Basic Physics of Nuclear Medicine

BASIC PHYSICS OF NUCLEAR MEDICINE
By Kieran Maher and other Wikibooks contributors.
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Copyright 20042006, Wikibooks contributors. his book is publishe! by Wikibooks contributors. "ermission is gr#nte! to copy, !istribute #n!$or mo!i%y this !ocument un!er the terms o% the &'( Free )ocument#tion *icense, +ersion ,.2 or #ny l#ter -ersion publishe! by the Free .o%t/#re Foun!#tion0 /ith no 1n-#ri#nt .ections, no Front-Co-er exts, #n! no 2#ck-Co-er exts. 3 copy o% the license is inclu!e! in the section entitle! 4&'( Free )ocument#tion *icense4. 1m#ge licenses #re liste! in the section entitle! 41m#ge Cre!its.4 3uthors5 6ier#n7#her, 3nonymous, he )oc, "#ul *ynch, )erbeth, 8guk, 9#gin!#:, ;es, Willy on Wheels bought # 7#cbook, en<oy Willy =. >?, Wereon Co-er5 .cheme o% #n #tom, !esigne! by 7ir#ceti, #n! license! un!er the &F)*. he current -ersion o% this Wikibook m#y be %oun! #t5 http5$$en./ikibooks.org$/iki$2#sic@"hysics@o%@'ucle#r@7e!icine
Contents
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0,. 3tomic D 'ucle#r .tructure............................................................................................................4 02. A#!io#cti-e )ec#y.........................................................................................................................,, 0B. he A#!io#cti-e )ec#y *#/......................................................................................................... 20 04. (nits o% A#!i#tion 7e#surement...................................................................................................B2 0E. 1nter#ction o% A#!i#tion /ith 7#tter............................................................................................. BF 06. 3ttenu#tion o% &#mm#-A#ys.........................................................................................................42 0F. &#s-Fille! A#!i#tion )etectors..................................................................................................... EE 0G. .cintill#tion )etectors................................................................................................................... 6B 0H. 'ucle#r 7e!icine 1m#ging .ystems..............................................................................................FE ,0. "ro!uction o% A#!ioisotopes......................................................................................................... H0
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Introduction
'ucle#r 7e!icine is # %#scin#ting #pplic#tion o% nucle#r physics. his /ikibook is inten!e! to support # b#sic intro!uctory course in #n e#rly semester o% #n un!ergr#!u#te progr#m. 1t #ssumes th#t stu!ents h#-e complete! !ecent high school progr#ms in m#ths #n! physics #n! #re concurrently t#king sub<ects in the me!ic#l sciences.
External Lin s
3ustr#li#n D 'e/ Ie#l#n! .ociety o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine - the m#in nucle#r me!icine society in 3ustr#li#0 there is #lso # +ictori#n 2r#nch /ebsite. A#!i#tion #n! (s - co-ers common sources o% n#tur#l #n! #rti%ici#l r#!i#tion - in the en-ironment, in the home, in the /orkpl#ce #n! in me!icine. .ociety o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine - the m#in nucle#r me!icine society in the (.3 - !escribes /h#t nucle#r me!icine is #n! ho/ it rel#tes to other me!ic#l im#ging mo!#lities. C#reer in%orm#tion is #lso inclu!e!.
Ch#pter ,
C HAPTER 1 A TOMIC & N UCLEAR S TRUCTURE

li-e -ersion !iscussion Introduction e!it lesson ou /ill h#-e encountere! much o% /h#t /e /ill co-er here in your high comment school physics. We #re going to re-ie/ this m#teri#l #g#in belo/ so #s to set report #n error the context %or subseJuent ch#pters. his ch#pter /ill #lso pro-i!e you /ith #n #sk # Juestion opportunity to check your un!erst#n!ing o% this topic.
he ch#pter co-ers #tomic structure, nucle#r structure, the cl#ssi%ic#tion o% nuclei, bin!ing energy #n! nucle#r st#bility.
Ato!ic Structure
he #tom is consi!ere! to be the b#sic buil!ing block o% #ll m#tter. 3 simple theory o% the #tom tells us th#t it consists o% t/o components5 # nucleus surroun!e! by #n electron clou!. he situ#tion c#n be consi!ere! #s being simil#r in some respects to pl#nets orbiting the sun. From #n electric#l point o% -ie/, the nucleus is s#i! to be positi-ely ch#rge! #n! the electrons neg#ti-ely ch#rge!. From # si:e point o% -ie/, the r#!ius o% #n #tom is #bout ,0 -,0 m /hile the r#!ius o% # nucleus is #bout ,0-,4 m, i.e. #bout ten thous#n! times sm#ller. he situ#tion coul! be -ie/e! #s something like # cricket b#ll, representing the nucleus, in the mi!!le o% # sporting #ren# /ith the electrons orbiting some/here #roun! /here the spect#tors /oul! sit. his perspecti-e tells us th#t the #tom shoul! be compose! m#inly o% empty sp#ce. 9o/e-er, the situ#tion is %#r more complex th#n this simple picture portr#ys in th#t /e must #lso t#ke into #ccount the physic#l %orces /hich bin! the #tom together. Chemic#l phenomen# c#n be thought o% #s inter#ctions bet/een the electrons o% in!i-i!u#l #toms. A#!io#cti-ity on the other h#n! c#n be thought o% #s ch#nges /hich occur /ithin the nuclei o% #toms.
"#e Nucleus
3 simple !escription o% the nucleus tells us th#t it is compose! o% protons #n! neutrons. hese t/o p#rticle types #re collecti-ely c#lle! nucleons, i.e. p#rticles /hich inh#bit the nucleus. From # m#ss point o% -ie/ the m#ss o% # proton is roughly eJu#l to the m#ss o% # neutron #n! e#ch o% these is #bout 2,000 times the m#ss o% #n electron. .o most o% the m#ss o% #n #tom is concentr#te! in the sm#ll region #t its core. From #n electric#l point o% -ie/ the proton is positi-ely ch#rge! #n! the neutron h#s no ch#rge. 3n #tom #ll on its o/n Ki% th#t /ere possible to #chie-e?L is electric#lly neutr#l. he number o% protons in 4 M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
3tomic D 'ucle#r .tructure the nucleus o% such #n #tom must there%ore eJu#l the number o% electrons orbiting th#t #tom.
Classi$ication o$ Nuclei
he term Atomic Numbe is !e%ine! in nucle#r physics #s the number o% protons in # nucleus #n! is gi-en the symbol !. From your chemistry you /ill remember th#t this number #lso !e%ines the position o% #n element in the "erio!ic #ble o% Clements. Click HERE to #ccess #n inter#cti-e /ebp#ge /hich gi-es !et#ils o% elements in the "erio!ic #ble. he term M"ss Numbe is !e%ine! #s the number o% nucleons in # nucleus, th#t is the number o% protons plus the number o% neutrons, #n! is gi-en the symbol A. 'ote th#t the symbols here #re # bit o!!, in th#t it /oul! pre-ent some con%usion i% the 3tomic 'umber /ere gi-en the symbol 3, #n! the 7#ss 'umber /ere gi-en #nother symbol, such #s 7, but its not # simple /orl!? 1t is possible %or nuclei o% # gi-en element to h#-e the s#me number o% protons but !i%%ering numbers o% neutrons, th#t is to h#-e the s#me 3tomic 'umber but !i%%erent 7#ss 'umbers. .uch nuclei #re re%erre! to #s Isoto#es. 3ll elements h#-e isotopes #n! the number r#nges %rom three %or hy!rogen to o-er B0 %or elements such #s c#esium #n! b#rium. Chemistry h#s # rel#ti-ely simple /#y o% cl#ssi%ying the !i%%erent elements by the use o% symbols such #s 9 %or hy!rogen, 9e %or helium #n! so on. he cl#ssi%ic#tion scheme use! to i!enti%y !i%%erent isotopes is b#se! on this #ppro#ch /ith the use o% # superscript be%ore the chemic#l symbol to !enote the 7#ss 'umber #long /ith # subscript be%ore the chemic#l symbol to !enote the 3tomic 'umber. 1n other /or!s #n isotope is i!enti%ie! #s5
/here > is the chemic#l symbol o% the element. *et us t#ke the c#se o% hy!rogen #s #n ex#mple. 1t h#s three isotopes5 the most common one consisting o% # single proton orbite! by one electron, # secon! isotope consisting o% # nucleus cont#ining # proton #n! # neutron orbite! by one electron, # thir! /hose nucleus consists o% one proton #n! t/o neutrons, #g#in orbite! by # single electron.

3 simple illustr#tion o% these isotopes is sho/n belo/. Aemember though th#t this is # simpli%ie! illustr#tion gi-en /h#t /e note! e#rlier #bout the si:e o% # nucleus comp#re! /ith th#t o% #n #tom. 2ut the illustr#tion is ne-ertheless use%ul %or sho/ing ho/ isotopes #re cl#ssi%ie!.
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Click HERE %or #n #nim#te! -ersion o% this %igure. he %irst isotope commonly c#lle! %&' o(en h#s # 7#ss 'umber o% ,, #n 3tomic 'umber o% , #n! hence is i!enti%ie! #s5
he secon! isotope commonly c#lle! 'eute ium h#s # 7#ss 'umber o% 2, #n 3tomic 'umber o% , #n! is i!enti%ie! #s5
he thir! isotope commonly c#lle! t itium is i!enti%ie! #s5
he s#me cl#ssi%ic#tion scheme is use! %or #ll isotopes. For ex#mple, you shoul! no/ be #ble to %igure out th#t the ur#nium isotope, , cont#ins H2 protons #n! ,44 neutrons. 3 %in#l point on cl#ssi%ic#tion is th#t /e c#n #lso re%er to in!i-i!u#l isotopes by gi-ing the n#me o% the element %ollo/e! by the 7#ss 'umber. For ex#mple, /e c#n re%er to !euterium #s hy!rogen-2 #n! /e c#n re%er to
#s ur#nium-2B6. 2e%ore /e le#-e this cl#ssi%ic#tion scheme let us %urther consi!er the !i%%erence bet/een chemistry #n! nucle#r physics. ;ou /ill remember th#t the /#ter molecule is m#!e up o% t/o hy!rogen #toms bon!e! /ith #n oxygen #tom. heoretic#lly i% /e /ere to combine #toms o% hy!rogen #n! oxygen in this m#nner m#ny, m#ny o% billions o% times /e coul! m#ke # gl#ss o% /#ter. We coul! #lso m#ke our gl#ss o% /#ter using !euterium inste#! o% hy!rogen. his secon! gl#ss o% /#ter /oul! theoretic#lly be -ery simil#r %rom # chemic#l perspecti-e. 9o/e-er, %rom # physics perspecti-e our secon! gl#ss /oul! ) M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
3tomic D 'ucle#r .tructure be he#-ier th#n the %irst since e#ch !euterium nucleus is #bout t/ice the m#ss o% e#ch hy!rogen nucleus. 1n!ee! /#ter m#!e in this %#shion is c#lle! %e"*& +"te .
Ato!ic Mass Unit

he con-ention#l unit o% m#ss, the gr#m, is r#ther l#rge %or use in !escribing ch#r#cteristics o% nuclei. For this re#son, # speci#l unit c#lle! the 3tomic 7#ss (nit K#muL is o%ten use!. his unit is sometimes !e%ine! #s ,$,2th o% the m#ss o% the st#ble most commonly occurring isotope o% c#rbon, i.e. ,2C. 1n terms o% gr#ms, , #mu is eJu#l to ,.66 x ,0 -24 g, th#t is, <ust o-er one million, million, million millionth o% # gr#m. he m#sses o% the proton, mp #n! neutron, mn on this b#sis #re5 mp N ,.00FGB #mu #n! mn N ,.00G66 #mu /hile th#t o% the electron is <ust 0.000EE #mu.
Bindin% Ener%&
We #re no/ in # position to consi!er the sub<ect o% nucle#r st#bility. From /h#t /e h#-e co-ere! so %#r, /e h#-e seen th#t the nucleus is # tiny region in the centre o% #n #tom #n! th#t it is compose! o% neutr#lly #n! positi-ely ch#rge! p#rticles. .o, in # l#rge nucleus such #s th#t o% ur#nium KINH2L /e h#-e # l#rge number o% positi-ely ch#rge! protons concentr#te! into # tiny region in the centre o% the #tom. 3n ob-ious Juestion /hich #rises is th#t /ith #ll these positi-e ch#rges in close proximity, ho/ come the nucleus !oes not %ly #p#rtO 9o/ c#n # nucleus rem#in #s #n entity /ith such electrost#tic repulsion bet/een the componentsO .houl! the orbiting neg#ti-ely-ch#rge! electrons not #ttr#ct the protons #/#y %rom the nucleusO *et us t#ke the c#se o% the helium-4 nucleus #s #n ex#mple. his nucleus cont#ins t/o protons #n! t/o neutrons so th#t in terms o% #mu /e c#n %igure out %rom /h#t /e co-ere! e#rlier th#t the m#ss o% 2 protons N 2.0,E66 #mu, #n! the m#ss o% 2 neutrons N 2.0,FB2 #mu. here%ore /e /oul! expect the tot#l m#ss o% the nucleus to be 4.0B2HG #mu. he experiment#lly !etermine! m#ss o% # helium-4 nucleus is # bit less - <ust 4.00260 #mu. 1n other /or!s there is # !i%%erence o% 0.0B0BG #mu bet/een /h#t /e might expect #s the m#ss o% this Wikibooks M ,
Ch#pter , nucleus #n! /h#t /e #ctu#lly me#sure. ;ou might think o% this !i%%erence #s -ery sm#ll #t <ust 0.FEP. 2ut remember th#t since the m#ss o% one electron is 0.000EE #mu the !i%%erence is #ctu#lly eJui-#lent to the m#ss o% #bout EE electrons. here%ore it is signi%ic#nt enough to /on!er #bout. 1t is possible to consi!er th#t this missing m#ss is con-erte! to energy /hich is use! to hol! the nucleus together, th#t is it is con-erte! to # %orm o% energy c#lle! the -in'in( Ene (&. ;ou coul! s#y like #ll rel#tionships, energy must be expen!e! in m#int#ining them? *ike the gr#m in terms o% the m#ss o% nuclei, the common unit o% energy, the <oule is r#ther cumbersome /hen /e consi!er the energy nee!e! to bin! # nucleus together. he unit use! to express energies on the #tomic sc#le is the elect on *olt, symbol5 e+. =ne electron -olt is !e%ine! #s the #mount o% energy g#ine! by #n electron #s it %#lls through # potenti#l !i%%erence o% one -olt. his !e%inition on its o/n is not o% gre#t help to us here #n! it is st#te! purely %or the s#ke o% completeness. .o !o not /orry #bout it %or the time being. 8ust #ppreci#te th#t it is # unit representing # tiny #mount o% energy but #n #mount ne-ertheless /hich is use%ul on the #tomic sc#le. 1t is # bit too sm#ll in the c#se o% bin!ing energies ho/e-er #n! the meg#-electron -olt K7e+L is o%ten use!. 3lbert Cinstein intro!uce! us to the eJui-#lence o% m#ss, m, #n! energy, C, #t the #tomic le-el using the %ollo/ing eJu#tion5 C N m c2 , /here c is the -elocity o% light. 1t is possible to sho/ th#t , #mu is eJui-#lent to HB,.4G 7e+. here%ore, the m#ss !i%%erence /e !iscusse! e#rlier bet/een the expecte! #n! me#sure! m#ss o% the helium-4 nucleus o% 0.0B0BG #mu is eJui-#lent to #bout 2G 7e+. his represents #bout F 7e+ %or e#ch o% the %our nucleons cont#ine! in the nucleus.
Nuclear Sta'ilit&
1n most st#ble isotopes the bin!ing energy per nucleon lies bet/een F #n! H 7e+. .ince this bin!ing energy is !epen!ent on the number o% nucleons in # nucleus, th#t is the 7#ss 'umber, 3, #n! since the electrost#tic repulsion bet/een the protons is !epen!ent on the sJu#re o% the ch#rges, th#t is I2, it is possible to in%er th#t I2 must be !epen!ent on 3 %or # nucleus to rem#in st#ble. 1n other /or!s to comb#t the e%%ect o% the incre#se in electrost#tic repulsion /hen the number o% protons incre#ses the number o% neutrons must incre#se more r#pi!ly to contribute su%%icient energy to bin! the nucleus together. 3s /e note! e#rlier there #re # number o% isotopes %or e#ch element o% the "erio!ic #ble. 1t h#s been %oun! th#t the most st#ble isotope %or e#ch element h#s # speci%ic number o% neutrons in its nucleus. "lotting # gr#ph o% the number o% protons #g#inst the number o% neutrons %or these st#ble isotopes gener#tes /h#t is c#lle! the Nucle" St"bilit& Cu *e5
. M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
3tomic D 'ucle#r .tructure
'ote th#t the number o% protons eJu#ls the number o% neutrons %or sm#ll nuclei. 2ut notice #lso th#t the number o% neutrons incre#ses more r#pi!ly th#n the number o% protons #s the si:e o% the nucleus gets bigger so #s to m#int#in the st#bility o% the nucleus. 1n other /or!s more neutrons nee! to be there to contribute to the bin!ing energy use! to counter#ct the electrost#tic repulsion bet/een the protons.
Radioacti(it&
here #re #bout 2,4E0 kno/n isotopes o% the one hun!re! o!! elements in the "erio!ic #ble. ;ou c#n im#gine the si:e o% # t#ble o% isotopes rel#ti-e to th#t o% the "erio!ic #ble? he unst#ble isotopes lie #bo-e or belo/ the 'ucle#r .t#bility Cur-e. hese unst#ble isotopes #ttempt to re#ch the st#bility cur-e by splitting into %r#gments, in # process c#lle! /ission, or by emitting p#rticles #n!$or energy in the %orm o% r#!i#tion. his l#tter process is c#lle! R"'io"cti*it&. 1t is use%ul to !/ell %or # %e/ moments on the term r#!io#cti-ity. For ex#mple /h#t h#s nucle#r st#bility to !o /ith r#!ioO From # historic#l perspecti-e remember th#t /hen these r#!i#tions /ere !isco-ere! #bout ,00 ye#rs #go /e !i! not kno/ ex#ctly /h#t /e /ere !e#ling /ith. When people like 9enri 2ecJuerel #n! 7#rie Curie /ere /orking initi#lly on these str#nge em#n#tions %rom cert#in n#tur#l m#teri#ls it /#s thought th#t the r#!i#tions /ere someho/ rel#te! to #nother phenomenon /hich #lso /#s not /ell un!erstoo! #t the time - th#t o% r#!io communic#tion. 1t seems re#son#ble on this b#sis to #ppreci#te th#t some people consi!ere! th#t the t/o phenomen# /ere someho/ rel#te! #n! hence th#t the m#teri#ls /hich emitte! r#!i#tion /ere terme! radio-active. We kno/ to!#y th#t the t/o phenomen# #re not !irectly rel#te! but /e ne-ertheless hol! onto the term r#!io#cti-ity %or historic#l purposes. 2ut it shoul! be Juite cle#r to you h#-ing re#che! this st#ge o% this ch#pter th#t the term r#!io#cti-e re%ers to the emission o% p#rticles #n!$or energy %rom unst#ble isotopes. (nst#ble isotopes %or inst#nce those th#t h#-e too m#ny protons to rem#in # st#ble entity #re c#lle! "'io"cti*e isoto#es - #n! c#lle! "'ioisoto#es %or short. he term "'ionucli'e is #lso sometimes use!. Fin#lly #bout B00 o% the 2,4E0-o!! isotopes mentione! #bo-e #re %oun! in n#ture. he rest #re m#n-m#!e Kor person-m#!e?L, th#t is they #re pro!uce! #rti%ici#lly. hese 2,,E0 or so #rti%ici#l isotopes h#-e been m#!e !uring the l#st ,00 ye#rs or so /ith most h#-ing been m#!e since the secon! /orl! /#r. Click HERE to #ccess #n inter#cti-e /ebp#ge /hich gi-es !et#ils o% elements in the "erio!ic Wikibooks M 0
Ch#pter , #ble #n! o% r#!ioisotopes use! in me!icine. We /ill return to the pro!uction o% r#!ioisotopes in the l#st ch#pter o% this /ikibook #n! /ill procee! %or the time being /ith # !escription o% the types o% r#!i#tion emitte! by r#!ioisotopes.
External Lin s
7#rie #n! "ierre Curie #n! the )isco-ery o% "olonium #n! A#!ium - #n historic#l ess#y %rom he 'obel Foun!#tion. '#tur#l A#!io#cti-ity - #n o-er-ie/ o% r#!io#cti-ity in n#ture - inclu!es sections on primor!i#l r#!ionucli!es, cosmic r#!i#tion, hum#n pro!uce! r#!ionucli!es, #s /ell #s n#tur#l r#!io#cti-ity in soil, in the oce#n, in the hum#n bo!y #n! in buil!ing m#teri#ls - %rom the (ni-ersity o% 7ichig#n .tu!ent Ch#pter o% the 9e#lth "hysics .ociety. he "#rticle 3!-enture - #n inter#cti-e tour o% the inner /orkings o% the #tom /hich expl#ins the mo!ern tools physicists use to probe nucle#r #n! sub-nucle#r m#tter #n! ho/ physicists me#sure the results o% their experiments using !etectors - %rom the "#rticle )#t# &roup #t the *#/rence 2erkeley '#tion#l *#b, (.3 #n! mirrore! #t CCA', &ene-#. WebClements - #n excellent /eb-b#se! "erio!ic #ble o% the Clements /hich inclu!es # -#st #rr#y o% !#t# #bout e#ch element - origin#lly %rom 7#rk Winter #t the (ni-ersity o% .he%%iel!, Cngl#n!.
Multi)le C#oice *uestions

Click HERE to #ccess #n online 7CQ co-ering the m#teri#l in this ch#pter. congratulations on completing
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A#!io#cti-e )ec#y
C HAPTER 2 R A3IOACTI4E 3 ECA5

li-e -ersion !iscussion Introduction e!it lesson e s#/ in the l#st ch#pter th#t r#!io#cti-ity is # process use! by unst#ble comment nuclei to #chie-e # more st#ble situ#tion. 1t is s#i! th#t such nuclei decay in report #n error #n #ttempt to #chie-e st#bility. .o, #n #ltern#ti-e title %or this ch#pter is Nucle" #sk # Juestion 3ec"& P ocesses.
We #lso s#/ in the pre-ious ch#pter th#t /e c#n use the 'ucle#r .t#bility Cur-e #s # me#ns o% !escribing /h#t is going on. .o # secon! #ltern#ti-e title %or this ch#pter is Met%o's o6 7ettin( onto t%e Nucle" St"bilit& Cu *e. We #re going to %ollo/ # !escripti-e or phenomenologic#l #ppro#ch to the topic here by !escribing in # %#irly simple %#shion /h#t is kno/n #bout e#ch o% the m#<or !ec#y mech#nisms. =nce #g#in you m#y h#-e #lre#!y co-ere! this m#teri#l in high school physics. 2ut be#r /ith us bec#use the tre#tment here /ill help us set the scene %or subseJuent ch#pters.
Met#ods o$ Radioacti(e Deca&

A#ther th#n consi!ering /h#t h#ppens to in!i-i!u#l nuclei it is perh#ps e#sier to consi!er # hypothetic#l nucleus th#t c#n un!ergo m#ny o% the m#<or %orms o% r#!io#cti-e !ec#y. his hypothetic#l nucleus is sho/n belo/5
Wikibooks M 11
Ch#pter 2
Click HERE %or #n #nim#te! -ersion o% this %igure. Firstly /e c#n see t/o protons #n! t/o neutrons being emitte! together in # process c#lle! "l#%"8 'ec"&. .econ!ly, /e c#n see th#t # proton c#n rele#se # p#rticle in # process c#lle! bet"8#lus 'ec"&, #n! th#t # neutron c#n emit # p#rticle in # process c#lle! bet"8minus 'ec"&. We c#n #lso see #n electron being c#pture! by # proton. hir!ly /e c#n see some energy being emitte! /hich results %rom # process c#lle! ("mm"8'ec"& #s /ell #s #n electron being #ttr#cte! into the nucleus #n! being e<ecte! #g#in. Fin#lly there is the r#ther c#t#strophic process /here the nucleus cr#cks in h#l% c#lle! s#ont"neous 6ission. We /ill no/ !escribe e#ch o% these !ec#y processes in turn.
S)ontaneous Fission
his is # -ery !estructi-e process /hich occurs in some he#-y nuclei /hich split into 2 or B %r#gments plus some neutrons. hese %r#gments %orm ne/ nuclei /hich #re usu#lly r#!io#cti-e. 'ucle#r re#ctors exploit this phenomenon %or the pro!uction o% r#!ioisotopes. 1ts #lso use! %or nucle#r po/er gener#tion #n! in nucle#r /e#ponry. he process is not o% gre#t interest to us here #n! /e /ill s#y no more #bout it %or the time being.
Al)#a Deca&
1n this !ec#y process t/o protons #n! t/o neutrons le#-e the nucleus together in #n #ssembly kno/n #s #n "l#%" #" ticle. 'ote th#t #n #lph# p#rticle is re#lly # helium-4 nucleus. .o /hy not c#ll it # helium nucleusO Why gi-e it #nother n#meO he #ns/er to this Juestion lies in the history o% the !isco-ery o% r#!io#cti-ity. 3t the time /hen these r#!i#tions /ere !isco-ere! /e 12 M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
A#!io#cti-e )ec#y !i!nSt kno/ /h#t they re#lly /ere. We %oun! out th#t one type o% these r#!i#tions h#! # !ouble positi-e ch#rge #n! it /#s not until sometime l#ter th#t /e le#rnt th#t they /ere in %#ct nuclei o% helium-4. 1n the initi#l perio! o% their !isco-ery this %orm o% r#!i#tion /#s gi-en the n#me #lph# r#ys K#n! the other t/o /ere c#lle! bet# #n! g#mm# r#ysL, these terms being the %irst three letters o% the &reek #lph#bet. We still c#ll this %orm o% r#!i#tion by the n#me "l#%" #" ticle %or historic#l purposes. C#lling it by this n#me #lso contributes to the speci%ic <#rgon o% the %iel! #n! le#!s outsi!ers to think th#t the sub<ect is Juite speci#lise!? 2ut notice th#t the r#!i#tion re#lly consists o% # helium-4 nucleus emitte! %rom #n unst#ble l#rger nucleus. here is nothing str#nge #bout helium since it is Juite #n #bun!#nt element on our pl#net. .o /hy is this r#!i#tion !#ngerous to hum#nsO he #ns/er to this Juestion lies /ith the energy /ith /hich they #re emitte! #n! the %#ct th#t they #re Juite m#ssi-e #n! h#-e # !ouble positi-e ch#rge. .o /hen they inter#ct /ith li-ing m#tter they c#n c#use subst#nti#l !estruction to molecules /hich they encounter in their #ttempt to slo/ !o/n #n! to #ttr#ct t/o electrons to become # neutr#l helium #tom. 3n ex#mple o% this %orm o% !ec#y occurs in the ur#nium-2BG nucleus. represents /h#t occurs is5 he eJu#tion /hich
9ere the ur#nium-2BG nucleus emits # helium-4 nucleus Kthe #lph# p#rticleL #n! the p#rent nucleus becomes thorium-2B4. 'ote th#t the 7#ss 'umber o% the p#rent nucleus h#s been re!uce! by 4 #n! the 3tomic 'umber is re!uce! by 2 /hich is # ch#r#cteristic o% #lph# !ec#y %or #ny nucleus in /hich it occurs.
Beta Deca&
here #re three common %orms o% bet# !ec#y5
9": Elect on Emission

