UNIT I - PASSIVE

CIRCUIT COMPONENTS

Introduction Resistors - Fixed &Variable resistor Color coding Tolerance Series and Parallel connection. Capacitors - Basic structure and symbol Fixed & Variable capacitors issipation !actor Series and parallel connection. Inductors : Inductance o! t"e coil Fixed & Variable inductors Inducti#e reactance $nergy stored in an inductor % !actor &utual inductance Series and Parallel connection RESISTORS: Resistors ' R () are t"e most !undamental and commonly used o! all t"e electronic components) to t"e point *"ere t"ey are almost ta+en !or granted. T"ere are many di!!erent Types of Resistors a#ailable to t"e electronics constructor) !rom #ery small sur!ace mount c"ip resistors up to large *ire *ound po*er resistors. T"e principal ,ob o! a resistor *it"in an electrical or electronic circuit is to -resist- '"ence t"e name resistor() regulate or to set t"e !lo* o! electrons 'current( t"roug" t"em by using t"e type o! conducti#e material !rom *"ic" t"ey are composed. Resistors can also be connected toget"er in #arious series and parallel combinations to !orm resistor net*or+s *"ic" can act as #oltage droppers) #oltage di#iders or current limiters *it"in a circuit.

. Typical Resistor Resistors are -Passi#e e#ices-) t"at is t"ey contain no source o! po*er or ampli!ication but only attenuate or reduce t"e #oltage or current signal passing t"roug" t"em. T"is attenuation results in electrical energy being lost in t"e !orm o! "eat as t"e resistor resists t"e !lo* o! electrons t"roug" it. T"en a potential di!!erence is re/uired bet*een t"e t*o terminals o! a resistor !or current to !lo*. T"is potential di!!erence balances out t"e energy lost. 0"en used in C circuits t"e potential di!!erence) also +no*n as a resistors #oltage drop) is measured across t"e terminals as t"e circuit current !lo*s t"roug" t"e resistor. &ost resistors are linear de#ices t"at produce a #oltage drop across t"emsel#es *"en an electrical current !lo*s t"roug" t"em because t"ey obey 1"m2s 3a*) and di!!erent #alues o! resistance produces di!!erent #alues o! current or #oltage. T"is can be #ery use!ul in $lectronic circuits by controlling or reducing eit"er t"e current !lo* or #oltage produced across t"em.

T"ere are many t"ousands o! di!!erent Types of Resistors and are produced in a #ariety o! !orms because t"eir particular c"aracteristics and accuracy suit certain areas o! application) suc" as 4ig" Stability) 4ig" Voltage) 4ig" Current etc) or are used as general purpose resistors *"ere t"eir c"aracteristics are less o! a problem. Some o! t"e common c"aracteristics associated *it" t"e "umble resistor are5 Temperature Coefficie t! Vo"ta#e Coefficie t! Noise! $re%ue cy Respo se! Po&er as *ell as Temperature Rati #! P'ysica" Si(e and Re"ia)i"ity. In all $lectrical and $lectronic circuit diagrams and sc"ematics) t"e most commonly used symbol !or a !ixed #alue resistor is t"at o! a -6ig-6ag- type line *it" t"e #alue o! its resistance gi#en in 1"ms) 7. Resistors "a#e !ixed resistance #alues !rom less t"an one o"m) ' 897 ( to *ell o#er tens o! millions o! o"ms) ' :9;&7 ( in #alue. Fixed resistors "a#e only one single #alue o! resistance) !or example 9;;72sbut #ariable resistors 'potentiometers( can pro#ide an in!inite number o! resistance #alues bet*een 6ero and t"eir maximum #alue. Sta *ar* Resistor Sym)o"s

T"e symbol used in sc"ematic and electrical dra*ings !or a Resistor can eit"er be a -6ig6ag- type line or a rectangular box.

.ll modern !ixed #alue resistors can be classi!ied into !our broad groups5

Carbon Composition Resistor - &ade o! carbon dust or grap"ite paste) lo* *attage #alues Film or Cermet Resistor - &ade !rom conducti#e metal oxide paste) #ery lo* *attage #alues

0ire-*ound Resistor - &etallic bodies !or "eatsin+ mounting) #ery "ig" *attage ratings Semiconductor Resistor - 4ig" !re/uency<precision sur!ace mount t"in !ilm tec"nology T"ere are a large #ariety o! !ixed and #ariable resistor types *it" di!!erent construction styles a#ailable !or eac" group) *it" eac" one "a#ing its o*n particular c"aracteristics) ad#antages and disad#antages compared to t"e ot"ers. To include all types *ould ma+e

t"is section #ery large so I s"all limit it to t"e most commonly used) and readily a#ailable general purpose types o! resistors. Compositio Type Resistors Car)o Resistors are t"e most common type o! Compositio Resistors. Carbon resistors are a c"eap general purpose resistor used in electrical and electronic circuits. T"eir resisti#e element is manu!actured !rom a mixture o! !inely ground carbon dust or grap"ite 'similar to pencil lead( and a non-conducting ceramic 'clay( po*der to bind it all toget"er.

Carbon Resistor T"e ratio o! carbon dust to ceramic 'conductor to insulator( determines t"e o#erall resisti#e #alue o! t"e mixture and t"e "ig"er t"e ratio o! carbon) t"e lo*er t"e o#erall resistance. T"e mixture is molded into a cylindrical s"ape *it" metal *ires or leads are attac"ed to eac" end to pro#ide t"e electrical connection as s"o*n) be!ore being coated *it" an outer insulating material and colour coded mar+ings to denote its resisti#e #alue. Car)o Resistor

T"e Car)o Composite Resistor is a lo* to medium type po*er resistor *"ic" "as a lo* inductance ma+ing t"em ideal !or "ig" !re/uency applications but t"ey can also su!!er !rom noise and stability *"en "ot. Carbon composite resistors are generally pre!ixed *it" a -CR- notation 'eg) CR9;+7 ( and are a#ailable in $= ' > ?;@ tolerance 'accuracy( () $9? ' > 9;@ tolerance( and $?A ' > B@ tolerance( pac+ages *it" po*er ratings !rom ;.9?B or 9<A o! a 0att up to B 0atts.

Carbon composite resistors are #ery c"eap to ma+e and are t"ere!ore commonly used in electrical circuits. 4o*e#er) due to t"eir manu!acturing process carbon type resistors "a#e #ery large tolerances so !or more precision and "ig" #alue resistances) fi"m type resistors are used instead. $i"m Type Resistors T"e generic term -$i"m Resistor- consist o! Metal Film) Carbon Film and Metal Oxide Film resistor types) *"ic" are generally made by depositing pure metals) suc" as nic+el) or an oxide !ilm) suc" as tin-oxide) onto an insulating ceramic rod or substrate.

Film Resistor T"e resisti#e #alue o! t"e resistor is controlled by increasing t"e desired t"ic+ness o! t"e deposited !ilm gi#ing t"em t"e names o! eit"er -t"ic+-!ilm resistors- or -t"in-!ilm resistors-. 1nce deposited) a laser is used to cut a "ig" precision spiral "elix groo#e type pattern into t"is !ilm. T"e cutting o! t"e !ilm "as t"e e!!ect o! increasing t"e conducti#e or resisti#e pat") a bit li+e ta+ing a long lengt" o! straig"t *ire and !orming it into a coil. T"is met"od o! manu!acture allo*s !or muc" closer tolerance resistors '9@ or less( as compared to t"e simpler carbon composition types. T"e tolerance o! a resistor is t"e di!!erence bet*een t"e pre!erred #alue 'i.e) 9;; o"ms( and its actual manu!actured #alue i.e) 9;C.= o"ms) and is expressed as a percentage) !or example B@) 9;@ etc) and in our example t"e actual tolerance is C.=@. Film type resistors also ac"ie#e a muc" "ig"er maximum o"mic #alue compared to ot"er types and #alues in excess o! 9;&7 '9; &illion 7Ds( are a#ailable. $i"m Resistor

Meta" $i"m Resistors "a#e muc" better temperature stability t"an t"eir carbon e/ui#alents) lo*er noise and are generally better !or "ig" !re/uency or radio !re/uency applications. Meta" O+i*e Resistors "a#e better "ig" surge current capability *it" a muc" "ig"er temperature rating t"an t"e e/ui#alent metal !ilm resistors. .not"er type o! !ilm resistor commonly +no*n as a T'ic, $i"m Resistor is manu!actured by depositing a muc" t"ic+er conducti#e paste o! CERamic and METal) called Cermet) onto an alumina ceramic substrate. Cermet resistors "a#e similar properties to metal !ilm resistors and are generally used !or ma+ing small sur!ace mount c"ip type resistors) multi-resistor net*or+s in one pac+age !or pcb2s and "ig" !re/uency resistors. T"ey "a#e good temperature stability) lo* noise) and good #oltage ratings but lo* surge current properties. Meta" $i"m Resistors are pre!ixed *it" a -&FR- notation 'eg &FR9;;+7( and a CF !or Carbon Film types. &etal !ilm resistors are a#ailable in $?A '>B@ & >?@ tolerances() $E= '>9@ tolerance( and $9E?'>;.B@) >;.?B@ & >;.9@ tolerances( pac+ages *it" po*er ratings o! ;.;B '9<?;t"( o! a 0att up to 9<? 0att. Fenerally spea+ing Film resistors are precision lo* po*er components. -ire &ou * Type Resistors .not"er type o! resistor) called a -ire &ou * Resistor) is made by *inding a t"in metal alloy *ire 'Gic"rome( or similar *ire onto an insulating ceramic !ormer in t"e !orm o! a spiral "elix similar to t"e !ilm resistor abo#e. T"ese types o! resistors are generally only a#ailable in #ery lo* o"mic "ig" precision #alues '!rom ;.;9 to 9;;+7( due to t"e gauge o! t"e *ire and number o! turns possible on t"e !ormer ma+ing t"em ideal !or use in measuring circuits and 0"etstone bridge type applications. T"ey are also able to "andle muc" "ig"er electrical currents t"an ot"er resistors o! t"e same o"mic #alue *it" po*er ratings in excess o! C;; 0atts. T"ese "ig" po*er resistors are moulded or pressed into an aluminum "eat sin+ body *it" !ins attac"ed to increase t"eir o#erall sur!ace area to promote "eat loss and cooling. T"ese types o! resistors are called -C"assis &ounted Resistors-. T"ey are designed to be p"ysically mounted onto "eat sin+s or metal plates to !urt"er dissipate t"e generated "eat increasing t"eir current carrying capabilities e#en !urt"er.

0ire*ound Resistor .not"er type o! *ire *ound resistor is t"e Po&er -ire &ou * Resistor. T"ese are "ig" temperature) "ig" po*er non-inducti#e resistor types generally coated *it" a #itreous or glass epoxy enamel !or use in resistance ban+s or C motor<ser#o control and dynamic bra+ing applications. T"ey can e#en be used as space or cabinet "eaters. T"e non-inducti#e resistance *ire is *ound around a ceramic or porcelain tube co#ered *it" mica to pre#ent t"e alloy *ires !rom mo#ing *"en "ot. 0ire *ound resistors are a#ailable in a #ariety o! resistance and po*er ratings *it" one main use o! po*er *ire *ound resistor is in t"e electrical "eating elements o! an electric !ire *"ic" con#erts t"e electrical current !lo*ing t"roug" it into "eat *it" eac" element dissipating up to 9;;; 0atts) '9+0( o! energy. Hecause t"e *ire is *ound into a coil) it acts li+e an inductor causing t"em to "a#e inductance as *ell as resistance and t"is a!!ects t"e *ay t"e resistor be"a#es in .C circuits by producing a p"ase s"i!t at "ig" !re/uencies especially in t"e larger si6e resistors. T"e lengt" o! t"e actual resistance pat" in t"e resistor and t"e leads contributes inductance in series *it" t"e -apparent- C resistance resulting in an o#erall impedance pat" o! I 1"ms. Impedance ' I ( is t"e combined e!!ect o! resistance ' R ( and inductance ' J () measured in o"ms and !or a series .C circuit is gi#en as) I ? K R ? L J ?. 0"en used in .C circuits t"is inductance #alue c"anges *it" !re/uency 'inducti#e reactance )J3 K ?MN3( and t"ere!ore) t"e o#erall #alue o! t"e resistor c"anges. Inducti#e reactance increases *it" !re/uency but is 6ero at C '6ero !re/uency(. T"en) *ire *ound resistors must not be designed into .C or ampli!ier type circuits *"ere t"e !re/uency across t"e resistor c"anges. 4o*e#er) special non-inducti#e *ire *ound resistors are also a#ailable.

-ire &ou * Resistor

0ire *ound resistor types are pre!ixed *it" a -04- or -0- notation 'eg 049;7( and are a#ailable in t"e 04 aluminum clad pac+age '>9@) >?@) >B@ & >9;@ tolerance( or t"e 0 #itreous enameled pac+age '>9@) >?@ & >B@ tolerance( *it" po*er ratings !rom 90 to C;;0 or more. Resistor Tutoria" Summary T"en to summari6e) t"ere are many di!!erent types o! resistor a#ailable !rom lo* cost) large tolerance) general purpose carbon type resistors t"roug" to lo* tolerance) "ig" cost) precision !ilm resistors as *ell as "ig" po*er) *ire *ound ceramic resistors. . resistor regulates) impedes or sets t"e !lo* o! current t"roug" a particular pat" or it can impose a #oltage reduction in an electrical circuit. T"e resisti#e #alue o! a resistor) its ability to limit current !lo* is measured in 1"m2s ' 7 ( ranging !rom less t"an one 1"m eac" to many millions o! 1"m2s) '&ega-1"m2s(. Resistors can be o! a !ixed #alue) !or exampleO 9;; 1"ms) '9;;7( or #ariable as in ; to 9;;72s. . resistor *ill al*ays "a#e t"e same resistance #alue no matter *"at t"e !re/uency o! t"e supply !rom C to #ery "ig" !re/uencies and all resistors "a#e one t"ing in common) t"eir resisti#e #alue in 1"m2s in a circuit *ill .30.PS be positi#e in nature and ne#er negati#e. T"e uses and applications o! a resistor *it"in an electrical or electronic circuit are #ast and #aried) but a resistor can commonly used !or purposes suc" as current limiting) pro#iding appropriate control #oltage to semiconductors suc" as bipolar transistors) protecting 3$ s or ot"er semiconductor de#ices !rom excessi#e current. .d,usting or limiting t"e !re/uency response in an audio or !ilter circuit. Pulling up or pulling do*n

t"e #oltage at t"e input pin o! a digital logic c"ip or by controlling a #oltage at a point in a circuit by placing t*o resistors in series to create a #oltage di#ider net*or+. In t"e next tutorial about Resistors) *e *ill loo+ at t"e di!!erent *ays o! identi!ying t"e resisti#e #alue o! t"e di!!erent types o! !ixed resistors *it" t"e most common met"od o! identi!ication being t"e use o!Co"our Co*es and colour bands around t"e body o! t"e resistor. Resistor Co"our Co*e 0e sa* in t"e pre#ious tutorial t"at t"ere are many di!!erent types o! Resistors a#ailable and t"at t"ey can be used in bot" electrical and electronic circuits to control t"e !lo* o! current or #oltage in many di!!erent *ays. Hut in order to do t"is t"e actual resistor needs to "a#e some !orm o! -resisti#e- or -resistance- #alue. Resistors are a#ailable in a range o! di!!erent resistance #alues !rom !ractions o! an 1"m ' 7 ( to millions o! 1"ms. 1b#iously) it *ould be impractical to "a#e a#ailable resistors o! e#ery possible #alue !or example) 97)?7) C7) A7 etc) because literally "undreds o! t"ousands) i! not millions o! di!!erent resistors *ould need to exist to co#er all t"e possible #alues. Instead) resistors are manu!actured in *"at are called -pre!erred #alues- *it" t"eir resistance #alue printed onto t"eir body in coloured in+.

A Coloured Hands T"e resistance #alue) tolerance) and *attage rating are generally printed onto t"e body o! t"e resistor as numbers or letters *"en t"e resistors body is big enoug" to read t"e print) suc" as large po*er resistors. Hut *"en t"e resistor is small suc" as a 9<A0 carbon or !ilm type) t"ese speci!ications must be s"o*n in some ot"er manner as t"e print *ould be too small to read. So to o#ercome t"is) small resistors use coloured painted bands to indicate bot" t"eir resisti#e #alue and t"eir tolerance *it" t"e p"ysical si6e o! t"e resistor indicating its *attage rating. T"ese coloured painted bands produce a system o! identi!ication generally +no*n as a Resistors Co"our Co*e. .n international and uni#ersally accepted resistor colour coding sc"eme *as de#eloped many years ago as a simple and /uic+ *ay o! identi!ying a resistors o"mic #alue no matter *"at its si6e or condition. It consists o! a set o! indi#idual coloured rings or bands in spectral order representing eac" digit o! t"e resistors #alue.

. resistors colour code mar+ings are al*ays read one band at a time starting !rom t"e le!t to t"e rig"t) *it" t"e larger *idt" tolerance band oriented to t"e rig"t side indicating its tolerance. Hy matc"ing t"e colour o! t"e !irst band *it" its associated number in t"e digit column o! t"e colour c"art belo* t"e !irst digit is identi!ied and t"is represents t"e !irst digit o! t"e resistance #alue. .gain) by matc"ing t"e colour o! t"e second band *it" its associated number in t"e digit column o! t"e colour c"art *e get t"e second digit o! t"e resistance #alue and so on as illustrated belo*O T'e Sta *ar* Resistor Co"our Co*e C'art.

