfur and nitrogen. ,tudents should kno( the e0uations for the burning of sulfur and nitrogen and for the formation of 6%,7& and 6%,7+.

D.+.% Discuss the environmental effects of acid rain and possible methods to counteract them.

;." 1ater #uita&le (or ;rin2ing

D.-.1 Discuss the demand for fresh (ater and reasons for the inade0uacy of its supply.
7nly a small fraction of the 3arth's (ater supply is fresh (ater. 7f this fresh (ater, over =$N is in the form of ice caps and glaciers. Hater is mainly used for agriculture and industry.

D.-.% )ompare the advantages and disadvantages of treating drinking (ater (ith chlorine and o?one.
1nclude cost, retention time and formation of chlorinated organic compounds.

D.-.& Discuss (ays to obtain fresh (ater from sea (ater using distillation, reverse osmosis and ion exchange. D.-.+ Discuss (ays to reduce the amount of (ater used and to recycle (ater.

;.) ;issolved 5*'gen in 1ater

D.#.1 7utline the importance of dissolved oxygen in (ater. D.#.% 7utline biological oxygen demand /7D" as a measure of oxygen ' demanding (astes in (ater.
9efer to the amount of oxygen needed to decompose (aste matter over a definite period of time. <o distinction bet(een biological and biochemical oxygen demand (ill be made.

D.#.& Distinguish bet(een aerobic and anaerobic decomposition of organic material in (ater. D.#.+ Describe the influence of se(age, detergents and fertilisers on the gro(th of a0uatic plants, and the effect of their subse0uent decomposition on oxygen concentration eutrophication".
The additional nitrogen and phosphorus compounds encourage gro(th of a0uatic plants often in the form of 'algal blooms' or, in coastal areas, 'red tides'.

D.#.- Discuss the effect of heat on dissolved oxygen and metabolism in (ater.

;./ 1aster 1ater $reatment

D.>.1 7utline the primary and secondary stages of se(age treatment and state (hat is removed during each stage.
Bor primary treatment filtration, flocculation and sedimentation should be covered. Bor secondary treatment mention the use of oxygen and bacteria eg. the activated sludge process".

D.>.% Discuss the increasing use of tertiary treatment.

1nclude removal of heavy metals and phosphates by chemical precipitation and nitrates by chemical or biological processes.

Higher level
;.< #mog
D.=.1 )ompare reducing and photochemical smog. D.=.% Describe the catalytic effect of particulates and nitrogen oxides on the oxidation of sulfur dioxide.

:articulates and ,7% ' heterolytic catalysis to form ,7& <7x ; ,7% ' free radical catalysis to form ,7&

D.=.& 7utline the formation of secondary pollutants in photochemical smog.

Treatment should be restricted to the formation of radicals from the reaction of nitrogen oxides (ith sunlight and the reaction of these radicals (ith hydrocarbons, leading to the formation of aldehydes and peroxyacylnitrates :A<s".

D.=.+ Discuss the formation of thermal inversions and their effects on air 0uality.

;.0 5:one ;epletion

D.D.1 3xplain the dependence of 7% and 7& dissociation on the (avelength of light.
A %+% nm A &&$ nm 7% %7 7& 7% ; 7 The energy needed should be related to the bonding in 7% and 7&. Bor example : ))l%B% ))lB% ; )l )l ; 7& )l7 ; 7% )l7 ; 7 7% ; )l <7x similar path(ay

D.D.% Describe the steps in the catalysis of 7& depletion by )B)s and <7x.

D.D.& 7utline the reasons for greater o?one depletion in polar regions.
)onsider the seasonal variation in temperature in the upper atmosphere. 9efer to surface catalysis on ice particles.

D.D.+ Describe the properties re0uired for sun'screening compounds.

,uch compounds should contain conEugated double bonds, eg. paraaminoben?oic acid :A/A", so that absorption of ultraviolet light is possible.

;.14 $o*ic #u&stances in 1ater

D.1$.1 Discuss the different approaches to expressing toxicity.
1nclude the advantages and disadvantages of !D-$ lethal dose in -$N of the population" and maximum daily tolerance.

D.1$.% ,tate the principal toxic types of chemicals that may be found in polluted (ater.
1nclude heavy metals, pesticides, dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls :)/s".

D.1$.& 7utline the sources, health and environmental effects of cadmium, mercury and lead compounds.
)admium ' metal plating, some rechargeable batteries, pigments *ercury ' seed dressing to prevent mould, batteries !ead ' some kinds of paint, as tetraethyl lead in gasoline 1nclude the formation of carcinogenic nitrosamines and a possible link to the formation of nitrites leading to oxygen depletion in the body.

D.1$.+ Describe the sources and possible health effects of nitrates in drinking (ater.