Cert#in nuclei /hich h#-e #n excess o% neutrons m#y #ttempt to re#ch st#bility by con-erting # neutron into # proton /ith the emission o% #n electron. he electron is c#lle! # bet"8minus #" ticle the minus in!ic#ting th#t the p#rticle is neg#ti-ely ch#rge!. We c#n represent /h#t occurs #s %ollo/s5
/here # neutron con-erts into # proton #n! #n electron. 'otice th#t the tot#l electric#l ch#rge is the s#me on both si!es o% this eJu#tion. We s#y th#t the electric ch#rge is conser-e!. We c#n consi!er th#t the electron c#nnot exist insi!e the nucleus #n! there%ore is e<ecte!. =nce #g#in there is nothing str#nge or mysterious #bout #n electron. Wh#t is import#nt though Wikibooks M 1;
Ch#pter 2 %rom # r#!i#tion s#%ety point o% -ie/ is the energy /ith /hich it is emitte! #n! the chemic#l !#m#ge it c#n c#use /hen it inter#cts /ith li-ing m#tter. 3n ex#mple o% this type o% !ec#y occurs in the io!ine-,B, nucleus /hich !ec#ys into xenon-,B, /ith the emission o% #n electron, th#t is
he electron is /h#t is c#lle! # bet#-minus p#rticle. 'ote th#t the 7#ss 'umber in the #bo-e eJu#tion rem#ins the s#me #n! th#t the 3tomic 'umber incre#ses by , /hich is ch#r#cteristic o% this type o% !ec#y. ;ou m#y be /on!ering ho/ #n electron c#n be pro!uce! insi!e # nucleus gi-en th#t the simple #tomic !escription /e g#-e in the pre-ious ch#pter in!ic#te! th#t the nucleus consists o% protons #n! neutrons only. his is one o% the limit#tions o% the simple tre#tment presente! so %#r #n! c#n be expl#ine! by consi!ering th#t the three %un!#ment#l p#rticles /hich /e c#ll protons, neutrons #n! electrons #re themsel-es %orme! o% sm#ller p#rticles c#lle! <u" ks. We #re not going to consi!er these in #ny /#y here other th#n to note th#t some combin#tions o% !i%%erent types o% Ju#rk pro!uce protons, #nother combin#tion pro!uces neutrons #n! # thir! combin#tion %orms electrons. he mess#ge here is to #ppreci#te th#t # simple picture is the best /#y to st#rt in #n intro!uctory text such #s this #n! th#t the re#l situ#tion is # lot more complex th#n /h#t h#s been !escribe!. he s#me c#n be s#i! #bout the tre#tment o% bet#-!ec#y gi-en #bo-e #s /e /ill see in subseJuent ch#pters.
9b: Posit on Emission

When the number o% protons in # nucleus is too l#rge %or the nucleus to be st#ble it m#y #ttempt to re#ch st#bility by con-erting # proton into # neutron /ith the emission o% # positi-ely-ch#rge! electron. h#t is not # typogr#phic#l error? 3n electron /ith # positi-e ch#rge #lso c#lle! # #osit on is emitte!. he positron is the bet"8#lus #" ticle. he history here is Juite interesting. 3 brilli#nt 1t#li#n physicist, Cnrico Fermi !e-elope! # theory o% bet# !ec#y #n! his theory pre!icte! th#t positi-ely-ch#rge! #s /ell #s neg#ti-ely-ch#rge! electrons coul! be emitte! by unst#ble nuclei. hese p#rticles coul! be c#lle! pieces o% #nti-m#tter #n! they /ere subseJuently !isco-ere! by experiment. hey !o not exist %or -ery long #s they Juickly combine /ith # norm#l electron #n! the subseJuent re#ction c#lle! "nni%il"tion gi-es rise to the emission o% t/o g#mm# r#ys. .cience %iction /riters h#! # gre#t time %ollo/ing the !isco-ery o% #nti-m#tter #n! specul#te! #long /ith m#ny scientists th#t p#rts o% our uni-erse m#y cont#in neg#ti-ely-ch#rge! protons %orming nuclei /hich #re orbite! by positi-ely-ch#rge! electrons. 2ut this is t#king us too %#r #/#y %rom the topic #t h#n!? he re#ction in our unst#ble nucleus /hich cont#ins one too m#ny protons c#n be represente! #s %ollo/s5 'otice, once #g#in, th#t electric ch#rge is conser-e! on e#ch si!e o% this eJu#tion. 14 M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
A#!io#cti-e )ec#y
3n ex#mple o% this type o% !ec#y occurs in so!ium-22 /hich !ec#ys into neon-22 /ith the emission o% # positron5
'ote th#t the 7#ss 'umber rem#ins the s#me #n! th#t the 3tomic 'umber !ecre#ses by ,.
9c: Elect on C"#tu e

1n this thir! %orm o% bet# !ec#y #n inner orbiting electron is #ttr#cte! into #n unst#ble nucleus /here it combines /ith # proton to %orm # neutron. he re#ction c#n be represente! #s5
his process is #lso kno/n #s =8c"#tu e since the electron is o%ten #ttr#cte! %rom the 6-shell o% the #tom. 9o/ !o /e kno/ th#t # process like this occurs gi-en th#t no r#!i#tion is emitte!O 1n other /or!s the e-ent occurs /ithin the #tom itsel% #n! no in%orm#tion #bout it le#-es the #tom. =r !oes itO he sign#ture o% this type o% !ec#y c#n be obt#ine! %rom e%%ects in the electron clou! surroun!ing the nucleus /hen the -#c#nt site le%t in the 6-shell is %ille! by #n electron %rom #n outer shell. he %illing o% the -#c#ncy is #ssoci#te! /ith the emission o% #n >-r#y %rom the electron clou! #n! it is this >-r#y /hich pro-i!es # sign#ture %or this type o% bet# !ec#y. his %orm o% !ec#y c#n #lso be recognise! by the emission o% g#mm#-r#ys %rom the ne/ nucleus. 3n ex#mple o% this type o% r#!io#cti-e !ec#y occurs in iron-EE /hich !ec#ys into m#ng#nese-EE %ollo/ing the c#pture o% #n electron. he re#ction c#n be represente! #s %ollo/s5
'ote th#t the 7#ss 'umber once #g#in is unch#nge! in this %orm o% !ec#y #n! th#t the 3tomic 'umber is !ecre#se! by ,.
+a!!a Deca&
&#mm# !ec#y in-ol-es the emission o% energy %rom #n unst#ble nucleus in the %orm o% electrom#gnetic r#!i#tion. ;ou shoul! remember %rom your high school physics th#t electrom#gnetic r#!i#tion is the biggest physic#l phenomenon /e h#-e so %#r !isco-ere!. he r#!i#tion c#n be ch#r#cterise! in terms o% its %reJuency, its /#-elength #n! its energy. hinking #bout it in terms o% the energy o% the r#!i#tion /e Wikibooks M 1$
Ch#pter 2 h#-e -ery lo/ energy electrom#gnetic r#!i#tion c#lle! "'io +"*es, in6 "8 e' "'i"tion #t # slightly higher energy, *isible li(%t #t # higher energy still, then ult "8*iolet "'i"tion #n! the higher energy %orms o% this r#!i#tion #re c#lle! >8 "&s #n! ("mm"8 "&s. ;ou shoul! #lso remember th#t these r#!i#tions %orm /h#t is c#lle! the Clectrom#gnetic .pectrum.
2e%ore procee!ing it is use%ul to p#use %or # moment to consi!er the !i%%erence bet/een >-r#ys #n! g#mm#-r#ys. hese t/o %orms o% r#!i#tion #re high energy electrom#gnetic r#ys #n! #re there%ore -irtu#lly the s#me. he !i%%erence bet/een them is not +%"t they consist o% but +%e e they come %rom. 1n gener#l /e c#n s#y th#t i% the r#!i#tion emerges %rom # nucleus it is c#lle! # g#mm#-r#y #n! i% it emerges %rom outsi!e the nucleus %rom the electron clou! %or ex#mple, it is c#lle! #n >-r#y. =ne %in#l point is o% rele-#nce be%ore /e consi!er the !i%%erent %orms o% g#mm#-!ec#y #n! th#t is /h#t such # high energy r#y re#lly is. 1t h#s been %oun! in experiments th#t g#mm#-r#ys K#n! >-r#ys %or th#t m#tter?L sometimes m#ni%est themsel-es #s /#-es #n! other times #s p#rticles. his /#-ep#rticle !u#lity c#n be expl#ine! using the eJui-#lence o% m#ss #n! energy #t the #tomic le-el. When /e !escribe # g#mm# r#y #s # /#-e it h#s been %oun! use%ul to use terms such #s %reJuency #n! /#-elength <ust like #ny other /#-e. 1n #!!ition /hen /e !escribe # g#mm# r#y #s # p#rticle /e use terms such #s m#ss #n! electric ch#rge. Furthermore the term electrom#gnetic photon is use! %or these p#rticles. he interesting %e#ture #bout these photons ho/e-er is th#t they h#-e neither m#ss nor ch#rge? here #re t/o common %orms o% g#mm# !ec#y5
1) M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
A#!io#cti-e )ec#y
9": Isome ic T "nsition

3 nucleus in #n excite! st#te m#y re#ch its groun! or unexcite! st#te by the emission o% # g#mm#r#y. 3n ex#mple o% this type o% !ec#y is th#t o% technetium-HHm - /hich by the /#y is the most common r#!ioisotope use! %or !i#gnostic purposes to!#y in me!icine. he re#ction c#n be expresse! #s5
9ere # nucleus o% technetium-HH is in #n excite! st#te, th#t is it h#s excess energy. he excite! st#te in this c#se is c#lle! # met"st"ble st"te #n! the nucleus is there%ore c#lle! technetium-HHm Km %or met#st#bleL. he excite! nucleus looses its excess energy by emitting # g#mm#-r#y to become technetium-HH.
9b: Inte n"l Con*e sion

9ere the excess energy o% #n excite! nucleus is gi-en to #n #tomic electron, e.g. # 6-shell electron.
Deca& Sc#e!es
)ec#y schemes #re /i!ely use! to gi-e # -isu#l represent#tion o% r#!io#cti-e !ec#y. 3 scheme %or # rel#ti-ely str#ight-%or/#r! !ec#y is sho/n belo/5
his scheme is %or hy!rogen-B /hich !ec#ys to helium-B /ith # h#l%-li%e o% ,2.B ye#rs through the emission o% # bet#-minus p#rticle /ith #n energy o% 0.00EF 7e+. 3 scheme %or # more complic#te! !ec#y is th#t o% c#esium-,BF5 his isotope c#n !ec#y through through t/o bet#-minus processes. 1n one /hich occurs in EP o% !isintegr#tions # bet#-minus p#rticle is emitte! /ith #n energy o% ,.,F 7e+ to pro!uce b#rium-,BF. 1n the secon! /hich occurs more %reJuently Kin the rem#ining HEP o% !isintegr#tionsL # bet#-minus p#rticle o% energy 0.E, 7e+ is emitte! to pro!uce b#rium-,BFm - in other /or!s # b#rium-,BF nucleus in # met#st#ble st#te. he b#rium-,BFm then !ec#ys -i# isomeric tr#nsition /ith the emission o% # g#mm#-r#y o% energy 0.662 7e+.
Wikibooks M 1,
Ch#pter 2
he gener#l metho! use! %or !ec#y schemes is illustr#te! in the !i#gr#m belo/5
he energy is plotte! on the -ertic#l #xis #n! #tomic number on the hori:ont#l #xis - #lthough these #xes #re r#rely !ispl#ye! in #ctu#l schemes. he isotope %rom /hich the scheme origin#tes is !ispl#ye! #t the top - > in the c#se #bo-e. his isotope is re%erre! to #s the #" ent. he p#rent looses energy /hen it !ec#ys #n! hence the pro!ucts o% the !ec#y re%erre! to #s '"u(%te s #re plotte! #t # lo/er energy le-el. he !i#gr#m illustr#tes the situ#tion %or common %orms o% r#!io#cti-e !ec#y. 3lph#-!ec#y is illustr#te! on the le%t /here the m#ss number is re!uce! by 4 #n! the #tomic number is re!uce! by 2 to pro!uce !#ughter A. o its right the scheme %or bet#-plus !ec#y is sho/n to pro!uce !#ughter -. he situ#tion %or bet#-minus !ec#y %ollo/e! by g#mm#-!ec#y is sho/n on the right si!e o% the !i#gr#m /here !#ughters C #n! 3 respecti-ely #re pro!uce!.
External Lin s
2#sics #bout A#!i#tion - o-er-ie/ o% the !i%%erent types o% ionising r#!i#tion %rom the
1. M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
A#!io#cti-e )ec#y A#!i#tion C%%ects Aese#rch Foun!#tion - # cooper#ti-e 8#p#n-(nite! .t#tes Aese#rch =rg#ni:#tion /hich con!ucts rese#rch %or pe#ce%ul purposes. A#!i#tion #n! *i%e - #n ess#y by Cric 8 9#ll, "ro%essor o% A#!iology, Columbi# (ni-ersity /ith sections on the unst#ble #tom, ionising r#!i#tion, b#ckgroun! r#!i#tion, m#n-m#!e r#!i#tion #n! r#!io#cti-e !ec#y - %rom the (r#nium 1n%orm#tion Centre /ebsite. A#!i#tion #n! A#!io#cti-ity - # sel%-p#ce! lesson !e-elope! by the (ni-ersity o% 7ichig#nSs .tu!ent Ch#pter o% the 9e#lth "hysics .ociety, /ith sections on r#!i#tion, r#!io#cti-ity, the #tom, #lph# r#!i#tion, bet# r#!i#tion #n! g#mm# r#!i#tion.

C93"
CA
02 R A3)1=3C
1+C
)CC3;
Wikibooks M 10
Ch#pter B
C HAPTER ; T HE R A3IOACTI4E 3 ECA5 L AW

li-e -ersion !iscussion Introduction e!it lesson e co-ere! r#!io#cti-e !ec#y %rom # phenomenologic#l perspecti-e in the comment l#st ch#pter. 1n this ch#pter /e consi!er the topic %rom # more gener#l report #n error #n#lytic#l perspecti-e. #sk # Juestion
he re#son %or !oing this is so th#t /e c#n !e-elop # %orm o% thinking /hich /ill help us to un!erst#n! /h#t is going on in # Ju#ntit#ti-e, m#them#tic#l sense. We /ill be intro!uce! to concepts such #s the 3ec"& Const"nt #n! the H"l6 Li6e #s /ell #s units use! %or the me#surement o% r#!io#cti-ity. ;ou /ill #lso h#-e # ch#nce to !e-elop your un!erst#n!ing by being brought through three Juestions on this sub<ect.
Assu!)tions
he usu#l st#rting point in most %orms o% #n#lysis in physics is to m#ke some #ssumptions /hich simpli%y the situ#tion. 2y simpli%ying the situ#tion /e c#n !ispose o% irrele-#nt e%%ects /hich ten! to complic#te m#tters but in !oing so /e sometimes m#ke the situ#tion so simple th#t it becomes # bit too #bstr#ct #n! #pp#rently h#r! to un!erst#n!. For this re#son /e /ill try here to rel#te the sub<ect o% r#!io#cti-e !ec#y to # more common situ#tion /hich /e /ill use #s #n #n#logy #n! hope%ully /e /ill be #ble to o-ercome the #bstr#ct %e#ture o% the sub<ect m#tter. he #n#logy /e /ill use here is th#t o% m#king popcorn. .o think #bout putting some oil in # pot, #!!ing the corn, he#ting the pot on the cooker #n! /#tching /h#t h#ppens. ;ou might #lso like to try this out /hile consi!ering the situ#tion? For our r#!io#cti-e !ec#y situ#tion /e %irst o% #ll consi!er th#t /e h#-e # s#mple cont#ining # l#rge number o% r#!io#cti-e nuclei #ll o% the s#me kin!. his is our unpoppe! corn in the pot %or ex#mple. .econ!ly /e #ssume th#t #ll o% the r#!io#cti-e nuclei !ec#y by the s#me process be it #lph#, bet# or g#mm#-!ec#y. 1n other /or!s our unpoppe! corn goes pop #t some st#ge !uring the he#ting process. hir!ly t#ke # %e/ moments to pon!er on the %#ct th#t /e c#n only re#lly consi!er /h#t is going on %rom # st#tistic#l perspecti-e. 1% you look #t #n in!i-i!u#l piece o% corn, c#n you %igure out /hen it is going to popO 'ot re#lly. ;ou c#n ho/e-er %igure out th#t # l#rge number o% them /ill h#-e poppe! #%ter # perio! o% time. 2ut its r#ther more !i%%icult to %igure out the situ#tion %or #n in!i-i!u#l piece o% corn. .o inste#! o% !e#ling /ith in!i-i!u#l entities /e consi!er /h#t h#ppens on # l#rger sc#le #n! this is /here st#tistics comes in. We c#n s#y th#t the r#!io#cti-e !ec#y is # st#tistic#l one-shot process, th#t is /hen # nucleus h#s !ec#ye! it c#nnot repe#t the process #g#in. 1n other /or!s /hen # piece o% corn h#s poppe! it c#nnot repe#t the process. .imple? 1n #!!ition #s long #s # r#!io#cti-e nucleus h#s not !ec#ye! the prob#bility %or it !oing so in the next moment rem#ins the s#me. 1n other /or!s i% # piece o% corn h#s not poppe! #t # cert#in time the 21 M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
he A#!io#cti-e )ec#y *#/ ch#nce o% it popping in the next secon! is the s#me #s in the pre-ious secon!. he bets #re e-en? *et us not push this popcorn #n#logy too %#r though in th#t /e kno/ th#t /e c#n control the r#te o% popping by the he#t /e #pply to the pot %or ex#mple. 9o/e-er #s %#r #s our r#!io#cti-e nuclei #re concerne! there is nothing /e c#n !o to control /h#t is going on. he r#te #t /hich nuclei go pop Kor 'ec"&, in other /or!sL c#nnot be in%luence! by he#ting up the s#mple. 'or by cooling it %or th#t m#tter or by by putting it un!er gre#ter pressures, by ch#nging the gr#-it#tion#l en-ironment by t#king it out into sp#ce %or inst#nce, or by ch#nging #ny other #spect o% its physic#l en-ironment. he only thing th#t !etermines /hether #n in!i-i!u#l nucleus /ill !ec#y seems to be the nucleus itsel%. 2ut on the #-er#ge /e c#n s#y th#t it /ill !ec#y #t some st#ge.
"#e Radioacti(e Deca& La,

*et us no/ use some symbols to re!uce the #mount o% /riting /e h#-e to !o to !escribe /h#t is going on #n! to #-#il oursel-es o% some m#them#tic#l techniJues to simpli%y the situ#tion e-en %urther th#n /e h#-e been #ble to !o so %#r. *et us s#y th#t in the s#mple o% r#!io#cti-e m#teri#l there #re ' nuclei /hich h#-e not !ec#ye! #t # cert#in time, t. .o /h#t h#ppens in the next brie% perio! o% timeO .ome nuclei /ill !ec#y %or sure. 2ut ho/ m#nyO =n the b#sis o% our re#soning #bo-e /e c#n s#y th#t the number /hich /ill !ec#y /ill !epen! on o-er#ll number o% nuclei, ', #n! #lso on the length o% the brie% perio! o% time. 1n other /or!s the more nuclei there #re the more /ill !ec#y #n! the longer the time perio! the more nuclei /ill !ec#y. *et us !enote the number /hich /ill h#-e !ec#ye! #s 'N #n! the sm#ll time inter-#l #s 't. .o /e h#-e re#sone! th#t the number o% r#!io#cti-e nuclei /hich /ill !ec#y !uring the time inter-#l %rom t to tT!t must be proportion#l to ' #n! to !t. 1n symbols there%ore5 the minus sign in!ic#ting th#t ' is !ecre#sing. urning the proportion#lity in this eJu#tion into #n eJu#lity /e c#n /rite5 /here the const#nt o% proportion#lity, U, is c#lle! the 3ec"& Const"nt. )i-i!ing #cross by ' /e c#n re/rite this eJu#tion #s5
.o this eJu#tion !escribes the situ#tion %or #ny brie% time inter-#l, !t. o %in! out /h#t h#ppens %or #ll perio!s o% time /e simply #!! up /h#t h#ppens in e#ch brie% time inter-#l. 1n other /or!s /e integr#te the #bo-e eJu#tion. Cxpressing this more %orm#lly /e c#n s#y th#t %or the perio! o% time %rom t N 0 to #ny l#ter time t, the number o% r#!io#cti-e nuclei /ill !ecre#se %rom '0 to 't, so th#t5
Wikibooks M 21
Ch#pter B
his %in#l expression is kno/n #s the R"'io"cti*e 3ec"& L"+. 1t tells us th#t the number o% r#!io#cti-e nuclei /ill !ecre#se in #n exponenti#l %#shion /ith time /ith the r#te o% !ecre#se being controlle! by the )ec#y Const#nt. 2e%ore looking #t this expression in %urther !et#il let us re-ie/ the m#them#tics /hich /e use! #bo-e. First o% #ll /e use! integr#l c#lculus to %igure out /h#t /#s h#ppening o-er # perio! o% time by integr#ting /h#t /e kne/ /oul! occur in # brie% inter-#l o% time. .econ!ly /e use! # c#lculus rel#tionship th#t the
/here ln x represents the n#tur#l log#rithm o% x. 3n! thir!ly /e use! the !e%inition o% log#rithms th#t /hen
then, 'o/, to return to the A#!io#cti-e )ec#y *#/. he *#/ tells us th#t the number o% r#!io#cti-e nuclei /ill !ecre#se /ith time in #n exponenti#l %#shion /ith the r#te o% !ecre#se being controlle! by the )ec#y Const#nt. he *#/ is sho/n in gr#phic#l %orm in the %igure belo/5
he A#!io#cti-e )ec#y *#/
he gr#ph plots the number o% r#!io#cti-e nuclei #t #ny time, 't, #g#inst time, t. We c#n see th#t the number o% r#!io#cti-e nuclei !ecre#ses %rom '0 th#t is the number #t t N 0 in # r#pi! %#shion initi#lly #n! then more slo/ly in the cl#ssic exponenti#l m#nner. he in%luence o% the )ec#y Const#nt c#n be seen in the %ollo/ing %igure5
3ll three cur-es here #re exponenti#l in n#ture, only the )ec#y Const#nt is !i%%erent. 'otice th#t /hen the )ec#y Const#nt h#s # lo/ -#lue the cur-e !ecre#ses rel#ti-ely slo/ly #n! /hen the )ec#y Const#nt is l#rge the cur-e !ecre#ses -ery Juickly. he )ec#y Const#nt is ch#r#cteristic o% in!i-i!u#l r#!ionucli!es. .ome like ur#nium-2BG h#-e # sm#ll -#lue #n! the m#teri#l there%ore !ec#ys Juite slo/ly o-er # long perio! o% time. =ther nuclei such #s technetium-HHm h#-e # rel#ti-ely l#rge )ec#y Const#nt #n! they !ec#y %#r more Juickly.
Wikibooks M 2;
Ch#pter B 1t is #lso possible to consi!er the A#!io#cti-e )ec#y *#/ %rom #nother perspecti-e by plotting the log#rithm o% 't #g#inst time. 1n other /or!s %rom our #n#lysis #bo-e by plotting the expression5
in the %orm
'otice th#t this expression is simply #n eJu#tion o% the %orm y N mx T c /here m N -l #n! c N ln '0. 3s # result it is the eJu#tion o% # str#ight line o% slope -l #s sho/n in the %ollo/ing %igure. .uch # plot is sometimes use%ul /hen /e /ish to consi!er # situ#tion /ithout the complic#tion o% the !irect exponenti#l beh#-iour.
Hal$-Li$e
7ost o% us h#-e not been t#ught to think instincti-ely in terms o% log#rithmic or exponenti#l terms e-en though m#ny n#tur#l phenomen# !ispl#y exponenti#l beh#-iours. 7ost o% the %orms o% thinking /hich /e h#-e been t#ught in school #re b#se! on line#r ch#nges #n! #s # result it is r#ther !i%%icult %or us to gr#sp the A#!io#cti-e )ec#y *#/ intuiti-ely. For this re#son #n in!ic#tor is usu#lly !eri-e! %rom the l#/ /hich helps us think more cle#rly #bout /h#t is going on. his in!ic#tor is c#lle! the H"l6 Li6e #n! it expresses the length o% time it t#kes %or the r#!io#cti-ity o% # r#!ioisotope to !ecre#se by # %#ctor o% t/o. From # gr#phic#l point o% -ie/ /e c#n s#y th#t /hen5
the time t#ken is the 9#l% *i%e5 24 M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
'ote th#t the h#l%-li%e !oes not express ho/ long # m#teri#l /ill rem#in r#!io#cti-e but simply the length o% time %or its r#!io#cti-ity to h#l-e. Cx#mples o% the h#l% li-es o% some r#!ioisotopes #re gi-en in the %ollo/ing t#ble. 'otice th#t some o% these h#-e # rel#ti-ely short h#l% li%e. hese ten! to be the ones use! %or me!ic#l !i#gnostic purposes bec#use they !o not rem#in r#!io#cti-e %or -ery long %ollo/ing #!ministr#tion to # p#tient #n! hence result in # rel#ti-ely lo/ r#!i#tion !ose. H"l6 Li6e 9"## o?@: ,B secon!s 6 hours G !#ys , month B0 ye#rs 462 ye#rs ,620 ye#rs 4.E, x ,0H ye#rs
R"'ioisoto#e
.1m= 00mTc 1;1I $1C 1;,Cs 241Am 22)R" 2;.U
2ut they !o present # logistic#l problem /hen /e /ish to use them /hen there m#y not be # r#!ioisotope pro!uction %#cility ne#rby. For ex#mple suppose /e /ish to use HHm c %or # p#tient stu!y #n! the ne#rest nucle#r %#cility %or m#king this isotope is E,000 km #/#y. he pro!uction %#cility coul! Wikibooks M 2$
Ch#pter B be in .y!ney #n! the p#tient coul! be in "erth %or inst#nce. 3%ter m#king the isotope #t the nucle#r pl#nt it /oul! be !ec#ying /ith # h#l% li%e o% 6 hours. .o /e put the m#teri#l on # truck #n! !ri-e it to .y!ney #irport. he isotope /oul! be !ec#ying #s the truck sits in .y!ney tr#%%ic then !ec#ying still more #s it /#its %or # pl#ne to t#ke it to "erth. hen !ec#ying more #s it is %lo/n #cross to "erth #n! so on. 2y the time it gets to our p#tient it /ill h#-e subst#nti#lly re!uce! in r#!io#cti-ity possibly to the point o% being useless %or the p#tientSs in-estig#tion. 3n! /h#t #bout the problem i% /e nee!e! to use G,m6r inste#! o% HHm c %or our p#tientO ;ou /ill see in the l#st ch#pter o% this /ikibook th#t logistic#l ch#llenges such #s this h#-e gi-en rise to Juite inno-#ti-e solutions. 7ore #bout th#t l#ter? ;ou c#n #ppreci#te %rom the t#ble #bo-e th#t other isotopes h#-e # -ery long h#l% li-es. For ex#mple 226A# h#s # h#l% li%e o% o-er ,,E00 ye#rs. his isotope h#s been use! in the p#st %or ther#peutic #pplic#tions in me!icine. hink #bout the logistic#l problems here. hey ob-iously !o not rel#te to tr#nsporting the m#teri#l %rom the point o% pro!uction to the point o% use. 2ut they rel#te to ho/ the m#teri#l is kept %ollo/ing its #rri-#l #t the point o% use. We must h#-e # stor#ge %#cility so th#t the m#teri#l c#n be kept s#%ely %or # long perio! o% time. 2ut %or ho/ longO 3 gener#l rule o% thumb %or the Ju#ntities o% r#!io#cti-ity use! in me!icine is th#t the r#!io#cti-ity /ill rem#in signi%ic#nt %or #bout ,0 h#l% li-es. .o /e /oul! h#-e to h#-e # s#%e en-ironment %or stor#ge o% the 226A# %or #bout ,6,000 ye#rs? his stor#ge %#cility /oul! h#-e to be secure %rom m#ny un%oresee#ble e-ents such #s e#rthJu#kes, bombing etc #n! be kept in # m#nner /hich our chil!renSs, chil!renSs chil!ren c#n un!erst#n!. 3 -ery serious un!ert#king in!ee!?
Relations#i) 'et,een t#e Deca& Constant and t#e Hal$ Li$e