T'e Resistor Co"our Co*e Ta)"e. Co"our Hlac+ Hro*n Red 1range Pello* Freen Hlue Violet Frey 0"ite Fold Sil#er Gone Ca"cu"ati # Resistor Va"ues T"e Resistor Co"our Co*e system is all *ell and good but *e need to understand "o* to apply it in order to get t"e correct #alue o! t"e resistor. T"e -le!t-"and- or t"e most signi!icant coloured band is t"e band *"ic" is nearest to a connecting lead *it" t"e colour coded bands being read !rom le!t-to-rig"t as !ollo*s5 igit) igit) &ultiplier K Colour) Colour x 9; colour in 1"m2s '72s( For example) a resistor "as t"e !ollo*ing coloured mar+ings5 Pello* Violet Red K A Q ? K A Q x 9;? K AQ;;7 or A+Q. T"e !ourt" and !i!t" bands are used to determine t"e percentage tolerance o! t"e resistor. Resistor tolerance is a measure o! t"e resistors #ariation !rom t"e speci!ied resisti#e #alue and is a conse/uence o! t"e manu!acturing process and is expressed as a percentage o! its -nominal- or pre!erred #alue. /i#it ; 9 ? C A B = Q R E ;.9 ;.;9 > B@ > 9;@ > ?;@ Mu"tip"ier 9 9; 9;; 9);;; 9;);;; 9;;);;; 9);;;);;; 9;);;;);;; > ;.B@ > ;.?B@ > ;.9@ > 9@ > ?@ To"era ce

Typical resistor tolerances !or !ilm resistors range !rom 9@ to 9;@ *"ile carbon resistors "a#e tolerances up to ?;@. Resistors *it" tolerances lo*er t"an ?@ are called precision resistors *it" t"e or lo*er tolerance resistors being more expensi#e. &ost !i#e band resistors are precision resistors *it" tolerances o! eit"er 9@ or ?@ *"ile most o! t"e !our band resistors "a#e tolerances o! B@) 9;@ and ?;@. T"e colour code used to denote t"e tolerance rating o! a resistor is gi#en as5 Hro*n K 9@) Red K ?@) Fold K B@) Sil#er K 9; @ I! resistor "as no !ourt" tolerance band t"en t"e de!ault tolerance *ould be at ?;@. It is sometimes easier to remember t"e resistor colour code by using mnemonics or p"rases t"at "a#e a separate *ord in t"e p"rase to represent eac" o! t"e Ten L T*o colours in t"e code. 4o*e#er) t"ese sayings are o!ten #ery crude but ne#er t"e less e!!ecti#e !or remembering t"e resistor colours. 4ere are ,ust a !e* o! t"e more -cleaner#ersions but many more existO Resistors i Series Indi#idual resistors can be connected toget"er in eit"er a series connection) a parallel connection or combinations o! bot" series and parallel toget"er) to produce more complex resistor net*or+s *"ose e/ui#alent resistance is a combination o! t"e indi#idual resistors. T"en complicated resistor net*or+s or impedances can be replaced by a single e/ui#alent resistor) R$% or impedance) I$%. Go matter *"at t"e combination or complexity o! t"e resistor net*or+ is) all resistors obey t"e same basic rules de!ined by O'm0s 1a& and 2irc'off0s Circuit 1a&s. Resistors i Series. Resistors are said to be connected in -Series-) *"en t"ey are daisy c"ained toget"er in a single line. Since all t"e current !lo*ing t"roug" t"e !irst resistor "as no ot"er *ay to go it must also pass t"roug" t"e second resistor and t"e t"ird and so on. T"en) resistors in series "a#e a Commo Curre t !lo*ing t"roug" t"em as t"e current t"at !lo*s t"roug" one resistor must also !lo* t"roug" t"e ot"ers as it can only ta+e one pat". T"en t"e amount o! current t"at !lo*s t"roug" a set o! resistors in series *ill be t"e same at all points in a series resistor net*or+. For exampleO

In t"e !ollo*ing example t"e resistors R9) R? and RC are all connected toget"er in series bet*een points . and H.

Series Resistor Circuit

.s t"e resistors are connected toget"er in series t"e same current passes t"roug" eac" resistor in t"e c"ain and t"e total resistance) RT o! t"e circuit must be e%ua" to t"e sum o! all t"e indi#idual resistors added toget"er. T"at is

and by ta+ing t"e indi#idual #alues o! t"e resistors in our simple example abo#e) t"e total e/ui#alent resistance) R$% is t"ere!ore gi#en asO R$% K R9 L R? L RC K 9+7 L ?+7 L =+7 K E+7

So *e see t"at *e can replace all t"ree indi#idual resistors abo#e *it" ,ust one single -e/ui#alent- resistor *"ic" *ill "a#e a #alue o! E+7. 0"ere !our) !i#e or e#en more resistors are all connected toget"er in a series circuit) t"e total or e/ui#alent resistance o! t"e circuit) RT *ould still be t"e sum o! all t"e indi#idual resistors connected toget"er and t"e more resistors added to t"e series) t"e greater t"e e/ui#alent resistance 'no matter *"at t"eir #alue(. T"is total resistance is generally +no*n as t"e E%ui3a"e t Resista ce and can be de!ined as5 -a single value of resistance that can replace any number of resistors in series without altering the values of the current or the voltage in the circuit". T"en t"e e/uation gi#en !or calculating total resistance o! t"e circuit *"en connecting toget"er resistors in series is gi#en asO

Series Resistor E%uatio Rtotal K R9 L R? L RC L ..... Rn etc. Gote t"en t"at t"e total or e/ui#alent resistance) RT "as t"e same e!!ect on t"e circuit as t"e original combination o! resistors as it is t"e algebraic sum o! t"e indi#idual resistances. 1ne important point to remember about resistors in series net*or+s) t"e total resistance ' RT ( o! any t*o or more resistors connected toget"er in series *ill al*ays be 4REATER t"an t"e #alue o! t"e largest resistor in t"e c"ain. In our example abo#e RT K E+7 *"ere as t"e largest #alue resistor is only =+7. Series Resistor Vo"ta#e T"e #oltage across eac" resistor connected in series !ollo*s di!!erent rules to t"at o! t"e series current. 0e +no* !rom t"e abo#e circuit t"at t"e total supply #oltage across t"e resistors is e/ual to t"e sum o! t"e potential di!!erences across R9 ) R? and RC ) V.H K VR9 L VR? L VRC K EV. Ssing O'm0s 1a&) t"e #oltage across t"e indi#idual resistors can be calculated asO Voltage across R9 K IR9 K 9m. x 9+7 K 9V Voltage across R? K IR? K 9m. x ?+7 K ?V Voltage across RC K IRC K 9m. x =+7 K =V gi#ing a total #oltage V.H o! ' 9V L ?V L =V ( K EV *"ic" is e/ual to t"e #alue o! t"e supply #oltage. T"en t"e sum o! t"e potential di!!erences across t"e resistors is e/ual to t"e total potential di!!erence across t"e combination and in our example t"is is EV. T"e e/uation gi#en !or calculating t"e total #oltage in a series circuit *"ic" is t"e sum o! all t"e indi#idual #oltages added toget"er is gi#en asO

T"en series resistor net*or+s can also be t"oug"t o! as -#oltage di#iders- and a series resistor circuit "a#ing N resisti#e components *ill "a#e G-di!!erent #oltages across it *"ile maintaining a common current. Hy using O'm0s 1a&) eit"er t"e #oltage) current or resistance o! any series connected circuit can easily be !ound and resistor o! a series circuit can be interc"anged *it"out a!!ecting t"e total resistance) current) or po*er to eac" resistor.

E+amp"e No5 Ssing 1"ms 3a*) calculate t"e e/ui#alent series resistance) t"e series current) #oltage drop and po*er !or eac" resistor in t"e !ollo*ing resistors in series circuit.

.ll t"e data can be !ound by using O'm0s 1a&) and to ma+e li!e a little easier *e can present t"is data in tabular !orm. Resista ce R9 K 9;7 R? K ?;7 RC K C;7 RT K =;7 Curre t Vo"ta#e Po&er P9 K ;.A0 P? K ;.R0 PC K 9.?0

I9 K ?;;m. V9 K ?V I? K ?;;m. V? K AV IC K ?;;m. VC K =V

IT K ?;;m. VS K 9?V PT K ?.A0

T"en !or t"e circuit abo#e) RT K =;7) IT K ?;;m.) VS K 9?V and PT K ?.A0 T'e Pote tia" /i3i*er Circuit 0e can see !rom t"e abo#e example) t"at alt"oug" t"e supply #oltage is gi#en as 9? #olts) di!!erent #oltages) or #oltage drops) appear across eac" resistor *it"in t"e series net*or+. Connecting resistors in series li+e t"is across a single C supply #oltage "as one ma,or ad#antage) di!!erent #oltages appear across eac" resistor. T"e amount o! #oltage drop is determined by t"e resistors #alue only because as *e no* +no*) t"e current t"roug" a series circuit is common. T"is ability to generate di!!erent #oltages produces a #ery "andy circuit called a Pote tia" or Vo"ta#e /i3i*er Net&or,.

T"e series circuit s"o*n abo#e is a simple potential di#ider *"ere t"ree #oltages ?V) AV and =V are produced !rom a single 9?V supply. 2irc'off0s Vo"ta#e 1a& states t"at -the supply voltage in a closed circuit is equal to the sum of all the voltage drops ( !" around the circuit- and t"is can be used to good e!!ect as t"is allo*s us to determine t"e #oltage le#els o! a circuit *it"out !irst !inding t"e current. T"e basic circuit !or a potential di#ider net*or+ 'also +no*n as a #oltage di#ider( !or resistors in series net*or+s is s"o*n belo*. Pote tia" /i3i*er Net&or,

In t"is circuit t"e t*o resistors are connected in series across Vin) *"ic" is t"e po*er supply #oltage connected to t"e resistor) R9) *"ere t"e output #oltage Vout is t"e #oltage across t"e resistor R? *"ic" is gi#en by t"e !ormula. I! more resistors are connected in series to t"e circuit t"en di!!erent #oltages *ill appear across eac" resistor *it" regards to t"eir indi#idual resistance R '1"ms la* IxR( pro#iding di!!erent #oltage points !rom a single supply. 4o*e#er) care must be ta+en *"en using t"is type o! net*or+ as t"e impedance o! any load connected to it can a!!ect t"e output #oltage. For example) Suppose you only "a#e a 9?V C supply and your circuit *"ic" "as an impedance o! B;7 re/uires a =V supply. Connecting t*o e/ual #alue resistors) o! say B;7 eac") toget"er as a potential di#ider net*or+ across t"e 9?V *ill do t"is #ery nicely until you connect your load circuit to t"e net*or+. T"e loading e!!ect o! t*o resistances connected toget"er in parallel c"anges t"e ratio o! t"e t*o resistances altering t"e #oltage drop and t"is is demonstrated belo*.

Resistors i Para""e" Resistors are said to be connected toget"er in -Para""e"- *"en bot" o! t"eir terminals are respecti#ely connected to eac" terminal o! t"e ot"er resistor or resistors. Snli+e t"e pre#ious series circuit) in a parallel resistor net*or+ t"e current can ta+e more t"an one pat". Since t"ere are multiple pat"s !or t"e supply current to !lo* t"roug") t"e current is not t"e same at all points in a parallel circuit. 4o*e#er) t"e #oltage drop across all o! t"e resistors in a parallel resisti#e net*or+ is t"e same. T"en) Resistors i Para""e" "a#e a Commo Vo"ta#e across t"em and t"is is true !or all parallel connected elements. So *e can de!ine a parallel resisti#e circuit as one *"ere t"e resistor are connected to t"e same t*o points 'or nodes( and is identi!ied by t"e !act t"at it "as more t"an one current pat" connected to a common #oltage source. T"en in our parallel resistor example belo* t"e #oltage across resistor R9e/uals t"e #oltage across resistor R? *"ic" e/uals t"e #oltage across RC and *"ic" e/uals t"e supply #oltage. T"ere!ore) !or a parallel resistor net*or+ t"is is gi#en asO

In t"e !ollo*ing resistors in parallel circuit t"e resistors R9) R? and RC are all connected toget"er in parallel bet*een t"e t*o points . and H as s"o*n. Para""e" Resistor Circuit

In t"e pre#ious series resistor net*or+ *e sa* t"at t"e total resistance) RT o! t"e circuit *as e/ual to t"e sum o! all t"e indi#idual resistors added toget"er. For resistors in parallel t"e e/ui#alent circuit resistance RT is calculated di!!erently.

4ere) t"e reciprocal ' 9<R ( #alue o! t"e indi#idual resistances are all added toget"er instead o! t"e resistances t"emsel#es *it" t"e in#erse o! t"e algebraic sum gi#ing t"e e/ui#alent resistance as s"o*n. Para""e" Resistor E%uatio

T"en t"e in#erse o! t"e e/ui#alent resistance o! t*o or more resistors connected in parallel is t"e algebraic sum o! t"e in#erses o! t"e indi#idual resistances. T"e e/ui#alent resistance is al*ays less t"an t"e smallest resistor in t"e parallel net*or+ so t"e total resistance) RT *ill al*ays decrease as additional parallel resistors are added. Parallel resistance gi#es us a #alue +no*n as Co *ucta ce) symbol 4 *it" t"e units o! conductance being t"e Sieme s) symbol S. Conductance is t"e reciprocal or t"e in#erse o! resistance) ' F K 9<R (. To con#ert conductance bac+ into a resistance #alue *e need to ta+e t"e reciprocal o! t"e conductance gi#ing us t"en t"e total resistance) RT o! t"e resistors in parallel. 0e no* +no* t"at resistors t"at are connected bet*een t"e same t*o points are said to be in parallel but a parallel circuit can ta+e many !orms ot"er t"an t"e one abo#e and "ere are a !e* examples. Various Para""e" Resistor Net&or,s

T"e !i#e resisti#e net*or+s abo#e may loo+ di!!erent to eac" ot"er) but t"ey are all arranged as Resistors i Para""e". E+amp"e No5 Find t"e total resistance) RT o! t"e !ollo*ing resistors connected in a parallel net*or+.

T"e total resistance RT across t"e t*o terminals . and H is calculated asO

T"is met"od o! calculation can be used !or calculating any number o! indi#idual resistances connected toget"er *it"in a single parallel net*or+. I! "o*e#er) t"ere are only t*o indi#idual resistors in parallel t"en a muc" simpler and /uic+er !ormula can be used to !ind t"e total resistance #alue) and t"is is gi#en asO

Curre ts i a Para""e" Resistor Circuit T"e total current) IT in a parallel resistor circuit is t"e sum o! t"e indi#idual currents !lo*ing in all t"e parallel branc"es. T"e amount o! current !lo*ing in eac" parallel branc" is not necessarily t"e same as t"e #alue o! t"e resistance in eac" branc" determines t"e current *it"in t"at branc". For example) alt"oug" t"e parallel combination "as t"e same #oltage across it) t"e resistances could be di!!erent t"ere!ore t"e current !lo*ing t"roug" eac" resistor *ould de!initely be di!!erent as determined by 1"ms 3a*. Consider t"e t*o resistors in parallel abo#e. T"e current t"at !lo*s t"roug" eac" o! t"e resistors ' IR9 and IR? ( connected toget"er in parallel is not necessarily t"e same #alue as it depends upon t"e resisti#e #alue o! t"e resistor. 4o*e#er) *e do +no* t"at t"e current t"at enters t"e circuit at point &ust also exit t"e circuit at point H. 2irc'off0s Curre t 1a&s. states t"at -the total current leaving a circuit is equal to that entering the circuit # no current is lost-. T"us) t"e total current !lo*ing in t"e circuit is gi#en asO IT K IR9 L IR? T"en by using O'm0s 1a&) t"e current !lo*ing t"roug" eac" resistor can be calculated asO Current !lo*ing in R9 K VS T R9 K 9?V T ??+7 K ;.BABm. or BABu. Current !lo*ing in R? K VS T R? K 9?V T AQ+7 K ;.?BBm. or ?BBu. gi#ing us a total current IT !lo*ing around t"e circuit asO IT K ;.BABm. L ;.?BBm. K ;.Rm. or R;;u.. T"e e/uation gi#en !or calculating t"e total current !lo*ing in a parallel resistor circuit *"ic" is t"e sum o! all t"e indi#idual currents added toget"er is gi#en asO

Itotal K I9 L I? L IC ..... L In
T"en parallel resistor net*or+s can also be t"oug"t o! as a -current di#ider- because t"e current splits or di#ides bet*een t"e #arious branc"es and a parallel resistor circuit "a#ing N resisti#e net*or+s *ill "a#e G-di!!erent current pat"s *"ile maintaining a common #oltage. Parallel resistors can also be interc"anged *it"out c"anging t"e total resistance or t"e total circuit current.

