COLLEGE OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES & INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AHLIA UNIVERSITY

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)

By:

Eng. Husein A.A.Alenzi

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for M.Sc Degree in Information Technology at the AHLIA UNIVERSITY

Advisor:
Dr. Ahmed J. Jameel

April 25, 2009

Acknowledgements

This project would not have been possible without the support of many people. Many thanks to my advisor Dr. Ahmed J. Jameel, who has been with me in every step of the project and helped me to finally come up with this completed project. Also thanks to the entire member of AHLIA UNIVERSITY faculty , staff and Especially to Dr. Abdulla Al Hawaj for his great effort and support in maintaining The quality of the whole learning process at the university. Also thanks to my friend Muneer Aljufiri for his support and my friend Abdullah Alenz Chairman of subbiya TX radio station for his support & thanks for my friend Faleh Almutteri for his support also. And thanks a lot to my Aunt Tariyah Aldahok, which have always encourage me to complete the Master's degree. And thanks also to my Father and my brother Abudulhameed to fully support.

ABSTRACT Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is a communications technique that divides a communications channel into a number of equally spaced frequency bands. A subcarrier carrying a portion of the user information is transmitted in each band. Each subcarrier is orthogonal (independent of each other) with every other subcarrier. OFDM is a multi-carrier modulation technique that is unlike other modulation techniques. In OFDM, the carriers have substantial overlap. For each single high frequency carrier used, OFDM transmits multiple high data rates signals concurrently using sub carriers. The sub-carriers are orthogonal with each other and hence do not interfere with each other. In recent years Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) has gained a lot of interest in digital communication application. This has been due to its properties like high spectral efficiency and robustness to channel fading. Today OFDM is mainly used in digital audio broadcasting (DAB), digital video broadcasting (DVB), Wireless Local Area Networks (WLAN), and other high speed data application for both wireless and wired communications.

Table Of Contents CHAPTER .1. Introduction----------------------------------------------------------------1

1.1 History of OFDM---------------------------------------------------------2 1.2 Multiple Access Techniques--------------------------------------------3

CHAPTER . 2. OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing-------------5 2.1 Introduction----------- - -------------------------------------------------6 2.2 OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing)-----------7 2.3 The principle of OFDM--------------------------------------------------7 2.4 OFDM Transmitter-------------------------------------------------------8 2.4.1 series and parallel converter-----------------------8 2.4.2 Quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK)- -------9 2.4.3 Fast Fourier Transform in OFDM --------------10 2.4.4 Guard Interval and Cyclic Extension-----------11 CHAPTER .3. Modulation & Coding in OFDM---------------------------------------14 3.1 Introduction---------------------------------------------------------------15 3.2 Modulation----------------------------------------------------------------15 3.2.1 Amplitude Shift Key Modulation------------------15 3.2.2 Phase Shift Key Modulation------------------------16 3.2.3 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation--------------17 3.3 Coding in OFDM---------------------------------------------------------20 3.4 Convolutional Encoding------------------------------------------------21 3.5 Concatenated coding----------------------------------------------------21

CHAPTER .4. OFDM Applications-------------------------------------------------------22 4.1 Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB)-----------------------------------23 4.2 Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB)-----------------------------------24 4.3 OFDM for Wireless LAN-----------------------------------------------27 4.3.1 MAGIC WAND---------------------------------------28 4.3.2 MAGIC WAND Physical layer--------------------28 4.4 ADSL System-------------------------------------------------------------29 CHAPTER .5. Design OFDM(Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) using SIMULINK-----------------------------------------------------------------------------30 5.1 Design OFDM 4QAM using SIMULINK .- -----------------------------34

5.2 IQ MAPPER---------------------------------------------------------------34 5.3 OFDM Modulation-------------------------------------------------------36

5.4 The AWGN Channel-----------------------------------------------------38 5.5 OFDM Demodulator-----------------------------------------------------45 5.6 IQ Demapper--------------------------------------------------------------47 CHAPTR .6. CONCLUSION---------------------------------------------------------------58 6.1 Conclusion-----------------------------------------------------------------59 6.2.Future work --------------------------------------------------------------60 References -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------62

Table of Figure

Figure 2.1. Concept of OFDM signal (a) Conventional Multi-carrier technique (b) orthogonal Multi-carrier modulation technique.[1]---------------------------------3 Figure 2.2 The principle of OFDM[5]------------------------------------------------------6 Figure 2.3. A modulation scheme-----------------------------------------------------------7 Figure 2.4. OFDM Transmitter[7]---------------------------------------------------------7 Figure 2.5 QPSK Transmitter--------------------------------------------------------------8 Figure 2.7 OFDM symbol duration.[5]--------------------------------------------------9 Figure 2.8 Guard Interval and Cyclic Extension[6]----------------------------------11 Figure 2.9 Guard Interval.[5]-------------------------------------------------------------12 Figure 2.10 Effect of multipath with zero signals in the guard interval[7]--------12 Figure 2.11 . Time and frequency representation of OFDM with guard intervals.[7]-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------13 Figure 3.1: Amplitude Shift Key Modulation[14]--------------------------------------13 Figure 3.2: Phase Shift Key Modulation[14]--------------------------------------------15 Figure 3.3. QAM transmitter[16].---------------------------------------------------------16 Figure 3.4 QAM - Quadrature Amplitude Modulation[17].-------------------------17 Fig. 3.5. 4-QAM constellation[18]--------------------------------------------------------17 Fig. 3.5. Example OFDM waveform produced by [0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1].[18].----------18 Figure (3.6 ) Two dimensional coding for OFDM.[1]----------------------------------19 Fig ( 3.7 )Concatenated coding with interleaving.--------------------------------------20 Figure 4.1.spectrum of a Digital Radio Signal.[19].------------------------------------21 Figure 4.2. spectrum of a DVB Signal.[20].---------------------------------------------24

Figure5.1 . OFDM BLOCK DIGRAM MAIN SYSTEM -----------------------------26 Figure 5.2 (function block parameter) -------------------------------------------------34 Figure 5.3 (function block parameter)-------------------------------------------------34 Figure 5.4 (function block parameter)-------------------------------------------------35 Figure 5.5 (IQ MAPPER)-----------------------------------------------------------------35 Figure 5.6 (function block parameter)-------------------------------------------------36 Figure 5.7 (function block parameter)-------------------------------------------------36 Figure 5.8 (function block parameter)------------------------------------------------37 Figure 5.9 OFDM Modulation--------------------------------------------------------------38 Figure 5.10 (function block parameter)------------------------------------------------38 Figure 5.11 (function block parameter)------------------------------------------------39 Figure 5.12 (function block parameter)-----------------------------------------------40 Figure 5.13 (function block parameter)------------------------------------------------41 Figure 5.14 Matrix Concatenation---------------------------------------------------------42 Figure 5.15 (function block parameter)------------------------------------------------42 Figure 5.16 (function block parameter)------------------------------------------------43 Figure. 5.17- Add Cyclic Prefix------------------------------------------------------------44 Figure 5.18 (function block parameter)------------------------------------------------44 Figure.5.19- The AWGN Channel--------------------------------------------------------45 Figure 5.20 (function block parameter)------------------------------------------------45 Figure. 5.21- OFDM Demodulator--------------------------------------------------------46