=n the b#sis o% the #bo-e you shoul! be #ble to #ppreci#te th#t there is # rel#tionship bet/een the )ec#y Const#nt #n! the 9#l% *i%e. For ex#mple /hen the )ec#y Const#nt is sm#ll the 9#l% *i%e shoul! be long #n! correspon!ingly /hen the )ec#y Const#nt is l#rge the 9#l% *i%e shoul! be short. 2ut /h#t ex#ctly is the n#ture o% this rel#tionshipO We c#n e#sily #ns/er this Juestion by using the !e%inition o% 9#l% *i%e #n! #pplying it to the A#!io#cti-e )ec#y *#/. =nce #g#in the l#/ tells us th#t #t #ny time, t5
#n! the !e%inition o% 9#l% *i%e tells us th#t5
/hen
We c#n there%ore re-/rite the A#!io#cti-e )ec#y *#/ by substituting %or 't #n! t #s %ollo/s5 here%ore 2) M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
#n!
hese l#st t/o eJu#tions express the rel#tionship bet/een the )ec#y Const#nt #n! the 9#l% *i%e. hey #re -ery use%ul #s you /ill see /hen sol-ing numeric#l Juestions rel#ting to r#!io#cti-ity #n! usu#lly %orm the %irst step in sol-ing # numeric#l problem.
Units o$ Radioacti(it&
he .1 or metric unit o% r#!io#cti-ity is n#me! #%ter 9enri 2ecJuerel, in honour o% his !isco-ery o% r#!io#cti-ity, #n! is c#lle! the bec<ue el /ith the symbol 2J. he becJuerel is !e%ine! #s the Ju#ntity o% r#!io#cti-e subst#nce th#t gi-es rise to # !ec#y r#te o% , !ec#y per secon!. 1n me!ic#l !i#gnostic /ork , 2J is # r#ther sm#ll #mount o% r#!io#cti-ity. 1n!ee! it is e#sy to remember its !e%inition i% you think o% it #s # buggerall #mount o% r#!io#cti-ity. For this re#son the kilobecJuerel Kk2JL #n! meg#becJuerel K72JL #re more %reJuently use!. he tr#!ition#l unit o% r#!io#cti-ity is n#me! #%ter 7#rie Curie #n! is c#lle! the cu ie, /ith the symbol Ci. he curie is !e%ine! #s the #mount o% r#!io#cti-e subst#nce /hich gi-es rise to # !ec#y r#te Wikibooks M 2,
Ch#pter B o% B.F x ,0,0 !ec#ys per secon!. 1n other /or!s BF thous#n!, million !ec#ys per secon! /hich #s you might #ppreci#te is # subst#nti#l #mount o% r#!io#cti-ity. For me!ic#l !i#gnostic /ork the millicurie KmCiL #n! the microcurie KVCiL #re there%ore more %reJuently use!. Why t/o unitsO 1t in essence like #ll other units o% me#surement !epen!s on /h#t p#rt o% the /orl! you #re in. For ex#mple the kilometer is /i!ely use! in Curope #n! 3ustr#li# #s # unit o% !ist#nce #n! the mile is use! in the (.3. .o i% you #re re#!ing #n 3meric#n textbook you #re likely to %in! the curie use! #s the unit o% r#!io#cti-ity, i% you #re re#!ing #n 3ustr#li#n book it /ill most likely re%er to becJuerels #n! both units might be use! i% you #re re#!ing # Curope#n book. ;ou /ill there%ore %in! it necess#ry to kno/ #n! un!erst#n! both units.
*uestions
hree Juestions #re gi-en belo/ to help you !e-elop your un!erst#n!ing o% the m#teri#l presente! in this ch#pter. he %irst one is rel#ti-ely str#ight-%or/#r! #n! /ill exercise your #pplic#tion o% the A#!io#cti-e )ec#y *#/ #s /ell #s your un!erst#n!ing o% the concept o% 9#l% *i%e. he secon! Juestion is # lot more ch#llenging #n! /ill help you rel#te the A#!io#cti-e )ec#y *#/ to the number o% r#!io#cti-e nuclei /hich #re !ec#ying in # s#mple o% r#!io#cti-e m#teri#l. he thir! Juestion /ill help you un!erst#n! the #ppro#ch use! in the secon! Juestion by #sking # simil#r Juestion %rom # slightly !i%%erent perspecti-e. 2e%ore you try the Juestions click HERE to #ccess #n inter#cti-e /ebp#ge /hich /ill !o some simple c#lcul#tions %or you.
Auestion 1
K#L he h#l%-li%e o% HHm c is 6 hours. 3%ter ho/ much time /ill ,$,6th o% the r#!ioisotope rem#inO KbL +eri%y your #ns/er by #nother me#ns. Ans+e B K#L .t#rting /ith the rel#tionship /e est#blishe! e#rlier bet/een the )ec#y Const#nt #n! the 9#l% *i%e /e c#n c#lcul#te the )ec#y Const#nt #s %ollo/s5
'o/ #pplying the A#!io#cti-e )ec#y *#/,
/e c#n re-/rite it in the %orm5 he Juestion tells us th#t '0 h#s re!uce! to ,$,6th o% its -#lue, th#t is5 2. M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
here%ore
/hich /e nee! to sol-e %or t. =ne /#y o% !oing this is #s %ollo/s5
.o it /ill t#ke 24 hours until ,$,6th o% the r#!io#cti-ity rem#ins. KbL 3 /#y in /hich this #ns/er c#n be -eri%ie! is by using the !e%inition o% 9#l% *i%e. We #re tol! th#t the 9#l% *i%e o% HHm c is 6 hours. here%ore #%ter six hours h#l% o% the r#!io#cti-ity rem#ins. here%ore #%ter ,2 hours # Ju#rter rem#ins0 #%ter ,G hours #n eighth rem#ins #n! #%ter 24 hours one sixteenth rem#ins. 3n! /e #rri-e #t the s#me #ns/er #s in p#rt K#L. .o /e must be right? 'ote th#t this secon! #ppro#ch is use%ul i% /e #re !e#ling /ith rel#ti-ely simple situ#tions /here the r#!io#cti-ity is h#l-e!, Ju#rtere! #n! so on. 2ut supposing the Juestion #ske! ho/ long /oul! it t#ke %or the r#!io#cti-ity to !ecre#se to # tenth o% its initi#l -#lue. )e!uction %rom the !e%inition o% h#l% li%e is r#ther more !i%%icult in this c#se #n! the m#them#tic#l #ppro#ch use! %or p#rt K#L #bo-e /ill yiel! the #ns/er more re#!ily.
Auestion 2
Fin! the r#!io#cti-ity o% # , g s#mple o% 226A# gi-en th#t t,$25 ,620 ye#rs #n! 3-og#!roSs 'umber5 6.02B x ,02B. Ans+e B We c#n st#rt the #ns/er like /e !i! /ith Question ,K#L by c#lcul#ting the )ec#y Const#nt %rom the 9#l% *i%e using the %ollo/ing eJu#tion5
Wikibooks M 20
Ch#pter B 'ote th#t the length o% # ye#r use! in con-erting %rom Sper ye#rS to Sper secon!S #bo-e is B6E.2E !#ys to #ccount %or le#p ye#rs. 1n #!!ition the re#son %or con-erting to units o% Sper secon!S is bec#use the unit o% r#!io#cti-ity is expresse! #s the number o% nuclei !ec#ying per secon!. .econ!ly /e c#n c#lcul#te th#t , g o% 226A# cont#ins5
hir!ly /e nee! to express the A#!io#cti-e )ec#y *#/ in terms o% the number o% nuclei !ec#ying per unit time. We c#n !o this by !i%%erenti#ting the eJu#tion #s %ollo/s5
he re#son %or expressing the result #bo-e in #bsolute terms is to remo-e the minus sign in th#t /e #lre#!y kno/ th#t the number is !ecre#sing. We c#n no/ enter the !#t# /e !eri-e! #bo-e %or U #n! '5
.o the r#!io#cti-ity o% our , g s#mple o% r#!ium-226 is #pproxim#tely , Ci. his is not # surprising #ns/er since the !e%inition o% the cu ie /#s origin#lly concei-e! #s the r#!io#cti-ity o% , g o% r#!ium-226?
;1 M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
Auestion ;
Wh#t is the minimum m#ss o% HHm c th#t c#n h#-e # r#!io#cti-ity o% , 72JO 3ssume the h#l%-li%e is 6 hours #n! th#t 3-og#!roSs 'umber is 6.02B x ,02B. Ans+e .t#rting #g#in /ith the rel#tionship bet/een the )ec#y Const#nt #n! the 9#l% *i%e5
.econ!ly the Juestion tells us th#t the r#!io#cti-ity is , 72J. here%ore since , 72J N , x ,06 !ec#ys per secon!,
Fin#lly the m#ss o% these nuclei c#n be c#lcul#te! #s %ollo/s5
1n other /or!s # m#ss o% <ust o-er %i-e picogr#ms o% HHm c c#n emit one million g#mm#-r#ys per secon!. he result rein%orces #n import#nt point th#t you /ill le#rn #bout r#!i#tion protection /hich is th#t you shoul! tre#t r#!io#cti-e m#teri#ls <ust like you /oul! h#n!le p#thogenic b#cteri#?

C93"
CA
0B R
9C
A3)1=3C
1+C
)CC3; *3W
Wikibooks M ;1
Ch#pter 4
C HAPTER 4 U NITS O/ R A3IATION M EASUREMENT

li-e -ersion !iscussion Introduction e!it lesson %ter th#t r#ther long #n! !et#ile! ch#pter /e h#-e <ust %inishe! /e /ill no/ comment procee! #t # more leisurely p#ce %or # short tre#tment o% some o% the more report #n error common units o% me#surement use! in this %iel!. #sk # Juestion
2e%ore /e !o so ho/e-er it is use%ul to consi!er the typic#l r#!i#tion en-ironment. 2y !oing so /e /ill g#in #n #ppreci#tion o% the -#rious Ju#ntities th#t c#n be me#sure! be%ore consi!ering the units /hich #re use! to express such me#surements. .o, /e /ill %irst o% #ll consi!er # typic#l r#!i#tion situ#tion #n! then go on to consi!er the -#rious units o% me#surement.
A "&)ical Radiation Situation

3 typic#l r#!i#tion set-up is sho/n in the %igure belo/. Firstly there is # sou ce o% r#!i#tion, secon!ly # r#!i#tion be"m #n! thir!ly some m"te i"l /hich #bsorbs the r#!i#tion. .o the Ju#ntities /hich c#n be me#sure! #re #ssoci#te! /ith the source, the r#!i#tion be#m #n! the #bsorber.
his type o% en-ironment coul! be one /here the r#!i#tion %rom the source is use! to irr#!i#te # p#tient Kth#t is the #bsorberL %or !i#gnostic purposes /here /e /oul! pl#ce # !e-ice behin! the p#tient %or pro!ucing #n im#ge or %or ther#peutic purposes /here the r#!i#tion is inten!e! to c#use !#m#ge to # speci%ic region o% # p#tient. 1t is #lso # situ#tion /here /e #s #n #bsorber m#y be /orking /ith # source o% r#!i#tion.
"#e Radiation Source

When the r#!i#tion source is # r#!io#cti-e one the Ju#ntity th#t is typic#lly me#sure! is the ;2 M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
(nits o% A#!i#tion 7e#surement r#!io#cti-ity o% the source. We s#/ in the pre-ious ch#pter th#t the units use! to express r#!io#cti-ity #re the bec<ue el K.1 unitL #n! the cu ie Ktr#!ition#l unitL.
"#e Radiation Bea!

he ch#r#cteristic o% # r#!i#tion be#m th#t is typic#lly me#sure! is c#lle! the R"'i"tion E?#osu e. his Ju#ntity expresses ho/ much ionis#tion the be#m c#uses in the #ir through /hich it tr#-els. We /ill see in the %ollo/ing ch#pter th#t one o% the m#<or things th#t h#ppens /hen r#!i#tion encounters m#tter is th#t ions #re %orme! - #ir being the %orm o% m#tter it encounters in this c#se. .o the r#!i#tion exposure pro!uce! by # r#!i#tion be#m is expresse! in terms o% the #mount o% ionis#tion /hich occurs in #ir. 3 str#ight-%or/#r! /#y o% me#suring such ionis#tion is to !etermine the #mount o% electric ch#rge /hich is pro!uce!. ;ou /ill remember %rom your high school physics th#t the .1 unit o% electric ch#rge is the coulomb. he .1 unit o% r#!i#tion exposure is the coulomb #e kilo( "m - #n! is gi-en the symbol C kg-,. 1t is !e%ine! #s the Ju#ntity o% >- or g#mm#-r#ys such th#t the #ssoci#te! electrons emitte! per kilogr#m o% #ir #t st#n!#r! temper#ture #n! pressure K. "L pro!uce ions c#rrying , coulomb o% electric ch#rge. he tr#!ition#l unit o% r#!i#tion exposure is the oent(en, n#me! in honour o% Wilhelm Aoentgen K/ho !isco-ere! >-r#ysL #n! is gi-en the symbol A. he roentgen is !e%ine! #s the Ju#ntity o% >- or g#mm#-r#ys such th#t the #ssoci#te! electrons emitte! per kilogr#m o% #ir #t . " pro!uce ions c#rrying 2.EG x ,0-4 coulombs o% electric ch#rge. .o , A is # sm#ll exposure rel#ti-e to , C kg-, - in %#ct it is B,GF6 times sm#ller. 'ote th#t this unit is con%ine! to r#!i#tion be#ms consisting o% >-r#ys or g#mm#-r#ys. =%ten it is not simply the exposure th#t is o% interest but the exposure r#te, th#t is the exposure per unit time. he units /hich ten! to be use! in this c#se #re the C kg-, s-, #n! the A hr-,.
"#e A'sor'er
Cnergy is !eposite! in the #bsorber /hen r#!i#tion inter#cts /ith it. 1t is usu#lly Juite # sm#ll #mount o% energy but energy nonetheless. he Ju#ntity th#t is me#sure! is c#lle! the Abso be' 3ose #n! it is o% rele-#nce to #ll types o% r#!i#tion be they >- or g#mm#-r#ys, #lph#- or bet#-p#rticles. he .1 unit o% #bsorbe! !ose is c#lle! the ( "&, n#me! #%ter # %#mous r#!iobiologist, *9 &r#y, #n! is gi-en the symbol &y. he gr#y is !e%ine! #s the #bsorption o% , <oule o% r#!i#tion energy per kilogr#m o% m#teri#l. .o /hen , <oule o% r#!i#tion energy is #bsorbe! by # kilogr#m o% the #bsorber m#teri#l /e s#y th#t the #bsorbe! !ose is , &y. he tr#!ition#l unit o% #bsorbe! !ose is c#lle! the "', /hich suppose!ly st#n!s %or A#!i#tion 3bsorbe! )ose. 1t is !e%ine! #s the #bsorption o% ,0-2 <oules o% r#!i#tion energy per kilogr#m o% Wikibooks M ;;
Ch#pter 4 m#teri#l. 3s you c#n %igure out , &y is eJu#l to ,00 r#!. here #re other Ju#ntities !eri-e! %rom the gr#y #n! the r#! /hich express the biologic#l e%%ects o% such #bsorbe! r#!i#tion energy /hen the #bsorber is li-ing m#tter - hum#n tissue %or ex#mple. hese Ju#ntities inclu!e the CJui-#lent )ose #n! the C%%ecti-e )ose. *et us p#use here %or # bit to pon!er on the use o% the term dose. 1t usu#lly h#s # me!ic#l connot#tion in th#t /e c#n s#y th#t someone h#! # !ose o% the S%lu, or th#t the !octor prescribe! # cert#in !ose o% # !rug. Wh#t h#s it to !o /ith the !eposition o% energy by # be#m o% r#!i#tion in #n #bsorberO 1t coul! h#-e something to !o /ith the initi#l #pplic#tions o% r#!i#tion in the e#rly p#rt o% the 20th century /hen it /#s use! to tre#t numerous !ise#ses. 3s # result /e c#n specul#te th#t the term h#s st#ye! in the -ern#cul#r o% the %iel!. 1t /oul! be much e#sier to use # term like #bsorbe! r#!i#tion energy since /e #re t#lking #bout the !eposition o% energy in #n #bsorber. 2ut this might m#ke the sub<ect <ust # little too simple?
S)eci$ic +a!!a Ra& Constant

3 %in#l Ju#ntity is /orth mentioning /ith reg#r! to r#!i#tion units. his is the .peci%ic &#mm#A#y Const#nt %or # r#!ioisotope. his Ju#ntity is #n #m#lg#m o% the Ju#ntities /e h#-e #lre#!y co-ere! #n! expresses the exposure r#te pro!uce! by the g#mm#-r#ys emitte! %rom # r#!ioisotope. 1t is Juite # use%ul Ju#ntity %rom # pr#ctic#l -ie/point /hen /e #re !e#ling /ith # r#!io#cti-e source /hich emits g#mm#-r#ys. .upposing you #re using # g#mm#-emitting r#!io#cti-e source K%or ex#mple HHm c or ,BFCsL #n! you /ill be st#n!ing #t # cert#in !ist#nce %rom this source /hile you #re /orking. ;ou most likely /ill be intereste! in the exposure r#te pro!uce! by the source %rom # r#!i#tion s#%ety point o% -ie/. his is /here the .peci%ic &#mm#-A#y Const#nt comes in. 1t is !e%ine! #s the exposure r#te per unit #cti-ity #t # cert#in !ist#nce %rom # source. he .1 unit is there%ore the C kg-, s-, 2J-, #t , m , #n! the tr#!ition#l unit is the A hr-, mCi-, #t , cm . hese units o% me#surement #re Juite cumbersome #n! # bit o% # mouth%ul. 1t might h#-e been better i% they /ere n#me! #%ter some %#mous scientist so th#t /e coul! c#ll the .1 unit , smit% #n! the tr#!ition#l unit , Cones %or ex#mple. 2ut #g#in things #re not th#t simple?
"#e In(erse S.uare La,

2e%ore /e %inish this ch#pter /e #re going to consi!er /h#t h#ppens #s /e mo-e our #bsorber #/#y %rom the r#!i#tion source. 1n other /or!s /e #re going to think #bout the in%luence o% !ist#nce on ;4 M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
(nits o% A#!i#tion 7e#surement the intensity o% the r#!i#tion be#m. ;ou /ill %in! th#t # use%ul result emerges %rom this th#t h#s # -ery import#nt imp#ct on r#!i#tion s#%ety. he r#!i#tion pro!uce! in # r#!io#cti-e source is emitte! in #ll !irections. We c#n consi!er th#t spheres o% eJu#l r#!i#tion intensity exist #roun! the source /ith the number o% photons$p#rticles spre#!ing out #s /e mo-e #/#y %rom the source. Consi!er #n #re# on the sur%#ce o% one o% these spheres #n! #ssume th#t there #re # cert#in number o% photons$p#rticles p#ssing though it. 1% /e no/ consi!er # sphere #t # gre#ter !ist#nce %rom the source the s#me number o% photons$p#rticles /ill no/ be spre#! out o-er # bigger #re#. Follo/ing this line o% thought it is e#sy to #ppreci#te th#t the r#!i#tion intensity /ill !ecre#se /ith the sJu#re o% the !ist#nce %rom the source. his e%%ect is kno/n #s the 1n-erse .Ju#re *#/. 3s # result i% /e !ouble the !ist#nce %rom # source, /e re!uce the intensity by # %#ctor o% t/o sJu#re!, th#t is 4. 1% /e treble the !ist#nce the intensity is re!uce! by # %#ctor o% H, th#t is three sJu#re!, #n! so on. his is # -ery use%ul piece o% in%orm#tion i% you #re /orking /ith # source o% r#!i#tion #n! #re intereste! in minimising the !ose o% r#!i#tion you /ill recei-e.
External Lin s
A#!i#tion #n! Aisk - co-ers the e%%ect o% r#!i#tion, ho/ risks #re !etermine!, comp#rison o% r#!i#tion /ith other risks #n! r#!i#tion !oses. A#!i#tion C%%ects =-er-ie/ - results o% stu!ies o% -ictims o% nucle#r bombs inclu!ing e#rly e%%ects on sur-i-ors, e%%ects on the in utero expose!, #n! l#te e%%ects on the sur-i-ors - %rom the A#!i#tion C%%ects Aese#rch Foun!#tion, # cooper#ti-e 8#p#n-(nite! .t#tes Aese#rch =rg#ni:#tion. he A#!i#tion #n! 9e#lth "hysics 9ome "#ge - #ll you e-er /#nte! to kno/ #bout r#!i#tion but /ere #%r#i! to #sk..../ith hun!re!s o% WWW links - %rom the .tu!ent Ch#pter o% the 9e#lth "hysics .ociety, (ni-ersity o% 7ichig#n cont#ining sections on gener#l in%orm#tion, regul#tory 1n%orm#tion, pro%ession#l org#ni:#tions #n! societies, r#!i#tion speci#lties, he#lth physics rese#rch #n! e!uc#tion. Wh#t ;ou 'ee! to 6no/ #bout A#!i#tion - to protect yoursel% to protect your %#mily to m#ke re#son#ble soci#l #n! politic#l choices - co-ers sources o% r#!i#tion #n! r#!i#tion protection - by *#uriston .. #ylor.