Vo"ta#e /i3i*er 0e +no* !rom t"e pre#ious tutorials t"at by connecting toget"er resistors in series across a potential di!!erence *e can produce a #oltage di#ider circuit gi#ing ratios o! #oltages *it" respect to t"e supply #oltage across t"e series combination. T"is t"en produces a Vo"ta#e /i3i*er net*or+ t"at only applies to resistors in series as parallel resistors produce a current divider networ$. Consider t"e circuit belo*. Vo"ta#e /i3isio

T"e circuit s"o*s t"e principal o! a #oltage di#ider circuit *"ere t"e output #oltage drops across eac" resistor) R9) R?) RC and RA are re!erenced to a common point. For any number o! resistors connected toget"er in series t"e total resistance) RT o! t"e circuit di#ided by t"e supply #oltage Vs *ill gi#e t"e circuit current as I K Vs<RT) 1"m2s 3a*. T"en t"e indi#idual #oltage drops across eac" resistor can be simply calculated asO V K IxR. T"e #oltage at eac" point) P9) P?) PC etc increases according to t"e sum o! t"e #oltages at eac" point up to t"e supply #oltage) Vs and *e can also calculate t"e indi#idual #oltage drops at any point *it"out !irstly calculating t"e circuit current by using t"e !ollo*ing !ormula.

Vo"ta#e /i3i*er E%uatio

0"ere) V'x( is t"e #oltage to be !ound) R'x( is t"e resistance producing t"e #oltage) RT is t"e total series resistance and VS is t"e supply #oltage. T"en by using t"is e/uation *e can say t"at t"e #oltage dropped across any resistor in a series circuit is proportional to t"e magnitude o! t"e resistor and t"e total #oltage dropped across all t"e resistors must e/ual t"e #oltage source as de!ined by 2irc'off0s Vo"ta#e 1a&. So by using t"e Vo"ta#e /i3i*er E%uatio ) !or any number o! series resistors t"e #oltage drop across any indi#idual resistor can be !ound. T"us !ar *e "a#e seen t"at #oltage is applied to a resistor or circuit and t"at current !lo*s t"roug" and around a circuit. Hut t"ere is a t"ird #ariable *e can also apply to resistors and resistor net*or+s. Po*er is a product o! #oltage and current and t"e basic unit o! measurement o! po*er is t"e *att. In t"e next tutorial about Resistors) *e *ill examine t"e po*er dissipated 'consumed( by resistance in t"e !orm o! "eat and t"at t"e total po*er dissipated by a resisti#e circuit) *"et"er it is series) parallel) or a combination o! t"e t*o) *e simply add t"e po*ers dissipated by eac" resistor. Resistor Po&er Rati # 0"en an electrical current passes t"roug" a resistor) electrical energy is lost by t"e resistor in t"e !orm o! "eat and t"e greater t"is current !lo* t"e "otter t"e resistor *ill get. T"is is +no*n as t"e Resistor Po&er Rati #. Resistors are rated by t"e #alue o! t"eir resistance and t"e po*er in *atts t"at t"ey can sa!ely dissipate based mainly upon t"eir si6e. $#ery resistor "as a maximum po*er rating *"ic" is determined by its p"ysical si6e as generally) t"e greater its sur!ace area t"e more po*er it can dissipate sa!ely into t"e ambient air or into a "eatsin+. . resistor can be used at any combination o! #oltage '*it"in reason( and current so long as its - issipating Po*er Rating- is not exceeded *it" t"e resistor po*er rating indicating "o* muc" po*er t"e resistor can con#ert into "eat or absorb *it"out any damage to itsel!. T"e Resistor Po&er Rati # is sometimes called t"e !esistors %attage !ating and is de!ined as the amount of heat that a resistive element can dissipate for an indefinite period of time without degrading its performance&

T"e po*er rating o! resistors can #ary a lot !rom less t"an one tent" o! a *att to many "undreds o! *atts depending upon its si6e) construction and ambient operating temperature. &ost resistors "a#e t"eir maximum resisti#e po*er rating gi#en !or an ambient temperature o! LQ;oC or belo*. $lectrical po*er is t"e rate in time at *"ic" energy is used or consumed 'con#erted into "eat(. T"e standard unit o! electrical po*er is t"e -att) symbol - and a resistors po*er rating is also gi#en in 0atts. .s *it" ot"er electrical /uantities) pre!ixes are attac"ed to t"e *ord -0att- *"en expressing #ery large or #ery small amounts o! resistor po*er. Some o! t"e more common o! t"ese areO E"ectrica" Po&er U its Snit +ilo*att Symbol +0 Value 9<9);;;t" *att 9);;; *atts .bbre#iation 9;-C 0 9;C 0 9;= 0

milli*att m0

mega*att &0 9);;;);;; *atts

Resistor Po&er 6P7 0e +no* !rom O'm0s 1a& t"at *"en a #oltage is dropped across a resistor) a current *ill be passed t"roug" t"e resistor producing a product o! po*er. In ot"er *ords) i! a resistor is sub,ected to a #oltage) or i! it conducts a current) t"en it *ill al*ays consume po*er and *e can superimpose t"ese t"ree /uantities o! po*er) #oltage and current into a triangle called a Po&er Tria #"e *it" t"e po*er dissipated as "eat in a resistor at t"e top and t"e current and t"e #oltage at t"e bottom as s"o*n. T'e Resistor Po&er Tria #"e

T"e abo#e po*er triangle is great !or calculating t"e po*er dissipated in a resistor i! *e +no* t"e #alues o! t"e #oltage across it and t"e current !lo*ing t"roug" it. Hut *e can also calculate t"e po*er dissipated by a resistance by using O'm0s 1a&. 1"ms la* allo*s us to calculate t"e po*er dissipation gi#en t"e resistance #alue o! t"e resistor. Hy using 1"ms 3a* it is possible to obtain t*o alternati#e #ariations o! t"e abo#e expression !or t"e resistor po*er i! *e +no* t"e #alues o! only t*o) t"e #oltage) t"e current or t"e resistance as !ollo*sO UPKVxIV U P K I? x R V U P K V? T R V Po*er K Volts x .mps Po*er K Current? x 1"ms Po*er K Volts? T 1"ms

T"e electrical po*er dissipation o! any resistor in a C circuit can be calculated using one o! t"e !ollo*ing t"ree standard !ormulasO

0"ereO

V is t"e #oltage across t"e resistor in Volts I is in current !lo*ing t"roug" t"e resistor in .mperes R is t"e resistance o! t"e resistor in 1"m2s '7(

.s t"e dissipated resistor po*er rating is lin+ed to t"eir p"ysical si6e) a 9<A ';.?B;(0 resistor is p"ysically smaller t"an a 90 resistor) and resistors t"at are o! t"e same o"mic

#alue are also a#ailable in di!!erent po*er or *attage ratings. Carbon resistors) !or example) are commonly made in *attage ratings o! 9<R ';.9?B(0) 9<A ';.?B;(0) 9<? ';.B(0) 90) and ? 0atts. Fenerally spea+ing t"e larger t"eir p"ysical si6e t"e "ig"er its *attage rating. 4o*e#er) it is al*ays better to select a particular si6e resistor t"at is capable o! dissipating t*o or more times t"e calculated po*er. 0"en resistors *it" "ig"er *attage ratings are re/uired) *ire*ound resistors are generally used to dissipate t"e excessi#e "eat. Type Carbon 0ire*ound Po&er Rati # 3o* at less t"an B0 4ig" up to B;;0 Sta)i"ity 3o* ?;@ 4ig" 9@

&etal Film Very lo* at less t"an C0 4ig" 9@

Po&er Resistors 0ire *ound po*er resistors come in a #ariety o! designs and types) !rom t"e standard smaller "eat sin+ mounted aluminum body ?B0 types as *e "a#e seen pre#iously) to t"e larger tubular 9;;;0 ceramic or porcelain po*er resistors used !or "eating elements. T"e resistance #alue o! *ire *ound resistors is #ery lo* 'lo* o"mic #alues( compared to t"e carbon or metal !ilm types. T"e resisti#e range o! a po*er resistor ranges !rom less t"an 97 'R;;B( up to only 9;;+72s as larger resistance #alues *ould re/uire !ine gauge *ire t"at *ould easily !ail.

Typical Po*er Resistor 3o* o"mic) lo* po*er #alue resistors are generally used !or current sensing applications *ere) using o"m2s la* t"e current !lo*ing t"roug" t"e resistance gi#es rise to a #oltage drop across it. T"is #oltage can be measured to determine t"e #alue o! t"e current !lo*ing

in t"e circuit. T"is type o! resistor is used in test measuring e/uipment and controlled po*er supplies. T"e larger *ire *ound po*er resistors are made o! corrosion resistant *ire *ound onto a porcelain or ceramic core type !ormer and are generally used to dissipate "ig" inrus" currents suc" as t"ose generated in motor control) electromagnet or ele#ator<crane control and motor bra+ing circuits. T"ese types o! resistors "a#e standard po*er ratings up to B;;0 and are connected toget"er to !orm resistance ban+s. .not"er use!ul !eature o! *ire *ound po*er resistors is in t"e use o! "eating elements li+e t"e ones used !or electric !ires) toaster) irons etc. In t"is type o! application t"e *attage #alue o! t"e resistance is used to produce "eat and t"e type o! alloy resistance *ire used is generally made o! Gic+el-C"rome 'Gic"rome( allo*ing temperatures up to 9?;;oC. .ll resistors *"et"er carbon) metal !ilm or *ire *ound obey 1"mDs 3a* *"en calculating t"eir maximum po*er '*attage( #alue. It is also *ort" noting t"at *"en t*o resistors are connected in parallel t"en t"eir o#erall po*er rating is increased. I! bot" resistors are o! t"e same #alue and o! t"e same po*er rating) t"en t"e total po*er rating is doubled.

E+amp"e No5 0"at is t"e maximum po*er rating in 0atts o! a resistor *"ic" "as a #oltage o! 9?V across it and a current o! B;m. !lo*ing t"roug" it. Fi#en t"at *e +no* t"e #oltage and current) *e can substitute t"e #alues into P K V x I.

Capacitors
Wust li+e t"e Resistor) t"e Capacitor) sometimes re!erred to as a Co *e ser) is a simple passi#e de#ice. T"e capacitor is a component *"ic" "as t"e ability or -capacity- to store energy in t"e !orm o! an electrical c"arge producing a potential di!!erence ''tatic (oltage( across its plates) muc" li+e a small rec"argable battery. In its basic !orm) a capacitor consists o! t*o or more parallel conducti#e 'metal( plates *"ic" are not connected or touc"ing eac" ot"er) but are electrically separated eit"er by air or by some !orm o! insulating material suc" as paper) mica) ceramic or plastic and *"ic" is commonly called t"e capacitors /ie"ectric.

. Typical Capacitor T"e conducti#e metal plates o! a capacitor can be eit"er s/uare) circular or rectangular) or t"ey can be o! a cylindrical or sp"erical s"ape *it" t"e general s"ape) si6e and construction o! a parallel plate capacitor depending on its application and #oltage rating. 0"en used in a direct current or C circuit) a capacitor c"arges up to its supply #oltage but bloc+s t"e !lo* o! current t"roug" it because t"e dielectric o! a capacitor is nonconducti#e and basically an insulator. 4o*e#er) *"en a capacitor is connected to an alternating current or .C circuit) t"e !lo* o! t"e current appears to pass straig"t t"roug" t"e capacitor *it" little or no resistance. I! a C #oltage is applied to t"e capacitors conducti#e plates) a current is unable to !lo* t"roug" t"e capacitor itsel! due to t"e dielectric insulation and an electrical c"arge builds up on t"e capacitors plates *it" electrons producing a positi#e c"arge on one and an e/ual and opposite negati#e c"arge on t"e ot"er plate. T"is !lo* o! electrons to t"e plates is +no*n as t"e capacitors C'ar#i # Curre t *"ic" continues to !lo* until t"e #oltage across bot" plates 'and "ence t"e capacitor( is e/ual to t"e applied #oltage Vc. .t t"is point t"e capacitor is said to be -!ully c"arged- *it" electrons. T"e strengt" or rate o! t"is c"arging current is at its maximum #alue *"en t"e plates are !ully disc"arged 'initial condition( and slo*ly reduces in #alue to 6ero as t"e plates c"arge up to a potential di!!erence across t"e capacitors plates e/ual to t"e applied supply #oltage and t"is is illustrated belo*.

Capacitor Co structio

T"e parallel plate capacitor is t"e simplest !orm o! capacitor. It can be constructed using t*o metal or metallised !oil plates at a distance parallel to eac" ot"er) *it" its capacitance #alue in Farads) being !ixed by t"e sur!ace area o! t"e conducti#e plates and t"e distance o! separation bet*een t"em. .ltering any t*o o! t"ese #alues alters t"e t"e #alue o! its capacitance and t"is !orms t"e basis o! operation o! t"e #ariable capacitors. .lso) because capacitors store t"e energy o! t"e electrons in t"e !orm o! an electrical c"arge on t"e plates t"e larger t"e plates and<or smaller t"eir separation t"e greater *ill be t"e c"arge t"at t"e capacitor "olds !or any gi#en #oltage across its plates. In ot"er *ords) larger plates) smaller distance) more capacitance. Hy applying a #oltage to a capacitor and measuring t"e c"arge on t"e plates) t"e ratio o! t"e c"arge % to t"e #oltage V *ill gi#e t"e capacitance #alue o! t"e capacitor and is t"ere!ore gi#en asO C K %<V t"is e/uation can also be re-arranged to gi#e t"e more !amiliar !ormula !or t"e /uantity o! c"arge on t"e plates asO % K C x V .lt"oug" *e "a#e said t"at t"e c"arge is stored on t"e plates o! a capacitor) it is more correct to say t"at t"e energy *it"in t"e c"arge is stored in an -electrostatic !ieldbet*een t"e t*o plates. 0"en an electric current !lo*s into t"e capacitor) c"arging it up) t"e electrostatic !ield becomes more stronger as it stores more energy. 3i+e*ise) as t"e current !lo*s out o! t"e capacitor) disc"arging it) t"e potential di!!erence bet*een t"e t*o plates decreases and t"e electrostatic !ield decreases as t"e energy mo#es out o! t"e plates.

T"e property o! a capacitor to store c"arge on its plates in t"e !orm o! an electrostatic !ield is called t"e Capacita ce o! t"e capacitor. Got only t"at) but capacitance is also t"e property o! a capacitor *"ic" resists t"e c"ange o! #oltage across it. T'e Capacita ce of a Capacitor T"e unit o! capacitance is t"e $ara* 'abbre#iated to F( named a!ter t"e Hritis" p"ysicist &ic"ael Faraday and is de!ined as a capacitor "as t"e capacitance o! O e $ara* *"en a c"arge o! O e Cou"om) is stored on t"e plates by a #oltage o! O e 3o"t. Capacitance) C is al*ays positi#e and "as no negati#e units. 4o*e#er) t"e Farad is a #ery large unit o! measurement to use on its o*n so sub-multiples o! t"e Farad are generally used suc" as micro-!arads) nano-!arads and pico-!arads) !or example. Sta *ar* U its of Capacita ce

&icro!arad 'XF( 9XF K 9<9);;;);;; K ;.;;;;;9 K 9;-= F Gano!arad 'nF( 9nF K 9<9);;;);;;);;; K ;.;;;;;;;;9 K 9;-E F Pico!arad 'pF( 9pF K 9<9);;;);;;);;;);;; K ;.;;;;;;;;;;;9 K 9;-9? F

T"en using t"e in!ormation abo#e *e can construct a simple table to "elp us con#ert bet*een pico-Farad 'pF() to nano-Farad 'nF() to micro-Farad 'uF( and to Farads 'F( as s"o*n. Pico-Farad 9);;; 9;);;; 9);;;);;; Gano-Farad 9.; 9;.; 9);;; 9;);;; 9;;);;; 9);;;);;; &icro-Farad ;.;;9 ;.;9 9.; 9;.; 9;; 9);;; 9;);;; 9;;);;; 9);;;);;; ;.;;9 ;.;9 ;.9 9.; Farads

Capacita ce of a Para""e" P"ate Capacitor T"e capacitance o! a parallel plate capacitor is proportional to t"e area) . o! t"e plates and in#ersely proportional to t"eir distance or separation) d 'i.e. t"e dielectric t"ic+ness( gi#ing us a #alue !or capacitance o! C K +' .<d ( *"ere in a #acuum t"e #alue o! t"e constant + is R.RA x 9;-9? F<m or 9<A.M.E x 9;E) *"ic" is t"e permitti#ity o! !ree space. Fenerally) t"e conducti#e plates o! a capacitor are separated by air or some +ind o! insulating material or gel rat"er t"an t"e #acuum o! !ree space.