Figure 5.22 (function block parameter)------------------------------------------------47 Figure 5.23 (function block parameter)------------------------------------------------47 Figure 5.24 (function block parameter)------------------------------------------------48 Figure 5.25 (function block parameter)------------------------------------------------48 Figure 5.26 (function block parameter)------------------------------------------------49 Figure. 5.27- IQ Demapper-----------------------------------------------------------------49 Figure.5.28 - Data Sink-----------------------------------------------------------------------50 Figure. 5.29- OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) 4QAM using SIMULINK-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------50 Figure. 5.30.Resulats ------------------------------------------------------------------------52 Figure. 5.31. system performance test ---------------------------------------------------53 Figure. 5.32.Resulats ------------------------------------------------------------------------54 Figure. 5.33 Resulats ------------------------------------------------------------------------55 Figure 5.34 .4QAM with BER.-------------------------------------------------------------56 Figure 5.35. Symbol error probability curve for QPSK(4-QAM)-------------------57

CHAPTER .1. Introduction

1.1 History of OFDM

Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing, or OFDM, is a process of digital modulation that is used in computer technology today. Essentially, OFDM is configured to split a communication signal in several different channels. Each of these channels is formatted into a narrow bandwidth modulation, with each channel operating at a different frequency. The process of OFDM makes it possible for multiple channels to operate within close frequency levels without impacting the integrity of any of the data transmitted in any one channel .

The history of OFDM goes back to the 1960s. At the time, there was a need to make more efficient use of bandwidth transmissions without creating situations where signals would be subject to a phenomenon referred to as crosstalk. Essentially, crosstalk occurs when two audio sources are broadcasting at the same time. The end result is that the message of each broadcast is partially obscured for anyone attempting to listen to either of the messages. Crosstalk can be compared to two people choosing to speak while another individual is already speaking .[1]

Generally, the process of OFDM is focused on preventing the occurrence of crosstalk, or any other type of outside interference with the quality of the transmission. However, the method does have some limited capability to attempt to enhance the quality of the transmission proper. For example, it is sometimes possible to make use of OFDM in order to minimize background noise that is resident in the transmission, or to boost the volume level if the transmission has weak sound clarity .

The use of OFDM is common worldwide. Many radio networks around the globe make use of OFDM to service their broadcast ranges. Some amateur radio systems also employ elements of OFDM for sending out signals as well. There are some applications of OFDM that lend well to the audio component of digital television, and it is also possible to make use of OFDM to boost the speed of an Internet connection over a standard telephone line. With the emergence of more wireless methods of communication, OFDM is also finding a place in local wireless networks. [2]

1.2 Multiple Access Techniques A limited amount of bandwidth is allocated for wireless services. A wireless system is required to accommodate as many users as possible by effectively sharing the limited bandwidth. Therefore, in the field of communications, the term multiple access could be defined as a means of allowing multiple users to simultaneously share the finite bandwidth with least possible degradation in the performance of the system.[3]

Figure 1. A schematic comparison of FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA multipleaccess techniques.[4]

In frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) and frequency-division multiple access (FDMA), the passband of a channel is shared among multiple users by assigning distinct and nonoverlapping sections of the electromagnetic spectrum within the passband to individual users. The information stream from a particular user is encoded into a signal whose energy is confined to the part of the passband assigned to that user.[4] Time-division multiplexing (TDM) and time-division multiple access (TDMA) permit a user access to the full passband of the channel, but only for a limited time, after which the access right is assigned to another user. Normally the access rights are assigned in a cyclical order to the competing users. However, statistical time-division multiplexing assigns time on the channel on a demand basis, which typically increases the number of users who may be accommodated on the same channel, but may result in delays in accessing the channel during periods when the demand exceeds the supply.[4]

In code-division multiple access (CDMA), all users are assigned the entire passband of the channel and are permitted to transmit their information streams simultaneously. To maintain the ability to recover the individual signals at the receiver, at the transmitter each signal has impressed on it a characteristic signature.[3] OFDMA is a multi-user OFDM that allows multiple access on the same channel uses. OFDMA distributes subcarriers among users so all users can transmit and receive at the same time within a single channel on what are called subchannels. OFDM overcomes most of the problems with both FDMA and TDMA. OFDM divides the available bandwidth into many narrow band channels . The carriers for each channel are made orthogonal to each other, allowing them to be spaced very close together. The orthogonality of the carriers means that each carrier has an integer number of cycles over a symbol period. Due to this, the spectrum of each carrier has a null at the centre frequency of each of the other carriers in the system. This results in no interference between the carriers, allowing then to be spaced as close as theoretically possible. This overcomes the problem of overhead carrier spacing required in FDMA. Each carrier in an OFDM signal has a very narrow bandwidth (i.e. 1 kHz), thus the resulting symbol rate is low. This will give the signal a high tolerance to Multipath delay spread, because the delay spread must be very long to cause significant inter-symbol interference.[2]

CHAPTER . 2. OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing)

2.1 Introduction Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing(OFDM), beginning with short description of OFDM technology . The multiplexing is a technique that allows the simultaneous transmission of multiple signal across a single data link. The Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing is a communication technique that divides a channel into a number of equally spaced frequency band. The OFDM is used mainly for transmission of digital data is currently used in digital audio broad casting (DAB) . The idea is to used large number of parallel narrow band subcarriers instead of a single wide band carrier to transport information. OFDM is multi carrier modulation technique that is unlike other modulation technique .In OFDM the carrier have substantial overlap .For each single high frequency carrier used, OFDM transmits multiple high data rates signals concurrently using sub carriers.[5,7,8]

Figure 2.1. Concept of OFDM signal (a) Conventional Multi-carrier technique (b) orthogonal Multi-carrier modulation technique.[1]

2.2 OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing, or OFDM, is a process of digital modulation that is used in computer technology today. Essentially, OFDM is configured to split a communication signal in several different channels. Each of these channels is formatted into a narrow bandwidth modulation, with each channel operating at a different frequency. The process of OFDM makes it possible for multiple channels to operate within close frequency levels without impacting the integrity of any of the data transmitted in any one channel.