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Ch#pter 4 li-e -ersion R !iscussion R e!it lesson R comment R report #n error R #sk # Juestion
;) M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
1nter#ction o% A#!i#tion /ith 7#tter
C HAPTER $ I NTERACTION O/ R A3IATION M ATTER

Introduction
WITH
e h#-e %ocusse! in pre-ious ch#pters on the source o% r#!i#tion #n! the types o% r#!i#tion. We #re no/ in # position to consi!er /h#t h#ppens /hen this r#!i#tion inter#cts /ith m#tter. =ur m#in re#son %or !oing this is to %in! out /h#t h#ppens to the r#!i#tion #s it p#sses through m#tter #n! #lso to set oursel-es up %or consi!ering ho/ to !etect r#!i#tion. .ince #ll r#!i#tion !etectors #re m#!e %rom some %orm o% m#tter it is use%ul to %irst o% #ll kno/ ho/ r#!i#tion inter#cts so th#t /e c#n exploit the e%%ects in the !esign o% such !etectors.
li-e -ersion !iscussion e!it lesson comment report #n error #sk # Juestion
2e%ore /e !o this let us %irst remin! oursel-es o% the physic#l ch#r#cteristics o% the m#<or types o% r#!i#tion. We h#-e co-ere! this m#teri#l in some !et#il in the %irst ch#pter #n! it #re summ#rise! belo/ %or con-enience5 R"'i"tion Al#%" P" ticles -et" P" ticles 7"mm" R"&s M"ss rel#ti-ely he#-y #bout G,000 times lighter 'one Elect ic C%" (e !ouble positi-e neg#ti-e 'one 4elocit& rel#ti-ely slo/ less th#n the -elocity o% light B x ,0G m$s in %ree sp#ce
We /ill no/ consi!er the p#ss#ge o% e#ch type o% r#!i#tion through m#tter /ith most #ttention gi-en to g#mm#-r#ys bec#use they #re the most common type use! in nucle#r me!icine. =ne o% the m#in e%%ects th#t you /ill notice irrespecti-e o% the type o% r#!i#tion is th#t ions #re pro!uce! /hen r#!i#tion inter#cts /ith m#tter. 1t is %or this re#son th#t it is c#lle! ioni:ing r#!i#tion. 2e%ore /e st#rt though you might %in! #n #n#logy use%ul to help you /ith your thinking. his #n#logy /orks on the b#sis o% thinking #bout m#tter #s #n enormous m#ss o% #toms Kth#t is nuclei /ith orbiting electronsL #n! th#t the r#!i#tion is # p#rticle$photon p#ssing through this type o% en-ironment. .o the #n#logy to think #bout is # sp#ceship p#ssing through # meteor storm like you might see in # science-%iction mo-ie /here the sp#ceship represents the r#!i#tion #n! the meteors represent the #toms o% the m#teri#l through /hich the r#!i#tion is p#ssing. =ne #!!e! %e#ture to bring on bo#r! ho/e-er is th#t our sp#ceship sometimes h#s #n electric ch#rge !epen!ing on the type o% r#!i#tion.
Al)#a Particles
We c#n see %rom the t#ble #bo-e th#t #lph#-p#rticles h#-e # !ouble positi-e ch#rge #n! /e c#n there%ore e#sily #ppreci#te th#t they /ill exert consi!er#ble electrost#tic #ttr#ction on the outer orbit#l electrons o% #toms ne#r /hich they p#ss. he result is th#t some electrons /ill be #ttr#cte! #/#y %rom Wikibooks M ;,
Ch#pter E their p#rent #toms #n! th#t ions /ill be pro!uce!. 1n other /or!s ioni:#tions occur. We c#n #lso #ppreci#te %rom the t#ble th#t #lph#-p#rticles #re Juite m#ssi-e rel#ti-e to the other types o% r#!i#tion #n! #lso to the electrons o% #toms o% the m#teri#l through /hich they #re p#ssing. 3s # result they tr#-el in str#ight lines through m#tter except %or r#re !irect collisions /ith nuclei o% #toms #long their p#th. 3 thir! %e#ture o% rele-#nce here is the energy /ith /hich they #re emitte!. his energy in the c#se o% #lph#-p#rticles is #l/#ys !istinct. For ex#mple 22,A# emits #n #lph#-p#rticle /ith #n energy o% 6.F, 7e+. C-ery #lph#-p#rticle emitte! %rom this r#!ionucli!e h#s this energy. 3nother ex#mple is 2B0( /hich emits three #lph#-p#rticles /ith energies o% E.66, E.G2, E.GH 7e+. Fin#lly it is use%ul to note th#t #lph#-p#rticles #re -ery !#m#ging biologic#lly #n! this is one re#son /hy they #re not use! %or in--i-o !i#gnostic stu!ies. We /ill there%ore not be consi!ering them in #ny gre#t !et#il in this /ikibook.
Beta Particles
We c#n see %rom the t#ble th#t bet#-p#rticles h#-e # neg#ti-e electric ch#rge. 'otice th#t positrons #re not consi!ere! here since #s /e note! in ch#pter 2 these p#rticles !o not l#st %or -ery long in m#tter be%ore they #re #nnihil#te!. 2et#-minus p#rticles l#st consi!er#bly longer #n! #re there%ore the %ocus o% our #ttention here. 2ec#use o% their neg#ti-e ch#rge they #re #ttr#cte! by nuclei #n! repelle! by electron clou!s #s they p#ss through m#tter. he result once #g#in /ithout going into gre#t !et#il is ioni:#tion. he p#th o% bet#-p#rticles in m#tter is o%ten !escribe! #s being tortuous, since they ten! to ricochet %rom #tom to #tom. 3 %in#l #n! import#nt point to note is th#t the energy o% bet#-p#rticles is ne-er %oun! to be !istinct in contr#st to the #lph#-p#rticles #bo-e. he energies o% the bet#-p#rticles %rom # r#!io#cti-e source %orms # spectrum up to # m#ximum energy - see %igure belo/. 'otice %rom the %igure th#t # r#nge o% energies is present #n! %e#tures such #s the me#n energy, Cme#n, or the m#ximum energy, Cm#x, #re Juote!.
;. M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
1nter#ction o% A#!i#tion /ith 7#tter
he Juestion /e /ill consi!er here is5 /hy shoul! # spectrum o% energies be seenO .urely i% # bet#p#rticle is pro!uce! insi!e # nucleus /hen # neutron is con-erte! into # proton, # single !istinct energy shoul! result. he #ns/er lies in the %#ct th#t t/o p#rticles #re #ctu#lly pro!uce! in bet#-!ec#y. We !i! not co-er this in our tre#tment in ch#pter 2 %or %e#r o% complic#ting things too much #t th#t st#ge o% this /ikibook. 2ut /e /ill co-er it here brie%ly %or the s#ke o% completeness. he secon! p#rticle pro!uce! in bet#-!ec#y is c#lle! # neutrino #n! /#s n#me! by Cnrico Fermi. 1t is Juite # mysterious p#rticle possessing neither m#ss nor ch#rge #n! /e #re still rese#rching its properties to!#y. he !i%%iculty /ith them is th#t they #re -ery h#r! to !etect #n! this h#s gre#tly limite! our kno/le!ge #bout them so %#r. he bet#-p#rticle energy spectrum c#n be expl#ine! by consi!ering th#t the energy pro!uce! /hen # neutron is con-erte! to # proton is sh#re! bet/een the bet#-p#rticle #n! the neutrino. .ometimes #ll the energy is gi-en to the bet#-p#rticle #n! it recei-es the m#ximum energy, Cm#x. 2ut more o%ten the energy is sh#re! bet/een them so th#t %or ex#mple the bet#-p#rticle h#s the me#n energy, C me#n #n! the neutrino h#s the rem#in!er o% the energy. Fin#lly it is use%ul to note th#t bet#-p#rticles #re Juite !#m#ging biologic#lly #n! this is one re#son /hy they #re not use! %or in--i-o !i#gnostic stu!ies. We /ill there%ore not consi!er them in #ny gre#t !et#il in this /ikibook.
+a!!a Ra&s
.ince /e h#-e been t#lking #bout energies #bo-e let us %irst note th#t the energies o% g#mm#-r#ys emitte! %rom # r#!io#cti-e source #re #l/#ys !istinct. For ex#mple HHm c emits g#mm#-r#ys /hich #ll h#-e #n energy o% ,40 ke+ #n! E,Cr emits g#mm#-r#ys /hich h#-e #n energy o% B20 ke+. &#mm#-r#ys h#-e m#ny mo!es o% inter#ction /ith m#tter. .ome o% those /hich #re not import#nt to nucle#r me!icine im#ging #re5

7Wssb#uer C%%ect Coherent .c#ttering "#ir "ro!uction Wikibooks M ;0
Ch#pter E #n! /ill not be !escribe! here. hose /hich #re -ery import#nt to nucle#r me!icine im#ging, #re the "hotoelectric C%%ect #n! the Compton C%%ect. We /ill consi!er e#ch o% these in turn belo/. 'ote th#t the e%%ects !escribe! here #re #lso o% rele-#nce to the inter#ction o% >-r#ys /ith m#tter since #s /e h#-e note! be%ore >-r#ys #n! g#mm#-r#ys #re essenti#lly the s#me entities. .o the tre#tment belo/ is #lso o% rele-#nce to r#!iogr#phy.
P#otoelectric E$$ect
When # g#mm#-r#y colli!es /ith #n orbit#l electron o% #n #tom o% the m#teri#l through /hich it is p#ssing it c#n tr#ns%er #ll its energy to the electron #n! ce#se to exist - see %igure belo/. =n the b#sis o% the "rinciple o% Conser-#tion o% Cnergy /e c#n !e!uce th#t the electron /ill le#-e the #tom /ith # kinetic energy eJu#l to the energy o% the g#mm#-r#y less th#t o% the orbit#l bin!ing energy. his electron is c#lle! # #%otoelect on.
Click HERE %or #n #nim#te! -ersion o% this gr#phic. 'ote th#t #n ion results /hen the photoelectron le#-es the #tom. 3lso note th#t the g#mm#-r#y energy is tot#lly #bsorbe! in the process. /o subseJuent points shoul! #lso be note!. Firstly the photoelectron c#n c#use ionis#tions #long its tr#ck in # simil#r m#nner to # bet#-p#rticle. .econ!ly >-r#y emission c#n occur /hen the -#c#ncy le%t by the photoelectron is %ille! by #n electron %rom #n outer shell o% the #tom. Aemember th#t /e c#me #cross this type o% %e#ture be%ore /hen /e !e#lt /ith Clectron C#pture in Ch#pter 2.
Co!)ton E$$ect
his type o% e%%ect is some/h#t #kin to # cue b#ll hitting # coloure! b#ll on # pool t#ble. 9ere # g#mm#-r#y tr#ns%ers only p#rt o% its energy to # -#l#nce electron /hich is essenti#lly %ree - see %igure belo/. 'otice th#t the electron le#-es the #tom #n! m#y #ct like # bet#-p#rticle #n! th#t the g#mm#-r#y !e%lects o%% in # !i%%erent !irection to th#t /ith /hich it #ppro#che! the #tom. his !e%lecte! or 41 M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
1nter#ction o% A#!i#tion /ith 7#tter sc#ttere! g#mm#-r#y c#n un!ergo %urther Compton C%%ects /ithin the m#teri#l. 'ote th#t this e%%ect is sometimes c#lle! Com#ton Sc"tte in(.
Click HERE %or #n #nim#te! -ersion o% this gr#phic.
Attenuation
he t/o e%%ects /e h#-e <ust !escribe! gi-e rise to both #bsorption #n! sc#ttering o% the r#!i#tion be#m. he o-er#ll e%%ect is re%erre! to #s #ttenu#tion o% g#mm#-r#ys. We /ill in-estig#te this %e#ture %rom #n #n#lytic#l perspecti-e in the %ollo/ing ch#pter.

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C HAPTER ) A TTENUATION
Introduction
O/
7 AMMA 8R A5S
e co-ere! the inter#ction o% g#mm#-r#ys /ith m#tter %rom # !escripti-e -ie/point in the pre-ious ch#pter #n! /e s#/ th#t the Compton #n! "hotoelectric C%%ects /ere the m#<or mech#nisms. We /ill consi!er the sub<ect #g#in here but this time %rom #n #n#lytic#l perspecti-e. his /ill #llo/ us to !e-elop # more gener#l un!erst#n!ing o% the phenomenon. 'ote th#t the tre#tment here #lso re%ers to the #ttenu#tion o% >-r#ys since, #s /e note! be%ore g#mm#-r#ys #n! >-r#ys #re essenti#lly the s#me physic#l entities.
=ur tre#tment begins /ith # !escription o% # simple r#!i#tion experiment /hich c#n be per%orme! e#sily in the l#bor#tory #n! /hich m#ny o% the e#rly pioneers in this %iel! !i!. We /ill then buil! on the in%orm#tion obt#ine! %rom such #n experiment to !e-elop # simple eJu#tion #n! some simple concepts /hich /ill #llo/ us gener#lise the situ#tion to #ny #ttenu#tion situ#tion.
Attenuation Ex)eri!ent
he experiment is Juite simple. 1t in-ol-es %iring # n#rro/ be#m o% g#mm#-r#ys #t # m#teri#l #n! me#suring ho/ much o% the r#!i#tion gets through. We c#n -#ry the energy o% the g#mm#-r#ys /e use #n! the type o% #bsorbing m#teri#l #s /ell #s its thickness #n! !ensity. he experiment#l set-up is illustr#te! in the %igure belo/. We re%er to the intensity o% the r#!i#tion /hich strikes the #bsorber #s the inci'ent intensit&, 10, #n! the intensity o% the r#!i#tion /hich gets through the #bsorber #s the t "nsmitte' intensit&, 1>. 'otice #lso th#t the thickness o% the #bsorber is !enote! by x.
From /h#t /e co-ere! in the pre-ious ch#pter /e c#n #ppreci#te th#t some o% the g#mm#-r#ys /ill be sub<ecte! to inter#ctions such #s the "hotoelectric C%%ect #n! the Compton C%%ect #s they p#ss through the #bsorber. he tr#nsmitte! g#mm#-r#ys /ill in the m#in be those /hich p#ss through 42 M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
3ttenu#tion o% &#mm#-A#ys /ithout #ny inter#ctions #t #ll. We c#n there%ore expect to %in! th#t the tr#nsmitte! intensity /ill be less th#n the inci!ent intensity, th#t is
2ut by ho/ much you might #sk. 2e%ore /e consi!er this let us !enote the !i%%erence bet/een 1 > #n! 10 #s X1, th#t is
E$$ect o$ Ato!ic Nu!'er

*et us st#rt exploring the m#gnitu!e o% X1 by pl#cing !i%%erent #bsorbers in turn in the r#!i#tion be#m. Wh#t /e /oul! %in! is th#t the m#gnitu!e o% X1 is highly !epen!ent on the #tomic number o% the #bsorbing m#teri#l. For ex#mple /e /oul! %in! th#t X1 /oul! be Juite lo/ in the c#se o% #n #bsorber m#!e %rom c#rbon KIN6L #n! -ery l#rge in the c#se o% le#! KING2L. We c#n g#in #n #ppreci#tion o% /hy this is so %rom the %ollo/ing %igure5
he %igure illustr#tes # high #tomic number #bsorber by the l#rge circles /hich represent in!i-i!u#l #toms #n! # lo/ #tomic number m#teri#l by sm#ller circles. he inci!ent r#!i#tion be#m is represente! by the #rro/s entering e#ch #bsorber %rom the le%t. 'otice th#t the #toms o% the high #tomic number #bsorber present l#rger t#rgets %or the r#!i#tion to strike #n! hence the ch#nces %or inter#ctions -i# the "hotoelectric #n! Compton C%%ects is rel#ti-ely high. he #ttenu#tion shoul! there%ore be rel#ti-ely l#rge.
Wikibooks M 4;
Ch#pter 6 1n the c#se o% the lo/ #tomic number #bsorber ho/e-er the in!i-i!u#l #toms #re sm#ller #n! hence the ch#nces o% inter#ctions #re re!uce!. 1n other /or!s the r#!i#tion h#s # gre#ter prob#bility o% being tr#nsmitte! through the #bsorber #n! the #ttenu#tion is conseJuently lo/er th#n in the high #tomic number c#se. With respect to our sp#ceship #n#logy use! in the pre-ious ch#pter the #tomic number c#n be thought o% #s the si:e o% in!i-i!u#l meteors in the meteor clou!. 1% /e /ere to precisely control our experiment#l set-up #n! c#re%ully #n#lyse our results /e /oul! %in! th#t5
here%ore i% /e /ere to !ouble the #tomic number o% our #bsorber /e /oul! incre#se the #ttenu#tion by # %#ctor o% t/o cube!, th#t is G, i% /e /ere to triple the #tomic number /e /oul! incre#se the #ttenu#tion by # %#ctor o% 2F, th#t is three cube!, #n! so on. 1t is %or this re#son th#t high #tomic number m#teri#ls Ke.g. "bL #re use! %or r#!i#tion protection.
E$$ect o$ Densit&
3 secon! #ppro#ch to exploring the m#gnitu!e o% X1 is to see /h#t h#ppens /hen /e ch#nge the !ensity o% the #bsorber. We c#n see %rom the %ollo/ing %igure th#t # lo/ !ensity #bsorber /ill gi-e rise to less #ttenu#tion th#n # high !ensity #bsorber since the ch#nces o% #n inter#ction bet/een the r#!i#tion #n! the #toms o% the #bsorber #re rel#ti-ely lo/er.
.o in our #n#logy o% the sp#ceship entering # meteor clou! think o% meteor clou!s o% !i%%erent !ensity #n! the ch#nces o% the sp#ceship colli!ing /ith # meteor.
3ttenu#tion o% &#mm#-A#ys
E$$ect o$ "#ic ness

3 thir! %#ctor /hich /e coul! -#ry is the thickness o% the #bsorber. 3s you shoul! be #ble to pre!ict #t this st#ge the thicker the #bsorber the gre#ter the #ttenu#tion.
E$$ect o$ +a!!a-Ra& Ener%&

Fin#lly in our experiment /e coul! -#ry the energy o% the g#mm#-r#y be#m. We /oul! %in! /ithout going into it in #ny gre#t !et#il th#t the gre#ter the energy o% the g#mm#-r#ys the less the #ttenu#tion. ;ou might like to think o% it in terms o% the energy /ith /hich the sp#ceship #ppro#ches the meteor clou! #n! the likelihoo! o% # slo/ sp#ceship getting through #s oppose! to # sp#ceship tr#-elling /ith # higher energy.
Mat#e!atical Model
We /ill consi!er # m#them#tic#l here /hich /ill help us to express our experiment#l obser-#tions in more gener#l terms. ;ou /ill %in! th#t the m#them#tic#l #ppro#ch #!opte! #n! the result obt#ine! is Juite simil#r to /h#t /e encountere! e#rlier /ith A#!io#cti-e )ec#y. .o you /ill not h#-e to plo! your /#y through #ny ne/ m#ths belo/, <ust # !i%%erent #pplic#tion o% the s#me %orm o% m#them#tic#l #n#lysis? *et us st#rt Juite simply #n! #ssume th#t /e -#ry only the thickness o% the #bsorber. 1n other /or!s /e use #n #bsorber o% the s#me m#teri#l Ki.e. s#me #tomic numberL #n! the s#me !ensity #n! use g#mm#-r#ys o% the s#me energy %or the experiment. =nly the thickness o% the #bsorber is ch#nge!. From our re#soning #bo-e it is e#sy to #ppreci#te th#t the m#gnitu!e o% X1 shoul! be !epen!ent on the r#!i#tion intensity #s /ell #s the thickness o% the #bsorber, th#t is %or #n in%initesim#lly sm#ll ch#nge in #bsorber thickness5
the minus sign in!ic#ting th#t the intensity is re!uce! by the #bsorber. urning the proportion#lity in this eJu#tion into #n eJu#lity, /e c#n /rite5
/here the const#nt o% proportion#lity, Y, is c#lle! the *ine#r 3ttenu#tion Coe%%icient. )i-i!ing #cross by 1 /e c#n re/rite this eJu#tion #s5
.o this eJu#tion !escribes the situ#tion %or #ny tiny ch#nge in #bsorber thickness, !x. o %in! out /h#t h#ppens %or the complete thickness o% #n #bsorber /e simply #!! up /h#t h#ppens in e#ch sm#ll Wikibooks M 4$
Ch#pter 6 thickness. 1n other /or!s /e integr#te the #bo-e eJu#tion. Cxpressing this more %orm#lly /e c#n s#y th#t %or thicknesses %rom x N 0 to #ny other thickness x, the r#!i#tion intensity /ill !ecre#se %rom 10 to 1>, so th#t5
his %in#l expression tells us th#t the r#!i#tion intensity /ill !ecre#se in #n exponenti#l %#shion /ith the thickness o% the #bsorber /ith the r#te o% !ecre#se being controlle! by the *ine#r 3ttenu#tion Coe%%icient. he expression is sho/n in gr#phic#l %orm belo/. he gr#ph plots the intensity #g#inst thickness, x. We c#n see th#t the intensity !ecre#ses %rom 1 0, th#t is the number #t x N 0, in # r#pi! %#shion initi#lly #n! then more slo/ly in the cl#ssic exponenti#l m#nner.
Table 1: Graphical representation of the dependence of radiation intensity on the thickness of absorber: Intensity versus thickness on the left and the natural logarithm of the intensity versus thickness on the right.
he in%luence o% the *ine#r 3ttenu#tion Coe%%icient c#n be seen in the next %igure. 3ll three cur-es here #re exponenti#l in n#ture, only the *ine#r 3ttenu#tion Coe%%icient is !i%%erent. 'otice th#t /hen the *ine#r 3ttenu#tion Coe%%icient h#s # lo/ -#lue the cur-e !ecre#ses rel#ti-ely slo/ly #n! /hen the 4) M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
3ttenu#tion o% &#mm#-A#ys *ine#r 3ttenu#tion Coe%%icient is l#rge the cur-e !ecre#ses -ery Juickly.
Illustration 1: ()ponential attenuation e)pressed using a small% medium and large value of the Linear ttenuation !oefficient% *.
he *ine#r 3ttenu#tion Coe%%icient is ch#r#cteristic o% in!i-i!u#l #bsorbing m#teri#ls. .ome like c#rbon h#-e # sm#ll -#lue #n! #re e#sily penetr#te! by g#mm#-r#ys. =ther m#teri#ls such #s le#! h#-e # rel#ti-ely l#rge *ine#r 3ttenu#tion Coe%%icient #n! #re rel#ti-ely goo! #bsorbers o% r#!i#tion5 Abso be Ai W"te C" bon Aluminiu m I on Co##e Le"' 111 ke4 0.000,HE 0.,6F 0.BBE 0.4BE 2.F2 B.G EH.F 211 ke4 0.000,EH 0.,B6 0.2F4 0.B24 ,.0H ,.B0H ,0.,E $11 ke4 0.000,,2 0.0HF 0.,H6 0.22F 0.6EE 0.FB ,.64
Table 2: Linear ttenuation !oefficients "in cm-1# for a range of materials at gamma-ray energies of 1$$% 2$$ and &$$ ke'.
Wikibooks M 4,
Ch#pter 6 he m#teri#ls liste! in the t#ble #bo-e #re #ir, /#ter #n! # r#nge o% elements %rom c#rbon KIN6L through to le#! KING2L #n! their *ine#r 3ttenu#tion Coe%%icients #re gi-en %or three g#mm#-r#y energies. he %irst point to note is th#t the *ine#r 3ttenu#tion Coe%%icient incre#ses #s the #tomic number o% the #bsorber incre#ses. For ex#mple it incre#ses %rom # -ery sm#ll -#lue o% 0.000,HE cm -, %or #ir #t ,00 ke+ to #lmost 60 cm-, %or le#!. he secon! point to note is th#t the *ine#r 3ttenu#tion Coe%%icient %or #ll m#teri#ls !ecre#ses /ith the energy o% the g#mm#-r#ys. For ex#mple the -#lue %or copper !ecre#ses %rom #bout B.G cm-, #t ,00 ke+ to 0.FB cm-, #t E00 ke+. he thir! point to note is th#t the tren!s in the t#ble #re consistent /ith the #n#lysis presente! e#rlier. Fin#lly it is import#nt to #ppreci#te th#t our #n#lysis #bo-e is only strictly true /hen /e #re !e#ling /ith n#rro/ r#!i#tion be#ms. =ther %#ctors nee! to be t#ken into #ccount /hen bro#! r#!i#tion be#ms #re in-ol-e!.
Hal$ /alue La&er

3s /ith using the 9#l% *i%e to !escribe the A#!io#cti-e )ec#y *#/ #n in!ic#tor is usu#lly !eri-e! %rom the exponenti#l #ttenu#tion eJu#tion #bo-e /hich helps us think more cle#rly #bout /h#t is going on. his in!ic#tor is c#lle! the H"l6 4"lue L"&e #n! it expresses the thickness o% #bsorbing m#teri#l /hich is nee!e! to re!uce the inci!ent r#!i#tion intensity by # %#ctor o% t/o. From # gr#phic#l point o% -ie/ /e c#n s#y th#t /hen5
the thickness o% #bsorber is the 9#l% +#lue *#yer5
he 9#l% +#lue *#yer %or # r#nge o% #bsorbers is liste! in the %ollo/ing t#ble %or three g#mm#-r#y energies5 Abso be Ai W"te C" bon 111 ke4 B,EEE 4.,E 2.0F 211 ke4 4,BEH E., 2.EB $11 ke4 6,,GH F.,E B.E4
3ttenu#tion o% &#mm#-A#ys Aluminiu m I on Co##e Le"'
,.EH 0.26 0.,G 0.0,2
2.,4 0.64 0.EB 0.06G
B.0E ,.06 0.HE 0.42
9#l% +#lue *#yers Kin cmL %or # r#nge o% m#teri#ls #t g#mm#-r#y energies o% ,00, 200 #n! E00 ke+. he %irst point to note is th#t the 9#l% +#lue *#yer !ecre#ses #s the #tomic number incre#ses. For ex#mple the -#lue %or #ir #t ,00 ke+ is #bout BE meters #n! it !ecre#ses to <ust 0.,2 mm %or le#! #t this energy. 1n other /or!s BE m o% #ir is nee!e! to re!uce the intensity o% # ,00 ke+ g#mm#-r#y be#m by # %#ctor o% t/o /here#s <ust 0.,2 mm o% le#! c#n !o the s#me thing. he secon! thing to note is th#t the 9#l% +#lue *#yer incre#ses /ith incre#sing g#mm#-r#y energy. For ex#mple %rom 0.,G cm %or copper #t ,00 ke+ to #bout , cm #t E00 ke+. hir!ly note th#t rel#ti-e to the !#t# in the pre-ious t#ble there is # reciproc#l rel#tionship bet/een the 9#l% +#lue *#yer #n! the *ine#r 3ttenu#tion Coe%%icient, /hich /e /ill no/ in-estig#te.
Relations#i) 'et,een t#e Linear Attenuation Coe$$icient and t#e Hal$ /alue La&er
3s /#s the c#se /ith the A#!io#cti-e )ec#y *#/, /here /e explore! the rel#tionship bet/een the 9#l% *i%e #n! the )ec#y Const#nt, # rel#tionship c#n be !eri-e! bet/een the 9#l% +#lue *#yer #n! the *ine#r 3ttenu#tion Coe%%icient. We c#n !o this by using the !e%inition o% the 9#l% +#lue *#yer5
/hen
#n! inserting it in the exponenti#l #ttenu#tion eJu#tion, th#t is5
to gi-e here%ore
Wikibooks M 40
Ch#pter 6
#n!
hese l#st t/o eJu#tions express the rel#tionship bet/een the *ine#r 3ttenu#tion Coe%%icient #n! the 9#l% +#lue *#yer. hey #re -ery use%ul #s you /ill see /hen sol-ing numeric#l Juestions rel#ting to #ttenu#tion #n! %reJuently %orm the %irst step in sol-ing # numeric#l problem.
Mass Attenuation Coe$$icient