T'e /ie"ectric of a Capacitor .s *ell as t"e o#erall si6e o! t"e conducti#e plates and t"eir distance or spacing apart !rom eac" ot"er) anot"er !actor *"ic" a!!ects t"e o#erall capacitance o! t"e de#ice is t"e type o! dielectric material being used. In ot"er *ords t"e -Permitti#ity- 'Y( o! t"e dielectric. T"e conducti#e plates are generally made o! a metal !oil or a metal !ilm but t"e dielectric material is an insulator. T"e #arious insulating materials used as t"e dielectric in a capacitor di!!er in t"eir ability to bloc+ or pass an electrical c"arge. T"is dielectric material can be made !rom a number o! insulating materials or combinations o! t"ese materials *it" t"e most common types used beingO air) paper) polyester) polypropylene) &ylar) ceramic) glass) oil) or a #ariety o! ot"er materials. T"e !actor by *"ic" t"e dielectric material) or insulator) increases t"e capacitance o! t"e capacitor compared to air is +no*n as t"e /ie"ectric Co sta t) , and a dielectric material *it" a "ig" dielectric constant is a better insulator t"an a dielectric material *it" a lo*er dielectric constant. ielectric constant is a dimensionless /uantity since it is relati#e to !ree space. T"e actual permitti#ity or -complex permitti#ity- o! t"e dielectric

material bet*een t"e plates is t"en t"e product o! t"e permitti#ity o! !ree space 'Yo( and t"e relati#e permitti#ity 'Yr( o! t"e material being used as t"e dielectric and is gi#en asO Comp"e+ Permitti3ity

.s t"e permitti#ity o! !ree space) Yo is e/ual to one) t"e #alue o! t"e complex permitti#ity *ill al*ays be e/ual to t"e relati#e permitti#ity. Typical units o! dielectric permitti#ity) Y or dielectric constant !or common materials areO Pure Vacuum K 9.;;;;) .ir K 9.;;;B) Paper K ?.B to C.B) Flass K C to 9;) &ica K B to Q) 0ood K C to R and &etal 1xide Po*ders K = to ?; etc. T"is t"en gi#es us a !inal e/uation !or t"e capacitance o! a capacitor asO

1ne met"od used to increase t"e o#erall capacitance o! a capacitor is to -interlea#e- more plates toget"er *it"in a single capacitor body. Instead o! ,ust one set o! parallel plates) a capacitor can "a#e many indi#idual plates connected toget"er t"ereby increasing t"e area) . o! t"e plate. For example) a capacitor *it" 9; interlea#ed plates *ould produce E '9; - 9( mini capacitors *it" an o#erall capacitance nine times t"at o! a single parallel plate.

&odern capacitors can be classi!ied according to t"e c"aracteristics and properties o! t"eir insulating dielectricO

3o* 3oss) 4ig" Stability suc" as &ica) 3o*-Z Ceramic) Polystyrene. &edium 3oss) &edium Stability suc" as Paper) Plastic Film) 4ig"-Z Ceramic. Polari6ed Capacitors suc" as $lectrolytic2s) Tantalum2s.

Vo"ta#e Rati # of a Capacitor .ll capacitors "a#e a maximum #oltage rating and *"en selecting a capacitor consideration must be gi#en to t"e amount o! #oltage to be applied across t"e capacitor. T"e maximum amount o! #oltage t"at can be applied to t"e capacitor *it"out damage to its dielectric material is generally gi#en in t"e data s"eets asO 0V) '*or+ing #oltage( or as 0V C) ' C *or+ing #oltage(. I! t"e #oltage applied across t"e capacitor becomes too great) t"e dielectric *ill brea+ do*n '+no*n as electrical brea+do*n( and arcing *ill occur bet*een t"e capacitor plates resulting in a s"ort-circuit. T"e *or+ing #oltage o! t"e capacitor depends on t"e type o! dielectric material being used and its t"ic+ness. T"e C *or+ing #oltage o! a capacitor is ,ust t"at) t"e maximum C #oltage and G1T t"e maximum .C #oltage as a capacitor *it" a C #oltage rating o! 9;; #olts C cannot be sa!ely sub,ected to an alternating #oltage o! 9;; #olts. Since an alternating #oltage "as an r.m.s. #alue o! 9;; #olts but a pea+ #alue o! o#er 9A9 #olts[. T"en a capacitor *"ic" is re/uired to operate at 9;; #olts .C s"ould "a#e a *or+ing #oltage o! at least ?;; #olts. In practice) a capacitor s"ould be selected so t"at its *or+ing #oltage eit"er C or .C s"ould be at least B; percent greater t"an t"e "ig"est e!!ecti#e #oltage to be applied to it. .not"er !actor *"ic" a!!ects t"e operation o! a capacitor is /ie"ectric 1ea,a#e. ielectric lea+age occurs in a capacitor as t"e result o! an un*anted lea+age current *"ic" !lo*s t"roug" t"e dielectric material. Fenerally) it is assumed t"at t"e resistance o! t"e dielectric is extremely "ig" and a good insulator bloc+ing t"e !lo* o! C current t"roug" t"e capacitor 'as in a per!ect capacitor( !rom one plate to t"e ot"er. 4o*e#er) i! t"e dielectric material becomes damaged due excessi#e #oltage or o#er temperature) t"e lea+age current t"roug" t"e dielectric *ill become extremely "ig" resulting in a rapid loss o! c"arge on t"e plates and an o#er"eating o! t"e capacitor e#entually resulting in premature !ailure o! t"e capacitor. T"en ne#er use a capacitor in a circuit *it" "ig"er #oltages t"an t"e capacitor is rated !or ot"er*ise it may become "ot and explode.

I tro*uctio to Capacitors Summary T"e ,ob o! a capacitor is to store c"arge onto its plates. T"e amount o! electrical c"arge t"at a capacitor can store on its plates is +no*n as its Capacita ce #alue and depends upon t"ree main !actors.

T"e sur!ace area) . o! t"e t*o conducti#e plates *"ic" ma+e up t"e capacitor) t"e larger t"e area t"e greater t"e capacitance. T"e distance) d bet*een t"e t*o plates) t"e smaller t"e distance t"e greater t"e capacitance. T"e type o! material *"ic" separates t"e t*o plates called t"e -dielectric-) t"e "ig"er t"e permitti#ity o! t"e dielectric t"e greater t"e capacitance. T"e dielectric o! a capacitor is a non-conducting insulating material) suc" as *axed paper) glass) mica di!!erent plastics etc) and pro#ides t"e !ollo*ing ad#antages. T"e dielectric constant is t"e property o! t"e dielectric material and #aries !rom one material to anot"er increasing t"e capacitance by a !actor o! +. T"e dielectric pro#ides mec"anical support bet*een t"e t*o plates allo*ing t"e plates to be closer toget"er *it"out touc"ing. Permitti#ity o! t"e dielectric increases t"e capacitance. T"e dielectric increases t"e maximum operating #oltage compared to air.

Capacitors can be used to bloc+ C current *"ile passing audio signals) pulses) or alternating current) or ot"er time #arying *a#e !orms. T"is ability to bloc+ C currents enables capacitors to be used to smoot" t"e output #oltages o! po*er supplies) to remo#e un*anted spi+es !rom signals t"at *ould ot"er*ise tend to cause damage or !alse triggering o! semiconductors or digital components. Capacitors can also be used to ad,ust t"e !re/uency response o! an audio circuit) or to couple toget"er separate ampli!ier stages t"at must be protected !rom t"e transmission o! C current. .t C a capacitor "as in!inite impedance 'open -circuit() at #ery "ig" !re/uencies a capacitor "as 6ero impedance 's"ort-circuit(. .ll capacitors "a#e a maximum *or+ing #oltage rating) its 0V C so select a capacitor *it" a rating at least B;@ more t"an t"e supply #oltage.

Types of Capacitor T"ere are a #ery) #ery large #ariety o! di!!erent types of capacitor a#ailable in t"e mar+et place and eac" one "as its o*n set o! c"aracteristics and applications) !rom #ery small delicate trimming capacitors up to large po*er metal-can type capacitors used in "ig" #oltage po*er correction and smoot"ing circuits. T"e comparisons bet*een t"e t"e di!!erent types of capacitor is generally made *it" regards to t"e dielectric used bet*een t"e plates. 3i+e resistors) t"ere are also #ariable types o! capacitors *"ic" allo* us to #ary t"eir capacitance #alue !or use in radio or -!re/uency tuning- type circuits. Commercial types o! capacitor are made !rom metallic !oil interlaced *it" t"in s"eets o! eit"er para!!in-impregnated paper or &ylar as t"e dielectric material. Some capacitors loo+ li+e tubes) t"is is because t"e metal !oil plates are rolled up into a cylinder to !orm a small pac+age *it" t"e insulating dielectric material sand*ic"ed in bet*een t"em. Small capacitors are o!ten constructed !rom ceramic materials and t"en dipped into an epoxy resin to seal t"em. $it"er *ay) capacitors play an important part in electronic circuits so "ere are a !e* o! t"e more -common- types o! capacitor a#ailable. /ie"ectric Capacitor /ie"ectric Capacitors are usually o! t"e #ariable type *ere a continuous #ariation o! capacitance is re/uired !or tuning transmitters) recei#ers and transistor radios. Variable dielectric capacitors are multi-plate air-spaced types t"at "a#e a set o! !ixed plates 't"e stator #anes( and a set o! mo#able plates 't"e rotor #anes( *"ic" mo#e in bet*een t"e !ixed plates. T"e position o! t"e mo#ing plates *it" respect to t"e !ixed plates determines t"e o#erall capacitance #alue. T"e capacitance is generally at maximum *"en t"e t*o sets o! plates are !ully mes"ed toget"er. 4ig" #oltage type tuning capacitors "a#e relati#ely large spacings or air-gaps bet*een t"e plates *it" brea+do*n #oltages reac"ing many t"ousands o! #olts. Varia)"e Capacitor Sym)o"s

.s *ell as t"e continuously #ariable types) preset type #ariable capacitors are also a#ailable calledTrimmers. T"ese are generally small de#ices t"at can be ad,usted or -pre-set- to a particular capacitance #alue *it" t"e aid o! a small scre*dri#er and are a#ailable in #ery small capacitances o! B;;pF or less and are non-polari6ed. $i"m Capacitor $i"m Capacitors are t"e most commonly a#ailable o! all types o! capacitors) consisting o! a relati#ely large !amily o! capacitors *it" t"e di!!erence being in t"eir dielectric properties. T"ese include polyester '&ylar() polystyrene) polypropylene) polycarbonate) metallised paper) Te!lon etc. Film type capacitors are a#ailable in capacitance ranges !rom as small as BpF to as large as 9;;uF depending upon t"e actual type o! capacitor and its #oltage rating. Film capacitors also come in an assortment o! s"apes and case styles *"ic" includeO

0rap & Fill '1#al & Round( - *"ere t"e capacitor is *rapped in a tig"t plastic tape and "a#e t"e ends !illed *it" epoxy to seal t"em. $poxy Case 'Rectangular & Round( - *"ere t"e capacitor is encased in a moulded plastic s"ell *"ic" is t"en !illed *it" epoxy. &etal 4ermetically Sealed 'Rectangular & Round( - *"ere t"e capacitor is encased in a metal tube or can and again sealed *it" epoxy. *it" all t"e abo#e case styles a#ailable in bot" .xial and Radial 3eads. $i"m Capacitors *"ic" use polystyrene) polycarbonate or Te!lon as t"eir dielectrics are sometimes called -Plastic capacitors-. T"e construction o! plastic !ilm capacitors is similar to t"at !or paper !ilm capacitors but use a plastic !ilm instead o! paper. T"e main ad#antage o! plastic !ilm capacitors compared to impregnated-paper types is t"at t"ey operate *ell under conditions o! "ig" temperature) "a#e smaller tolerances) a #ery long ser#ice li!e and "ig" reliability. $xamples o! !ilm capacitors are t"e rectangular metali6ed !ilm and cylindrical !ilm & !oil types as s"o*n belo*.

Ra*ia" 1ea* Type

A+ia" 1ea* Type

T"e !ilm and !oil types o! capacitors are made !rom long t"in strips o! t"in metal !oil *it" t"e dielectric material sand*ic"ed toget"er *"ic" are *ound into a tig"t roll and t"en sealed in paper or metal tubes.

Film Capacitor T"ese !ilm types re/uire a muc" t"ic+er dielectric !ilm to reduce t"e ris+ o! tears or punctures in t"e !ilm) and is t"ere!ore more suited to lo*er capacitance #alues and larger case si6es.

&etali6ed !oil capacitors "a#e t"e conducti#e !ilm metali6ed sprayed directly onto eac" side o! t"e dielectric *"ic" gi#es t"e capacitor sel!-"ealing properties and can t"ere!ore use muc" t"inner dielectric !ilms. T"is allo*s !or "ig"er capacitance #alues and smaller case si6es !or a gi#en capacitance. Film and !oil capacitors are generally used !or "ig"er po*er and more precise applications. Ceramic Capacitors Ceramic Capacitors or /isc Capacitors as t"ey are generally called) are made by coating t*o sides o! a small porcelain or ceramic disc *it" sil#er and are t"en stac+ed toget"er to ma+e a capacitor. For #ery lo* capacitance #alues a single ceramic disc o! about C-=mm is used. Ceramic capacitors "a#e a "ig" dielectric constant '4ig"-Z( and are a#ailable so t"at relati#ely "ig" capacitances can be obtained in a small p"ysical si6e.

Ceramic Capacitor T"ey ex"ibit large non-linear c"anges in capacitance against temperature and as a result are used as de-coupling or by-pass capacitors as t"ey are also non-polari6ed de#ices. Ceramic capacitors "a#e #alues ranging !rom a !e* pico!arads to one or t*o micro!arads but t"eir #oltage ratings are generally /uite lo*. Ceramic types o! capacitors generally "a#e a C-digit code printed onto t"eir body to identi!y t"eir capacitance #alue in pico-!arads. Fenerally t"e !irst t*o digits indicate t"e capacitors #alue and t"e t"ird digit indicates t"e number o! 6ero2s to be added. For example) a ceramic disc capacitor *it" t"e mar+ings 9;C *ould indicate 9; and C 6ero2s in pico-!arads *"ic" is e/ui#alent to 9;);;; pF or9;nF. 3i+e*ise) t"e digits 9;A *ould indicate 9; and A 6ero2s in pico-!arads *"ic" is e/ui#alent to 9;;);;; pFor 9;;nF and so on. T"en on t"e image o! a ceramic capacitor abo#e t"e numbers 9BA indicate 9B and A 6ero2s in pico-!arads *"ic" is e/ui#alent to 9B;);;; pF or 9B;nF. 3etter codes are sometimes used to indicate t"eir tolerance #alue suc" asO W K B@) Z K 9;@ or & K ?;@ etc.

E"ectro"ytic Capacitors E"ectro"ytic Capacitors are generally used *"en #ery large capacitance #alues are re/uired. 4ere instead o! using a #ery t"in metallic !ilm layer !or one o! t"e electrodes) a semi-li/uid electrolyte solution in t"e !orm o! a ,elly or paste is used *"ic" ser#es as t"e second electrode 'usually t"e cat"ode(. T"e dielectric is a #ery t"in layer o! oxide *"ic" is gro*n electro-c"emically in production *it" t"e t"ic+ness o! t"e !ilm being less t"an ten microns. T"is insulating layer is so t"in t"at it is possible to ma+e capacitors *it" a large #alue o! capacitance !or a small p"ysical si6e as t"e distance bet*een t"e plates) d is #ery small.

$lectrolytic Capacitor T"e ma,ority o! electrolytic types o! capacitors are Po"arise*) t"at is t"e C #oltage applied to t"e capacitor terminals must be o! t"e correct polarity) i.e. positi#e to t"e positi#e terminal and negati#e to t"e negati#e terminal as an incorrect polarisation *ill brea+ do*n t"e insulating oxide layer and permanent damage may result. .ll polarised electrolytic capacitors "a#e t"eir polarity clearly mar+ed *it" a negati#e sign to indicate t"e negati#e terminal and t"is polarity must be !ollo*ed. E"ectro"ytic Capacitors are generally used in C po*er supply circuits due to t"eir large capacitances and small si6e to "elp reduce t"e ripple #oltage or !or coupling and decoupling applications. 1ne main disad#antage o! electrolytic capacitors is t"eir relati#ely lo* #oltage rating and due to t"e polarisation o! electrolytic capacitors) it !ollo*s t"en t"at t"ey must not be used on .C supplies. $lectrolytic2s generally come in t*o basic !orms5 A"umi um E"ectro"ytic Capacitors and Ta ta"um E"ectro"ytic Capacitors.