2.3 The principle of OFDM:

Figure 2.2 The principle of OFDM[5] Suppose that this transmission takes four seconds. Then, each piece of data in the left picture has a duration of one second.On the other hand, OFDM would send the four pieces simultaneously as shown on the right. In this case, each piece of data has a duration of four seconds. [5.6.7] A modulation scheme is a mapping of data words to a real (In phase) and imaginary (Quadrature) constellation, also known as an IQ constellation. Each data word is mapped to one unique IQ location in the constellation.[5,6]

Figure 2.3. A modulation scheme

2.4 OFDM Transmitter

Figure 2.4. OFDM Transmitter[7] 2.4.1 series and parallel converter In OFDM system design, the series and parallel converter is considered to realize the concept of parallel data transmission. Example the if input : x=[0,0,0,1,1,0,1,1,.] The output will be a parallel : x1=[0,0] x2=[0,1] x3=[1,0] x4=[1,1] .. Series : In a conventional serial data system, the symbols are transmitted sequentially, with the frequency spectrum of each data symbol allowed to occupy the entire available bandwidth. When the data rate is sufficient high, several adjacent symbols may be completely distorted over frequency selective fading or multipath delay spread channel. [5,6.11] Parallel: The spectrum of an individual data element normally occupies only a small part of available bandwidth. Because of dividing an entire channel bandwidth into many narrow sub bands, the frequency response over each individual sub channel is relatively flat. A parallel data transmission system offers possibilities for alleviating this problem encountered with serial systems. [5,6,11]

2.4.2 Quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK)

QPSK is a method for transmitting digital information across an analog channel. Data bits are grouped into pairs, and each pair is represented by a particular waveform, called a symbol, to be sent across the channel after modulating the carrier. The receiver will demodulate the signal and look at the recovered symbol to determine which pair of bits was sent. This requires having a unique symbol for each possible combination of data bits in a pair. Because there are four possible combinations of data bits in a pair, QPSK creates four different symbols, one for each pair, by changing the I gain and Q gain for the cosine and sine modulators . The QPSK transmitter system uses both the sine and cosine at the carrier frequency to transmit two separate message signals, sI[n] and sQ[n], referred to as the in-phase and quadrature signals. Provided that a coherent receiver system is employed, both the inphase and quadrature signals can be recovered exactly, allowing us to transmit twice the amount of signal information at the same carrier frequency as we could with a single oscillator.

Figure 2.5 QPSK Transmitter[8]

2.4.3 Fast Fourier Transform in OFDM

Why do we use FFT in OFDM system ?.To spread the data in time. And because its faster than a DFT . The fast Fourier transform (FFT) is merely a rapid mathematical method for computer applications of DFT. It is the availability of this technique, and the technology that allows it to be implemented on integrated circuits at a reasonable price, that has

permitted OFDM to be developed as far as it has. The process of transforming from the time domain representation to the frequency domain representation uses the Fourier transform itself, whereas the reverse process uses the inverse Fourier transform. [8]

The use of the Fast Fourier Transform in OFDM

OFDM systems are implemented using a combination of fast Fourier Transform (FFT) and inverse fast Fourier Transform (IFFT) blocks that are mathematically equivalent versions of the DFT and IDFT, respectively, but more efficient to implement. An OFDM system treats the source symbols (e.g., the QPSK or QAM symbols that would be present in a single carrier system) at the transmitter as though they are in the frequency-domain. These symbols are used as the inputs to an IFFT block that brings the signal into the time-domain. The IFFT takes in N symbols at a time where N is the number of subcarriers in the system. Each of these N input symbols has a symbol period of T seconds. Recall that the basis functions for an IFFT are N orthogonal sinusoids. These sinusoids each have a different frequency and the lowest frequency is DC. Each input symbol acts like a complex weight for the corresponding sinusoidal basis function. Since the input symbols are complex, the value of the symbol determines both the amplitude and phase of the sinusoid for that subcarrier. The IFFT output is the summation of all N sinusoids. Thus, the IFFT block provides a simple way to modulate data onto N orthogonal subcarriers. The block of N output samples from the IFFT make up a single OFDM symbol. The length of the OFDM symbol is NT where T is the IFFT input symbol period mentioned above. After some additional processing, the time-domain signal that results from the IFFT is transmitted across the channel. At the receiver, an FFT block is used to process the received signal and bring it into the frequency-domain. Ideally, the FFT output will be the original symbols that were sent to the IFFT at the transmitter. When plotted in the complex plane, the FFT output samples will form a constellation, such as 16-QAM. However, there is no notion of a constellation for the time-domain signal. When plotted on the complex plane, the time-domain signal forms a scatter plot with no

regular shape. Thus, any receiver processing that uses the concept of a constellation (such as symbol slicing) must occur in the frequency-domain. [8] Following are equations of Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) and Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform (UDFT). N points x(n) signal is transformed to N points X(k) by DFT. Fast computation algorithm of DFT is Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). But, FFT needs the restriction N=2l (l=integer). IFFT is Fast computation algorithm of IDFT. The IFFT & FFT equations can be written as follows:

IFFT

X(k) =

FFT

X(n) =

2.4.4 Guard Interval and Cyclic Extension:

O F D M s y m b o l d u ra ti o n
G u a rd I n te rv a l
D A TA

G u a rd i n te rv a l
T
g

F F T i n te g ra ti o n d u ra ti o n
T

Figure 2.6 OFDM symbol duration.[5]

Two different sources of interference can be identified in the OFDM system. Inter symbol interference (ISI) is defined as the crosstalk between signals within the same sub-channel of consecutive FFT frames, which are separated in time by the signaling interval T.

Inter-carrier interference (ICI) is the crosstalk between adjacent sub channels or frequency bands of the same FFT frame.[7.11]
If Tg< T
d el y -s p read

Tg

Sym bol 1

Tg

Sym bol 2

Tg

Sym bol 3

Tg

Sym bol 4

Tg T de ly - sp r e a d

Sym bol 1

Tg

Sym bol 2

Tg

Sym bol 3

If

Tg > T

d e ly - sp r e a d

Tg

Sym bol 1

Tg

Sym bol 2

Tg

Sym bol 3

Tg

Sym bol 4

Tg T d e ly - sp r e a d

Sym bol 1

Tg

Sym bol 2

Tg

Sym bol 3

Figure 2.7 Guard Interval and Cyclic Extension[6] To eliminate ICI, the OFDM symbol is cyclically extended in the guard interval. This ensures that delayed replicas of the OFDM symbol always have an integer number of cycles within the FFT interval, as long as the delay is smaller than the guard interval. [6,10,11]

(Cyclic Extension)

Guard Interval

Figure 2.9 Guard Interval.[5]

Effect of multipath with zero signals in the guard interval, the delayed subcarrier 2 causes ICI on subcarrier 1 and vice versa.[7,9,11]

Figure 2.8 Effect of multipath with zero signals in the guard interval[7]

Figure 2.9 . Time and frequency representation of OFDM with guard intervals.[7]

CHAPTER .3. Modulation & Coding in OFDM

3.1 Introduction Modulation and channel coding are very important in a digital communication system. Modulation is the process of mapping the digital information to analog form, so it can be transmitted over the channel. The inverse process called demodulation, done by the receiver to recover the transmitted digital information. An OFDM system performs modulation and demodulation for each subcarrier separately, and usually in serial form to reduce complexity. 3.2 Modulation Modulation can be done by changing the amplitude, phase, or frequency of transmitted radio channel signal. In the case of OFDM system the first two methods can be used, but frequency modulation can not be used because subcarriers are orthogonal in frequency and carry independent information. Modulating the carrier frequency will destroy the orthogonality between the subcarriers; this makes frequency modulation unusable for OFDM systems[ 2]. 3.2.1 Amplitude Shift Key Modulation In this method the amplitude of the carrier assumes one of the two amplitudes dependent on the logic states of the input bit stream. A typical output waveform of an ASK modulator is shown in the figure below. The frequency components are the USB and LSB with a residual carrier frequency. The low amplitude carrier is allowed to be transmitted to ensure that at the receiver the logic 1 and logic 0 conditions can be recognised uniquely.[14]

Figure 3.1: Amplitude Shift Key Modulation[14]

3.2.2 Phase Shift Key Modulation With this method the phase of the carrier changes between different phases determined by the logic states of the input bit stream. There are several different types of phase shift key (PSK) modulators.