We implie! #bo-e th#t the *ine#r 3ttenu#tion Coe%%icient /#s use%ul /hen /e /ere consi!ering #n #bsorbing m#teri#l o% the s#me !ensity but o% !i%%erent thicknesses. 3 rel#te! coe%%icient c#n be o% -#lue /hen /e /ish to inclu!e the !ensity, Z, o% the #bsorber in our #n#lysis. his is the M"ss Attenu"tion Coe66icient /hich is !e%ine! #s the5
he me#surement unit use! %or the *ine#r 3ttenu#tion Coe%%icient in the t#ble #bo-e is cm -,, #n! # $1 M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
3ttenu#tion o% &#mm#-A#ys common unit o% !ensity is the g cm-B. ;ou might like to !eri-e %or yoursel% on this b#sis th#t the cm 2 g, is the eJui-#lent unit o% the 7#ss 3ttenu#tion Coe%%icient.
*uestions
/o Juestions #re gi-en belo/ to help you !e-elop your un!erst#n!ing o% the m#teri#l presente! in this ch#pter. he %irst one is rel#ti-ely str#ight-%or/#r! #n! /ill exercise your #pplic#tion o% the exponenti#l #ttenu#tion eJu#tion. he secon! Juestion is # lot more ch#llenging #n! /ill help you rel#te exponenti#l #ttenu#tion to r#!io#cti-ity #n! r#!i#tion exposure.
Auestion 1
9o/ much #luminium is reJuire! to re!uce the intensity o% # 200 ke+ g#mm#-r#y be#m to ,0P o% its inci!ent intensityO 3ssume th#t the 9#l% +#lue *#yer %or 200 ke+ g#mm#-r#ys in 3l is 2.,4 cm. Ans+e he Juestion phr#se! in terms o% the symbols use! #bo-e is5
, /hen x N O
We #re tol! th#t the 9#l% +#lue *#yer is 2.,4 cm. here%ore the *ine#r 3ttenu#tion Coe%%icient is
'o/ combining #ll this /ith the exponenti#l #ttenu#tion eJu#tion5
/e c#n /rite5
here%ore
Wikibooks M $1
Ch#pter 6
.o the thickness o% #luminium reJuire! to re!uce these g#mm#-r#ys by # %#ctor o% ten is #bout F cm. his rel#ti-ely l#rge thickness is the re#son /hy #luminium is not gener#lly use! in r#!i#tion protection - its #tomic number is not high enough %or e%%icient #n! signi%ic#nt #ttenu#tion o% g#mm#r#ys. ;ou might like to try this Juestion %or the c#se /hen "b is the #bsorber - but you /ill nee! to %in! out the 9#l% +#lue *#yer %or the 200 ke+ g#mm#-r#ys yoursel%? 9ereSs # hint though5 h#-e # look #t one o% the t#bles #bo-e. 3n! hereSs the #ns/er %or you to check /hen youS-e %inishe!5 2@2 mm. 1n other /or!s # rel#ti-ely thin thickness o% "b is reJuire! to !o the s#me <ob #s F cm o% #luminium.
Auestion 2
3 ,0E 72J source o% ,BFCs is to be cont#ine! in # "b box so th#t the exposure r#te , m #/#y %rom the source is less th#n 0.E mA$hour. 1% the 9#l% +#lue *#yer %or ,BFCs g#mm#-r#ys in "b is 0.6 cm, /h#t thickness o% "b is reJuire!O he .peci%ic &#mm# A#y Const#nt %or ,BFCs is B.B A hr-, mCi-, #t , cm. Ans+e his is # %#irly typic#l Juestion /hich #rises /hen someone is using r#!io#cti-e m#teri#ls. We /ish to use # cert#in Ju#ntity o% the m#teri#l #n! /e /ish to store it in # le#! cont#iner so th#t the exposure r#te /hen /e #re /orking # cert#in !ist#nce #/#y is belo/ some le-el %or s#%ety re#sons. We kno/ the r#!io#cti-ity o% the m#teri#l /e /ill be using. 2ut its Juote! in .1 units. We look up # re%erence book to %in! out the exposure r#te %or this r#!ioisotope #n! %in! th#t the .peci%ic &#mm# A#y Const#nt is Juote! in tr#!ition#l units. 8ust #s in our Juestion? .o let us st#rt by getting our units right. he .peci%ic &#mm# A#y Const#nt is gi-en #s5 B.B A hr-, mCi-, #t , cm %rom the source. $2 M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
3ttenu#tion o% &#mm#-A#ys his is eJu#l to5 BB00 mA hr-, mCi-, #t , cm %rom the source, /hich is eJu#l to5 mA hr-, mCi-, #t , m %rom the source,
on the b#sis o% the 1n-erse .Ju#re *#/. his result expresse! per becJuerel is
mA hr-, 2J-, #t , m %rom the source,
since , mCi N B.F x ,0F 2J. 3n! there%ore %or ,0E 72J, the exposure r#te is5
mA hr-, K,0E72JL-, #t , m %rom the source,
h#t is the exposure r#te , meter %rom our source is .01@0 mR %
81.
We /ish to re!uce this exposure r#te #ccor!ing to the Juestion to less th#n 0.E mA hr-, using "b. ;ou shoul! be #ble #t this st#ge to use the exponenti#l #ttenu#tion eJu#tion #long /ith the 9#l% +#lue *#yer %or these g#mm#-r#ys in "b to c#lcul#te th#t the thickness o% "b reJuire! is #bout )@$ cm.
External Lin s
7uc#l on the Web - #n online progr#m /hich c#lcul#tes x-r#y #bsorption coe%%icients - by "#thikrit 2#n!yop#!hy#y, he Center %or .ynchrotron A#!i#tion Aese#rch #n! 1nstrument#tion #t the 1llinois 1nstitute o% echnology. #bles o% >-A#y 7#ss 3ttenu#tion Coe%%icients - # -#st #mount o% !#t# %or #ll elements %rom '#tion#l 1nstitute o% .cience D echnology, (.3.

Click HERE to #ccess #n online 7CQ co-ering the m#teri#l in this ch#pter.
Wikibooks M $;
Ch#pter 6 congratulations on completing
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CA
06 R 3
C'(3 1=' =F
&3773-A3;.
$4 M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
&#s-Fille! A#!i#tion )etectors
C HAPTER , 7 AS 8/ ILLE3 R A3IATION 3 ETECTORS

li-e -ersion !iscussion Introduction e!it lesson e h#-e le#rnt in the l#st t/o ch#pters #bout ho/ r#!i#tion inter#cts /ith comment m#tter #n! /e #re no/ in # position to #pply our un!erst#n!ing to the report #n error !etection o% r#!i#tion. #sk # Juestion
=ne o% the m#<or outcomes o% the inter#ction o% r#!i#tion /ith m#tter is the cre#tion o% ions #s /e s#/ in Ch#pter E. his outcome is exploite! in g#s-%ille! !etectors #s you /ill see in this ch#pter. he !etector in this c#se is essenti#lly # g#s, in th#t it is the #toms o% # g#s /hich #re ionise! by the r#!i#tion. We /ill see in the next ch#pter th#t soli!s c#n #lso be use! #s r#!i#tion !etectors but %or no/ /e /ill !e#l /ith g#ses #n! be intro!uce! to !etectors such #s the 1oni:#tion Ch#mber #n! the &eiger Counter. 2e%ore consi!ering these speci%ic types o% g#s-%ille! !etectors /e /ill %irst o% #ll consi!er the situ#tion %rom # -ery gener#l perspecti-e.
+as-Filled Detectors
3s /e note! #bo-e the r#!i#tion inter#cts /ith g#s #toms in this %orm o% !etector #n! c#uses ions to be pro!uce!. =n the b#sis o% /h#t /e co-ere! in Ch#pter E it is e#sy to #ppreci#te th#t it is the "hotoelectric #n! Compton C%%ects th#t c#use the ionis#tions /hen the r#!i#tion consists o% g#mm#r#ys /ith energies use%ul %or !i#gnostic purposes. here #re #ctu#lly t/o p#rticles gener#te! /hen #n ion is pro!uce! - the positi-e ion itsel% #n! #n electron. hese t/o p#rticles #re collecti-ely c#lle! #n ion #"i . he !etection o% the pro!uction o% ion p#irs in the g#s is the b#sis upon /hich g#s !etectors oper#te. he m#nner in /hich this is !one is by using #n electric %iel! to s/eep the electrons #/#y to # positi-ely ch#rge! electro!e #n! the ions to # neg#ti-ely ch#rge! electro!e. *et us consi!er # -ery simple #rr#ngement #s sho/n in the %ollo/ing %igure5
Wikibooks M $$
Ch#pter F
9ere /e h#-e t/o electro!es /ith the g#s bet/een them. .omething like # c#p#citor /ith # g#s !ielectric. he g#s /hich is use! is typic#lly #n inert g#s, %or ex#mple #rgon or xenon. he re#son %or using #n inert g#s is so th#t chemic#l re#ctions /ill not occur /ithin the g#s %ollo/ing the ionis#tions /hich coul! ch#nge the ch#r#cteristics o% our !etector. 3 !c -olt#ge is pl#ce! bet/een the t/o electro!es. 3s # result /hen the r#!i#tion inter#cts /ith # g#s #tom the electron /ill mo-e to/#r!s the positi-e electro!e #n! the ion /ill mo-e to/#r!s the neg#ti-e electro!e. 2ut /ill these ch#rges re#ch their respecti-e electro!esO he #ns/er is ob-iously !epen!ent on the m#gnitu!e o% the !c -olt#ge. For ex#mple i% #t one extreme /e h#! # !c -olt#ge o% # micro-olt Kth#t is, one millionth o% # -oltL the result#nt electric %iel! m#y be insu%%icient to mo-e the ion p#ir -ery %#r #n! the t/o p#rticles m#y recombine to re%orm the g#s #tom. 3t the other extreme suppose /e #pplie! # million -olts bet/een the t/o electro!es. 1n this c#se /e #re likely to get sp#rks %lying bet/een the t/o electro!es - # lightning bolt i% you like - #n! our !etector might #ct something like # neon sign. .ome/here in bet/een these t/o extremes though /e shoul! be #ble to pro-i!e # su%%icient #ttr#cti-e %orce %or the ion #n! electron to mo-e to their respecti-e electro!es /ithout recombin#tion or sp#rking occurring. We /ill look #t this sub<ect in more !et#il belo/. 2e%ore /e !o let us see ho/ the concept o% the simple !etector illustr#te! #bo-e is #pplie! in pr#ctice. he g#s-%ille! ch#mber is gener#lly cylin!ric#l in sh#pe in re#l !etectors. his sh#pe h#s been %oun! to be more e%%icient th#n the p#r#llel electro!e #rr#ngement sho/n #bo-e. 3 cross-section#l -ie/ through this cylin!er is sho/n in the %ollo/ing %igure5
$) M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
&#s-Fille! A#!i#tion )etectors
he positi-e electro!e consists o% # thin /ire running through the centre o% the cylin!er #n! the neg#ti-e electro!e consists o% the /#ll o% the cylin!er. 1n principle /e coul! m#ke such # !etector by getting # section o% # met#l pipe, mounting # /ire through its centre, %illing it /ith #n inert g#s #n! se#ling the en!s o% the pipe. 3ctu#l !etectors #re # little bit more complex ho/e-er but let us not get si!e-tr#cke! #t this st#ge. We #pply # !c -olt#ge -i# # b#ttery or -i# # !c -olt#ge supply #n! connect it #s sho/n in the %igure using # resistor, A. 'o/, #ssume th#t # g#mm#-r#y enters the !etector. 1on p#irs /ill be pro!uce! in the g#s - the ions he#!ing to/#r!s the outer /#ll #n! the electrons he#!ing to/#r!s the centre /ire. *et us think #bout the electrons %or # moment. When they hit the centre /ire /e c#n simply think o% them #s entering the /ire #n! %lo/ing through the resistor to get to the positi-e termin#l o% the !c -olt#ge supply. hese electrons %lo/ing through the resistor constitute #n electric current #n! #s # result o% =hmSs *#/ # -olt#ge is gener#te! #cross the resistor. his -olt#ge is #mpli%ie! by #n #mpli%ier #n! some type o% !e-ice is use! to register the #mpli%ie! -olt#ge. 3 lou!-spe#ker is # %#irly simple !e-ice to use %or this purpose #n! the gener#tion o% # -olt#ge pulse is m#ni%est by # click %rom the lou!-spe#ker. =ther !ispl#y !e-ices inclu!e # "temete /hich !ispl#ys the number o% -olt#ge pulses gener#te! per unit time - something like # spee!ometer in # c#r - #n! # pulse counter Kor sc"le L /hich counts the number o% -olt#ge pulses gener#te! in # set perio! o% time. 3 -olt#ge pulse is %reJuently re%erre! to in pr#ctice #s # count #n! the number o% -olt#ge pulses gener#te! per unit time is %reJuently c#lle! the count "te.
DC /olta%e De)endence
1% /e /ere to buil! # !etector #n! electronic circuit #s sho/n in the %igure #bo-e /e coul! con!uct #n experiment th#t /oul! #llo/ us to explore the e%%ect o% the !c -olt#ge on the m#gnitu!e o% the -olt#ge pulses pro!uce! #cross the resistor, A. 'ote th#t the term #ulse %ei(%t is %reJuently use! in this %iel! to re%er to the m#gnitu!e o% -olt#ge pulses. 1!e#lly, /e coul! gener#te # result simil#r to th#t illustr#te! in the %ollo/ing %igure5
Wikibooks M $,
Ch#pter F
he gr#ph illustr#tes the !epen!ence o% the pulse height on the !c -olt#ge. 'ote th#t the -ertic#l #xis representing the pulse height is on # log#rithmic sc#le %or the s#ke o% compressing # l#rge line#r sc#le onto # re#son#bly-si:e! gr#ph. he experiment#l results c#n be !i-i!e! into %i-e regions #s sho/n. We /ill no/ consi!er e#ch region in turn. Re(ion A 9ere +!c is rel#ti-ely lo/ so th#t recombin#tion o% positi-e ions #n! electrons occurs. 3s # result not #ll ion p#irs #re collecte! #n! the -olt#ge pulse height is rel#ti-ely lo/. 1t !oes incre#se #s the !c -olt#ge incre#ses ho/e-er #s the #mount o% recombin#tion re!uces. Re(ion +!c is su%%iciently high in this region so th#t only # negligible #mount o% recombin#tion occurs. his is the region /here # type o% !etector c#lle! the IoniD"tion C%"mbe oper#tes. Re(ion C +!c is su%%iciently high in this region so th#t electrons #ppro#ching the centre /ire #tt#in su%%icient energy bet/een collisions /ith the electrons o% g#s #toms to pro!uce ne/ ion p#irs. hus the number o% electrons is incre#se! so th#t the electric ch#rge p#ssing through the resistor, A, m#y be up to # thous#n! times gre#ter th#n the ch#rge pro!uce! initi#lly by the r#!i#tion inter#ction. his is the region /here # type o% !etector c#lle! the "roportion#l Counter oper#tes. Re(ion 3 +!c is so high th#t e-en # minim#lly-ioni:ing p#rticle /ill pro!uce # -ery l#rge -olt#ge pulse. he initi#l ioni:#tion pro!uce! by the r#!i#tion triggers # complete g#s bre#k!o/n #s #n #-#l#nche o% electrons he#!s to/#r!s #n! spre#!s #long the centre /ire. his region is c#lle! the 7ei(e 8MElle Re(ion, #n! is exploite! in the &eiger Counter. Re(ion / 9ere +!c is high enough %or the g#s to completely bre#k!o/n #n! it c#nnot be use! to !etect r#!i#tion.
We /ill no/ consi!er %e#tures o% the 1onis#tion Ch#mber #n! the &eiger Counter in more !et#il.
Ionisation C#a!'er
he ionis#tion ch#mber consists o% # g#s-%ille! !etector energise! by # rel#ti-ely lo/ !c -olt#ge. We /ill %irst o% #ll m#ke #n estim#te o% the -olt#ge pulse height gener#te! by this type o% !etector. We $. M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
&#s-Fille! A#!i#tion )etectors /ill then consi!er some #pplic#tions o% ionis#tion ch#mbers. When # bet#-p#rticle inter#cts /ith the g#s the energy reJuire! to pro!uce one ion p#ir is #bout B0 e+. here%ore /hen # bet#-p#rticle o% energy , 7e+ is completely #bsorbe! in the g#s the number o% ion p#irs pro!uce! is5
he electric ch#rge pro!uce! in the g#s is there%ore
1% the c#p#cit#nce o% the ionis#tion ch#mber Kremember th#t /e comp#re! # g#s-%ille! !etector to # c#p#citor #bo-eL is ,00 pF then the #mplitu!e o% the -olt#ge pulse gener#te! is5
2ec#use such # sm#ll -olt#ge is gener#te! it is necess#ry to use # -ery sensiti-e #mpli%ier in the electronic circuitry connecte! to the ch#mber. We /ill no/ le#rn #bout t/o #pplic#tions o% ionis#tion ch#mbers. he %irst one is %or the me#surement o% r#!i#tion exposures. ;ou /ill remember %rom Ch#pter 4 th#t the unit o% r#!i#tion exposure Kbe it the .1 or the tr#!ition#l unitL is !e%ine! in terms o% the #mount o% electric ch#rge pro!uce! in # unit m#ss o% # #ir. 3n ioni:#tion ch#mber %ille! /ith #ir is the n#tur#l instrument to use %or such me#surements. he secon! #pplic#tion is the me#surement o% r#!io#cti-ity. he ionis#tion ch#mber use! here is con%igure! in /h#t is c#lle! # e8ent "nt #rr#ngement Ksee %igure belo/L so th#t the s#mple o% r#!io#cti-e m#teri#l c#n be pl#ce! /ithin the !etector using # hol!er #n! hence most o% the emitte! r#!i#tion c#n be !etecte!. he instrument is /i!ely re%erre! to #s #n Isoto#e C"lib "to #n! the trickle o% electric current gener#te! by such # !etector is c#libr#te! so th#t # re#!ing in units o% r#!io#cti-ity K%or ex#mple 72J or mCiL c#n be obt#ine!. 7ost /ell-run 'ucle#r 7e!icine )ep#rtments /ill h#-e #t le#st one o% these !e-ices so th#t !oses o% r#!io#cti-ity c#n be checke! prior to #!ministr#tion to p#tients.
Wikibooks M $0
Ch#pter F
9ere #re some photogr#phs o% ionis#tion ch#mbers !esigne! %or -#rious #pplic#tions5
3n exposure-#re# pro!uct !etector use! in r#!iogr#phy.
3 r#nge o% ionis#tion ch#mbers o% !i%%erent -olumes using %or me#suring r#!i#tion exposure.
3n exposure meter use! in r#!iogr#phy.
3n isotope c#libr#tor use! in nucle#r me!icine - the blue cylin!er on the le%t cont#ins the re-entr#nt ch#mber.
3n exposure meter use! in r#!iogr#phy.
+ei%er Counter
We s#/ e#rlier th#t the &eiger Counter oper#tes #t rel#ti-ely high !c -olt#ges K%or ex#mple B00400 -oltsL #n! th#t #n #-#l#nche o% electrons is gener#te! %ollo/ing the #bsorption o% r#!i#tion in the )1 M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
&#s-Fille! A#!i#tion )etectors g#s. he -olt#ge pulses pro!uce! by this !etector #re rel#ti-ely l#rge since the g#s e%%ecti-ely #cts #s #n #mpli%ier o% the electric ch#rge pro!uce!. here #re %our %e#tures o% this !etector /hich /e /ill !iscuss. he %irst is th#t # sensiti-e #mpli%ier K#s /#s the c#se /ith the 1oni:#tion Ch#mberL is not reJuire! %or this !etector bec#use o% the g#s #mpli%ic#tion note! #bo-e. he secon! %e#ture results %rom the %#ct th#t the gener#tion o% the electron #-#l#nche must be stoppe! in or!er to re%orm the !etector. 1n other /or!s /hen # r#!i#tion p#rticle$photon is #bsorbe! by the g#s # complete g#s bre#k!o/n occurs /hich implies th#t the g#s is inc#p#ble o% !etecting the next p#rticle$photon /hich enters the !etector. .o in the extreme c#se one minute /e h#-e # r#!i#tion !etector #n! the %ollo/ing moment /e !o not. 3 me#ns o% stopping the electron #-#l#nche is there%ore reJuire! - # process c#lle! Auenc%in(. =ne me#ns o% !oing this is by electronic#lly lo/ering the !c -olt#ge %ollo/ing #n #-#l#nche. 3 more /i!ely use! metho! o% Juenching is to #!! # sm#ll #mount o% # <uenc%in( ("s to the inert g#s. For ex#mple the g#s coul! be #rgon /ith ethyl #lcohol #!!e!. he ethyl #lcohol is in -#pour %orm #n! since it consists o% rel#ti-ely l#rge molecules energy /hich /oul! in their #bsence gi-e rise to sust#ining the electron #-#l#nche is #bsorbe! by these molecules. he l#rge molecules #ct like # br#ke in e%%ect. 1rrespecti-e o% the type o% Juenching use! the !etector is insensiti-e %or # sm#ll perio! o% time %ollo/ing #bsorption o% # r#!i#tion p#rticle$photon. his perio! o% time is c#lle! the )e#! ime #n! this is the thir! %e#ture o% this !etector /hich /e /ill consi!er. )e#! times #re rel#ti-ely short but ne-ertheless signi%ic#nt - being typic#lly o% the or!er o% 200-400 Vs. 3s # result the re#!ing obt#ine! /ith this !etector is less th#n it shoul! be. he true re#!ing /ithout going into !et#il c#n be obt#ine! using the %ollo/ing eJu#tion5
/here is the true re#!ing, 3 is the #ctu#l re#!ing #n! [ is the !e#! time. .ome instruments per%orm this c#lcul#tion #utom#tic#lly. he %ourth %e#ture to note #bout this !etector is the !epen!ence o% its per%orm#nce on the !c -olt#ge. he &eiger-7\ller Aegion o% our %igure #bo-e is sho/n in more !et#il belo/5
Wikibooks M )1
Ch#pter F
'otice th#t it cont#ins # pl#te#u /here the count r#te obt#ine! is in!epen!ent o% the !c -olt#ge. he centre o% this pl#te#u is /here most !etectors #re oper#te!. 1t is cle#r th#t the count r#te %rom the !etector is not #%%ecte! i% the !c -olt#ge %luctu#tes #bout the oper#ting -olt#ge. his implies th#t # rel#ti-ely str#ight-%or/#r! !c -olt#ge supply c#n be use!. his %e#ture couple! /ith the %#ct th#t # sensiti-e #mpli%ier is not nee!e! tr#nsl#tes in pr#ctice to # rel#ti-ely inexpensi-e r#!i#tion !etector.
External Lin s
1nsi!e # smoke !etector - #bout the ion ch#mber use! in smoke !etectors - %rom the 9o/ .tu%% Works /ebsite. 1onis#tion Ch#mbers - # brie% !escription %rom the rium% .#%ety &roup. A#!i#tion #n! A#!io#cti-ity - # sel%-p#ce! lesson !e-elope! by the (ni-ersity o% 7ichig#nSs .tu!ent Ch#pter o% the 9e#lth "hysics .ociety /ith # section on g#s %ille! !etectors. he &eiger Counter - # brie% o-er-ie/ %rom the '3.3 &o!!#r! .p#ce Flight Center, (.3.

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CA
0F R &3.-F1**C) A3)13
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CC =A.
)2 M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
.cintill#tion )etectors
C HAPTER . S CINTILLATION 3 ETECTORS