E"ectro"ytic Capacitor

5. A"umi um E"ectro"ytic Capacitors T"ere are basically t*o types o! A"umi ium E"ectro"ytic Capacitor) t"e plain !oil type and t"e etc"ed !oil type. T"e t"ic+ness o! t"e aluminium oxide !ilm and "ig" brea+do*n #oltage gi#e t"ese capacitors #ery "ig" capacitance #alues !or t"eir si6e. T"e !oil plates o! t"e capacitor are anodi6ed *it" a C current. T"is anodi6ing process sets up t"e polarity o! t"e plate material and determines *"ic" side o! t"e plate is positi#e and *"ic" side is negati#e. T"e etc"ed !oil type di!!ers !rom t"e plain !oil type in t"at t"e aluminium oxide on t"e anode and cat"ode !oils "as been c"emically etc"ed to increase its sur!ace area and permitti#ity. T"is gi#es a smaller si6ed capacitor t"an a plain !oil type o! e/ui#alent #alue but "as t"e disad#antage o! not being able to *it"stand "ig" C currents compared to t"e plain type. .lso t"eir tolerance range is /uite large at up to ?;@. Typical #alues o! capacitance !or an aluminum electrolytic capacitor range !rom 9uF up to AQ);;;uF. $tc"ed !oil electrolytic2s are best used in coupling) C bloc+ing and by-pass circuits *"ile plain !oil types are better suited as smoot"ing capacitors in po*er supplies. Hut aluminium electrolytic2s are -polarised- de#ices so re#ersing t"e applied #oltage on t"e leads *ill cause t"e insulating layer *it"in t"e capacitor to become destroyed along *it" t"e capacitor. 4o*e#er) t"e electrolyte used *it"in t"e capacitor "elps "eal a damaged plate i! t"e damage is small. Since t"e electrolyte "as t"e properties to sel!-"eal a damaged plate) it also "as t"e ability to re-anodi6e t"e !oil plate. .s t"e anodi6ing process can be re#ersed) t"e electrolyte "as t"e ability to remo#e t"e oxide coating !rom t"e !oil as *ould "appen i! t"e capacitor *as connected *it" a re#erse polarity. Since t"e electrolyte "as t"e ability to conduct

electricity) i! t"e aluminum oxide layer *as remo#ed or destroyed) t"e capacitor *ould allo* current to pass !rom one plate to t"e ot"er destroying t"e capacitor) -so be a*are-. 8. Ta ta"um E"ectro"ytic Capacitors Ta ta"um E"ectro"ytic Capacitors and Ta ta"um Bea*s) are a#ailable in bot" *et '!oil( and dry 'solid( electrolytic types *it" t"e dry or solid tantalum being t"e most common. Solid tantalum capacitors use manganese dioxide as t"eir second terminal and are p"ysically smaller t"an t"e e/ui#alent aluminium capacitors. T"e dielectric properties o! tantalum oxide is also muc" better t"an t"ose o! aluminium oxide gi#ing a lo*er lea+age currents and better capacitance stability *"ic" ma+es t"em suitable !or use in bloc+ing) by-passing) decoupling) !iltering and timing applications. .lso) Ta ta"um Capacitors alt"oug" polarised) can tolerate being connected to a re#erse #oltage muc" more easily t"an t"e aluminium types but are rated at muc" lo*er *or+ing #oltages. Solid tantalum capacitors are usually used in circuits *"ere t"e .C #oltage is small compared to t"e C #oltage. 4o*e#er) some tantalum capacitor types contain t*o capacitors in-one) connected negati#e-to-negati#e to !orm a -non-polarised- capacitor !or use in lo* #oltage .C circuits as a non-polarised de#ice. Fenerally) t"e positi#e lead is identi!ied on t"e capacitor body by a polarity mar+) *it" t"e body o! a tantalum bead capacitor being an o#al geometrical s"ape. Typical #alues o! capacitance range !rom AQnF to AQ;uF. A"umi ium 9 Ta ta"um E"ectro"ytic Capacitor

$lectrolytic2s are *idely used capacitors due to t"eir lo* cost and small si6e but t"ere are t"ree easy *ays to destroy an electrolytic capacitorO

1#er-#oltage - excessi#e #oltage *ill cause current to lea+ t"roug" t"e dielectric resulting in a s"ort circuit condition.

Re#ersed Polarity - re#erse #oltage *ill cause sel!-destruction o! t"e oxide layer and !ailure. 1#er Temperature - excessi#e "eat dries out t"e electrolytic and s"ortens t"e li!e o! an electrolytic capacitor.

Capacitor C'aracteristics T"ere are a be*ildering array o! capacitor c"aracteristics and speci!ications associated *it" t"e "umble capacitor and reading t"e in!ormation printed onto t"e body o! a capacitor can sometimes be di!!icult especially *"en colours or numeric codes are used. $ac" !amily or type o! capacitor uses its o*n uni/ue identi!ication system *it" some systems being easy to understand) and ot"ers t"at use misleading letters) colours or symbols. T"e best *ay to !igure out *"at a capacitor label means is to !irst !igure out *"at type o! !amily t"e capacitor belongs to *"et"er it is ceramic) !ilm) plastic or electrolytic. $#en t"oug" t*o capacitors may "a#e exactly t"e same capacitance #alue) t"ey may "a#e di!!erent #oltage ratings. I! a smaller rated #oltage capacitor is substituted in place o! a "ig"er rated #oltage capacitor) t"e increased #oltage may damage t"e smaller capacitor. .lso *e remember !rom t"e last tutorial t"at *it" a polarised electrolytic capacitor) t"e positi#e lead must go to t"e positi#e connection and t"e negati#e lead to t"e negati#e connection ot"er*ise it may again become damaged. So it is al*ays better to substitute an old or damaged capacitor *it" t"e same type as t"e speci!ied one. .n example o! capacitor mar+ings is gi#en belo*. Capacitor C'aracteristics

T"e capacitor) as *it" any ot"er electronic component) comes de!ined by a series o! c"aracteristics. T"ese Capacitor C'aracteristics can al*ays be !ound in t"e datas"eets t"at t"e capacitor manu!acturer pro#ides to us so "ere are ,ust a !e* o! t"e more important ones.

5. Nomi a" Capacita ce! 6C7 T"e nominal #alue o! t"e Capacita ce) C o! a capacitor is measured in pico-Farads 'pF() nano-Farads 'nF( or micro-Farads '\F( and is mar+ed onto t"e body o! t"e capacitor as numbers) letters or coloured bands. T"e capacitance o! a capacitor can c"ange #alue *it" t"e circuit !re/uency '46( y *it" t"e ambient temperature. Smaller ceramic capacitors can "a#e a nominal #alue as lo* as one pico-Farad) ' 9pF ( *"ile larger electrolytic2s can "a#e a nominal capacitance #alue o! up to one Farad) ' 9F (. .ll capacitors "a#e a tolerance rating t"at can range !rom -?;@ to as "ig" as LR;@ !or aluminium electrolytic2s a!!ecting its actual or real #alue. T"e c"oice o! capacitance is determined by t"e circuit con!iguration but t"e #alue read on t"e side o! a capacitor may not necessarily be its actual #alue. 8. -or,i # Vo"ta#e! 6-V7 T"e -or,i # Vo"ta#e is t"e maximum continuous #oltage eit"er C or .C t"at can be applied to t"e capacitor *it"out !ailure during its *or+ing li!e. Fenerally) t"e *or+ing #oltage printed onto t"e side o! a capacitors body re!ers to its C *or+ing #oltage) ' 0VC (. C and .C #oltage #alues are usually not t"e same !or a capacitor as t"e .C #oltage #alue re!ers to t"e r.m.s. #alue and G1T t"e maximum or pea+ #alue *"ic" is 9.A9A times greater. .lso) t"e speci!ied C *or+ing #oltage is #alid *it"in a certain temperature range) normally - C;]C to L Q;]C. .ny C #oltage in excess o! its *or+ing #oltage or an excessi#e .C ripple current may cause !ailure. It !ollo*s t"ere!ore) t"at a capacitor *ill "a#e a longer *or+ing li!e i! operated in a cool en#ironment and *it"in its rated #oltage. Common *or+ing C #oltages are 9;V) 9=V) ?BV) CBV) B;V) =CV) 9;;V) 9=;V) ?B;V) A;;V and 9;;;V and are printed onto t"e body o! t"e capacitor. :. To"era ce! 6;<7 .s *it" resistors) capacitors also "a#e a To"era ce rating expressed as a plus-or-minus #alue eit"er in pico!arad2s '>pF( !or lo* #alue capacitors generally less t"an 9;;pF or as a percentage '>@( !or "ig"er #alue capacitors generally "ig"er t"an 9;;pF. T"e tolerance #alue is t"e extent to *"ic" t"e actual capacitance is allo*ed to #ary !rom its nominal #alue and can range any*"ere !rom -?;@ to LR;@. T"us a 9;;\F capacitor *it" a >?;@ tolerance could legitimately #ary !rom R;\F to 9?;\F and still remain *it"in tolerance. Capacitors are rated according to "o* near to t"eir actual #alues t"ey are compared to t"e rated nominal capacitance *it" coloured bands or letters used to indicated t"eir actual tolerance. T"e most common tolerance #ariation !or capacitors is B@ or 9;@ but some plastic capacitors are rated as lo* as >9@.

=. 1ea,a#e Curre t T"e dielectric used inside t"e capacitor to separate t"e conducti#e plates is not a per!ect insulator resulting in a #ery small current !lo*ing or -lea+ing- t"roug" t"e dielectric due to t"e in!luence o! t"e po*er!ul electric !ields built up by t"e c"arge on t"e plates *"en applied to a constant supply #oltage. T"is small C current !lo* in t"e region o! nanoamps 'n.( is called t"e capacitors 1ea,a#e Curre t. 3ea+age current is a result o! electrons p"ysically ma+ing t"eir *ay t"roug" t"e dielectric medium) around its edges or across its leads and *"ic" *ill o#er time !ully disc"arging t"e capacitor i! t"e supply #oltage is remo#ed. 0"en t"e lea+age is #ery lo* suc" as in !ilm or !oil type capacitors it is generally re!erred to as -insulation resistance- ' Rp ( and can be expressed as a "ig" #alue resistance in parallel *it" t"e capacitor as s"o*n. 0"en t"e lea+age current is "ig" as in electrolytic2s it is re!erred to as a -lea+age current- as electrons !lo* directly t"roug" t"e electrolyte. Capacitor lea+age current is an important parameter in ampli!ier coupling circuits or in po*er supply circuits) *it" t"e best c"oices !or coupling and<or storage applications being Te!lon and t"e ot"er plastic capacitor types 'polypropylene) polystyrene) etc( because t"e lo*er t"e dielectric constant) t"e "ig"er t"e insulation resistance. $lectrolytic-type capacitors 'tantalum and aluminum( on t"e ot"er "and may "a#e #ery "ig" capacitances) but t"ey also "a#e #ery "ig" lea+age currents 'typically o! t"e order o! about B-?; X. per \F( due to t"eir poor isolation resistance) and are t"ere!ore not suited !or storage or coupling applications. .lso) t"e !lo* o! lea+age current !or aluminium electrolytic2s increases *it" temperature.

>. -or,i # Temperature! 6T7 C"anges in temperature around t"e capacitor a!!ect t"e #alue o! t"e capacitance because o! c"anges in t"e dielectric properties. I! t"e air or surrounding temperature becomes to "ot or to cold t"e capacitance #alue o! t"e capacitor may c"ange so muc" as to a!!ect t"e correct operation o! t"e circuit. T"e normal *or+ing range !or most capacitors is -C;]C to L9?B]C *it" nominal #oltage ratings gi#en !or a -or,i # Temperature o! no more t"an LQ;]C especially !or t"e plastic capacitor types. Fenerally !or electrolytic capacitors and especially aluminium electrolytic capacitor) at "ig" temperatures 'o#er LRB]C t"e li/uids *it"in t"e electrolyte can be lost to e#aporation) and t"e body o! t"e capacitor 'especially t"e small si6es( may become de!ormed due to t"e internal pressure and lea+ outrig"t. .lso) electrolytic capacitors can not be used at lo* temperatures) belo* about -9;]C) as t"e electrolyte ,elly !ree6es. ?. Temperature Coefficie t! 6TC7 T"e Temperature Coefficie t o! a capacitor is t"e maximum c"ange in its capacitance o#er a speci!ied temperature range. T"e temperature coe!!icient o! a capacitor is generally expressed linearly as parts per million per degree centigrade 'PP&<]C() or as a percent c"ange o#er a particular range o! temperatures. Some capacitors are non linear 'Class ? capacitors( and increase t"eir #alue as t"e temperature rises gi#ing t"em a temperature coe!!icient t"at is expressed as a positi#e -P-. Some capacitors decrease t"eir #alue as t"e temperature rises gi#ing t"em a temperature coe!!icient t"at is expressed as a negati#e -G-. For example -P9;;- is L9;; ppm<]C or -G?;;-) *"ic" is -?;; ppm<]C etc. 4o*e#er) some capacitors do not c"ange t"eir #alue and remain constant o#er a certain temperature range) suc" capacitors "a#e a 6ero temperature coe!!icient or -GP1-. T"ese types o! capacitors suc" as &ica or Polyester are generally re!erred to as Class 9 capacitors. &ost capacitors) especially electrolytic2s lose t"eir capacitance *"en t"ey get "ot but temperature compensating capacitors are a#ailable in t"e range o! at least P9;;; t"roug" to GB;;; 'L9;;; ppm<C t"roug" to -B;;; ppm<C(. It is also possible to connect a capacitor *it" a positi#e temperature coe!!icient in series or parallel *it" a capacitor "a#ing a negati#e temperature coe!!icient t"e net result being t"at t"e t*o opposite e!!ects *ill cancel eac" ot"er out o#er a certain range o! temperatures. .not"er use!ul application o! temperature coe!!icient capacitors is to use t"em to cancel out t"e e!!ect o! temperature on ot"er components *it"in a circuit) suc" as inductors or resistors etc.

@. Po"ari(atio Capacitor Po"ari(atio generally re!ers to t"e electrolytic type capacitors but mainly t"e .luminium $lectrolytic2s) *it" regards to t"eir electrical connection. T"e ma,ority o! electrolytic capacitors are polari6ed types) t"at is t"e #oltage connected to t"e capacitor terminals must "a#e t"e correct polarity) i.e. positi#e to positi#e and negati#e to negati#e. Incorrect polari6ation can cause t"e oxide layer inside t"e capacitor to brea+ do*n resulting in #ery large currents !lo*ing t"roug" t"e de#ice resulting in destruction as *e "a#e mentioned earlier. T"e ma,ority o! electrolytic capacitors "a#e t"eir negati#e) -#eterminal clearly mar+ed *it" eit"er a blac+ stripe) band) arro*s or c"e#rons do*n one side o! t"eir body as s"o*n) to pre#ent any incorrect connection to t"e C supply. Some larger electrolytic2s "a#e t"eir metal can or body connected to t"e negati#e terminal but "ig" #oltage types "a#e t"eir metal can insulated *it" t"e electrodes being broug"t out to separate spade or scre* terminals !or sa!ety. .lso) *"en using aluminium electrolytic2s in po*er supply smoot"ing circuits care s"ould be ta+en to pre#ent t"e sum o! t"e pea+ C #oltage and .C ripple #oltage !rom becoming a -re#erse #oltage-. A. E%ui3a"e t Series Resista ce! 6ESR7 T"e E%ui3a"e t Series Resista ce or ESR) o! a capacitor is t"e .C impedance o! t"e capacitor *"en used at "ig" !re/uencies and includes t"e resistance o! t"e dielectric material) t"e C resistance o! t"e terminal leads) t"e C resistance o! t"e connections to t"e dielectric and t"e capacitor plate resistance all measured at a particular !re/uency and temperature.

$SR &odel

In some *ays) $SR is t"e opposite o! t"e insulation resistance *"ic" is presented as a pure resistance 'no capaciti#e or inducti#e reactance( in parallel *it" t"e capacitor. .n ideal capacitor *ould "a#e only capacitance but $SR is presented as a pure resistance 'less t"an ;.97( in series *it" t"e capacitor '"ence t"e name $/ui#alent Series Resistance() and *"ic" is !re/uency dependant ma+ing it a - PG.&IC- /uantity. .s $SR de!ines t"e energy losses o! t"e -e/ui#alent- series resistance o! a capacitor it must t"ere!ore determine t"e capacitor2s o#erall I?R "eating losses especially *"en used in po*er and s*itc"ing circuits. Capacitors *it" a relati#ely "ig" $SR "a#e less ability to pass current to and !rom its plates to t"e external circuit because o! t"eir longer c"arging and disc"arging RC time constant. T"e $SR o! electrolytic capacitors increases o#er time as t"eir electrolyte dries out. Capacitors *it" #ery lo* $SR ratings are a#ailable and are best suited *"en using t"e capacitor as a !ilter. .s a !inal note) capacitors *it" small capacitances 'less t"an ;.;9 uF( generally do not pose muc" danger to "umans. 4o*e#er) *"en t"eir capacitances start to exceed ;.9 uF) touc"ing t"e capacitor leads can be a s"oc+ing experience. Capacitors "a#e t"e ability to store an electrical c"arge in t"e !orm o! a #oltage across t"emsel#es e#en *"en t"ere is no circuit current !lo*ing) gi#ing t"em a sort o! memory *it" large electrolytic type reser#oir capacitors !ound in tele#ision sets) p"oto !las"es and capacitor ban+s potentially storing a let"al c"arge. .s a general rule o! t"umb) ne#er touc" t"e leads o! large #alue capacitors once t"e po*er supply is remo#ed. I! you are unsure about t"eir condition or t"e sa!e "andling o! t"ese large capacitors) see+ "elp or expert ad#ice be!ore "andling t"em. Capacita ce a * C'ar#e 0e sa* in t"e pre#ious tutorials t"at a Capacitor consists o! t*o parallel conducti#e plates 'usually a metal( *"ic" are pre#ented !rom touc"ing eac" ot"er 'separated( by an insulating material called t"e -dielectric-. 0e also sa* t"at *"en a #oltage is applied to t"ese plates an electrical current !lo*s c"arging up one plate *it" a positi#e c"arge *it" respect to t"e supply #oltage and t"e ot"er plate *it" an e/ual and opposite negati#e c"arge. T"en) a capacitor "as t"e ability o! being able to store an electrical c"arge % 'units in Cou"om)s( o! electrons. 0"en a capacitor is !ully c"arged t"ere is a potential di!!erence) p.d. bet*een its plates) and t"e larger t"e area o! t"e plates and<or t"e smaller t"e distance bet*een t"em '+no*n as separation( t"e greater *ill be t"e c"arge t"at t"e capacitor can "old and t"e greater *ill be its Capacita ce.