Two-phase (2 PSK) Four-phase (4 PSK) Eight-phase (8 PSK) Sixteen-phase (16 PSK) Sixteen-quadrature amplitude (16 QAM)

The 16 QAM is a composite modulator consisting of amplitude modulation and phase modulation. The 2 PSK, 4 PSK, 8 PSK and 16 PSK modulators are generally referred to as binary phase shift key (BPSK) modulators and the QAM modulators are referred to as quadrature phase shift key (QPSK) modulators. Two-Phase Shift Key Modulation In this modulator the carrier assumes one of two phases. A logic 1 produces no phase change and a logic 0 produces a 180 phase change. The output waveform for this modulator is shown below.

Figure 3.2: Phase Shift Key Modulation[14]

3.2.3 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation QAM (quadrature amplitude modulation) is a method of combining two amplitudemodulated (AM) signals into a single channel, thereby doubling the effective bandwidth. QAM is used with pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) in digital systems, especially in wireless applications. In a QAM signal, there are two carriers, each having the same frequency but differing in phase by 90 degrees (one quarter of a cycle, from which the term quadrature arises). One signal is called the I signal, and the other is called the Q signal. Mathematically, one of the signals can be represented by a sine wave, and the other by a cosine wave. The two modulated carriers are combined at the source for transmission. At the destination, the carriers are separated, the data is extracted from each, and then the data is combined into the original modulating information. [15].

Figure 3.3. QAM transmitter[16].

Figure 3.4 QAM - Quadrature Amplitude Modulation[17].

This is the most complicated step in the OFDM system. The binary stream must be converted to an actual OFDM waveform. The technique used in this simulation is known as QAM or quadrature amplitude modulation. Before this technique can be implemented, the binary stream created in the previous step must be separated into blocks of 8-bits. Then this block of 8-bits must be further broken down into sets of 2bits. .[18] These 2-bit sets are converted into a waveform using Equation and Fig.3.5

s(t ) = A cos(0t ) + B sin(0t )

Fig. 3.5. 4-QAM constellation[18]

The 2-bits sets will be 1 of 4 combinations, [0 0], [0 1], [1 0], or [1 1]. Depending on which combination it is, A and B will either be a 1 or a 1 as seen in Fig. 3.5. The values of A and B will then make up the waveform whose equation is given by Equation (10). Once this has been done, only one 2-bit set of the 8-bit block has been converted into a waveform. This must be done for all 4 2-bit sets within the 8-bit block. Each resulting waveform created using Equation (10) is given a different frequency (0) depending on which 2-bit set is currently being manipulated. The first 2-bit set is given a low frequency and the next 2-bit set is given a higher frequency

and so on. The 4 resulting waveforms at 4 orthogonal frequencies will then be added together to produce the actual OFDM waveform. There is one unique feature of OFDM that makes this whole process different from any other technique. The waveform construction is done entirely in the frequency domain on the real and imaginary axes. Taking the IFFT of the frequency domain information then produces the waveforms. The following table summarizes how each 2-bit set is transformed into a waveform. The frequency domain representation can be found in most digital communication textbook.[18] TABLE 3.1. Representation of waveforms in time and frequency domains.[18]

Binary Word 00 01 10 11

Time Domain Representation cos( 0 t ) + sin ( 0 t ) cos( 0 t ) + sin ( 0 t ) cos( 0 t ) sin ( 0 t ) cos( 0 t ) sin ( 0 t )

Frequency Domain Representation

1 2

1 2

j( f f 0 ) + 1 + 2 j( f f 0 ) 1 + 2 j( f f 0 ) 1 2
1 2

1 2

j( f + f 0 ) j( f + f 0 ) j( f + f 0 )

1 2 1 + 2
1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

j( f f 0 ) + 1 2

j( f + f 0 )

Once the waveforms are constructed in the frequency domain, an IFFT operation is performed producing the actual time domain waveforms. The time domain representation is shown in Fig. 3.5 below.

Fig. 3.5. Example OFDM waveform produced by [0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1].[18].

Fig. 3.5 shows one possible OFDM waveform. Each waveform will be different depending on what the 8-bit word is. Recall this process needs to be done for each 8bit block until the entire binary stream has been covered.

3.3 Coding in OFDM To achieve satisfactory performance in application of OFDM, the addition of some form of coding is needed. High signal to noise ratio are required to achieve reasonable bit error rate in the presence of fading channel. Wireline systems, usually use large constellation size to achieve high bit rates. Coding in this case is essential for achieving the highest possible rates in the presence of noise and interference. Proper coding is very important for OFDM. There are several factors should be taken into account, such as the required coding gain, channel characteristics, source coding requirement, modulation.[1]

In OFDM system, coding can be implemented in time and frequency domain. Interleaving play key role to achieve the above goal as shown in figure (3.6 ) Impulse response in each in each time/frequency bin

Figure (3.6 ) Two dimensional coding for OFDM.[1]

3.4 Convolutional Encoding The purpose of a convolutional encoder is to take a single or multi-bit input and generate a matrix of encoded outputs. One reason why this is important is that in digital modulation communications systems (such as wireless communication systems, etc.) noise and other external factors can alter bit sequences. By adding additional bits we make bit error checking more successful and allow for more accurate transfers. By transmitting a greater number of bits than the original signal we introduce a certain redundancy that can be used to determine the original signal in the presence of an error. For our illustration we will assume a 5-bit input and rate-1/2 code (two output bits for every input bit). This will yield a 2x5 output matrix, with the extra bits allowing for the correction. 3.5. Concatenated coding Combining convolutional and block codes in a concatenated code is a particularly powerful technique. The block code is the outer code, that is applied first at the transmitterand last at the receiver. The inner convolutional code is very effective at reducing the error probability, particularly when soft decision decoding is employed. Figure (3.7 )show concatenated coding with interleaving.

Fig ( 3.7 )Concatenated coding with interleaving. However when a convolutional code make an error, it apears as a large burst. This occurs when the Viterbi algorithm chooses a wrong sequence. The outer block code , especially an interleaved Reed-Solomon code, is then very effective in correcting that burst error. For a maximum effectiveness the two codes should be interleaved, with different interleaving patterns[30].