li-e -ersion !iscussion Introduction e!it lesson he secon! type o% r#!i#tion !etector /e /ill !iscuss is c#lle! the scintill#tion comment !etector. report #n error #sk # Juestion .cintill#tions #re minute %l#shes o% light /hich #re pro!uce! by cert#in m#teri#ls /hen they #bsorb r#!i#tion. hese m#teri#ls #re -#riously c#lle! %luorescent m#teri#ls, %luors, scintill#tors or phosphors. 1% /e h#! # r#!io#cti-e source #n! # scintill#tor in the l#b /e coul! !#rken the room, mo-e the scintill#tor close to the source #n! see the scintill#tions. hese sm#ll %l#shes o% light might be green or blue or some other colour !epen!ing on the scintill#tor. We coul! #lso count the number o% %l#shes pro!uce! to g#in #n estim#te o% the r#!io#cti-ity o% the source, th#t is the more %l#shes o% light seen the more r#!i#tion present. he scintill#tion !etector /#s possibly the %irst r#!i#tion !etector !isco-ere!. ;ou might h#-e he#r! the story o% the !isco-ery o% >-r#ys by Wilhelm Aoentgen in ,GHE. 9e /#s /orking one e-ening in his l#bor#tory in Wur:burg, &erm#ny /ith # !e-ice /hich %ire! # be#m o% electrons #t # t#rget insi!e #n e-#cu#te! gl#ss tube. While /orking /ith this !e-ice he notice! th#t some pl#tino-b#rium cy#ni!e cryst#ls, /hich he <ust h#ppene! to h#-e close by, beg#n to glo/ - #n! th#t they stoppe! glo/ing /hen he s/itche! the !e-ice o%%. Aoentgen h#! #cci!ent#lly !isco-ere! # ne/ %orm o% r#!i#tion. 9e h#! #lso #cci!ent#lly !isco-ere! # scintill#tor !etector. 3lthough scintill#tions c#n be seen /e h#-e # more sophistic#te! /#y o% counting #n! me#suring them to!#y by using some %orm o% photo!etector. We /ill le#rn #bout the construction #n! mo!e o% oper#tion o% this type o% !etector in this ch#pter. 1n #!!ition, /e /ill see ho/ it c#n be use! not <ust %or !etecting the presence o% ioni:ing r#!i#tion but #lso %or me#suring the ene (& o% th#t r#!i#tion. 2e%ore /e !o ho/e-er it is use%ul to note th#t scintill#tors #re -ery /i!ely use! in the me!ic#l r#!i#tions %iel!. For ex#mple the >-r#y c#ssette use! in r#!iogr#phy cont#ins # scintill#tor Kc#lle! #n intensi6&in( sc eenL in close cont#ct /ith # photogr#phic %ilm. 3 secon! ex#mple is the >8 "& Im"(e Intensi6ie use! in %luoroscopy /hich cont#ins scintill#tors c#lle! phosphors. .cintill#tors #re #lso use! in some C .c#nners #n! #s /e /ill see in the next ch#pter, in the &#mm# C#mer# #n! "C .c#nner. heir #pplic#tion is not limite! to the me!ic#l r#!i#tions %iel! in th#t scintill#tors #re #lso use! #s screens in tele-ision sets #n! computer monitors #n! %or gener#ting light in %luorescent tubes - to mention <ust t/o common #pplic#tions. Wh#t other #pplic#tions c#n you think o%O .o scintill#tors #re # lot more common th#n you might initi#lly think #n! you /ill there%ore %in! the in%orm#tion presente! here use%ul to you not <ust %or your stu!ies o% nucle#r me!icine.
Wikibooks M );
Ch#pter G
Fluorescent Materials
.ome %luorescent m#teri#ls #re liste! in the %ollo/ing t#ble. h#llium-#cti-#te! so!ium io!i!e, '#1K lL is # cryst#lline m#teri#l /hich is /i!ely use! %or the !etection o% g#mm#-r#ys in scintill#tion !etectors. We /ill be looking #t this in more !et#il belo/. M"te i"l N"I 9Tl: CsI 9N": C"WO4 !nS 9A(: #8te #%en&l in toluene #8te #%en&l in #ol&st& ene /o m cryst#l cryst#l cryst#l po/!er liJui! pl#stic
3nother cryst#lline m#teri#l so!ium-#cti-#te! c#esium io!i!e, Cs1K'#L is /i!ely use! %or >-r#y !etection in !e-ices such #s the >-r#y im#ge intensi%ier. 3nother one c#lle! c#lcium tungst#te, C#W=4 h#s been /i!ely use! in >-r#y c#ssettes #lthough this subst#nce h#s been repl#ce! by other scintill#tors such #s l#nth#num oxybromi!e in m#ny mo!ern c#ssettes. 'otice th#t some scintill#tion m#teri#ls #re #cti-#te! /ith cert#in elements. Wh#t this me#ns is th#t the b#se m#teri#l h#s # sm#ll #mount o% the #cti-#tion element present. he term !ope! is sometimes use! inste#! o% "cti*"te'. his #cti-#ting element is use! to in%luence the /#-elength KcolourL o% the light pro!uce! by the scintill#tor. .il-er-#cti-#te! :inc sulphi!e is # scintill#tor in po/!er %orm #n! p-terphenyl in toluene is # liJui! scintill#tor. he #!-#nt#ge o% such %orms o% scintill#tors is th#t the r#!io#cti-e m#teri#l c#n be pl#ce! in close cont#ct /ith the r#!io#cti-e m#teri#l. For ex#mple i% # r#!io#cti-e s#mple h#ppene! to be in liJui! %orm /e coul! mix it /ith # liJui! scintill#tor so #s to optimise the ch#nces o% !etection o% the emitte! r#!i#tion #n! hence h#-e # -ery sensiti-e !etector. 3 %in#l ex#mple is p-terphenyl in polystyrene /hich is # scintill#tor in the %orm o% # pl#stic. his %orm c#n be e#sily m#!e into !i%%erent sh#pes like most pl#stics #n! is there%ore use%ul /hen !etectors o% p#rticul#r sh#pes #re reJuire!.
P#oto!ulti)lier "u'e
3 scintill#tor couple! to # photomultiplier tube K"7 L is illustr#te! in the %ollo/ing %igure. he o-er#ll !e-ice is typic#lly cylin!ric#l in sh#pe #n! the %igure sho/s # cross-section through this cylin!er5 )4 M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
he scintill#tion cryst#l, '#1K lL is -ery !elic#te #n! this is one o% the re#sons it is house! in #n #luminium c#sing. he insi!e /#ll o% the c#sing is !esigne! so th#t #ny light /hich strikes it is re%lecte! !o/n/#r!s to/#r!s the "7 . he "7 itsel% consists o% # photoc#tho!e, # %ocussing gri!, #n #rr#y o% !yno!es #n! #n #no!e house! in #n e-#cu#te! gl#ss tube. he %unction o% the photoc#tho!e is to con-ert the light %l#shes pro!uce! by r#!i#tion #ttenu#tion in the scintill#tion cryst#l into electrons. he gri! %ocuses these electrons onto the %irst !yno!e #n! the !yno!e #rr#y is use! %or electron multiplic#tion. We /ill consi!er this process in more !et#il belo/. Fin#lly the #no!e collects the electrons pro!uce! by the #rr#y o% !yno!es. he electric#l circuitry /hich is typic#lly #tt#che! to # "7 is sho/n in the next %igure5
Wikibooks M )$
Ch#pter G
1t consists o% # high -olt#ge supply, # resistor !i-i!er ch#in #n! # lo#! resistor, A *. he high -olt#ge supply gener#tes # !c -olt#ge, +!c /hich c#n be up to ,,000 -olts. 1t is #pplie! to the resistor !i-i!er ch#in /hich consists o% #n #rr#y o% resistors, e#ch o% /hich h#s the s#me resist#nce, A. he %unction o% this ch#in o% resistors is to !i-i!e up +!c into eJu#l -olt#ges /hich #re supplie! to the !yno!es. 3s # result -olt#ges /hich incre#se in eJu#l steps #re #pplie! to the #rr#y o% !yno!es. he lo#! resistor is use! so th#t #n output -olt#ge, +out c#n be gener#te!. Fin#lly the oper#tion o% the !e-ice is illustr#te! in the %igure belo/5
)) M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
he ioni:ing r#!i#tion pro!uces %l#shes o% light in the scintill#tion cryst#l. his light strikes the photoc#tho!e #n! is con-erte! into electrons. he electrons #re !irecte! by the gri! onto the %irst !yno!e. )yno!es #re m#!e %rom cert#in #lloys /hich emit electrons /hen their sur%#ce is struck by electrons /ith the #!-#nt#ge th#t more electrons #re emitte! th#n #re #bsorbe!. 3 !yno!e use! in # "7 typic#lly emits bet/een t/o #n! %i-e electrons %or e#ch electron /hich strikes it. .o /hen #n electron %rom the photoc#tho!e strikes the %irst !yno!e bet/een t/o #n! %i-e electrons #re emitte! #n! #re !irecte! to/#r!s the secon! !yno!e in the #rr#y Kthree #re illustr#te! in the %igureL. his electron multiplic#tion process is repe#te! #t the secon! !yno!e so th#t /e en! up /ith nine electrons %or ex#mple he#!ing to/#r!s the thir! !yno!e. 3n electron #-#l#nche there%ore !e-elops so th#t # si:e#ble number o% electrons e-entu#lly hits the #no!e #t the bottom o% the !yno!e ch#in. hese electrons %lo/ through the lo#! resistor, A* #n! constitute #n electric current /hich #ccor!ing to =hmSs *#/ gener#tes # -olt#ge, +out /hich is me#sure! by electronic circuitry K/hich /e /ill !escribe l#terL. 3n #nim#te! gr#phic o% the oper#tion o% the scintill#tion !etector c#n be -ie/e! by clicking HERE. 3 number o% photogr#phs o% !e-ices b#se! on scintill#tion !etection #re sho/n belo/5
Wikibooks M ),
Ch#pter G
3n >-r#y c#ssette use! in r#!iogr#phy.
3 '#1 cryst#l couple! to # photomultiplier tube.
3 number o% i!entic#l photomultiplier tubes %rom # &#mm# C#mer#.
3 single ch#nnel #n#lyser. 3 single ch#nnel #n#lyser /ith # cryst#l-"7 #ssembly. 3 /ell !etector. he im#o t"nt 6e"tu e o% the scintill#tion !etector is th#t this output -olt#ge, +out is !irectly proportion#l to the energy !eposite! by the r#!i#tion in the cryst#l. We /ill see /h#t # use%ul %e#ture this is belo/. 2e%ore /e !o so /e /ill brie%ly #n#ly:e the oper#tion o% this !e-ice.
Mat#e!atical Model
3 simple m#them#tic#l mo!el /ill be presente! belo/ /hich /ill help us get # better h#n!le on the per%orm#nce o% # scintill#tion !etector. We /ill !o this by Ju#nti%ying the per%orm#nce o% the scintill#tor, the photoc#tho!e #n! the !yno!es. *etSs use the %ollo/ing symbols to ch#r#cteri:e e#ch st#ge o% the !etection process5 m5 number o% light photons pro!uce! in cryst#l k5 optic#l e%%iciency o% the cryst#l, th#t is the e%%iciency /ith /hich the cryst#l tr#nsmits light l5 Ju#ntum e%%iciency o% the photoc#tho!e, th#t is the e%%iciency /ith /hich the photoc#tho!e con-erts light photons to electrons n5 number o% !yno!es A5 !yno!e multiplic#tion %#ctor, th#t is the number o% secon!#ry electrons emitte! by #
). M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
.cintill#tion )etectors !yno!e per prim#ry electron #bsorbe!. here%ore the ch#rge collecte! #t the #no!e is gi-en by the %ollo/ing eJu#tion5 /here e5 the electronic ch#rge. For ex#mple supposing # ,00 ke+ g#mm#-r#y is #bsorbe! in the cryst#l. he number o% light photons pro!uce!, m, might be #bout ,,000 %or # typic#l scintill#tion cryst#l. 3 typic#l cryst#l might h#-e #n optic#l e%%iciency, k, o% 0.E - in other /or!s E0P o% the light pro!uce! re#ches the photoc#tho!e /hich might h#-e # Ju#ntum e%%iciency o% 0.,E. 3 typic#l "7 h#s ten !yno!es #n! let us #ssume th#t the !yno!e multiplic#tion %#ctor is 4.E. here%ore
his #mount o% ch#rge is -ery sm#ll. C-en though /e h#-e use! # sophistic#te! photo!etector like # "7 /e still en! up /ith Juite # sm#ll electric#l sign#l. 3 -ery sensiti-e #mpli%ier is there%ore nee!e! to #mpli%y this sign#l. gener#lly c#lle! # # e8"m#li6ie #n! /e /ill re%er to it #g#in l#ter. his type o% #mpli%ier is
Out)ut /olta%e
We note! #bo-e th#t the -olt#ge me#sure! #cross the resistor, A *, is proportion#l to the energy !eposite! in the scintill#tion cryst#l by the r#!i#tion. *et us consi!er ho/ the r#!i#tion might !eposit its energy in the cryst#l. *et us consi!er # situ#tion /here g#mm#-r#ys #re !etecte! by the cryst#l. We le#rnt in Ch#pter E th#t there /ere t/o inter#ction mech#nisms in-ol-e! in g#mm#-r#y #ttenu#tion - the "hotoelectric C%%ect #n! the Compton C%%ect. ;ou /ill remember th#t the "hotoelectric C%%ect in-ol-es the tot#l #bsorption o% the energy o% # g#mm#-r#y, /hile the Compton C%%ect in-ol-es <ust p#rti#l #bsorption o% this energy. .ince the output -olt#ge o% # scintill#tion !etector is proportion#l to the energy !eposite! by the g#mm#-r#ys it is re#son#ble to expect th#t "hotoelectric C%%ects in the cryst#l /ill gener#te !istinct #n! rel#ti-ely l#rge output -olt#ges #n! th#t Compton C%%ects /ill result in lo/er output -olt#ges. he usu#l /#y o% presenting this in%orm#tion is by plotting # gr#ph o% the count r#te -ersus the output -olt#ge pulse height #s sho/n in the %ollo/ing %igure5
Wikibooks M )0
Ch#pter G
his plot illustr#tes /h#t is obt#ine! %or # monoenergetic g#mm#-emitting r#!ioisotope, %or ex#mple HHm c - /hich, #s /e h#-e note! be%ore emits # single g#mm#-r#y /ith #n energy o% ,40 ke+. 2e%ore /e look #t it in !et#il remember th#t /e note! #bo-e th#t the output -olt#ge %rom this !etector is proportion#l to the energy !eposite! by the r#!i#tion in the cryst#l. he hori:ont#l #xis c#n there%ore be use! to represent the output -olt#ge or the g#mm#-r#y energy. 2oth o% these Ju#ntities #re sho/n in the %igure to help /ith this !iscussion. 1n #!!ition note th#t this plot is o%ten c#lle! # 7"mm"8 R"& Ene (& S#ect um. he %igure #bo-e cont#ins t/o regions. =ne c#lle! the P%oto#e"k #n! the other c#lle! the Com#ton Sme" . he "hotope#k results bec#use o% "hotoelectric #bsorption o% the g#mm#-r#ys %rom the r#!io#cti-e source - remember th#t /e #re !e#ling /ith # monoenergetic emitter in this ex#mple. 1t consists o% # pe#k representing the g#mm#-r#y energy K,40 ke+ in our ex#mpleL. 1% our r#!ioisotope emitte! g#mm#-r#ys o% t/o energies /e /oul! h#-e t/o photope#ks in our spectrum #n! so on. 'otice th#t the pe#k h#s # st#tistic#l spre#!. his h#s to !o /ith ho/ goo! our !etector is #n! /e /ill not get into #ny !et#il #bout it here other th#n to note th#t the extent o% this spre#! is # me#sure o% the Ju#lity o% our !etector. 3 high Ju#lity K#n! more expensi-e?L !etector /ill h#-e # n#rro/er st#tistic#l spre#! in the photope#ks /hich it me#sures. he other component o% our spectrum is the Compton .me#r. 1t represents # r#nge o% output -olt#ges /hich #re lo/er th#n th#t %or the "hotope#k. 1t is there%ore in!ic#ti-e o% the p#rti#l #bsorption o% the energy o% g#mm#-r#ys in the cryst#l. 1n some Compton C%%ects # subst#nti#l sc#ttering /ith # -#l#nce electron c#n occur /hich gi-es rise to rel#ti-ely l#rge -olt#ge pulses. 1n other Compton C%%ects the g#mm#-r#y <ust gr#:es o%% # -#l#nce electron /ith minim#l energy tr#ns%er #n! hence # rel#ti-ely sm#ll -olt#ge pulse is gener#te!. 1n bet/een these t/o extremes #re # r#nge o% sc#ttering e-ents in-ol-ing # r#nge o% energy tr#ns%ers #n! hence # r#nge o% -olt#ge pulse heights. 3 Ssme#rS there%ore m#ni%ests itsel% on the g#mm#-r#y energy spectrum. 1t is import#nt to note th#t the spectrum illustr#te! in the %igure is simpli%ie! %or the s#ke o% this intro!uctory !iscussion #n! th#t #ctu#l spectr# #re # little more complex - see %igure belo/ %or #n ex#mple5
,1 M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
;ou /ill %in! though th#t your un!erst#n!ing o% #ctu#l spectr# c#n e#sily !e-elop on the b#sis o% the simple picture /e h#-e p#inte! here. 1t is #lso import#nt to #ppreci#te the #!!ition#l in%orm#tion /hich this type o% r#!i#tion !etector pro-i!es rel#ti-e to # g#s-%ille! !etector. 1n essence g#s-%ille! !etectors c#n be use! to tell us i% #ny r#!i#tion is present #s /ell #s the #mount o% th#t r#!i#tion. .cintill#tion !etectors #lso gi-e us this in%orm#tion but they tell us #bout the ene (& o% this r#!i#tion #s /ell. his #!!ition#l in%orm#tion c#n be use! %or m#ny !i-erse #pplic#tions such #s the i!enti%ic#tion o% unkno/n r#!ioisotopes #n! the pro!uction o% nucle#r me!icine im#ges. *et us st#y # little bit longer though /ith the %un!#ment#l %e#tures o% ho/ scintill#tion !etectors /ork. he photope#k o% the &#mm#-A#y Cnergy .pectrum is gener#lly o% interest in nucle#r me!icine. his pe#k is the m#in sign#ture o% the r#!ioisotope being use! #n! its isol#tion %rom the Compton .me#r is norm#lly #chie-e! using # techniJue c#lle! Pulse Hei(%t An"l&sis.
Pulse Hei%#t Anal&sis

his is #n electronic techniJue /hich #llo/s # spectrum to be #cJuire! using t/o types o% circuitry. =ne circuit is c#lle! # Lo+e Le*el 3isc imin"to /hich only #llo/s -olt#ges pulses through it /hich #re lo/er th#n its setting. he other is c#lle! #n U##e Le*el 3isc imin"to /hich only #llo/s -olt#ge pulses though /hich #re Kyou guesse! it?L higher th#n its setting. he result o% using both these circuits in combin#tion is # -#ri#ble-/i!th /in!o/ /hich c#n be pl#ce! #ny/here #long # spectrum. For ex#mple i% /e /ishe! to obt#in in%orm#tion %rom the photope#k only o% our simpli%ie! spectrum /e /oul! pl#ce the !iscrimin#tion controls #s sho/n in the %ollo/ing %igure5 3 %in#l point to note here is th#t since the scintill#tion !etector is /i!ely use! to obt#in in%orm#tion #bout the energies o% the r#!i#tion emitte! %rom # r#!io#cti-e source it is %reJuently re%erre! to #s # Scintill"tion S#ect omete .
Wikibooks M ,1
Ch#pter G
Scintillation S)ectro!eter
ypes o% scintill#tion spectrometer %#ll into t/o b#sic c#tegories - the rel#ti-ely str#ight-%or/#r! Sin(le C%"nnel An"l&se #n! the more sophistic#te! Multi8C%"nnel An"l&se . he .ingle Ch#nnel 3n#lyser is the type o% instrument /e h#-e been !escribing so %#r in this !iscussion. 3 block !i#gr#m o% the instrument is sho/n belo/5
1t consists o% # scintill#tion cryst#l couple! to # photomultiplier tube /hich is po/ere! by # high-olt#ge circuit K9.+.L. he output -olt#ges #re initi#lly #mpli%ie! by # sensiti-e pre-#mpli%ier KP e8 Am#L #s /e note! #bo-e be%ore being #mpli%ie! %urther #n! con!itione! by the #mpli%ier KAm#L. he -olt#ge pulses #re then in # suit#ble %orm %or the pulse height #n#lyser K P@H@A@L - the output pulses %rom /hich c#n be %e! to # Sc"le #n! # R"temete %or !ispl#y o% the in%orm#tion #bout the portion o% the spectrum /e h#-e #llo/e! to p#ss through the "93. he A#temeter is # !ispl#y !e-ice <ust like the spee!ometer in # c#r #n! in!ic#tes the number o% pulses gener#te! per unit time. he .c#ler on the other h#n! usu#lly consists o% # !igit#l !ispl#y /hich sho/s the number o% -olt#ge pulses pro!uce! in # speci%ie! perio! o% time.
.cintill#tion )etectors We c#n illustr#te the oper#tion o% this circuitry by consi!ering ho/ it might be use! to gener#te # &#mm#-A#y Cnergy .pectrum. Wh#t /e /oul! !o is set up the **) #n! (*) so #s to !e%ine # n#rro/ /in!o/ #n! pl#ce this to p#ss the lo/est -olt#ge pulses pro!uce! by the !etector through to the .c#ler #n! A#temeter. 1n other /or!s /e /oul! pl#ce # n#rro/ /in!o/ #t the extreme le%t o% the spectrum #n! #cJuire in%orm#tion #bout the lo/est energy g#mm#-r#y inter#ctions in the cryst#l. We /oul! then #!<ust the **) #n! (*) settings to #cJuire in%orm#tion #bout the inter#ctions o% the next highest energy. We /oul! procee! in this %#shion to sc#n the /hole spectrum. 3 more sophistic#te! !etector circuit is illustr#te! in the %ollo/ing %igure5
1t is Juite simil#r to th#t in the pre-ious %igure /ith the exception th#t the "93, .c#ler #n! A#temeter #re repl#ce! by # 7ulti-Ch#nnel 3n#lyser #n! # computer. he 7ulti-Ch#nnel 3n#lyser KMCAL is # circuit /hich is c#p#ble o% setting up # l#rge number o% in!i-i!u#l /in!o/s to look #t # complete spectrum in one go. he 7C3 might consist o% ,024 in!i-i!u#l /in!o/s %or ex#mple #n! the computer might consist o% # person#l computer /hich c#n #cJuire in%orm#tion simult#neously %rom e#ch /in!o/ #n! !ispl#y it #s #n energy spectrum. he computer gener#lly cont#ins so%t/#re /hich #llo/s us to m#nipul#te the result#nt in%orm#tion in # -#riety o% /#ys. 1n!ee! the ,BFCs spectrum sho/n #bo-e /#s gener#te! using this #ppro#ch.
External Lin s
A#!i#tion #n! A#!io#cti-ity - # sel%-p#ce! lesson !e-elope! by the (ni-ersity o% 7ichig#nSs .tu!ent Ch#pter o% the 9e#lth "hysics .ociety, /ith # section on so!ium io!i!e !etectors.

Click HERE to #ccess #n online 7CQ co-ering the m#teri#l in this ch#pter.
Wikibooks M ,;
Ch#pter G congratulations on completing
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'ucle#r 7e!icine 1m#ging .ystems
C HAPTER 0 N UCLEAR M E3ICINE I MA7IN7 S 5STEMS

Introduction
opics /e h#-e co-ere! in this /ikibook h#-e inclu!e! r#!io#cti-ity, the inter#ction o% g#mm#-r#ys /ith m#tter #n! r#!i#tion !etection. he m#in re#son %or %ollo/ing this p#th/#y /#s to bring us to the sub<ect o% this ch#pter5 nucle#r me!icine im#ging systems. hese #re !e-ices /hich pro!uce pictures o% the !istribution o% r#!io#cti-e m#teri#l %ollo/ing #!ministr#tion to # p#tient. li-e -ersion !iscussion e!it lesson comment report #n error #sk # Juestion
he r#!io#cti-ity is gener#lly #!ministere! to the p#tient in the %orm o% # r#!ioph#rm#ceutic#l - the term "'iot "ce is #lso use!. his %ollo/s some physiologic#l p#th/#y to #ccumul#te %or # short perio! o% time in some p#rt o% the bo!y. 3 goo! ex#mple is HHm c-tin colloi! /hich %ollo/ing intr#-enous in<ection #ccumul#tes m#inly in the p#tientSs li-er. he subst#nce emits g#mm#-r#ys /hile it is in the p#tientSs li-er #n! /e c#n pro!uce #n im#ge o% its !istribution using # nucle#r me!icine im#ging system. his im#ge c#n tell us /hether the %unction o% the li-er is norm#l or #bnorm#l or i% sections o% it #re !#m#ge! %rom some %orm o% !ise#se. )i%%erent r#!ioph#rm#ceutic#ls #re use! to pro!uce im#ges %rom #lmost #ll regions o% the bo!y5 P" t o6 t%e -o'& - "in T%& oi' Lun( 94entil"tion: Lun( 9Pe 6usion: Li*e S#leen P"nc e"s =i'ne&s
HHm
E?"m#le R"'iot "ce