T"e Capacitors ability to store t"is electrical c"arge ' % ( bet*een its plates is proportional to t"e applied #oltage) V !or a capacitor o! +no*n capacitance in Farads. Capacitance C is al*ays positi#e and ne#er negati#e. T"e greater t"e applied #oltage t"e greater *ill be t"e c"arge stored on t"e plates o! t"e capacitor. 3i+e*ise) t"e smaller t"e applied #oltage t"e smaller t"e c"arge. T"ere!ore) t"e actual c"arge% on t"e plates o! t"e capacitor and can be calculated asO C'ar#e o a Capacitor

0"ereO % 'C"arge) in Coulombs( K C 'Capacitance) in Farads( x V 'Voltage) in Volts( It is sometimes easier to remember t"is relations"ip by using pictures. 4ere t"e t"ree /uantities o! %)C and V "a#e been superimposed into a triangle gi#ing c"arge at t"e top *it" capacitance and #oltage at t"e bottom. T"is arrangement represents t"e actual position o! eac" /uantity in t"e Capacitor Charge!ormulas.

and transposing t"e abo#e e/uation gi#es us t"e !ollo*ing combinations o! t"e same e/uationO

Snits o!O % measured in Coulombs) V in #olts and C in Farads.

T"en !rom abo#e *e can de!ine t"e unit o! Capacita ce as being a constant o! proportionality being e/ual to t"e coulomb<#olt *"ic" is also called a $ara*) unit F. .s capacitance represents t"e capacitors ability 'capacity( to store an electrical c"arge on its plates *e can de!ine one Farad as t"e -capacitance of a capacitor which requires a charge of one coulomb to establish a potential difference of one volt between its platesas !irstly described by &ic"ael Faraday. So t"e larger t"e capacitance) t"e "ig"er is t"e amount o! c"arge stored on a capacitor !or t"e same amount o! #oltage. T"e ability o! a capacitor to store a c"arge on its conducti#e plates gi#es it its Capacita ce #alue. Capacitance can also be determined !rom t"e dimensions or area) . o! t"e plates and t"e properties o! t"e dielectric material bet*een t"e plates. . measure o! t"e dielectric material is gi#en by t"e permitti#ity) ' Y () or t"e dielectric constant. So anot"er *ay o! expressing t"e capacitance o! a capacitor is5 &it' Air as its *ie"ectric

&it' a So"i* as its *ie"ectric

*"ere . is t"e area o! t"e plates in s/uare metres) m? *it" t"e larger t"e area) t"e more c"arge t"e capacitor can store. d is t"e distance or separation bet*een t"e t*o plates. T"e smaller is t"is distance) t"e "ig"er is t"e ability o! t"e plates to store c"arge) since t"e -#e c"arge on t"e -% c"arged plate "as a greater e!!ect on t"e L% c"arged plate) resulting in more electrons being repelled o!! o! t"e L% c"arged plate) and t"us increasing t"e o#erall c"arge. Y; 'epsilon( is t"e #alue o! t"e permitti#ity !or air *"ic" is R.RA x 9;-9? F<m) and Yr is t"e permitti#ity o! t"e dielectric medium used bet*een t"e t*o plates.

Para""e" P"ate Capacitor

0e "a#e said pre#iously t"at t"e capacitance o! a parallel plate capacitor is proportional to t"e sur!ace area . and in#ersely proportional to t"e distance) d bet*een t"e t*o plates and t"is is true !or dielectric medium o! air. 4o*e#er) t"e capacitance #alue o! a capacitor can be increased by inserting a solid medium in bet*een t"e conducti#e plates *"ic" "as a dielectric constant greater t"an t"at o! air. Typical #alues o! epsilon Y !or #arious commonly used dielectric materials areO .ir K 9.;) Paper K ?.B - C.B) Flass K C - 9;) &ica K B - Q etc. T"e !actor by *"ic" t"e dielectric material) or insulator) increases t"e capacitance o! t"e capacitor compared to air is +no*n as t"e /ie"ectric Co sta t) ',(. -+- is t"e ratio o! t"e permitti#ity o! t"e dielectric medium being used to t"e permitti#ity o! !ree space ot"er*ise +no*n as a #acuum. T"ere!ore) all t"e capacitance #alues are related to t"e permitti#ity o! #acuum. . dielectric material *it" a "ig" dielectric constant is a better insulator t"an a dielectric material *it" a lo*er dielectric constant. ielectric constant is a dimensionless /uantity since it is relati#e to !ree space.

E+amp"e No5 . parallel plate capacitor consists o! t*o plates *it" a total sur!ace area o! 9;; cm?. 0"at *ill be t"e capacitance in pico-Farads) 'pF( o! t"e capacitor i! t"e plate separation is ;.? cm) and t"e dielectric medium used is air.

t"en t"e #alue o! t"e capacitor is AApF. C'ar#i # 9 /isc'ar#i # of a Capacitor Consider t"e !ollo*ing circuit.

.ssume t"at t"e capacitor is !ully disc"arged and t"e s*itc" connected to t"e capacitor "as ,ust been mo#ed to position .. T"e #oltage across t"e 9;;u! capacitor is 6ero at t"is point and a c"arging current ' i ( begins to !lo* c"arging up t"e capacitor until t"e #oltage across t"e plates is e/ual to t"e 9?# supply #oltage. T"e c"arging current stops !lo*ing and t"e capacitor is said to be -!ully-c"arged-. T"en) Vc K Vs K 9?#.

1nce t"e capacitor is -!ully-c"arged- in t"eory it *ill maintain its state o! #oltage c"arge e#en *"en t"e supply #oltage "as been disconnected as t"ey act as a sort o! temporary storage de#ice. 4o*e#er) *"ile t"is may be true o! an -ideal- capacitor) a real capacitor *ill slo*ly disc"arge itsel! o#er a long period o! time due to t"e internal lea+age currents !lo*ing t"roug" t"e dielectric. T"is is an important point to remember as large #alue capacitors connected across "ig" #oltage supplies can still maintain a signi!icant amount o! c"arge e#en *"en t"e supply #oltage is s*itc"ed -1FF-. I! t"e s*itc" *as disconnected at t"is point) t"e capacitor *ould maintain its c"arge inde!initely) but due to internal lea+age currents !lo*ing across its dielectric t"e capacitor *ould #ery slo*ly begin to disc"arge itsel! as t"e electrons passed t"roug" t"e dielectric. T"e time ta+en !or t"e capacitor to disc"arge do*n to CQ@ o! its supply #oltage is +no*n as its Time Co sta t. I! t"e s*itc" is no* mo#ed !rom position . to position H) t"e !ully c"arged capacitor *ould start to disc"arge t"roug" t"e lamp no* connected across it) illuminating t"e lamp until t"e capacitor *as !ully disc"arged as t"e element o! t"e lamp "as a resisti#e #alue. T"e brig"tness o! t"e lamp and t"e duration o! illumination *ould ultimately depend upon t"e capacitance #alue o! t"e capacitor and t"e resistance o! t"e lamp 't K C x R(. T"e larger t"e #alue o! t"e capacitor t"e brig"ter and longer *ill be t"e illumination o! t"e lamp as it could store more c"arge. Curre t t'rou#' a Capacitor T"e current t"at !lo*s t"roug" a capacitor is directly related to t"e c"arge on t"e plates as current is t"e rate o! !lo* o! c"arge *it" respect to time. .s t"e capacitors ability to store c"arge '%( bet*een its plates is proportional to t"e applied #oltage 'V() t"e relations"ip bet*een t"e current and t"e #oltage t"at is applied to t"e plates o! a capacitor becomesO Curre t-Vo"ta#e 6I-V7 Re"atio s'ip

.s t"e #oltage across t"e plates increases 'or decreases( o#er time) t"e current !lo*ing t"roug" t"e capacitance deposits 'or remo#es( c"arge !rom its plates *it" t"e amount o! c"arge being proportional to t"e applied #oltage. T"en bot" t"e current and #oltage applied to a capacitance are !unctions o! time and are denoted by t"e

symbols) i't( and #'t( 4o*e#er) !rom t"e abo#e e/uation *e can also see t"at i! t"e #oltage remains constant) t"e c"arge *ill become constant and t"ere!ore t"e current *ill be 6ero[. In ot"er *ords) no c"ange in #oltage) no mo#ement o! c"arge and no !lo* o! current. T"is is *"y a capacitor appears to -bloc+- current !lo* *"en connected to a steady state C #oltage. T'e $ara* 0e no* +no* t"at t"e ability o! a capacitor to store a c"arge gi#es it its capacitance #alue C) *"ic" "as t"e unit o! t"e $ara*! $. Hut t"e !arad is an extremely large unit on its o*n ma+ing it impractical to use) so submultiple2s or !ractions o! t"e standard Farad unit are used instead. To get an idea o! "o* big a Farad really is) t"e sur!ace area o! t"e plates re/uired to produce a capacitor *it" a #alue o! one Farad *it" a reasonable plate separation o! ,ust 9mm operating in a #acuum and rearranging t"e e/uation !or capacitance abo#e *ould beO . K Cd T R.RBpF<m K '9 x ;.;;9( T R.RBx9;-9? K 99?)EEA)CB; m? or 99C million m? *"ic" *ould be e/ui#alent to a plate o! more t"an 9; +ilometres x 9; +ilometres s/uare. Capacitors *"ic" "a#e a #alue o! one Farad or more tend to "a#e a solid dielectric and as -1ne Farad- is suc" a large unit to use) pre!ixes are used instead in electronic !ormulas *it" capacitor #alues gi#en in micro-Farads 'XF() nano-Farads 'nF( and t"e pico-Farads 'pF(. For exampleO Su)-u its of t'e $ara*

Con#ert t"e !ollo*ing capacitance #alues !rom a( 88 $ to u$) b( B.8u$ to $) c( >>Bp$ to u$. a( ??nF K ;.;??uF b( ;.?uF K ?;;nF c( BB;pF K ;.;;;BBuF

0"ile one Farad is a large #alue on its o*n) capacitors are no* commonly a#ailable *it" capacitance #alues o! many "undreds o! Farads and "a#e names to re!lect t"is o! -Super capacitors- or -Sltra capacitors-. T"ese capacitors are electroc"emical energy storage de#ices *"ic" utili6e a "ig" sur!ace area o! t"eir carbon dielectric to deli#er muc" "ig"er energy densities t"an con#entional capacitors and as capacitance is proportional to t"e sur!ace area o! t"e carbon) t"e t"ic+er t"e carbon t"e more capacitance it "as. 3o* #oltage '!rom about C.BV to B.BV( super capacitors are capable o! storing large amounts o! c"arge due to t"eir "ig" capacitance #alues as t"e energy stored in a capacitor is e/ual to 9<?'C x V?(. 3o* #oltage super capacitors are commonly used in portable "and "eld de#ices to replace large) expensi#e and "ea#y lit"ium type batteries as t"ey gi#e battery-li+e storage and disc"arge c"aracteristics ma+ing t"em ideal !or use as an alternati#e po*er source or !or memory bac+up. Super capacitors used in "and "eld de#ices are usually c"arged using solar cells !itted to t"e de#ice. Sltra capacitor are being de#eloped !or use in "ybrid electric cars and alternati#e energy applications to replace large con#entional batteries as *ell as C smoot"ing applications in #e"icle audio and #ideo systems. Sltra capacitors can be rec"arged /uic+ly and "a#e #ery "ig" energy storage densities ma+ing t"em ideal !or use in electric #e"icle applications. E er#y i a Capacitor 0"en a capacitor c"arges up !rom t"e po*er supply connected to it) an electrostatic !ield is establis"ed *"ic" stores energy in t"e capacitor. T"e amount o! energy in Cou"es t"at is stored in t"is electrostatic !ield is e/ual to t"e energy t"e #oltage supply exerts to maintain t"e c"arge on t"e plates o! t"e capacitor and is gi#en by t"e !ormulaO

so t"e energy stored in t"e 9;;uF capacitor circuit abo#e is calculated asO

T"e next tutorial in our section about Capacitors) *e loo+ at Capacitor Co"our Co*es and see t"e di!!erent *ays t"at t"e capacitance and #oltage #alues o! t"e capacitor are mar+ed onto its body. Capacitor Co"our Co*es Fenerally) t"e actual #alues o! Capacitance) Voltage or Tolerance are mar+ed onto t"e body o! t"e capacitors in t"e !orm o! alp"anumeric c"aracters. 4o*e#er) *"en t"e #alue o! t"e capacitance is o! a decimal #alue problems arise *it" t"e mar+ing o! a - ecimal Point- as it could easily not be noticed resulting in a misreading o! t"e actual #alue. Instead letters suc" as p 'pico( or n 'nano( are used in place o! t"e decimal point to identi!y its position and t"e *eig"t o! t"e number. For example) a capacitor can be labelled as) nAQ K ;.AQnF) AnQ K A.QnF or AQn K AQnF and so on. .lso) sometimes capacitors are mar+ed *it" t"e capital letter Z to signi!y a #alue o! one t"ousand pico-Farads) so !or example) a capacitor *it" t"e mar+ings o! 9;;Z *ould be 9;; x 9;;;pF or 9;;nF. To reduce t"e con!usion regarding letters) numbers and decimal points) an International colour coding sc"eme *as de#eloped many years ago as a simple *ay o! identi!ying capacitor #alues and tolerances. It consists o! coloured bands 'in spectral order( +no*n commonly as t"e Capacitor Co"our Co*esystem and *"ose meanings are illustrated belo*O

Capacitor Co"our Co*e Ta)"e igit . ; 9 ? C A B = Q R E igit H ; 9 ? C A B = Q R E x;.;9 x;.9 x;.9 x;.;9 LR;@)?;@ > 9;@ > B@ > 9;@ > 9.;pF Temperature &ultiplier Tolerance Tolerance Coe!!icient 'T( : 9;p! 'T( 8 9;p! 'TC( x9 x9; x9;; x9);;; x9;);;; x9;;);;; x9);;;);;; > ?;@ > 9@ > ?@ > C@ > A@ > B@ > ;.BpF > ?.;pF > ;.9pF > ;.?BpF -CCx9;-= -QBx9;-= -9B;x9;-= -??;x9;-= -CC;x9;-= -AQ;x9;-= -QB;x9;-=

Colour Hlac+ Hro*n Red 1range Pello* Freen Hlue Violet Frey 0"ite Fold Sil#er

Capacitor Vo"ta#e Co"our Co*e Ta)"e Voltage Rating 'V( Type W A = 9; 9B ?; ?B CB Type Z 9;; ?;; C;; A;; B;; =;; Q;; =C; A;; 9;; ?B; Type 3 Type & 9; 9.= A A; =.C 9= = 9B ?; CB Type G 9;

Colour Hlac+ Hro*n Red 1range Pello* Freen Hlue

Violet Frey 0"ite Fold Sil#er

B;

R;; E;; ?B ?.B ?B C

9;;; ?;;;

Capacitor Vo"ta#e Refere ce

Type W - ipped Tantalum Capacitors. Type Z - &ica Capacitors. Type 3 - Polyester<Polystyrene Capacitors. Type & - $lectrolytic A Hand Capacitors. Type G - $lectrolytic C Hand Capacitors.

.n example o! t"e use o! capacitor colour codes is gi#en asO Meta"ise* Po"yester Capacitor

/isc 9 Ceramic Capacitor

T"e Capacitor Co"our Co*e system *as used !or many years on unpolarised polyester and mica moulded capacitors. T"is system o! colour coding is no* obsolete but t"ere are still many -old- capacitors around. Go*adays) small capacitors suc" as !ilm or dis+ types con!orm to t"e HS9RB? Standard and its ne* replacement) HS $G =;;=?) *ere t"e colours "a#e been replaced by a letter or number coded system. Fenerally t"e code consists o! ? or C numbers and an optional tolerance letter code to identi!y t"e tolerance. 0"ere a t*o number code is used t"e #alue o! t"e capacitor only is gi#en in pico!arads) !or example) AQ K AQ pF and 9;; K 9;;pF etc. . t"ree letter code consists o! t"e t*o #alue digits and a multiplier muc" li+e t"e resistor colour codes in t"e resistors section. For example) t"e digits AQ9 K AQ^9; K AQ;pF. T"ree digit codes are o!ten accompanied by an additional tolerance letter code as gi#en belo*. Capacitor To"era ce 1etter Co*es Ta)"e 3etter Tolerance C :9;pF >@ H C ;.B F 9 9 F ? ? B 9; ?; LR;-?; W Z & I

C 89;pF >pF ;.9 ;.?B ;.B

Consider t"e capacitor belo*O T"e capacitor on t"e le!t is o! a ceramic disc type capacitor t"at "as t"e code AQCW printed onto its body. T"en t"e A K 9st digit) t"e Q K ?nd digit) t"e C is t"e multiplier in pico-Farads) pF and t"e letter W is t"e tolerance and t"is translates toO AQpF ^ 9);;; 'C 6ero2s( K AQ);;; pF ) AQnF or ;.;AQ uF t"e W indicates a tolerance o! L<- B@ T"en by ,ust using numbers and letters as codes on t"e body o! t"e capacitor *e can easily determine t"e #alue o! its capacitance eit"er in Pico-!arad2s) Gano-!arads or &icro!arads and a list o! t"ese -international- codes is gi#en in t"e !ollo*ing table along *it" t"eir e/ui#alent capacitances.