CHAPTER .4. OFDM Applications

4.1 Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) Current analog FM radio broadcasting system cannot satisfy the demands of the future, which are - Excellent sound quality - Large number of stations - Small portable receivers - No quality impairment due to multipath propagation or signal fading. Current analog FM radio broadcasting systems have reached the limits of technical improvement. DAB is a digital technology offering considerable advantages over today's FM radio. Digital audio broadcasting (DAB), also known as digital radio and high-definition radio, is audio broadcasting in which analog audio is converted into a digital signal and transmitted on an assigned channel in the AM or (more usually) FM frequency range. DAB is said to offer compact disc (CD)- quality audio on the FM (frequency modulation) broadcast band and to offer FM-quality audio on the AM (amplitude modulation) broadcast band. The technology was first deployed in the United Kingdom in 1995, and has become common throughout Europe. [15] Digital audio broadcast signals are transmitted in-band, on-channel (IBOC). Several stations can be carried within the same frequency spectrum. Listeners must have a receiver equipped to handle DAB signals. At the transmitting site, the signal is compressed using MPEG algorithms and modulated using coded orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (COFDM). A digital signal offers several advantages over conventional analog transmission, including improved sound quality, reduced fading and multipath effects, enhanced immunity to weather, noise, and other interference, and expansion of the listener base by increasing the number of stations that can broadcast within a given frequency band. [15] A DAB receiver includes a small display that provides information about the audio content in much the same way that the menu screen provides an overview of programs

in digital television (DTV). Some DAB stations provide up-to-the-minute news, sports, and weather headlines or bulletins in a scrolled text format on the display. Using the DAB information, it may also be possible to see what song is coming up next.

Figure 4.1.spectrum of a Digital Radio Signal.[19]. 4.2. Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) is a set of standards that define digital broadcasting using existing satellite, cable, and terrestrial infrastructures. In the early 1990s, European broadcasters, consumer equipment manufacturers, and regulatory bodies formed the European Launching Group (ELG) to discuss introducing digital television (DTV) throughout Europe. The ELG realized that mutual respect and trust had to be established between members later became the DVB Project. Today, the DVB Project consists of over 220 organizations in more than 29 countries worldwide. DVB-compliant digital broadcasting and equipment is widely available and is distinguished by the DVB logo. Numerous DVB broadcast services are available in Europe, North and South America, Africa, Asia, and Australia. The term digital television is sometimes used as a synonym for DVB. However, the Advanced Television Systems Committee (ATSC) standard is the digital broadcasting standard used in the U.S. [15]

A fundamental decision of the DVB Project was the selection of MPEG-2, one of a series of MPEG standards for compression of audio and video signals. MPEG-2 reduces a single signal from 166 Mbits to 5 Mbits allowing broadcasters to transmit digital signals using existing cable, satellite, and terrestrial systems. MPEG-2 uses the lossy compression method, which means that the digital signal sent to the television is compressed and some data is lost. This lost data does not affect how the human eye perceives the picture. Two digital television formats that use MPEG-2 compression are standard definition television (SDTV) and high definition television (HDTV). SDTV's picture and sound quality is similar to digital versatile disk (DVD). HDTV programming presents five times as much information to the eye than SDTV, resulting in cinema-quality programming. DVB uses conditional access (CA) systems to prevent external piracy. There are numerous CA systems available to content providers allowing them to choose the CA system that they feel is adequate for the services they provide. Each CA system provides a security module that scrambles and encrypts data. This security module is embedded within the receiver or is detachable in the form of a PC Card. Inside the receiver, there is a smart card that contains the user's access information. The following describes the conditional access process: The receiver receives the digital data stream. The data flows into the conditional access module, which contains the content provider's unscrambling algorithms. The conditional access module verifies the existence of a smart card that contains the subscriber's authorization code. If the authorization code is accepted, the conditional access module unscrambles the data and returns the data to the receiver. If the code is not accepted, the data remains scrambled restricting access. The receiver then decodes the data and outputs it for viewing.

For years, smart cards have been used for pay TV programming. Smart cards are inexpensive allowing the content provider to issue updated smart cards periodically to prevent piracy. Detachable PC cards allow subscribers to use DVB services anywhere DVB technology is supported. [15]

DVB is an open system as opposed to a closed system. Closed systems are content provider-specific, not expandable, and optimized only for television. Open systems such as DVB allows the subscriber to choose different content providers and allows integration of PCs and televisions. DVB systems are optimized for not only television but also for home shopping and banking, private network broadcasting, and interactive viewing. DVB offers the future possibilities of providing high-quality television display in buses, cars, trains, and hand-held devices. DVB allows content providers to offer their services anywhere DVB is supported regardless of geographic location, expand their services easily and inexpensively, and ensure restricted access to subscribers, thus reducing lost revenue due to unauthorized viewing.[15].

Figure 4.2. spectrum of a DVB Signal.[20].

4.3 OFDM for Wireless LAN Multicarrier modulation is a strong candidate for packet switched wireless applications and offers several advantages over single carrier approaches. For higher data rate applications ranging from 10Mb/s up to 50Mb/s, an OFDM system is viable for the following reasons: Robustness against delay spread: Data transmission in wireless environment experience delay spread up to 800ns which cover several symbols at baud rates of 10Mb/s and higher. In a single carrier system an equalizer handle detrimental effects of delay spread. Where delay spread is more than 4 symbols, use of maximum likelihood sequence estimator structure is not practical due to its exponentially increasing complexity [23]. Linear equalizer is not suitable for this application either since in a frequency selective channel it amounts to significant noise enhancement [22,24]. Hence other equalizer structure such as decision feedback equalizer are used. Number of taps of the equalizer should be enough to cancel the effect of inter-symbol interference and perform as a matched filter too. In addition , equalizer coefficient should be trained for every packet, as the channel characteristics are different for each packet. A large header is usually needed to guarantee the convergence of a adaptive training techniques [23]. A multicarrier system is robust against delay spread and does not need a training sequence. Channel estimation is required however. Fall-back mode: Depending on the delay spread of different applications a different number of carriers is required to null the effect of delay spread. Computational efficiency: Use of FFT structure at the receiver reduce the complexity to Nlog2 N . As the number of carrier grows the higher efficiency can be achieved. Fast synchronisation : OFDM receivers are less sensitive to timing jitter compared to spread spectrum techniques.

4.3.1. MAGIC WAND The Magic WAND( Wireless ATM Network Demonstrator) project was part of the European ACTS ( Advanced communications technology and Server) program. The Magic WAND consortium members implemented a prototype wireless ATM network based on OFDM modulation. This prototype had a large impact on standardization activities in the 5GHz band. First by employing OFDM based modems, Magic WAND helped to gain acceptance for OFDM as viable modulation type for high rate wireless communications[21]. Second , the wireless ATM based approach of Magic WAND forms the basis for the standardization of the HIPERLAN type 2 Data Link Layer.

4.3.2 MAGIC WAND Physical layer The main parameter of the WAND physical layer are listed in Table (4.1 ). OFDM with 16 subcarrier is used, the number of which was chosen to facilitate implementation. The 400ns guard time provide a delay spread tolerance of about 50ns. Because of a 240ns rolloff time, the effective guard times is only 160ns. While this is sufficient for most office building and the WAND trial site, a realistic product would require more delay spread robustness to also cover large office building and factory halls[22 ].

The OFDM subcarriers are 8-PSK modulated. At a symbol rate of 13.3 MS/s, this give a raw bit rate of 40Mb/s. The rate complementary coding reduces the data rate to 20Mb/s. The subcarrier spacing is 1.25MHz, which gives a total (3-dB) bandwidth of 20MHz. The packet preamble is 8.4/zs in duration and consist of one OFDM symbol, repeated seven times. This preamble is used for packet detection, automatic gain control, frequency offset estimation, symbol timing, and channel estimation.