HHm
c-Ceretec
'#HHm c=4
,BB>e HHm HHm
g#s
c-733
c- in Colloi!
c-)#m#ge! Ae! 2loo! Cells
FE.e-.elenomethionine HHm
c-)7.3
'ote th#t the %orm o% in%orm#tion obt#ine! using this im#ging metho! is m#inly rel#te! to the physiologic#l %unctioning o% #n org#n #s oppose! to the m#inly #n#tomic#l in%orm#tion /hich is obt#ine! using >-r#y im#ging systems. 'ucle#r me!icine there%ore pro-i!es # !i%%erent perspecti-e on Wikibooks M ,$
Ch#pter H # !ise#se con!ition #n! gener#tes #!!ition#l in%orm#tion to th#t obt#ine! %rom >-r#y im#ges. =ur purpose here is to concentr#te on the im#ging systems use! to pro!uce the im#ges. C#rly %orms o% im#ging system use! in this %iel! consiste! o% # r#!i#tion !etector K# scintill#tion !etector %or ex#mpleL /hich /#s sc#nne! slo/ly o-er # region o% the p#tient in or!er to me#sure the r#!i#tion intensity emitte! %rom in!i-i!u#l points /ithin the region. =ne such !e-ice /#s c#lle! the Aectiline#r .c#nner. .uch im#ging systems h#-e been repl#ce! since the ,HF0s by more sophistic#te! !e-ices /hich pro!uce im#ges much more r#pi!ly. he most common o% these mo!ern !e-ices is c#lle! the &#mm# C#mer# #n! /e /ill consi!er its construction #n! mo!e o% oper#tion belo/.
+a!!a Ca!era
he b#sic !esign o% the most common type o% g#mm# c#mer# use! to!#y /#s !e-elope! by #n 3meric#n physicist, 9#l 3nger #n! is there%ore sometimes c#lle! the 3nger C#mer#. 1t consists o% # l#rge !i#meter '#1K lL scintill#tion cryst#l /hich is -ie/e! by # l#rge number o% photomultiplier tubes. 3 block !i#gr#m o% the b#sic components o% # g#mm# c#mer# is sho/n belo/5
he cryst#l #n! "7 ubes #re house! in # cylin!ric#l sh#pe! housing commonly c#lle! the c"me " %e"' #n! # cross-section#l -ie/ o% this is sho/n in the %igure. he cryst#l c#n be bet/een #bout 2E cm #n! 40 cm in !i#meter #n! #bout , cm thick. he !i#meter is !epen!ent on the #pplic#tion o% the !e-ice. For ex#mple # 2E cm !i#meter cryst#l might be use! %or # c#mer# !esigne! %or c#r!i#c #pplic#tions /hile # l#rger 40 cm cryst#l /oul! be use! %or pro!ucing im#ges o% the lungs. he thickness o% the cryst#l is chosen so th#t it pro-i!es goo! !etection %or the ,40 ke+ g#mm#-r#ys emitte! %rom HHm c - /hich is the most common r#!ioisotope use! to!#y. .cintill#tions pro!uce! in the cryst#l #re !etecte! by # l#rge number o% "7 tubes /hich #re ,) M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
'ucle#r 7e!icine 1m#ging .ystems #rr#nge! in # t/o-!imension#l #rr#y. here is typic#lly bet/een BF #n! H, "7 tubes in mo!ern g#mm# c#mer#s. he output -olt#ges gener#te! by these "7 tubes #re %e! to # position circuit /hich pro!uces %our output sign#ls c#lle! ]> #n! ];. hese position sign#ls cont#in in%orm#tion #bout /here the scintill#tions /ere pro!uce! /ithin the cryst#l. 1n the most b#sic g#mm# c#mer# !esign they #re %e! to # c#tho!e r#y oscilloscope KCROL. We /ill !escribe the oper#tion o% the CA= in more !et#il belo/. 2e%ore /e !o so /e shoul! note th#t the position sign#ls #lso cont#in in%orm#tion #bout the intensity o% e#ch scintill#tion. his intensity in%orm#tion c#n be !eri-e! %rom the position sign#ls by %ee!ing them to # summ#tion circuit Km#rke! ^ in the %igureL /hich #!!s up the %our position sign#ls to gener#te # -olt#ge pulse /hich represents the intensity o% # scintill#tion. his -olt#ge pulse is commonly c#lle! the !8#ulse Kor :ee-pulse in 3meric#n Cnglish?L /hich %ollo/ing pulse height #n#lysis KPHAL is %e! #s the unbl"nk #ulse to the CA=. .o /e en! up /ith %our position sign#ls #n! #n unbl#nk pulse sent to the CA=. *et us brie%ly re-ie/ the oper#tion o% # CA= be%ore /e continue. he core o% # CA= consists o% #n e-#cu#te! tube /ith #n electron gun #t one en! #n! # phosphor-co#te! screen #t the other en!. he electon gun gener#tes #n electron be#m /hich is !irecte! #t the screen #n! the screen emits light #t those points struck by the electron be#m. he position o% the electron be#m c#n be controlle! by -ertic#l #n! hori:ont#l !e%lection pl#tes #n! /ith the #ppropri#te -olt#ges %e! to these pl#tes the electron be#m c#n be positione! #t #ny point on the screen. he norm#l mo!e o% oper#tion o% #n oscilloscope is %or the electron be#m to rem#in s/itche! on. 1n the c#se o% the g#mm# c#mer# the electron be#m o% the CA= is norm#lly s/itche! o%% - it is s#i! to be bl"nke'. When #n unbl#nk pulse is gener#te! by the "93 circuit the electron be#m o% the CA= is s/itche! on %or # brie% perio! o% time so #s to !ispl#y # %l#sh o% light on the screen. 1n other /or!s the -olt#ge pulse %rom the "93 circuit is use! to unbl#nk the electron be#m o% the CA=. .o /here !oes this %l#sh o% light occur on the screen o% the CA=O he position o% the %l#sh o% light is !ict#te! by the ]> #n! ]; sign#ls gener#te! by the position circuit. hese sign#ls #s you might h#-e guesse! #re %e! to the !e%lection pl#tes o% the CA= so #s to c#use the unbl#nke! electron be#m to strike the screen #t # point rel#te! to /here the scintill#tion /#s origin#lly pro!uce! in the '#1K lL cryst#l. .imple? he g#mm# c#mer# c#n there%ore be consi!ere! to be # sophistic#te! #rr#ngement o% electronic circuits use! to tr#nsl#te the position o% # %l#sh o% light in # scintill#tion cryst#l to # %l#sh o% light #t # rel#te! point on the screen o% #n oscilloscope. 1n #!!ition the use o% # pulse height #n#lyser in the circuitry #llo/s us to tr#nsl#te the scintill#tions rel#te! only to photoelectric e-ents in the cryst#l by re<ecting #ll -olt#ge pulses except those occurring /ithin the photope#k o% the g#mm#-r#y energy spectrum. *et us summ" ise /here /e h#-e got to be%ore /e procee!. 3 r#!ioph#rm#ceutic#l is #!ministere! to the p#tient #n! it #ccumul#tes in the org#n o% interest. &#mm#-r#ys #re emitte! in #ll !irections %rom the org#n #n! those he#!ing in the !irection o% the g#mm# c#mer# enter the cryst#l #n! pro!uce scintill#tions Knote th#t there is # !e-ice in %ront o% the cryst#l c#lle! # collim"to /hich /e /ill !iscuss l#terL. he scintill#tions #re !etecte! by #n #rr#y o% "7 tubes /hose outputs #re %e! to # position circuit /hich gener#tes %our -olt#ge pulses rel#te! to the position o% # scintill#tion /ithin the cryst#l. hese -olt#ge pulses #re %e! to the !e%lection circuitry o% the CA=. hey #re #lso %e! to # summ#tion circuit /hose ouput Kthe I-pulseL is %e! to the "93 #n! the output o% the "93 is use! to s/itch on Kth#t is, unbl#nkL the electron be#m o% the CA=. 3 %l#sh o% light #ppe#rs on the screen o% the Wikibooks M ,,
Ch#pter H CA= #t # point rel#te! to /here the scintill#tion occurre! /ithin the '#1K lL cryst#l. 3n im#ge o% the !istribution o% the r#!ioph#rm#ceutic#l /ithin the org#n is there%ore %orme! on the screen o% the CA= /hen the g#mm#-r#ys emitte! %rom the org#n #re !etecte! by the cryst#l. Wh#t /e h#-e !escribe! #bo-e is the oper#tion o% # %#irly tr#!ition#l g#mm# c#mer#. 7o!ern !esigns #re # goo! !e#l more complex but the b#sic !esign h#s rem#ine! much the s#me #s h#s been !escribe!. =ne #re# /here m#<or !esign impro-ements h#-e occure! is the #re# o% im#ge %orm#tion #n! !ispl#y. he most b#sic #ppro#ch to im#ge %orm#tion is to photogr#ph the screen o% the CA= o-er # perio! o% time to #llo/ integr#tion o% the light %l#shes to %orm #n im#ge on photogr#phic %ilm. 3 st#ge up %rom this is to use # stor#ge oscilloscope /hich #llo/s e#ch %l#sh o% light to rem#in on the screen %or # re#son#ble perio! o% time. he most mo!ern #ppro#ch is to %ee! the position sign#ls into the memory circuitry o% # computer %or stor#ge. he memory contents c#n there%ore be !ispl#ye! on # computer monitor #n! c#n #lso be m#nipul#te! Kth#t is # ocesse'L in m#ny /#ys. For ex#mple -#rious colours c#n be use! to represent !i%%erent concentr#tions o% # r#!ioph#rm#ceutic#l /ithin #n org#n. Click HERE to #ccess #n online !emonstr#tion o% such !igit#l im#ge processing. he use o% such !igit#l im#ge processing is no/ /i!espre#! in nucle#r me!icine in th#t it c#n be use! to r#pi!ly #n! con-eniently control im#ge #cJuisition #n! !ispl#y #s /ell #s to #n#lyse #n im#ge or seJuences o% im#ges, to #nnot#te im#ges /ith the p#tientSs n#me #n! ex#min#tion !et#ils, to store the im#ges %or subseJuent retrie-#l #n! to communic#te the im#ge !#t# to other computers o-er # net/ork. .ome photogr#phs o% g#mm# c#mer#s #n! rel#te! !e-ices #re sho/n belo/5
3nother single3 single-he#!e! g#mm# he#!e! g#mm# c#mer#. c#mer#.
he '#1 cryst#l o% # g#mm# c#mer#.
he c#tho!e r#y oscilloscope KCA=L o% # g#mm# c#mer#.
he im#ge processing system o% # g#mm# c#mer#.
3 !u#l-he#!e! g#mm# c#mer#.
3nother -ie/ o% # !u#l- he im#ge #cJuisition #n! he#!e! g#mm# c#mer#. processing console o% # !u#lhe#!e! g#mm# c#mer#.
We /ill continue /ith our !escription o% the g#mm# c#mer# by consi!ering the construction #n! purpose o% the collim#tor.
,. M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
Colli!ation
he collim#tor is # !e-ice /hich is #tt#che! to the %ront o% the g#mm# c#mer# he#!. 1t %unctions something like # lens use! in # photogr#phic c#mer# but this #n#logy is not Juite correct bec#use it is r#ther !i%%icult to %ocus g#mm#-r#ys. 'e-ertheless in its simplest %orm it is use! to block out #ll g#mm# r#ys /hich #re he#!ing to/#r!s the cryst#l except those /hich #re tr#-elling #t right #ngles to the pl#ne o% the cryst#l5
Illustration 2: +iagram of parallel-hole collimator attached to a crystal of a gamma camera. ,bli-uely incident gamma-rays are absorbed by the septa.
he %igure illustr#tes # m#gni%ie! -ie/ o% # #" "llel8%ole collim"to #tt#che! to # cryst#l. he collim#tor simply consists o% # l#rge number o% sm#ll holes !rille! in # le#! pl#te. 'otice th#t g#mm#r#ys entering #t #n #ngle to the cryst#l get #bsorbe! by the le#! #n! th#t only those entering #long the !irection o% the holes get through to c#use scintill#tions in the cryst#l. 1% the collim#tor /#s not in pl#ce these obliJuely inci!ent g#mm#-r#ys /oul! blur the im#ges pro!uce! by the g#mm# c#mer#. 1n other /or!s the im#ges /oul! not be -ery cle#r. 7ost g#mm# c#mer#s h#-e # number o% collim#tors /hich c#n be %itte! !epen!ing on the ex#min#tion. he b#sic !esign o% these collim#tors is the s#me except th#t they -#ry in terms o% the !i#meter o% e#ch hole, the !epth o% e#ch hole #n! the thickness o% le#! bet/een e#ch hole Kcommonly c#lle! the se#tum t%icknessL. he choice o% # speci%ic collim#tor is !epen!ent on the #mount o% r#!i#tion #bsorption th#t occurs K/hich in%luences the sensiti*it& o% the g#mm# c#mer#L, #n! the cl#rity o% im#ges Kth#t is the s#"ti"l esolutionL it pro!uces. (n%ortun#tely these t/o %#ctors #re in-ersely rel#te! in th#t the use o% # collim#tor /hich pro!uces im#ges o% goo! sp#ti#l resolution gener#lly implies th#t the instrument is not -ery sensiti-e to r#!i#tion. =ther collim#tor !esigns besi!e the p#r#llel hole type #re #lso in use. For ex#mple # 'i*e (in( hole collim#tor pro!uces # mini%ie! im#ge #n! con*e (in( hole #n! #in8%ole collim#tors pro!uce # m#gni%ie! im#ge. he pin-hole collim#tor is illustr#te! in the %ollo/ing %igure5
Wikibooks M ,0
Ch#pter H
Illustration .: +iagram of a pin-hole collimator illustrating the inversion of ac-uired images.
3 number o% nucle#r me!icine im#ges #re sho/n belo/5
3 ."CC slice o% the !istribution o% HHm- c Ceretec /ithin # 3 ."CC slice through # p#tientSs br#in. p#tientSs li-er.
Four pl#n#r im#ges %rom # p#tientSs bone sc#n 3 "C slice o% # Kclock/ise %rom top le%t5 p#tientSs br#in, /ith # he#!, chest, knees #n! region o% interest !r#/n pel-isL. to in!ic#te the skin sur%#ce.
3 thyroi! sc#n sho/ing #n outline use! %or computing thyroi! upt#ke.
3 series o% pl#n#r im#ges #cJuire! e-ery ,0 secon!s .electe! im#ges %rom # !uring # renogr#m o% # renogr#m series. p#tient /ith # stone blocking their right ki!ney.
3 gr#phic#l !ispl#y sho/ing the number o% counts in e#ch ki!ney -ersus time %or # renogr#m.
.1 M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
3 ."CC slice o% # p#tientSs he#rt.
"osterior -ie/s %rom -entil#tion Kle%tL #n! per%usion KrightL sc#ns o% # p#tientSs lungs.
E!ission "o!o%ra)#&
he %orm o% im#ging /hich /e h#-e been !escribing is c#lle! Pl"n" Im"(in(. 1t pro!uces # t/o!imension#l im#ge o% # three-!imension#l ob<ect. 3s # result im#ges cont#in no !epth in%orm#tion #n! some !et#ils c#n be superimpose! on top o% e#ch other #n! obscure! or p#rti#lly obscure! #s # result. 'ote th#t this is #lso # %e#ture o% con-ention#l >-r#y im#ging. he usu#l /#y o% trying to o-ercome this limit#tion is to t#ke #t le#st t/o -ie/s o% the p#tient, one %rom the %ront #n! one %rom the si!e %or ex#mple. .o in chest r#!iogr#phy # posterio-#nterior K"3L #n! # l#ter#l -ie/ c#n be t#ken. 3n! in # nucle#r me!icine li-er sc#n #n #ntero-posterior K3"L #n! l#ter#l sc#n #re t#ken. his limit#tion o% pl#n#r >-r#y im#ging /#s o-ercome by the !e-elopment o% the C3 .c#nner #bout ,HF0 or there#bouts. C3 st#n!s %or Computerise! 3xi#l omogr#phy or Computer 3ssiste! omogr#phy #n! to!#y the term is o%ten shortene! to Compute! omogr#phy or C sc#nning Kthe term tomogr#phy comes %rom the &reek /or! tomos me#ning sliceL. 1rrespecti-e o% its ex#ct n#me the techniJue #llo/s im#ges o% slices through the bo!y to be pro!uce! using # computer. 1t !oes this in essence by t#king >-r#y im#ges #t # number o% #ngles #roun! the p#tient. hese slice im#ges sho/ the thir! !imension /hich is missing %rom pl#n#r im#ges #n! thus elimin#te the problem o% superimpose! !et#ils. Furthermore im#ges o% # number o% successi-e slices through # region o% the p#tient c#n be st#cke! on top o% e#ch other using the computer to pro!uce # three-!imension#l im#ge. Cle#rly C sc#nning is # -ery po/er%ul im#ging techniJue /hich is %#r superior to pl#n#r im#ging. he eJui-#lent nucle#r me!icine im#ging techniJue is c#lle! Cmission Compute! omogr#phy. We /ill consi!er t/o implement#tions o% this techniJue belo/.
9": Sin(le P%oton Emission Com#ute' Tomo( "#%& 9SPECT:

his ."CC techniJue uses # g#mm# c#mer# to recor! im#ges #t # series o% #ngles #roun! the p#tient. hese im#ges #re then sub<ecte! to # %orm o% !igit#l im#ge processing c#lle! 1m#ge Aeconstruction in or!er to compute im#ges o% slices through the p#tient. he Filtere! 2#ck "ro<ection reconstruction process is illustr#te! belo/. *et us #ssume %or simplicity th#t the slice through the p#tient #ctu#lly consists o% # 2x2 -oxel #rr#y /ith the r#!io#cti-ity in e#ch -oxel gi-en by 3,...345 Wikibooks M .1
Ch#pter H
he %irst pro<ection, ",, is im#ge! %rom the right #n! the secon! pro<ection, "2, %rom the right obliJue #n! so on. he pro<ections #re %irstly #!!e! to e#ch #s sho/n belo/5
#n! the summe! Kor superimpose!L pro<ections #re norm#lise! to gener#te #n estim#te o% the r#!io#cti-ity in e#ch -oxel. 3n #ltern#ti-e im#ge reconstruction techniJue is c#lle! 1ter#ti-e Aeconstruction. successi-e #pproxim#tion techniJue #s illustr#te! belo/5 P oCection P"tient A''iti*e Ite "ti*e Reconst uction his is #
P1
3ctu#l pro<ection, ",.
First estim#te o% im#ge m#trix.
Wikibooks M .;
Ch#pter H
3ctu#l pro<ection, "2.
P2
Cstim#te o% pro<ection, "2.
.econ! estim#te o% im#ge m#trix.
P;
3ctu#l pro<ection, "B.
Cstim#te o% pro<ection, "B.
hir! estim#te o% im#ge m#trix.
Wikibooks M .$
Ch#pter H
P4 Cstim#te o% pro<ection, "4.
3ctu#l pro<ection, "4.
Fourth estim#te o% im#ge m#trix. he %irst estim#te o% the im#ge m#trix is m#!e by !istributing the %irst pro<ection, ",, e-enly through #n empty pixel m#trix. he secon! pro<ection, "2, is comp#re! to the s#me pro<ection %rom the estim#te! m#trix #n! the !i%%erence bet/een #ctu#l #n! estim#te! pro<ections is #!!e! to the estim#te! m#trix. he process is repe#te! %or #ll other pro<ections. he g#mm# c#mer# is typiclly rot#te! #roun! the p#tient in or!er to #cJuire the im#ges. 7o!ern g#mm# c#mer#s /hich #re !esigne! speci%ic#lly %or ."CC sc#nning c#n consist o% t/o c#mer# he#!s mounte! p#r#llel to e#ch other /ith the p#tient in bet/een. he time reJuire! to pro!uce im#ges is there%ore re!uce! by # %#ctor o% #bout t/o. 1n #!!ition some ."CC g#mm# c#mer#s !esigne! %or br#in sc#nning h#-e three c#mer# he#!s mounte! in # tri#ngul#r #rr#ngement. 3 comp#rison o% these im#ge reconstruction techniJues is sho/n belo/ %or # slice through # -entil#tion sc#n o% # p#tientSs lungs5
.) M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
9b: Posit on Emission Tomo( "#%& 9PET:

;ou /ill remember %rom ch#pter 2 th#t positrons c#n be emitte! %rom r#!io#cti-e nuclei /hich h#-e too m#ny neutrons %or st#bility. ;ou /ill #lso remember th#t positrons !o not l#st %or -ery long in m#tter since they /ill Juickly encounter #n electron #n! # process c#lle! "nni%il"tion results. 1n the process the positron #n! electron -#nish #n! their energy is con-erte! into t/o g#mm#-r#ys /hich #re emitte! #t ,G0o !egrees to e#ch other. he emission is o%ten re%erre! to #s t/o b"ck8to8b"ck g#mm#r#ys #n! they e#ch h#-e # !iscrete energy o% 0.E, 7e+. .o i% /e #!minister # positron-emitting r#!ioph#rm#ceutic#l to # p#tient #n emitte! positrons c#n #nnihil#te /ith # ne#rby electon #n! t/o g#mm#-r#ys /ill be emitte! in opposite !irections. hese g#mm#-r#ys c#n be !etecte! using # ring o% r#!i#tion !etectors encircling the p#tient #n! tomogr#phic im#ges c#n be gener#te! using # computer system. he !etectors #re typic#lly speci#lise! scintill#tion !e-ices /hich #re optimise! %or !etection o% the 0.E, 7e+ g#mm#-r#ys. his ring o% !etectors, #ssoci#te! #pp#r#tus #n! computer system #re c#lle! # "C .c#nner5
Wikibooks M .,
Ch#pter H
he loc#tions o% positron !ec#ys /ithin the p#tient #re highlighte! by the soli! circles in the #bo-e !i#gr#m. 1n #!!ition only # %e/ !etectors #re sho/n in the !i#gr#m %or re#sons o% cl#rity. C#ch !etector #roun! the ring is oper#te! in coinci!ence /ith # b#nk o% opposing !etectors #n! the #nnihil#tion g#mm#-r#ys thus !etecte! #re use! to buil! up # single pro%ile. 1t h#s #lso been %oun! th#t g#mm# c#mer#s %itte! /ith thick cryst#ls #n! speci#l collim#tors c#n be use! %or "C sc#nning. he r#!ioisotopes use! %or "C sc#nning inclu!e ,,C, ,B', ,E= #n! ,GF. hese isotopes #re usu#lly pro!uce! using #n instrument c#lle! # cyclotron. 1n #!!ition these isotopes h#-e rel#ti-ely short h#l% li-es. "C sc#nning there%ore nee!s # cyclotron #n! #ssoci#te! r#!ioph#rm#ceutic#l pro!uction %#cilities loc#te! close by. We /ill be consi!ering cyclotrons in the next #n! %in#l ch#pter o% this /ikibook. 3 number o% photogr#phs o% # "C sc#nner #re sho/n belo/5
he !etectors #n! #ssoci#te! electronic
he sc#nner itsel% - the
3nother -ie/ o% the he im#ge processing !etectors. computer.
.. M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
'ucle#r 7e!icine 1m#ging .ystems circuitry. !etectors #re un!er the co-ering p#nel.
External Lin s
Centre %or "ositron Cmission omogr#phy #t the 3ustin D Aep#tri#tion 7e!ic#l Centre, 7elbourne /ith sections on /h#t "C is, current %#cilities, pro<ects D rese#rch #n! # "C im#ge libr#ry. =nline *e#rning ools - #n #!-#nce! tre#tment %rom the )ep#rtment o% A#!iology, 2righ#m #n! WomenSs 9ospit#l, (.3 cont#ining nucle#r me!icine te#ching %iles, #n #tl#s o% myoc#r!i#l per%usion ."CC , #n #tl#s o% br#in per%usion ."CC #n! the physic#l ch#r#cteristics o% nucle#r me!icine im#ges. he "o/er o% 7olecul#r 1m#ging - # brochure #ll #bout "ositron Cmission omogr#phy K"C L %rom the )ep#rtment o% 7olecul#r D 7e!ic#l "h#rm#cology, (ni-ersity o% C#li%orni# *3, (.3.

C93"
CA
0H R '(C*C3A 7C)1C1'C 173&1'& .;.
C7.
Wikibooks M .0
Ch#pter ,0
C HAPTER 11 P RO3UCTION
O/
R A3IOISOTOPES
li-e -ersion !iscussion Introduction e!it lesson 7ost o% the r#!ioisotopes %oun! in n#ture h#-e rel#ti-ely long h#l% li-es. hey #lso comment belong to elements /hich #re not h#n!le! /ell by the hum#n bo!y. 3s # result report #n error me!ic#l #pplic#tions gener#lly reJuire the use o% r#!ioisotopes /hich #re pro!uce! #sk # Juestion #rti%ici#lly. We h#-e looke! #t the sub<ect o% r#!io#cti-ity in e#rlier ch#pters o% this /ikibook #n! h#-e then progresse! to co-er the inter#ction o% r#!i#tion /ith m#tter, r#!i#tion !etectors #n! im#ging systems. We return to sources o% r#!io#cti-ity in this ch#pter in or!er to le#rn #bout metho!s /hich #re use! to m#ke r#!ioisotopes. he type o% r#!ioisotope o% -#lue to nucle#r me!icine im#ging shoul! h#-e ch#r#cteristics /hich keep the r#!i#tion !ose to the p#tient #s lo/ #s possible. For this re#son they gener#lly h#-e # short h#l% li%e #n! emit only g#mm#-r#ys - th#t is no #lph#-p#rticle or bet#-p#rticle emissions. From #n energy point o% -ie/ the g#mm#-r#y energy shoul! not be so lo/ th#t the r#!i#tion gets completely #bsorbe! be%ore emerging %rom the p#tientSs bo!y #n! not too high th#t it is !i%%icult to !etect. For this re#son most o% the r#!ioisotopes use! emit g#mm#-r#ys o% me!ium energy, th#t is bet/een #bout ,00 #n! 200 ke+. Fin#lly since the r#!ioisotope nee!s to be incorpor#te! into some %orm o% r#!ioph#rm#ceutic#l it shoul! #lso be c#p#ble o% being pro!uce! in # %orm /hich is #men#ble to chemic#l, ph#rm#ceutic#l #n! sterile processing. he pro!uction metho!s /e /ill consi!er #re nucle#r %ission, nucle#r bomb#r!ment #n! the r#!ioisotope gener#tor.
Nuclear Fission
We /ere intro!uce! to spont#neous %ission in ch#pter 2 /here /e s#/ th#t # he#-y nucleus c#n bre#k into # number o% %r#gments. his !isintegr#tion process c#n be in!uce! to occur /hen cert#in he#-y nuclei #bsorb neutrons. Follo/ing #bsorption o% # neutron such nuclei bre#k into sm#ller %r#gments /ith #tomic numbers bet/een #bout B0 #n! 6E. .ome o% these ne/ nuclei #re o% -#lue to nucle#r me!icine #n! c#n be sep#r#te! %rom other %ission %r#gments using chemic#l processes. he %ission process is controlle! insi!e # !e-ice c#lle! # nucle#r re#ctor. =ne such re#ctor exists in 3ustr#li# #t *uc#s 9eights in 'e/ .outh W#les #n! m#ny others exist throughout the /orl!.
Nuclear Bo!'ard!ent
1n this metho! o% r#!ioisotope pro!uction ch#rge! p#rticles #re #cceler#te! up to -ery high energies #n! c#use! to colli!e into # t#rget m#teri#l. Cx#mples o% such ch#rge! p#rticles #re protons, #lph# p#rticles #n! !euterons. 'e/ nuclei c#n be %orme! /hen these p#rticles colli!e /ith nuclei in the t#rget m#teri#l. .ome o% these nuclei #re o% -#lue to nucle#r me!icine.
"ro!uction o% A#!ioisotopes 3n ex#mple o% this metho! is the pro!uction o% !euterons, th#t is

22'#
/here # t#rget o%
247g
is bomb#r!e! /ith
3 !euteron you /ill remember %rom ch#pter , is the secon! most common isotope o% hy!rogen, th#t is 29. When it colli!es /ith # 247g nucleus # 22'# nucleus plus #n #lph# p#rticle is pro!uce!. he t#rget is expose! to the !euterons %or # perio! o% time #n! is subseJuently processe! chemic#lly in or!er to sep#r#te out the 22'# nuclei. he type o% !e-ice commonly use! %or this metho! o% r#!ioisotope pro!uction is c#lle! # cyclotron. 1t consists o% #n ion gun %or pro!ucing the ch#rge! p#rticles, electro!es %or #cceler#ting them to high energies #n! # m#gnet %or steering them to/#r!s the t#rget m#teri#l. 3ll #rr#nge! in # circul#r structure.
Radioisoto)e +enerator
his metho! is /i!ely use! to pro!uce cert#in short-li-e! r#!ioisotopes in # hospit#l or clinic. 1t in-ol-es obt#ining # rel#ti-ely long-li-e! r#!ioisotope /hich !ec#ys into the short-li-e! isotope o% interest. 3 goo! ex#mple is HHm c /hich #s /e h#-e note! be%ore is the most /i!ely use! r#!ioisotope in nucle#r me!icine to!#y. his isotope h#s # h#l%-li%e o% six hours /hich is r#ther short i% /e /ish to h#-e it !eli-ere! !irectly %rom # nucle#r %#cility. 1nste#! the nucle#r %#cility supplies the isotope HH7o /hich !ec#ys into HHm c /ith # h#l% li%e o% #bout 2.FE !#ys. he HH7o is c#lle! the #" ent isotope #n! HHm c is c#lle! the '"u(%te isotope. .o the nucle#r %#cility pro!uces the p#rent isotope /hich !ec#ys rel#ti-ely slo/ly into the !#ughter isotope #n! the !#ughter is sep#r#te! chemic#lly %rom the p#rent #t the hospit#l$clinic. he chemic#l sep#r#tion !e-ice is c#lle!, in this ex#mple, # 00mTc 7ene "to 5
Wikibooks M 01
Ch#pter ,0
1t consists o% # cer#mic column /ith HH7o #!sorbe! onto its top sur%#ce. 3 solution c#lle! #n eluent is p#sse! through the column, re#cts chemic#lly /ith #ny HHm c #n! emerges in # chemic#l %orm /hich is suit#ble %or combining /ith # ph#rm#ceutic#l to pro!uce # r#!ioph#rm#ceutic#l. he #rr#ngement sho/n in the %igure #bo-e is c#lle! # Positi*e P essu e system /here the eluent is %orce! through the cer#mic column by # pressure, slightly #bo-e #tmospheric pressure, in the eluent -i#l. he cer#mic column #n! collection -i#ls nee! to be surroun!e! by le#! shiel!ing %or r#!i#tion protection purposes. 1n #!!ition #ll components #re pro!uce! #n! nee! to be m#int#ine! in # sterile con!ition since the collecte! solution /ill be #!ministere! to p#tients. Fin#lly #n 1sotope C#libr#tor is nee!e! /hen # HHm c &ener#tor is use! to !etermine the r#!io#cti-ity %or prep#r#tion o% p#tient !oses #n! to check /hether #ny HH7o is present in the collecte! solution. 3 number o% photogr#phs t#ken in nucle#r me!icine hot l#bs #re sho/n belo/5
"ro!uction o% A#!ioisotopes
Fi-e HHm- c gener#tors. "b shiel!ing surroun!ing the l#min#r %lo/ c#binet, /here r#!ioph#rm#ceutic#ls #re prep#re!.
3nother -ie/ o% the "b shiel!ing surroun!ing # l#min#r %lo/ c#binet.
External Lin s
Cyclotron 8#-# 3pplet - # 8#-#-b#se! inter#cti-e !emostr#tion o% the oper#tion o% # cyclotron %rom &Fu-6/un 9/#ng, )ept. o% "hysics, '#tion#l #i/#n 'orm#l (ni-ersity, +irtu#l "hysics *#bor#tory. 'ucle#r "o/er "l#nt )emonstr#tion - # 8#-#-b#se! inter#cti-e !emonstr#tion o% controlling # nucle#r re#ctor. 3lso cont#ins nucle#r po/er in%orm#tion links. 3'. =Ss 91F3A Ae#ctor - !et#ils #bout the nucle#r re#ctor #t *uc#s 9eights, '.W. 7e!ic#l +#lley - cont#ins in%orm#tion on /h#t nucle#r me!icine is, pro!uction o% nucle#r ph#rm#ceutic#ls, molyb!enum #n! technetium - %rom he 'etherl#n!s Cnergy Aese#rch Foun!#tion "etten.