Capacitor 1etter Co*es Ta)"e Picofara* Na ofara* Microfara* Picofara* Na ofara* Microfara* Co*e Co*e 6p$7 6 $7 6u$7 6p$7 6 $7 6u$7 9; 9B ?? CC AQ 9;; 9?; 9C; 9B; 9R; ??; CC; AQ; B=; =R; QB; R?; 9;;; 9B;; ?;;; ??;; CC;; ;.;9 ;.;9B ;.;?? ;.;CC ;.;AQ ;.9 ;.9? ;.9C ;.9B ;.9R ;.?? ;.CC ;.AQ ;.B= ;.=R ;.QB ;.R? 9.; 9.B ?.; ?.? C.C ;.;;;;9 ;.;;;;9B ;.;;;;?? ;.;;;;CC ;.;;;;AQ ;.;;;9 ;.;;;9? ;.;;;9C ;.;;;9B ;.;;;9R ;.;;;?? ;.;;;CC ;.;;;AQ ;.;;;B= ;.;;;=R ;.;;;QB ;.;;;R? ;.;;9 ;.;;9B ;.;;? ;.;;?? ;.;;CC 9;; 9B; ??; CC; AQ; 9;9 9?9 9C9 9B9 9R9 ??9 CC9 AQ9 B=9 =R9 QB9 R?9 AQ;; B;;; B=;; =R;; 9;;;; 9B;;; ??;;; CC;;; AQ;;; =R;;; 9;;;;; 9B;;;; ?;;;;; ??;;;; CC;;;; AQ;;;; =R;;;; A.Q B.; B.= =.R 9; 9B ?? CC AQ =R 9;; 9B; ?;; ??; CC; AQ; =R; 9;;; 9B;; ?;;; ??;; CC;; ;.;;AQ ;.;;B ;.;;B= ;.;;=R ;.;9 ;.;9B ;.;?? ;.;CC ;.;AQ ;.;=R ;.9 ;.9B ;.? ;.?? ;.CC ;.AQ ;.=R 9.; 9.B ?.; ?.? C.C AQ? B;? B=? =R? 9;C 9BC ??C CCC AQC =RC 9;A 9BA ?BA ??A CCA AQA =RA 9;B 9BB ?;B ??B CCB

9;? 9;;;;;; 9B? 9B;;;;; ?;? ?;;;;;; ??? ??;;;;; CC? CC;;;;;

T"e next tutorial in our section about Capacitors) *e loo+ at connecting toget"er Capacitor i Para""e" and see t"at t"e total capacitance is t"e sum o! t"e indi#idual capacitors.

Capacitors i Para""e" Capacitors are said to be connected toget"er -in parallel- *"en bot" o! t"eir terminals are respecti#ely connected to eac" terminal o! t"e ot"er capacitor or capacitors. T"e #oltage ' Vc ( connected across all t"e capacitors t"at are connected in parallel is TDE SAME. T"en) Capacitors i Para""e" "a#e a -common #oltage- supply across t"em gi#ing VC9 K VC? K VCC K V.H K 9?V In t"e !ollo*ing circuit t"e capacitors) C9) C? and CC are all connected toget"er in a parallel branc" bet*een points . and H as s"o*n.

0"en capacitors are connected toget"er in parallel t"e total or e/ui#alent capacitance) CT in t"e circuit is e/ual to t"e sum o! all t"e indi#idual capacitors added toget"er. T"is is because t"e top plate o! capacitor) C9 is connected to t"e top plate o! C? *"ic" is connected to t"e top plate o! CC and so on. T"e same is also true o! t"e bottom plates. T"en it is t"e same as i! t"e t"ree sets o! plates *ere touc"ing eac" ot"er and e/ual to one large single plate t"ereby increasing t"e e!!ecti#e plate area in m?. Since capacitance) C is related to plate area ' C K Y .<d ( t"e capacitance #alue o! t"e combination *ill also increase. T"en t"e total capacitance #alue o! t"e capacitors connected toget"er in parallel is actually calculated by adding t"e plate area toget"er. In ot"er *ords) t"e total capacitance is e/ual to t"e sum o! all t"e indi#idual capacitances in parallel. Pou may "a#e noticed t"at t"e total capacitance o! parallel capacitors is !ound in t"e same *ay as t"e total resistance o! series resistors. T"e currents !lo*ing t"roug" eac" capacitor and as *e sa* in t"e pre#ious tutorial are related to t"e #oltage. T"en by applying 2irc'off0s Curre t 1a&) ' ZC3 ( to t"e abo#e circuit) *e "a#e

and t"is can be re-*ritten asO

T"en *e can de!ine t"e total or e/ui#alent circuit capacitance) CT as being t"e sum o! all t"e indi#idual capacitances add toget"er gi#ing us t"e generali6ed e/uation o! Para""e" Capacitors E%uatio

0"en adding toget"er capacitors in parallel) t"ey must all be con#erted to t"e same capacitance units) *"et"er it is uF) nF or pF. .lso) *e can see t"at t"e current !lo*ing t"roug" t"e total capacitance #alue)CT is t"e same as t"e total circuit current) iT 0e can also de!ine t"e total capacitance o! t"e parallel circuit !rom t"e total stored coulomb c"arge using t"e % K CV e/uation !or c"arge on a capacitors plates. T"e total c"arge %T stored on all t"e plates e/uals t"e sum o! t"e indi#idual stored c"arges on eac" capacitor t"ere!ore)

.s t"e #oltage) ' V ( is common !or parallel connected capacitors) *e can di#ide bot" sides o! t"e abo#e e/uation t"roug" by t"e #oltage lea#ing ,ust t"e capacitance and by simply adding toget"er t"e #alue o! t"e indi#idual capacitances gi#es t"e total capacitance) CT. .lso) t"is e/uation is not dependant upon t"e number o! Capacitors i Para""e" in t"e branc") and can t"ere!ore be generali6ed !or any number o!G parallel capacitors connected toget"er. E+amp"e No5 So by ta+ing t"e #alues o! t"e t"ree capacitors !rom t"e abo#e example) *e can calculate t"e total e/ui#alent circuit capacitance CT as beingO CT K C9 L C? L CC K ;.9uF L ;.?uF L ;.CuF K ;.=uF

1ne important point to remember about parallel connected capacitor circuits) t"e total capacitance ' CT ( o! any t*o or more capacitors connected toget"er in parallel *ill al*ays be 4REATER t"an t"e #alue o! t"e largest capacitor in t"e group as *e are adding toget"er #alues. So in our example abo#e CT K ;.=uF *"ereas t"e largest #alue capacitor is only ;.CuF. 0"en A) B) = or e#en more capacitors are connected toget"er t"e total capacitance o! t"e circuit CT*ould still be t"e sum o! all t"e indi#idual capacitors added toget"er and as *e +no* no*) t"e total capacitance o! a parallel circuit is al*ays greater t"an t"e "ig"est #alue capacitor. T"is is because *e "a#e e!!ecti#ely increased t"e total sur!ace area o! t"e plates. I! *e do t"is *it" t*o identical capacitors) *e "a#e doubled t"e sur!ace area o! t"e plates *"ic" inturn doubles t"e capacitance o! t"e combination and so on.

E+amp"e No8. Calculate t"e combined capacitance in micro-Farads 'uF( o! t"e !ollo*ing capacitors *"en t"ey are connected toget"er in a parallel combinationO a( t*o capacitors eac" *it" a capacitance o! AQnF b( one capacitor o! AQ;nF connected in parallel to a capacitor o! 9uF a( Total Capacitance) CT K C9 L C? K AQnF L AQnF K EAnF or ;.;EAuF b( Total Capacitance) CT K C9 L C? K AQ;nF L 9uF t"ere!ore) CT K AQ;nF L 9;;;nF K 9AQ;nF or 9.AQuF

So) t"e total or e/ui#alent capacitance) CT o! a circuit containing Capacitors i Para""e" is t"e sum o! t"e all t"e indi#idual capacitances added toget"er and in our next tutorial about Capacitors) *e loo+ at connecting toget"er Capacitors i Series and t"e a!!ect t"is combination "as on t"e circuits total capacitance) #oltage and current. Capacitors i Series Capacitors are said to be connected toget"er -in series- *"en t"ey are e!!ecti#ely -daisy c"ained- toget"er in a single line. T"e c"arging current ' iC ( !lo*ing t"roug" t"e capacitors is TDE SAME !or all capacitors as it only "as one pat" to !ollo* and iT K i9 K i? K iC etc. T"en) Capacitors i Series all "a#e t"e same current so eac" capacitor stores t"e same amount o! c"arge regardless o! its capacitance. T"is is because t"e c"arge stored by a plate o! any one capacitor must "a#e come !rom t"e plate o! its ad,acent capacitor. T"ere!ore) capacitors connected toget"er in series must "a#e t"e same c"arge %. %T K %9 K %? K %C ....etc Consider t"e !ollo*ing circuit in *"ic" t"e t"ree capacitors) C9) C? and CC are all connected toget"er in a series branc" across a supply #oltage bet*een points . and H.

Capacitors i a Series Co

ectio

In t"e pre#ious parallel circuit *e sa* t"at t"e total capacitance) CT o! t"e circuit *as e/ual to t"e sum o! all t"e indi#idual capacitors added toget"er. In a series connected circuit "o*e#er) t"e total or e/ui#alent capacitance CT is calculated di!!erently. In t"e series circuit abo#e t"e rig"t "and plate o! t"e !irst capacitor) C9 is connected to t"e le!t "and plate o! t"e second capacitor) C? *"ose rig"t "and plate is connected to t"e le!t "and plate o! t"e t"ird capitor) CC. T"en t"is series connection means t"at in a C connected circuit) capacitor C? is e!!ecti#ely isolated !rom t"e circuit. T"e result o! t"is is t"at t"e e!!ecti#e plate area "as decreased to t"e smallest indi#idual capacitance connected in t"e series c"ain. T"ere!ore t"e #oltage drop across eac" capacitor *ill be di!!erent depending upon t"e #alues o! t"e indi#idual capacitances. T"en by applying 2irc'off0s Vo"ta#e 1a&) ' ZV3 ( to t"e abo#e circuit) *e getO

Since % K CV or V K %<C) substituting %<C !or eac" capacitor #oltage VC in t"e abo#e ZV3 e/uation gi#es us

di#iding eac" term t"roug" by % gi#es

Series Capacitors E%uatio

0"en adding toget"er Capacitors i Series) t"e reciprocal ' 9<C ( o! t"e indi#idual capacitors are all added toget"er ' ,ust li+e resistors in parallel ( instead o! t"e capacitances t"emsel#es. T"en t"e total #alue !or capacitors in series e/uals t"e reciprocal o! t"e sum o! t"e reciprocals o! t"e indi#idual capacitances. E+amp"e No5 Ta+ing t"e t"ree capacitor #alues !rom t"e abo#e example) *e can calculate t"e total circuit capacitance !or t"e t"ree capacitors in series asO

1ne important point to remember about capacitors t"at are connected toget"er in a series con!iguration) is t"at t"e total circuit capacitance ' CT ( o! any number o! capacitors connected toget"er in series *ill al*ays be 1ESS t"an t"e #alue o! t"e smallest capacitor in t"e series and in our example abo#e C K ;.;BBuF *"ere as t"e #alue o! t"e smallest capacitor in t"e series c"ain is only ;.9uF. T"is reciprocal met"od o! calculation can be used !or calculating any number o! capacitors connected toget"er in a single series net*or+. I! "o*e#er) t"ere are only t*o capacitors in series) t"en a muc" simpler and /uic+er !ormula can be used and is gi#en asO

0it" series co

ecte* resistors) t"e sum o! all t"e #oltage drops across t"e series circuit

*ill be e/ual to t"e applied #oltage VS ' Zirc"o!!2s Voltage 3a* ( and t"is is also true about capacitors in series. 0it" series connected capacitors) t"e capaciti#e reactance o! t"e capacitor acts as an impedance due to t"e !re/uency o! t"e supply. T"is capaciti#e reactance produces a #oltage drop across eac" capacitor) t"ere!ore t"e series conncted capacitors act as a capaciti3e 3o"ta#e *i3i*er net*or+. T"e result is t"at t"e #oltage di#ider !ormula applied to resistors can also be used to !ind t"e indi#idual #oltages !or capacitors in series. T"enO

0"ereO CJ is t"e capacitance o! t"e capacitor in /uestion) VS is t"e .C supply #oltage across t"e *"ole series c"ain and VCJ is t"e #oltage drop across t"e target capacitor's(. E+amp"e No8 Find t"e o#erall capacitance and t"e indi#idual rms #oltage drops across t"e !ollo*ing sets o! t*o capacitors in series *"en connected to a 9?V a.c. supply. a( t*o capacitors eac" *it" a capacitance o! AQnF b( one capacitor o! AQ;nF connected in series to a capacitor o! 9uF a( Total Capacitance)

Voltage drop across t"e t*o identical AQnF capacitors)

b( Total Capacitance)

Voltage drop across t"e t*o non-identical CapacitorsO C9 K AQ;nF and C? K 9uF.

Since +irc"o!!2s #oltage la* applies to t"is and e#ery series connected circuit) t"e total sum o! t"e indi#idual #oltage drops *ill be e/ual in #alue to t"e supply #oltage) VS. T"en R.9= L C.RA K 9?V. Gote also t"at i! t"e capacitor #alues are t"e same) AQnF in our example) t"e supply #oltage is di#ided e/ually across eac" capacitor as s"o*n) because eac" capacitor s"ares an e/ual amount o! c"arge ' % K C x V K ;.B=AuC ( and t"ere!ore "as "al! ' or percentage !raction !or more t"an t*o capacitors ( o! t"e applied #oltage) VS. 0"en t"e capacitor #alues are di!!erent) t"e larger #alue capacitor *ill c"arge itsel! to a lo*er #oltage and t"e smaller #alue capacitor to a "ig"er #oltage) and in our example abo#e t"is *as C.RA and R.9= #olts respecti#ely) to maintain t"e same amount o! c"arge on t"e plates o! bot" capacitors as s"o*n.

Gote t"at t"e ratios o! t"e #oltage drops across t"e t*o capacitors connected in series *ill al*ays remain t"e same regardless o! t"e supply !re/uency. T"en t"e t*o #oltage drops o! R.9= #olts and C.RA #olts abo#e in our simple example *ill remain t"e same e#en i! t"e supply !re/uency is increased !rom 9;;46 to 9;;+46.

.lt"oug" t"e #oltage drops across eac" capacitor *ill be di!!erent !or di!!erent #alues o! capacitance) t"e coulomb c"arge across t"e plates *ill be e/ual because t"e same amount o! current !lo* exists t"roug"out a series circuit as all t"e capacitors are being supplied *it" t"e same number or /uantity o! electrons. In ot"er *ords) i! t"e c"arge across eac" capacitors plates is t"e same) as % is constant) t"en as its capacitance decreases t"e #oltage drop across t"e capacitor increases) because t"e c"arge is large *it" respect to t"e capacitance. 3i+e*ise) a larger capacitance *ill result in a smaller #oltage because t"e c"arge is small *it" respect to t"e capacitance. Summary T"en to summerise) t"e total or e/ui#alent capacitance) CT o! a circuit containing Capacitors i Seriesis t"e reciprical o! t"e sum o! t"e reciprocals o! all o! t"e indi#idual capacitances added toget"er. .lso !or capacitors co ecte* i series) all t"e series connected capacitors *ill "a#e t"e same c"arging current !lo*ing t"roug" t"em as iT K i9 K i? K iC etc. T*o or more cpacitors in series *ill al*ays "a#e e/ual amounts o! coulomb c"arge across t"eir plates. .s t"e c"arge) ' % ( is e/ual and constant) t"e #oltage drop across t"e capacitor is determined by t"e #alue o! t"e capacitor only asV K % T C. . small capacitance #alue *ill result in a larger #oltage *"ile a large #alue o! capacitance *ill result in a smaller #oltage drop.

IN/UCTORS
.n i *uctor) also called a coi" or reactor) is a passi#e t*o-terminal electrical component *"ic" resists c"anges in electric current passing t"roug" it. It consists o! a conductor suc" as a *ire) usually *ound into a coil. 0"en a current !lo*s t"roug" it) energy is stored temporarily in a magnetic !ield in t"e coil. 0"en t"e current !lo*ing t"roug" an inductor c"anges) t"e time-#arying magnetic !ield induces a #oltage in t"e conductor) according to Faraday_s la* o! electromagnetic induction) *"ic" opposes t"e c"ange in current t"at created it. .n inductor is c"aracteri6ed by its inductance) t"e ratio o! t"e #oltage to t"e rate o! c"ange o! current) *"ic" "as units o! "enries '4(. &any inductors "a#e a magnetic core made o! iron or !errite inside t"e coil) *"ic" ser#es to increase t"e magnetic !ield and t"us t"e inductance. .long *it" capacitors and resistors) inductors are one o! t"e t"ree passi#e linear circuit elements t"at ma+e up electric circuits. Inductors are *idely used in alternating current '.C( electronic e/uipment) particularly in radio e/uipment. T"ey are used to bloc+ t"e !lo* o! .C current *"ile allo*ing C to pass5 inductors designed !or t"is purpose are called c"o+es. T"ey are also used in electronic !ilters to separate signals o! di!!erent !re/uencies) and in combination *it" capacitors to ma+e tuned circuits) used to tune radio and TV recei#ers.