Table (4.1 ) Main parameter of the WAND OFDM modem

Number of subcarriers Modulation Coding Bit rate (after decoding) Guard time Symbol time Widowing Subcarrier spacing Training length Carrier frequency Peak output power

16 8-PSK Two interleaved length 8 Complementary codes, rate 20Mb/s (24 bits per symbol) 0.4jus 1.2jus Raised cosine, rolloff factor =0.2 1.25MHz 7 symbols 5.2GHz 1w

The PHY payload holds an odd number of half-slots. Each half slots consist of 9 symbols or 27 bytes. This number was chosen so that a full slot of 54 bytes can hold an ATM cell(which is 52 bytes long), and is also a multiple of 3 bytes, which is imposed by the PHYs modulation scheme[22].

4.4 ADSL System A ubiquitous communication channel is the subcarrier line, or loop consisting of an unshielded twisted pair of wires, connecting any home or office to a telephone companys central office. The overwhelming majority of the channels are used to cary analogue voice conversation, which require a bandwidth of less than 4KHz. It has been recognized that most subcarrier lines can support much wider bandwidth [21,28]. In particular, to cary high rate digital signals. The first such widespread use is for access to a basic rate ISDN, in which the subcarrier line carries 160Kb/s simultaneously in both directions over a single pair.[25]. More recently, higher rates have been introduced into numerous systems. Of particular interest here in ADSL which is primarily intended to provide access for

residential applications. Most of such applications require a high data rate in the downstream direction ( to the customer). This primary application of ADSL are the delivery of digitally encoded video, and access to digital services , particularly the Internet. ADSL meets these needs by providing a high rate digital downstream signal over 1Mb/s, a moderate rate upstream signal , and a normal analog voice channel, all over a single wire-pair. Because virtually all customers have a wire-pair channel providing voice service, no additional channel need to be installed to provide this new service. It only require the installation of terminating equipment at the customers premises and at the central offices. OFDM, typically referred to as DMT ( Discrete Multi-tone) in this application, has been adopted as the standard for transmission of the digital information.[27]

Two classes of ADSL have been standardized recently[23], with many options in each. Full rate ADSL can carry up to approximately 8Mb/s downstream and 800Kb/s upstream. A simpler class, commonly called ADSL Lite carries up to approximately 1.5Mb/s downstream and 500Kb/s upstream. In both classes, data rates can be adjusted to any value in steps of 32Kb/s. An analog voice channel is provided on the same pair. The target error probability is 10"7 per bit, with some required margin.

The two classes are somewhat compatible with each other. In both cases subcarriers are spaced 4312.5Hz apart in both directions. After every 68 frames of data, a synchronization frame is inserted. Because of this and the cyclic prefixes, the net useful number of data frames is 4000 per second in all cases. One of the subcarriers of the frame is devoted to synchronization. Adaptive bit allocation over the subcarriers is performed in all cases. This process is critical to ensure system performance. In the full rate downstream direction, a block of 255 complex data symbols. Including several of value zero, are assembled. These will correspond to sub-channels 1 to 255. The lower ones can not be used because of the analog voice channels, nor can the 255th. Therefor , the highest frequency allowed subcarrier is centered at 1.095MHz. subcarrier which can not support at least a 4 point constellation at the desired error probability will also be unused. Conjugate appending is performed on the block followed by a 512 point DFT. This result in frame of 512 real values. A cyclic prefix of 32 samples is added, and the resultant 2.208M samples per second transmitted over the line.

Upstream, 31 sub-channels are processed, although(gain) the lower few and the 31st can not be used. The same processing is performed with a cyclic prefix of 4 samples. The digitally encoded video, and access to digital services , particularly the Internet. ADSL meets these needs by providing a high rate digital downstream signal over 1Mb/s, a moderate rate upstream signal , and a normal analog voice channel, all over a single wire-pair. Because virtually all customers have a wire-pair channel providing voice service, no additional channel need to be installed to provide this new service. It only require the installation of terminating equipment at the customers premises and at the central offices. OFDM, typically referred to as DMT ( Discrete Multi-tone) in this application, has been adopted as the standard for transmission of the digital information.[26]

Two classes of ADSL have been standardized recently[23], with many options in each. Full rate ADSL can carry up to approximately 8Mb/s downstream and 800Kb/s upstream. A simpler class, commonly called ADSL Lite carries up to approximately 1.5Mb/s downstream and 500Kb/s upstream. In both classes, data rates can be adjusted to any value in steps of 32Kb/s. An analog voice channel is provided on the same pair. The target error probability is 10"7 per bit, with some required margin.

The two classes are somewhat compatible with each other. In both cases subcarriers are spaced 4312.5Hz apart in both directions. After every 68 frames of data, a synchronization frame is inserted. Because of this and the cyclic prefixes, the net useful number of data frames is 4000 per second in all cases. One of the subcarriers of the frame is devoted to synchronization. Adaptive bit allocation over the subcarriers is performed in all cases. This process is critical to ensure system performance. In the full rate downstream direction, a block of 255 complex data symbols. Including several of value zero, are assembled. These will correspond to sub-channels 1 to 255. The lower ones can not be used because of the analog voice channels, nor can the 255th. Therefor , the highest frequency allowed subcarrier is centered at 1.095MHz. subcarrier which can not support at least a 4 point constellation at the desired error probability will also be unused. Conjugate appending is performed on the block followed by a 512 point DFT. This result in frame of 512 real values. A cyclic prefix of 32 samples is added, and the resultant 2.208M samples per second transmitted over the line.

Upstream, 31 sub-channels are processed, although(gain) the lower few and the 31st can not be used. The same processing is performed with a cyclic prefix of 4 samples. The upstream and downstream sub-channels may overlap. This provides a larger data rate, but require the use of echo cancellation. The bit streams may be treated as several multiplexed data channels. Each such channel may be optionally Reed-Solomon coded, with a choice of code and interleaving depth. Other optional codes include a CRC error check, and a 16 state 4-dimensional trellis code. The trellis code, when present, operates over the non-zero subcarriers of a block, and is forced to terminate at the end of each block [23].

ADSL Lite is intended as a simpler lower cost system, with greater range of coverage because of the lower rate. One important difference is the elimination of filters at the customers premises to separate the voice and the data channels. The upstream channel is created identically to that of the full rate system, except that the first 6 sub-carriers must be zero. The downstream transmitted sampled rate is reduced by a factor of two, to 1.104M samples per second. The IDFT is performed over an initial block of 127 complex numbers, of which the first 32 must be zero. The highest subcarrier is now at 543KHz. In this case, the upstream and downstream sub-carriers do not overlap. The signal is treated as a single bit stream. Reed-Solomon and CRC coding are again optional, but there is no trellis coding.

CHAPTER .5. Design OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) using SIMULINK .

5.1. Design OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) 4QAM using SIMULINK . From chapter 2 we have a clear idea about how OFDM work and also the step of the system .we will design the OFDM diagram in simulink step by step . First we belied the main system in general to be clear to continuo our system .