C93"
CA
,0 R "A=)(C
1=' =F
A3)1=1.=
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Wikibooks M 0;
Ch#pter ,,
C HAPTER 11 C HAPTER R E4IEW

Re(ie, o$ Ato!ic 0 Nuclear Structure

he #tom consists o% t/o components - # nucleus Kpositi-ely ch#rge!L #n! #n electron clou! Kneg#ti-ely ch#rge!L0 he r#!ius o% the nucleus is #bout ,0,000 times sm#ller th#n th#t o% the #tom0 he nucleus c#n h#-e t/o component p#rticles - neut ons Kno ch#rgeL #n! # otons Kpositi-ely ch#rge!L - collecti-ely c#lle! nucleons0
he m#ss o% # proton is #bout eJu#l to th#t o% # neutron - #n! is #bout ,,G40 times th#t o% #n electron0 he number o% protons eJu#ls the number o% electrons in #n isol#te! #tom0 he Atomic Numbe speci%ies the number o% protons in # nucleus0 he M"ss Numbe speci%ies the number o% nucleons in # nucleus0 Isoto#es o% elements h#-e the s#me #tomic number but !i%%erent m#ss numbers0 1sotopes #re cl#ssi%ie! by speci%ying the elementSs chemic#l symbol prece!e! by # superscript gi-ing the m#ss number #n! # subscript gi-ing the #tomic number0 he "tomic m"ss unit is !e%ine! #s ,$,2th the m#ss o% the st#ble, most commonly occurring isotope o% c#rbon Ki.e. C-,2L0 -in'in( ene (& is the energy /hich hol!s the nucleons together in # nucleus #n! is me#sure! in elect on *olts Ke+L0 o comb#t the e%%ect o% the incre#se in electrost#tic repulsion #s the number o% protons incre#ses, the number o% neutrons incre#ses more r#pi!ly - gi-ing rise to the Nucle" St"bilit& Cu *e0 here #re _24E0 isotopes o% _,00 elements #n! the unst#ble isotopes lie #bo-e or belo/ the 'ucle#r .t#bility Cur-e0 (nst#ble isotopes #ttempt to re#ch the st#bility cur-e by splitting into %r#gments K6issionL or by emitting p#rticles$energy K "'io"cti*it&L0 (nst#ble isotopes `Na r#!io#cti-e isotopes `Na r#!ioisotopes `Na r#!ionucli!es0 _B00 o% the _24E0 isotopes #re %oun! in n#ture - the rest #re pro!uce! #rti%ici#lly.
Re(ie, o$ Radioacti(e Deca&

/ission5 .ome he#-y nuclei !ec#y by splitting into 2 or B %r#gments plus some neutrons. hese %r#gments %orm ne/ nuclei /hich #re usu#lly r#!io#cti-e0 Al#%" 3ec"&5 /o protons #n! t/o neutrons le#-e the nucleus together in #n #ssembly kno/n #s #n "l#%"8#" ticle0 3n #lph#-p#rticle is # 9e-4 nucleus0 -et" 3ec"& 8 Elect on Emission5 Cert#in nuclei /ith #n excess o% neutrons m#y re#ch st#bility by con-erting # neutron into # proton /ith the emission o% # bet"8minus #" ticle0 3 bet#-minus p#rticle is #n electron0 -et" 3ec"& 8 Posit on Emission5 When the number o% protons in # nucleus is in excess, the nucleus m#y re#ch st#bility by con-erting # proton into # neutron /ith the emission o% # bet"8#lus #" ticle0
Ch#pter Ae-ie/ 3 bet#-plus p#rticle is # #osit on0 "ositrons "nni%il"te /ith electrons to pro!uce t/o b#ck-to-b#ck g#mm#-r#ys0 -et" 3ec"& 8 Elect on C"#tu e5 3n inner orbit#l electron is #ttr#cte! into the nucleus /here it combines /ith # proton to %orm # neutron0 Clectron c#pture is #lso kno/n #s =8c"#tu e0 Follo/ing electron c#pture, the excite! nucleus m#y gi-e o%% some g#mm#-r#ys. 1n #!!ition, #s the -#c#nt electron site is %ille!, #n >-r#y is emitte!0 7"mm" 3ec"& 8 Isome ic T "nsition5 3 nucleus in #n excite! st#te m#y re#ch its groun! st#te by the emission o% # g#mm#-r#y0 3 g#mm#-r#y is #n electrom#gnetic photon o% high energy0 7"mm" 3ec"& 8 Inte n"l Con*e sion5 the excit#tion energy o% #n excite! nucleus is gi-en to #n #tomic electron.

Re(ie, o$ t#e Radioacti(e Deca& La,

he r#!io#cti-e !ec#y l#/ in eJu#tion %orm0 A#!io#cti-ity is the number o% r#!io#cti-e !ec#ys per unit time0 he 'ec"& const"nt is !e%ine! #s the %r#ction o% the initi#l number o% r#!io#cti-e nuclei /hich !ec#y in unit time0 H"l6 Li6e5 he time t#ken %or the number o% r#!io#cti-e nuclei in the s#mple to re!uce by # %#ctor o% t/o0 9#l% *i%e N K0.6HBL$K)ec#y Const#ntL0 he .1 (nit o% r#!io#cti-ity is the bec<ue el K2JL , 2J N one r#!io#cti-e !ec#y per secon!0 he tr#!ition#l unit o% r#!io#cti-ity is the cu ie KCiL0 , Ci N B.F x ,0,0 r#!io#cti-e !ec#ys per secon!.

Re(ie, o$ Units o$ Radiation Measure!ent

E?#osu e expresses the intensity o% #n >- or g#mm#-r#y be#m0 he .1 unit o% exposure is the coulomb #e kilo( "m KC$kgL0 , C$kg N he Ju#ntity o% >- or g#mm#-r#ys such th#t the #ssoci#te! electrons emitte! per kg o% #ir #t . " pro!uce in #ir ions c#rrying , coulomb o% electric ch#rge0 he tr#!ition#l unit o% exposure is the oent(en KAL0 , A N he Ju#ntity o% >- or g#mm#-r#ys such th#t the #ssoci#te! electrons emitte! per kg o% #ir #t . " pro!uce in #ir ions c#rrying 2.EG x ,0-4 coulombs o% electric ch#rge0 he e?#osu e "te is the exposure per unit time, e.g. C$kg$s0 Abso be' 'ose is the r#!i#tion energy #bsorbe! per unit m#ss o% #bsorbing m#teri#l0 he .1 unit o% #bsorbe! !ose is the ( "& K&yL0 , &y N he #bsorption o% , <oule o% r#!i#tion energy per kilogr#m o% m#teri#l0 he tr#!ition#l unit o% #bsorbe! !ose is the "'0 , r#! N he #bsorption o% ,0-2 <oules o% r#!i#tion energy per kilogr#m o% m#teri#l0 he S#eci6ic 7"mm"8R"& Const"nt expresses the exposure r#te pro!uce! by the g#mm#r#ys %rom # r#!ioisotope0 he .peci%ic &#mm#-A#y Const#nt is expresse! in .1 units in C$kg$s$2J #t , m0 Cxposure %rom #n >- or g#mm#-r#y source %ollo/s the In*e se S<u" e L"+ #n! !ecre#ses

Wikibooks M 0$
Ch#pter ,, /ith the sJu#re o% the !ist#nce %rom the source.
Re(ie, o$ t#e Interaction o$ Radiation ,it# Matter
Al#%"8P" ticles5 exert consi!er#ble electrost#tic #ttr#ction on the outer orbit#l electrons o% #toms ne#r /hich they p#ss #n! c#use ionis#tions0 tr#-el in str#ight lines - except %or r#re !irect collisions /ith nuclei o% #toms in their p#th0 energy is #l/#ys !iscrete. -et"8Minus P" ticles5 #ttr#cte! by nuclei #n! repelle! by electron clou!s #s they p#ss through m#tter #n! c#use ionis#tions0 h#-e # tortuous p#th0 h#-e # r#nge o% energies0 r#nge o% energies results bec#use t/o p#rticles #re emitte! - # bet#-p#rticle #n! # neut ino. 7"mm"8R"&s5 energy is #l/#ys !iscrete0 h#-e m#ny mo!es o% inter#ction /ith m#tter0 import#nt inter#ctions %or nucle#r me!icine im#ging K#n! r#!iogr#phyL #re the "hotoelectric C%%ect #n! the Compton C%%ect. P%otoelect ic E66ect5 /hen # g#mm#-r#y colli!es /ith #n orbit#l electron, it m#y tr#ns%er #ll its energy to the electron #n! ce#se to exist0 the electron c#n le#-e the #tom /ith # kinetic energy eJu#l to the energy o% the g#mm#-r#y less the orbit#l bin!ing energy0 # positi-e ion is %orme! /hen the electron le#-es the #tom0 the electron is c#lle! # #%otoelect on0 the photoelectron c#n c#use %urther ionis#tions0 subseJuent >-r#y emission #s the orbit#l -#c#ncy is %ille!. Com#ton E66ect5 3 g#mm#-r#y m#y tr#ns%er only p#rt o% its energy to # -#lence electron /hich is essenti#lly %ree0 bb gi-es rise to # sc#ttere! g#mm#-r#y0 is sometimes c#lle! Compton .c#tter0 # positi-e ion results0 Attenu"tion is term use! to !escribe both #bsorption #n! sc#ttering o% r#!i#tion.
Re(ie, o$ Attenuation o$ +a!!a-Ra&s

3ttenu#tion o% # n#rro/-be#m o% g#mm#-r#ys incre#ses #s the thickness, the !ensity #n! the #tomic number o% the #bsorber incre#ses0 3ttenu#tion o% # n#rro/-be#m o% g#mm#-r#ys !ecre#ses #s the energy o% the g#mm#-r#ys incre#ses0 3ttenu#tion o% # n#rro/ be#m is !escribe! by #n eJu#tion0 the Line" Attenu"tion Coe66icient is !e%ine! #s the %r#ction o% the inci!ent intensity
0) M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine
Ch#pter Ae-ie/ #bsorbe! in # unit !ist#nce o% the #bsorber0 *ine#r #ttenu#tion coe%%icients #re usu#lly expresse! in units o% cm-,0 the H"l6 4"lue L"&e is the thickness o% #bsorber reJuire! to re!uce the intensity o% # r#!i#tion be#m by # %#ctor o% 20 9#l% +#lue *#yer N K0.6HBL$K*ine#r 3ttenu#tion Coe%%icientL0 the M"ss Attenu"tion Coe66icient is gi-en by the line#r #ttenu#tion coe%%icient !i-i!e! by the !ensity o% the #bsorber0 7#ss #ttenu#tion coe%%icients #re usu#lly expresse! in units o% cm2 g-,.
Re(ie, o$ +as-Filled Detectors

&#s-%ille! !etectors inclu!e the ionis"tion c%"mbe , the # o#o tion"l counte #n! the 7ei(e counte 0 hey oper#te on the b#sis o% ionis#tion o% g#s #toms by the inci!ent r#!i#tion, /here the positi-e ions #n! electrons pro!uce! #re collecte! by electro!es0 3n ion #"i is the term use! to !escribe # positi-e ion #n! #n electron0 he oper#tion o% g#s-%ille! !etectors is critic#lly !epen!ent on the m#gnitu!e o% the #pplie! !c -olt#ge0 he output -olt#ge o% #n ionis#tion ch#mber c#n be c#lcul#te! on the b#sis o% the c#p#cit#nce o% the ch#mber0 3 -ery sensiti-e #mpli%ier is reJuire! to me#sure -olt#ge pulses pro!uce! by #n ionis#tion ch#mber0 he g#s in ionis#tion ch#mbers is usu#lly #ir0 1onis#tion ch#mbers #re typic#lly use! to me#sure r#!i#tion exposure Kin # !e-ice c#lle! #n E?#osu e Mete L #n! r#!io#cti-ity Kin # !e-ice c#lle! #n Isoto#e C"lib "to L0 he tot#l ch#rge collecte! in # proportion#l counter m#y be up to ,000 times the ch#rge pro!uce! initi#lly by the r#!i#tion0 he initi#l ionis#tion triggers # complete g#s bre#k!o/n in # &eiger counter0 he g#s in # &eiger counter is usu#lly #n inert g#s0 he g#s bre#k!o/n must be stoppe! in or!er to prep#re the &eiger counter %or # ne/ e-ent by # process c#lle! <uenc%in(0 /o types o% Juenching #re possible5 electronic Juenching #n! the use o% # <uenc%in( ("s0 &eiger counters su%%er %rom 'e"' time, # sm#ll perio! o% time %ollo/ing the g#s bre#k!o/n /hen the counter is inoper#ti-e0 he true count r#te c#n be !etermine! %rom the #ctu#l count r#te #n! the !e#! time using #n eJu#tion0 he -#lue o% the #pplie! !c -olt#ge in # &eiger counter is critic#l, but high st#bility is not reJuire!.
Re(ie, o$ Scintillation Detectors

'#1K lL is # scintill#tion cryst#l /i!ely use! in nucle#r me!icine0 he cryst#l is couple! to # #%otomulti#lie tube to gener#te # -olt#ge pulse representing the energy !eposite! in the cryst#l by the r#!i#tion0 3 -ery sensiti-e #mpli%ier is nee!e! to me#sure such -olt#ge pulses0 he -olt#ges pulses r#nge in #mplitu!e !epen!ing on ho/ the r#!i#tion inter#cts /ith the

Wikibooks M 0,
Ch#pter ,, cryst#l, i.e. the pulses %orm # spectrum /hose sh#pe !epen!s on the inter#ction mech#nisms in-ol-e!, e.g. %or me!ium-energy g#mm#-r#ys use! in in--i-o nucle#r me!icine5 the Compton e%%ect #n! the "hotoelectric e%%ect0 3 7"mm"8R"& Ene (& S#ect um %or # me!ium-energy, monoenergetic g#mm#-r#y emitter consists KsimplyL o% # Compton .me#r #n! # "hotope#k0 Pulse Hei(%t An"l&sis is use! to !iscrimin#te the #mplitu!e o% -olt#ge pulses0 3 pulse height #n#lyser K"93L consists o% # lo+e le*el 'isc imin"to K/hich p#sses -olt#ge pulses /hich #re th#n its settingL #n! #n u##e le*el 'isc imin"to K/hich p#sses -olt#ge pulses lo/er th#n its settingL0 he result is # -#ri#ble /i!th /in!o/ /hich c#n be pl#ce! #ny/here #long # spectrum, or use! to sc#n # spectrum0 3 sin(le c%"nnel "n"l&se K.C3L consists o% # single "93 /ith # sc#ler #n! # r#temeter0 3 multi8c%"nnel "n"l&se K7C3L is # computer-controlle! !e-ice /hich c#n #cJuire !#t# %rom m#ny /in!o/s simult#neously.
Re(ie, o$ Nuclear Medicine I!a%in% S&ste!s

3 ("mm" c"me " consists o% # l#rge !i#meter K2E-40 cmL '#1K lL cryst#l, _, cm thick0 he cryst#l is -ie/e! by #n #rr#y o% BF-H, "7 tubes0 "7 tubes sign#ls #re processe! by # position circuit /hich gener#tes T$- > #n! T$- ; sign#ls0 hese position sign#ls #re summe! to %orm # ! si(n"l /hich is %e! to # pulse height #n#lyser0 he T$- >, T$- ; #n! !iscrimin#te! I sign#ls #re sent to # computer %or !igit#l im#ge processing0 3 collim"to is use! to impro-e the sp#ti#l resolution o% # g#mm#-c#mer#0 Collim#tors typic#lly consist o% # "b pl#te cont#ining # l#rge number o% sm#ll holes0 he most common type is # #" "llel multi-hole collim#tor0 he most resol-#ble #re# is !irectly in %ront o% # collim#tor0 "#r#llel-hole collim#tors -#ry in terms o% the number o% holes, the hole !i#meter, the length o% e#ch hole #n! the septum thickness - the combin#tion o% /hich #%%ect the sensiti-ity #n! sp#ti#l resolution o% the im#ging system0 =ther types inclu!e the 'i*e (in(-hole collim#tor K/hich gener#tes mini%ie! im#gesL, the con*e (in(-hole collim#tor K/hich gener#tes m#gni%ie! im#gesL #n! the #in8%ole collim#tor K/hich gener#tes m#gni%ie! in-erte! im#gesL0 Con-ention#l im#ging /ith # g#mm# c#mer# is re%erre! to #s Pl"n" Im"(in(, i.e. # 2) im#ge portr#ying # B) ob<ect gi-ing superimpose! !et#ils #n! no !epth in%orm#tion0 Sin(le P%oton Emission Com#ute' Tomo( "#%& K."CC L pro!uces im#ges o% slices through the bo!y0 ."CC uses # g#mm# c#mer# to recor! im#ges #t # series o% #ngles #roun! the p#tient0 he result#nt !#t# c#n be processe! using /ilte e' -"ck P oCection #n! Ite "ti*e Reconst uction0 ."CC g#mm#-c#mer#s c#n h#-e one, t/o or three c#mer# he#!s0 Posit on Emission Tomo( "#%& K"C L #lso pro!uces im#ges o% slices through the bo!y0 "C exploits the positron #nnihil#tion process /here t/o 0.E, 7e+ b#ck-to-b#ck g#mm#r#ys #re pro!uce!0 1% these g#mm#-r#ys #re !etecte!, their origin /ill lie on # line <oining t/o o% the !etectors o% the ring o% !etectors /hich encircles the p#tient0

Ch#pter Ae-ie/ 3 Time8o68/li(%t metho! c#n be use! to loc#lise their origin0 "C systems reJuire on-site or ne#rby c&clot on to pro!uce short-li-e! r#!ioisotopes, such #s C-,,, '-,B, =-,E #n! F-,G.

Re(ie, o$ t#e Production o$ Radioisoto)es

'#tur#lly-occurring r#!ioisotopes gener#lly h#-e long h#l% li-es #n! belong to rel#ti-ely he#-y elements - #n! #re there%ore unsuit#ble %or me!ic#l !i#gnostic #pplic#tions0 7e!ic#l !i#gnostic r#!ioisotopes #re gener#lly pro!uce! #rti%ici#lly0 he 6ission process c#n be exploite! so th#t r#!ioisotopes o% interest c#n be sep#r#te! chemic#lly %rom %ission pro!ucts0 3 c&clot on c#n be use! to #cceler#te ch#rge! p#rticles up to high energies so th#t they to colli!e into # t#rget o% the m#teri#l to be #cti-#te!0 3 r#!ioisotope gener#tor is gener#lly use! in hospit#ls to pro!uce short-li-e! r#!ioisotopes0 3 tec%netium800m (ene "to consists o% #n #lumin# column cont#ining 7o-HH, /hich !ec#ys into c-HHm0 .#line is p#sse! through the gener#tor to elute the c-HHm - the resulting solution is c#lle! so'ium #e tec%net"te0 2oth positi-e pressure #n! neg#ti-e pressure gener#tors #re in use0 3n isoto#e c"lib "to is nee!e! /hen # c-HHm gener#tor is use! in or!er to !etermine the #cti-ity %or prep#r#tion o% p#tient !oses #n! to test /hether #ny 7o-HH is present in the collecte! solution.
Exercise *uestions
,. )iscuss the process o% r#!io#cti-e !ec#y %rom the perspecti-e o% the nucle#r st#bility cur-e. 2. )escribe in !et#il F=(A common %orms o% r#!io#cti-e !ec#y. B. &i-e the eJu#tion /hich expresses the A#!io#cti-e )ec#y *#/, #n! expl#in the me#ning o% e#ch o% its terms. 4. )e%ine e#ch o% the %ollo/ing5 9#l% li%e )ec#y Const#nt 2ecJuerel. E. 3 s#mple o% r#!io#cti-e subst#nce is %oun! to h#-e #n #cti-ity o% ,00 k2J. 1ts r#!io#cti-ity is me#sure! #g#in G2 !#ys l#ter #n! is %oun! to be ,E k2J. C#lcul#te5 the h#l%-li%e0 the !ec#y const#nt. 6. )e%ine e#ch o% the %ollo/ing r#!i#tion units5 Aoentgen0 2ecJuerel0 &r#y0 .ei-ert. F. Cstim#te the exposure r#te #t , metre %rom # ,00 72J source o% r#!io#cti-ity /hich h#s # .peci%ic &#mm# A#y Const#nt o% E0 mA per hour per 72J #t , cm. G. 2rie%ly !escribe the b#sic principle o% oper#tion o% g#s-%ille! r#!i#tion !etectors. H. 1llustr#te using # gr#ph ho/ the m#gnitu!e o% the -olt#ge pulses %rom # g#s-%ille! r#!i#tion Wikibooks M 00
Ch#pter ,, !etector -#ries /ith #pplie! -olt#ge #n! i!enti%y on the gr#ph the regions #ssoci#te! /ith the oper#tion o% 1onis#tion Ch#mbers #n! the &eiger Counters. ,0.)escribe the construction #n! principles o% oper#tion o% # scintill#tion spectrometer. ,,.)iscuss the components o% the energy spectrum %rom # monoenergetic, me!ium energy g#mm#- emitting r#!ioisotope obt#ine! using # scintill#tion spectrometer on the b#sis o% ho/ the g#mm#-r#ys inter#ct /ith the scintill#tion cryst#l. ,2.)escribe the construction #n! principles o% oper#tion o% # &#mm# C#mer#. ,B.Comp#re %e#tures o% three types o% collim#tor /hich c#n be use! /ith # &#mm# C#mer#.

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C HAPTER 12 H ISTOR5 & 3 OCUMENT N OTES

1i i'oo Histor&
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PDF In$or!ation 0 Histor&

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"#ges5 ,0H "#r#gr#phs5 ,240 Wor!s5 B0GH0 Ch#r#cters5 ,G,F40
Wikibooks M 111
Ch#pter ,B
C HAPTER 1; A UTHORS F - I-LIO7RAPH5 F & I MA7E C RE3ITS

Princi)al Aut#ors
6ier#n 7#her KContributionsL
All Aut#ors
6ier#n7#her, 3nonymous, he )oc, "#ul *ynch, )erbeth, 8guk, 9#gin!#:, ;es, Willy on Wheels bought # 7#cbook, en<oy Willy =. >?, Wereon
Bi'lio%ra)#&
2#sic .cience o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine, 2n! C!., A" "#rker, "9. .mith, )9 #ylor KChurchill *i-ingstone, ,HG4L 1ntro!uction to 'ucle#r "hysics, 9 Cnge K3!!ison-Wesley, ,H66L "hysics in 'ucle#r 7e!icine, 83 .orenson #n! 7C "helps K&rune D .tr#tton, ,HG0L A#!ioisotope echniJues in Clinic#l Aese#rch #n! )i#gnosis, ' +e#ll #n! 9 +etter K2utter/orths, ,HEGL A#!ionucli!e echniJues in 7e!icine, 87 7c3lister KC#mbri!ge (ni-ersity "ress, ,HFHL.
I!a%e Credits
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Basic Physics of Nuclear Medicine

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Basic Physics of Nuclear Medicine

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BASIC PHYSICS OF NUCLEAR MEDICINE

By Kieran Maher and other Wikibooks contributors.

C HAPTER 1 A TOMIC & N UCLEAR S TRUCTURE

he thir! isotope commonly c#lle! t itium is i!enti%ie! #s5

Ato!ic Mass Unit

. M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine

3tomic D 'ucle#r .tructure

Multi)le C#oice *uestions

11 M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine

C HAPTER 2 R A3IOACTI4E 3 ECA5

Met#ods o$ Radioacti(e Deca&

9": Elect on Emission

9b: Posit on Emission

9c: Elect on C"#tu e

1) M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine

9": Isome ic T "nsition

9b: Inte n"l Con*e sion

1. M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine

Multi)le C#oice *uestions

C HAPTER ; T HE R A3IOACTI4E 3 ECA5 L AW

"#e Radioacti(e Deca& La,

22 M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine

he A#!io#cti-e )ec#y *#/

he A#!io#cti-e )ec#y *#/

Relations#i) 'et,een t#e Deca& Constant and t#e Hal$ Li$e

#n! the !e%inition o% 9#l% *i%e tells us th#t5

he A#!io#cti-e )ec#y *#/

'o/ #pplying the A#!io#cti-e )ec#y *#/,

he A#!io#cti-e )ec#y *#/

/hich /e nee! to sol-e %or t. =ne /#y o% !oing this is #s %ollo/s5

;1 M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine

he A#!io#cti-e )ec#y *#/

Fin#lly the m#ss o% these nuclei c#n be c#lcul#te! #s %ollo/s5

Multi)le C#oice *uestions

C HAPTER 4 U NITS O/ R A3IATION M EASUREMENT

A "&)ical Radiation Situation

"#e Radiation Source

"#e Radiation Bea!

S)eci$ic +a!!a Ra& Constant

"#e In(erse S.uare La,

Multi)le C#oice *uestions

;) M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine

1nter#ction o% A#!i#tion /ith 7#tter

C HAPTER $ I NTERACTION O/ R A3IATION M ATTER

;. M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine

1nter#ction o% A#!i#tion /ith 7#tter

7Wssb#uer C%%ect Coherent .c#ttering "#ir "ro!uction Wikibooks M ;0

Click HERE %or #n #nim#te! -ersion o% this gr#phic.

Multi)le C#oice *uestions

E$$ect o$ Ato!ic Nu!'er

44 M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine

E$$ect o$ "#ic ness

E$$ect o$ +a!!a-Ra& Ener%&

Hal$ /alue La&er

the thickness o% #bsorber is the 9#l% +#lue *#yer5

4. M 2#sic "hysics o% 'ucle#r 7e!icine

3ttenu#tion o% &#mm#-A#ys Aluminiu m I on Co##e Le"'

,.EH 0.26 0.,G 0.0,2

2.,4 0.64 0.EB 0.06G

B.0E ,.06 0.HE 0.42

#n! inserting it in the exponenti#l #ttenu#tion eJu#tion, th#t is5

Mass Attenuation Coe$$icient

'o/ combining #ll this /ith the exponenti#l #ttenu#tion eJu#tion5

mA hr-, 2J-, #t , m %rom the source,