Se"f I *ucta ce
I *ucta ce is t"e name gi#en to t"e property o! a component t"at opposes t"e c"ange o! current !lo*ing t"roug" it and e#en a straig"t piece o! *ire *ill "a#e some inductance. Inductors do t"is by generating a sel!-induced em! *it"in itsel! as a result o! t"eir c"anging magnetic !ield. 0"en t"e em! is induced in t"e same circuit in *"ic" t"e current is c"anging t"is e!!ect is called Se"f-i *uctio ) '3( but it is sometimes commonly called bac+-em! as its polarity is in t"e opposite direction to t"e applied #oltage. 0"en t"e em! is induced into an ad,acent component situated *it"in t"e same magnetic !ield) t"e em! is said to be induced by Mutua"-i *uctio ) '&( and mutal induction is t"e basic operating principal o! trans!ormers) motors) relays etc. Sel! inductance is a special case o! mutual inductance) and because it is produced *it"in a single isolated circuit *e generally call sel!-inductance simply) I *ucta ce. T"e basic unit o! inductance is called t"e De ry) '4( a!ter Wosep" 4enry) but it also "as t"e units o! -e)ers per Ampere '9 4 K 9 0b<.(. 3en62s 3a* tells us t"at an induced em! generates a current in a direction *"ic" opposes t"e c"ange in !lux *"ic" caused t"e em! in t"e !irst place) t"e principal o! action and reaction. T"en *e can accurately de!ine I *ucta ce as being -) circuit will have an inductance value of one *enry when an emf of one volt is induced in the circuit were the current flowing through the circuit changes at a rate of one ampere per second - and t"is de!inition can be presented asO

Inductance is actually a measure o! an inductor_s -resistance- to t"e c"ange o! t"e current !lo*ing in t"e circuit and t"e larger is its #alue in 4enries) t"e lo*er *ill be t"e rate o! current c"ange.

Se"f-i *ucta ce of a Coi"

0"ereO

3 is in 4enries G is t"e Gumber o! turns ` is t"e &agnetic Field lin+age a is in .mperes

E+amp"e No5
. "ollo* air cored inductor coil consists o! B;; turns o! copper *ire *"ic" produces a magnetic !lux o! 9;m0b *"en passing a C current o! 9; amps. Calculate t"e sel!inductance o! t"e coil in milli-4enries.

E+amp"e No8
Calculate t"e #alue o! t"e sel!-induced em! produced in t"e same coil a!ter a time o! 9;mS.

T"e sel!-inductance o! a coil or to be more precise) t"e coe!!icient o! sel!-inductance also depends upon t"e c"aracteristics o! its construction. For example) si6e) lengt") number o! turns etc. It is t"ere!ore possible to "a#e inductors *it" #ery "ig" coe!!icients o! sel! induction by using cores o! a "ig" permeability and a large number o! coil turns. T"en !or a coil) t"e magnetic !lux t"at is produced in its inner core es e/ual toO

I! t"e inner core o! a coil is "ollo* -air cored-) t"e magnetic induction in its air core *ill be gi#en as.

T"en by substituting t"ese expressions in t"e !irst e/uation abo#e !or Inductance *ill gi#e usO

Finally gi#ing us an e/uation !or t"e coe!!icient o! sel!-inductance !or an air cored coil o!O

0"ereO 3 is in 4enries Xb is t"e Permeability o! Free Space 'A.M.9;-Q( G is t"e Gumber o! turns . is t"e Inner Core .rea in m? l is t"e lengt" o! t"e Coil in metres

.s t"e inductance o! t"e coil is due to t"e magnetic !lux around it) t"e stronger t"e magnetic !lux !or a gi#en #alue o! current t"e greater *ill be t"e inductance. So a coil o! many turns *ill "a#e a "ig"er inductance #alue t"an one o! only a !e* turns so t"e e/uation abo#e *ill gi#e inductance 3 as being proportional to t"e number o! turns s/uared G?. .s *ell as increasing t"e number o! coil turns) *e can also increase inductance by increasing t"e coils diameter or ma+ing t"e core longer. In bot" cases more *ire is re/uired to construct t"e coil and t"ere!ore) more lines o! !orce exists to produce t"e bac+ em!. T"e inductance can be increased !urt"er i! t"e coil is *ound onto a !erromagnetic core t"an one *ound onto a non-!erromagnetic or "ollo* air core. I! t"e inner core is made o! some !erromagnetic material t"e inductance o! t"e coil *ould increase because !or t"e same current !lo* t"e magnetic !lux *ould be muc" greater. T"is is because t"e lines o! !orce *ould be more concentrated t"roug" t"e !erromagnetic core material as *e sa* in t"e +lectromagnets tutorial. For example) i! t"e core material "as a relati#e permeability 9;;; times greater t"an !ree space) 9;;;X b suc" as so!t iron or steel) t"an t"e inductance o! t"e coil *ould be 9;;; times greater so *e can say t"at t"e inductance o! a coil increases proportionally as t"e permeability o! t"e core increases. T"en !or a coil *ound around a !ormer or core t"e inductance e/uation abo#e *ould need to be modi!ied to include t"e relati#e permeability Xr o! t"e ne* !ormer material. I! t"e coil is *ound onto a !erromagnetic core a greater inductance *ill result as t"e cores permeability *ill c"ange *it" t"e !lux density. 4o*e#er) depending upon t"e !erromagnetic material t"e inner cores magnetic !lux may /uic+ly reac" saturation producing a non-linear inductance #alue and since t"e !lux density around t"e coil depends upon t"e current !lo*ing t"roug" it) inductance) 3 also becomes a !unction o! current) i.

$IEE/ IN/UCTOR .n inductor uses multiple coils o! a conducting material to store energy using a magnetic !ield. It belongs to t"e electromagnet !amily. T"e #oltage produced is proportional to t"e rate o! c"ange in current !lo*ing t"roug" it. T"e "ig"er t"e number o! coils and input current) t"e "ig"er is t"e inductance.

-or,i # of a fi+e* i *uctor Coils o! "ig" conducting material li+e copper or aluminum are *ound around a core o! !errous material. 0"en electric current is passed t"roug" t"e coil) a magnetic !ield is created. . c"ange in current produces a c"ange in t"is magnetic !ield and causes an electromoti#e !orce. It runs against t"e current t"at induces it and t"is produces a #oltage in t"e direction opposite to t"e c"ange in current. T"is #oltage is called inductance. T"e unit o! measurement is t"e 4enry '4(. T"e !errite core induces more capacitance. Se"ecti # a fi+e* i *uctor Ideally) inductors s"ould "a#e 6ero resistance and capacitance. T"is is not practically possible) as t"e conducting copper *ires) used !or !ixed inductors) "a#e small internal resistance. Important criteria !or t"e selection areO

Inductance range '4(O t"e rated inductance range o! t"e inductor. T"is is designated by -<L9;@ o! t"e inductance 'e.g. 9BL<-9;@(. %uality !actor '%(O measure o! t"e relati#e losses in t"e capacitor. Sel!-resonant !re/uency 'SRF(O lo*est !re/uency at *"ic" an inductor resonates due to its sel! capacitance 'e.g. 9B; &46(. Permissible C currentO measured in 1"ms) it is t"e maximum C current t"at t"e inductor s"ould be exposed to.

$i+e* i *uctor types:

Fixed inductors are classi!ied as per t"eir inductance range) sur!ace mount) tape and reel and t"e number o! coils. T"ey are also color-coded in bands o! bro*n) blac+) sil#er) green) etc. App"icatio areas for fi+e* i *uctors: T"ey are used in electronic e/uipment) suc" as communication apparatus) automatic control e/uipment) electronic testing instruments) "ouse"old appliances) electrical e/uipment) radios) TVs) etc. V.RI.H3$ IG SCT1R . #ariable inductor can be constructed by ma+ing one o! t"e terminals o! t"e de#ice a sliding spring contact t"at can mo#e along t"e sur!ace o! t"e coil) increasing or decreasing t"e number o! turns o! t"e coil included in t"e circuit. .n alternate construction met"od is to use a mo#eable magnetic core) *"ic" can be slid in or out o! t"e coil. &o#ing t"e core !art"er into t"e coil increases t"e permeability) increasing t"e inductance. &any inductors used in radio applications 'usually less t"en 9;; &"6( use ad,ustable cores in order to tune suc" inductors to t"eir desired #alue) since manu!acturing processes "a#e certain tolerances 'inaccuracy(. Circuit symbol

IG SCTIV$ R$.CT.GC$ 0"en t"e current !lo*ing t"roug" an inductor continuously re#erses itsel!) as in t"e case o! an ac source) t"e inertia e!!ect o! t"e cem! is greater t"an *it" dc. T"e greater t"e amount o! inductance '3() t"e greater t"e opposition !rom t"is inertia e!!ect. .lso) t"e !aster t"e re#ersal o! current) t"e greater t"is inertial opposition. T"is opposing !orce *"ic" an inductor presents to t"e F310 o! alternating current cannot be called resistance) since it is not t"e result o! !riction *it"in a conductor. T"e name gi#en to it is IG SCTIV$ R$.CT.GC$ because it is t"e -reaction- o! t"e inductor to t"e c"anging #alue o! alternating current. Inducti#e reactance is measured in o"ms and its symbol is J3. .s you +no*) t"e induced #oltage in a conductor is proportional to t"e rate at *"ic" magnetic lines o! !orce cut t"e conductor. T"e greater t"e rate 't"e "ig"er t"e !re/uency() t"e greater t"e cem!. .lso) t"e induced #oltage increases *it" an increase in inductance5 t"e more ampere-turns) t"e greater t"e cem!. Reactance) t"en) increases *it" an increase o! !re/uency and *it" an increase o! inductance. T"e !ormula !or inducti#e reactance is as !ollo*sO

E er#y i a I *uctor 0"en a electric current is !lo*ing in an inductor) t"ere is energy stored in t"e magnetic !ield. Considering a pure inductor 3) t"e instantaneous po*er *"ic" must be supplied to initiate t"e current in t"e inductor is

so t"e energy input to build to a !inal current i is gi#en by t"e integral

Ssing t"e example o! a solenoid) an expression !or t"e energy density can be obtained. E er#y i Ma# etic $ie"* From analysis o! t"e energy stored in an inductor)

t"e energy density 'energy<#olume( is

Solenoid Field Solenoid Inductance so t"e energy density stored in t"e magnetic !ield is

% !actor T"ere are t*o separate de!initions o! t"e /uality !actor t"at are e/ui#alent !or "ig" % resonators but are di!!erent !or strongly damped oscillators. Fenerally , is de!ined in terms o! t"e ratio o! t"e energy stored in t"e resonator to t"e energy being lost in one cycleO

T"e !actor o! ?M is used to +eep t"is de!inition o! , consistent '!or "ig" #alues o! ,( *it" t"e second de!initionO

*"ere fr is t"e resonant !re/uency) cf is t"e band*idt") -r is t"e angular resonant !re/uency) and c- is t"e angular band*idt". T"e de!inition o! % in terms o! t"e ratio o! t"e energy stored to t"e energy dissipated per cycle can be re*ritten asO

*"ere d is de!ined to be t"e angular !re/uency o! t"e circuit 'system() and t"e energy stored and po*er loss are properties o! a system under consideration.

0"ere d is de!ined to be t"e angular !re/uency o! t"e circuit 'system() and t"e energy stored and po*er loss are properties o! a system under consideration. Mutua" I *ucta ce

T"e magnetic !lux t"roug" a circuit can be related to t"e current in t"at circuit and t"e currents in ot"er nearby circuits) assuming t"at t"ere are no nearby permanent magnets. Consider t"e !ollo*ing t*o circuits.

T"e magnetic !ield produced by circuit 9 *ill intersect t"e *ire in circuit ? and create current !lo*. T"e induced current !lo* in circuit ? *ill "a#e its o*n magnetic !ield *"ic" *ill interact *it" t"e magnetic !ield o! circuit 9. .t some point P) t"e magnetic !ield consists o! a part due to i9 and a part due to i?. T"ese !ields are proportional to t"e currents producing t"em. T"e coils in t"e circuits are labeled 39 and 3? and t"is term represents t"e sel! inductance o! eac" o! t"e coils. T"e #alues o! 39 and 3? depend on t"e geometrical arrangement o! t"e circuit 'i.e. number o! turns in t"e coil( and t"e conducti#ity o! t"e material. T"e constant &) called t"e mutua" i *ucta ce o! t"e t*o circuits) is dependent on t"e geometrical arrangement o! bot" circuits. In particular) i! t"e circuits are !ar apart) t"e magnetic !lux t"roug" circuit ? due to t"e current i 9 *ill be small and t"e mutual inductance *ill be small. 3? and & are constants. 0e can *rite t"e !lux)
H? H

t"roug" circuit ? as t"e sum o! t*o parts.

K 3?i? L i9&

.n e/uation similar to t"e one abo#e can be *ritten !or t"e !lux t"roug" circuit 9.
H9

K 39i9 L i?&

T"oug" it is certainly not ob#ious) it can be s"o*n t"at t"e mutual inductance is t"e same !or bot" circuits. T"ere!ore) it can be *ritten as !ollo*sO &9) ? K &?) 9

Series and parallel connection o! Inductor Inductors !ollo* t"e same la*) in t"at t"e total inductance o! non-coupled inductors in series is e/ual to t"e sum o! t"eir indi#idual inductancesO

4o*e#er) in some situations it is di!!icult to pre#ent ad,acent inductors !rom in!luencing eac" ot"er) as t"e magnetic !ield o! one de#ice couples *it" t"e *indings o! its neig"bours. T"is in!luence is de!ined by t"e mutual inductance &. For example) i! you "a#e t*o inductors in series) t"ere are t*o possible e/ui#alent inductances depending on "o* t"e magnetic !ields o! bot" inductors in!luence eac" ot"er. 0"en t"ere are more t"an ? inductors) t"e mutual inductance bet*een eac" o! t"em and t"e *ay t"e coils in!luence eac" ot"er complicates t"e calculation. For a larger number o! coils t"e total combined inductance is gi#en by t"e sum o! all mutual inductances bet*een t"e #arious coils including t"e mutual inductance o! eac" gi#en coil *it" itsel!) *"ic" *e term sel!-inductance or simply inductance. For t"ree coils) t"ere are six mutual inductances M9?) M9C) M?C and M?9) MC9 and MC?. T"ere are also t"e t"ree sel!-inductances o! t"e t"ree coilsO M99) M?? and MCC. T"ere!ore .total K 'M99 L M?? L MCC( L 'M9? L M9C L M?C( L 'M?9 L MC9 L MC?( Hy reciprocity Mi/ K M/i so t"at t"e last t*o groups can be combined. T"e !irst t"ree terms represent t"e sum o! t"e sel!-inductances o! t"e #arious coils. T"e !ormula is easily extended to any number o! series coils *it" mutual coupling. T"e met"od can be used to !ind t"e sel!-inductance o! large coils o! *ire o! any cross-sectional s"ape by computing t"e sum o! t"e mutual inductance o! eac" turn o! *ire in t"e coil *it" e#ery ot"er turn since in suc" a coil all turns are in series.

!ollo* t"e same la*) in t"at t"e total inductance o! non-coupled inductors in parallel is e/ual to t"e reciprocal o! t"e sum o! t"e reciprocals o! t"eir indi#idual inductancesO

. I! t"e inductors are situated in eac" ot"er2s magnetic !ields) t"is approac" is in#alid due to mutual inductance. I! t"e mutual inductance bet*een t*o coils in parallel is &) t"e e/ui#alent inductor isO

I! .9 K .?

T"e sign o! M depends on "o* t"e magnetic !ields in!luence eac" ot"er. For t*o e/ual tig"tly coupled coils t"e total inductance is close to t"at o! eac" single coil. I! t"e polarity o! one coil is re#ersed so t"at & is negati#e) t"en t"e parallel inductance is nearly 6ero or t"e combination is almost non-inducti#e. 0e are assuming in t"e -tig"tly coupled- case & is #ery nearly e/ual to 3. 4o*e#er) i! t"e inductances are not e/ual and t"e coils are tig"tly coupled t"ere can be near s"ort circuit conditions and "ig" circulating currents !or bot" positi#e and negati#e #alues o! &) *"ic" can cause problems. &ore t"an C inductors become more complex and t"e mutual inductance o! eac" inductor on eac" ot"er inductor and t"eir in!luence on eac" ot"er must be considered. For t"ree coils) t"ere are t"ree mutual inductances M9?) M9C and M?C. T"is is best "andled by matrix met"ods and summing t"e terms o! t"e in#erse o! t"e . matrix 'C by C in t"is case(.

T"e pertinent e/uations are o! t"e !ormO