Figure5.1 . OFDM BLOCK DIGRAM MAIN SYSTEM

- .Data source

Figure .5.2 Data source

The Random Integer Generator block generates uniformly distributed random integers in the range [0, M-1], where M is the M-ary number .[29]

Figure .5.3 Parameter

The Integer to Bit Converter block maps each integer in the input vector to a group of bits in the output vector. If M is the Number of bits per integer parameter, then the input integers must be between0 and 2M-1. The block maps each integer to a group of M bits, using the first bit as the most significant bit. As a result, the output vector length is M times the input vector length.[29]

Figure 5.4. Parameter

5.2 IQ MAPPER.

Figure .5.5 IQ MAPPER.

The Bit to Integer Converter block maps groups of bits in the input vector to integers in the output vector. If M is the Number of bits per integer parameter, then the block maps each group of M bits to an integer between 0 and 2M-1. As a result, the output vector length is 1/M times the input vector length.If the input is samplebased input, then it must be a vector whose length equals the Number of bits per integer parameter. If the input is frame-based, then it must be a column vector whose length is an integer multiple of Number of bits per integer.[29]

Parameter:

Figure .5.6 Parameter

The General QAM Modulator Baseband block modulates using quadrature amplitude modulation. The output is a baseband representation of the modulated signal. The Signal constellation parameter defines the constellation by listing its points in a length-M vector of complex numbers. The input signal values must be integers between 0 and M-1. The block mapsan input integer m to the (m+1)st value in the Signal constellation vector. The input can be either a scalar or a frame-based column vector. For integer inputs, the block can accept the data types int8, uint8, int16, uint16, int32, uint32, single, and double. For bit inputs, the block can accept int8, uint8, int16, uint16, int32, uint32, Boolean, single, and double.[29]

Figure .5.7.Parameter.

The Math Function block performs numerous common mathematical functions. You can select one of the functions from the Function parameter:

Figure .5.8 Parameter

5.3 OFDM Modulation

Figure .5.9 OFDM Modulation.

The Multiport Selector block extracts multiple subsets of rows or columns from Mby-N input matrix u, and propagates each new submatrix to a distinct output port. A length-M 1-D vector input is treated as an M-by-1 matrix.The Indices to output parameter is a cell array whose kth cell contains a one-dimensional indexing expression specifying the subset of input rows or columns to be propagated to the kth output port. The total number of cells in the array determines the number of output ports on the block. When the Select parameter is set to Rows, the specified onedimensional indices are used to select matrix rows, and all elements on the chosen rows are included. When the Select parameter is set to Columns, the specified onedimensional indices are used to select matrix columns, and all elements on the chosen columns are included. A given input row or column can appear any number of times in any of the outputs, or not at all.[29]

Figure. 5.10. Parameter.

The Constant block generates a real or complex constant value. The block generates scalar (one-element array), vector (1-D array), or matrix(2-D array) output, depending on the dimensionality of the Constant value parameter and the setting of the Interpret vector parameters as 1-D parameter. Also, the block can generate either a samplebased or frame-based signal, depending on the setting of the Sampling mode parameter.The output of the block has the same dimensions and elements as the Constant value parameter. If you specify a vector for this parameter, and you want the block to interpret it as a vector (i.e., a 1-D array), select the Interpret vector parameters as 1-D parameter; otherwise, the block treats the Constant value parameter as a matrix (i.e., a 2-D array).[29]

Figure5.11 Parameters.

Figure.5.12 Parameters.

The Gain block multiplies the input by a constant value (gain). The input and the gain can each be a scalar, vector, or matrix.You specify the value of the gain in the Gain parameter. The Multiplication parameter lets you specify element-wise or matrix multiplication. For matrix multiplication, this parameter also lets you indicate the order of the multiplicands.The gain is converted from doubles to the data specified in the block mask offline using round-to-nearest and saturation. The input and gain are

then multiplied, and the result is converted to the output data type using the specified rounding and overflow modes.[29]

Figure .5.13 Parameter.

Matrix Concatenation:

Figure .5.14 Matrix Concatenation.

Figure.5.15 Parameter

The IFFT block computes the inverse fast Fourier transform (IFFT) of each channel of an M-by-N or length-M input, u, where M must be a power of two. To work with other input sizes, use the Pad block to pad or truncate the length-M dimension to a power-of-two length.The output of the IFFT block is equivalent to the MATLAB ifft function..[29]

Figure. 5.16 Parameter.

Add Cyclic Prefix

Figure. 5.17 Add Cyclic Prefix

The data port of the Selector block accepts signals of any signal type and any data type supported by Simulink, including fixed-point data types. The data port accepts mixed-type signals. The index port accepts only built-in data types, except boolean data types. The elements of the output have the same type as the corresponding

selected input elements.[29]

Figure.5.18 Parameter.

5.4 The AWGN Channel

Figure.5.19 The AWGN Channel.

The AWGN Channel block adds white Gaussian noise to a real or complex input signal. When the input signal is real, this block adds real Gaussian noise and produces a real output signal. When the input signal is complex, this block adds complex Gaussian noise and produces a complex output signal. This block inherits its sample time from the input signal. This block uses the Signal Processing Blockset Random Source block to generate the noise. Random numbers are generated using the Ziggurat method, which is the same method used by the MATLAB randn function. The Initial

seed parameter in this block initializes the noise generator. Initial seed can be either a scalar or a vector whose length matches the number of channels in the input signal. For details on Initial seed, see the Random Source block reference page in the Signal Processing Blockset documentation set.[29]

Figure. 5.20 Parameter.

5.5 OFDM Demodulator

Figure. 5.21 OFDM Demodulator.

Remove cyclic prefix parameter:

Figure.5.22 Remove cyclic prefix parameter.

FFT parameter:

Figure.5.23 FFT parameter.

The Frame Conversion block specifies the frame status of the output signal. Use the Output signal parameter to specify the frame status of the output signal. Your choices are Frame based or Sample based. The block does not rebuffer or resize twodimensional inputs. When the input is a length-M 1-D vector and the Output signal parameter is set to Frame based, the output is a frame-based M-by-1 matrix.

Figure. 5.24 parameter.

zero-padding and reorder

Figure. 5.25 parameter.

Remove Pilots

Figure. 5.26 parameter.

5.6. IQ Demapper

Figure. 5.27. IQ Demapper.

Data Sink

Figure.5.28 Data Sink.

Now we designed the all system step by step , then we connect them together to get OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) 4QAM using SIMULINK .After connect the system together we try to run the system and get the result that we looking for . The Goto block passes its input to its corresponding From blocks. The input can be a real- or complex-valued signal or vector of any data type. From and Goto blocks allow you to pass a signal from one block to another without actually connecting them.A Goto block can pass its input signal to more than one From block, although a From block can receive a signal from only one Goto block. The input to that Goto block is passed to the From blocks associated with it as though the blocks were physically connected. Goto blocks and From blocks are matched by the use of Goto tags, defined in the Tag parameter.

The Tag Visibility parameter determines whether the location of From blocks that access the signal is limited:local, the default, means that From and Goto blocks using the same tag must be in the same subsystem. A local tag name is enclosed in brackets ([ ]).scoped means that From and Goto blocks using the same tag must be in the same subsystem or at any level in the model hierarchy below the Goto Tag Visibility blockthat does not entail crossing a nonvirtual subsystem boundary, i.e., the boundary of an atomic, conditionally executed, or function-call subsystem or a model reference. A scoped tag name is enclosed in braces ({}).global means that From and Goto blocks using the same tag can be anywhere in the model except in locations that span nonvirtual subsystem boundaries.The rule that From-Goto block connections cannot cross nonvirtual subsystem boundaries has the following exception. A Goto block connected to a state port in one conditionally executed subsystem is visible to a From block inside another conditionally executed subsystem. For more information about conditionally executed subsystems,. Note. A scoped Goto block in a masked system is visible only in that subsystem and in the nonvirtual subsystems it contains. Simulink generates an error if you run or update a diagram that has a Goto Tag Visibility block at a higher level in the block diagram than the corresponding scoped Goto block in the masked subsystem. Use local tags when the Goto and From blocks using the same tag name reside in the same subsystem. You must use global or scoped tags when the Goto and From blocks using the same tag name reside in different subsystems. When you define a tag as global, all uses of that tag access the same signal. A tag defined as scoped can be used in more than one place in the model. [29]

OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) 4QAM using SIMULINK

Figure. 5.29 OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) 4QAM using SIMULINK.

OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) 4QAM using SIMULINK.

Figure. 5.30 .system results.

Figure5.31 system performance test .

OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) 16 QAM using SIMULINK.

Figure 5.32 16 QAM system results.

OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) 16 QAM using SIMULINK.

Figure 5.33 64QAM .System results.

Figure 5.34 .4QAM with BER. M-file .(BER)

% symbol error rate for QPSK(4-QAM) modulation clear N = 10^5; % number of symbols Es_N0_dB = [-3:20]; % multiple Eb/N0 values ipHat = zeros(1,N); for ii = 1:length(Es_N0_dB) ip = (2*(rand(1,N)>0.5)-1) + j*(2*(rand(1,N)>0.5)-1); % s = (1/sqrt(2))*ip; % normalization of energy to 1 n = 1/sqrt(2)*[randn(1,N) + j*randn(1,N)]; % white guassian noise, 0dB variance y = s + 10^(-Es_N0_dB(ii)/20)*n; % additive white gaussian noise % demodulation y_re = real(y); y_im = imag(y); ipHat(find(y_re ipHat(find(y_re

% real % imaginary < 0 & y_im < 0)) = -1 + -1*j; >= 0 & y_im > 0)) = 1 + 1*j;

ipHat(find(y_re < 0 & y_im >= 0)) = -1 + 1*j; ipHat(find(y_re >= 0 & y_im < 0)) = 1 - 1*j; nErr(ii) = size(find([ip- ipHat]),2); % couting the number of errors end simSer_QPSK = nErr/N; theorySer_QPSK = erfc(sqrt(0.5*(10.^(Es_N0_dB/10)))) (1/4)*(erfc(sqrt(0.5*(10.^(Es_N0_dB/10))))).^2; close all figure semilogy(Es_N0_dB,theorySer_QPSK,'b.-'); hold on semilogy(Es_N0_dB,simSer_QPSK,'mx-'); axis([-3 15 10^-5 1]) grid on legend('theory-QPSK', 'simulation-QPSK'); xlabel('Es/No, dB') ylabel('Symbol Error Rate') title('Symbol error probability curve for QPSK(4-QAM)')

Figure 5.35. Symbol error probability curve for QPSK(4-QAM).

CHAPTR .6. CONCLUSION

6.1 Conclusion Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) is a technology that transmits multiple signals simultaneously over a single transmission path, such as a cable or wireless system. Each signal travels within its own unique frequency range (carrier), which is modulated by the data (text, voice, video, etc.). Orthogonal FDM's (OFDM) spread spectrum technique distributes the data over a large number of carriers that are spaced apart at precise frequencies. This spacing provides the "orthogonality" in this technique which prevents the demodulators from seeing frequencies other than their own. The benefits of OFDM are high spectral efficiency, resiliency to RF interference, and lower multi-path distortion. This is useful because in a typical terrestrial broadcasting scenario there are multipathchannels (i.e. the transmitted signal arrives at the receiver using various paths of different length). Since multiple versions of the signal interfere with each other (inter symbol interference (ISI)) it becomes very hard to extract the original information. OFDM is sometimes called multi-carrier or discrete multi-tone modulation. It is the modulation technique used for digital TV in Europe, Japan and Australia. Uses DAB - OFDM forms the basis for the Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) standard in the European market. ADSL - OFDM forms the basis for the global ADSL (asymmetric digital subscriber line) standard.

Wireless Local Area Networks - development is ongoing for wireless point-to-point and point-to-multipoint configurations using OFDM technology. In a supplement to the IEEE 802.11 standard, the IEEE 802.11 working group published IEEE 802.11a, which outlines the use of OFDM in the 5.8-GHz band.

MIMO-OFDM Multiple Input, Multiple Output Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technology developed by Iospan Wireless that uses multiple antennas to transmit and receive radio signals. MIMO-OFDM will allow service providers to deploy a Broadband Wireless Access (BWA) system that has Non-Line-of-Sight (NLOS) functionality. Specifically, MIMO-OFDM takes advantage of the multipath properties of environments using base station antennas that do not have LOS. According to Iospan, "In this environment, radio signals bounce off buildings, trees and other objects as they travel between the two antennas. This bouncing effect produces multiple "echoes" or "images" of the signal. As a result, the original signal and the individual echoes each arrive at the receiver antenna at slightly different times causing the echoes to interfere with one another thus degrading signal quality. The MIMO system uses multiple antennas to simultaneously transmit data, in small pieces to the receiver, which can process the data flows and put them back together. This process, called spatial multiplexing, proportionally boosts the data-transmission speed by a factor equal to the number of transmitting antennas. In addition, since all data is transmitted both in the same frequency band and with separate spatial signatures, this technique utilizes spectrum very efficiently. VOFDM (Vector OFDM) uses the concept of MIMO technology and is also being developed by Cisco Systems. Other Versions of OFDM WOFDM - Wideband OFDM, developed by Wi-Lan, develops spacing between channels large enough so that any frequency errors between transmitter and receiver have no effect on performance. Flash OFDM - Flarion (Lucent/Bell Labs spinoff) has developed this technology, also called fast-hopped OFDM, which uses multiple tones and fast hopping to spread signals over a given spectrum band.

References [1]. RICARD VAN NE, RAMJEE PRASAD .OFDM for wireless multimedia Communications. [2].OFDM Communications by Mohammed Agila UNIVERSITY PLYMOUTH DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNICATIONS & ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING OF

[3].Viterbi, Andrew J. (1995). CDMA: Principles of Spread Spectrum Communication (1st ed.). Prentice Hall PTR [4].Addressing the Risk of EMC Problems with Mobile Radio Transmitters Ian D. Flintoft, Martin P. Robinson, Stuart J. Porter, and Andrew C. Marvin. [5].orthogonal frequency Division multiplexing Wireless communication 11/23/199. [6]. MIMO-OFDM. Helka Maattaunen Dr.krchnavek,Brian wade.

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