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| |
=
|
\ .
(1)
Donde R, es el dimetro de la bola de papel; n. representa el nmero de direcciones en
que se midi el dimetro de las bolas de manera aleatoria
, representa el dimetro
promedio de la muestra.
(2)
Donde
s
o
es la desviacin estndar.
Como se describi anteriormente la dimensin fractal Dm, se obtendr de un anlisis
estadstico de los dimetros con las masas de los diferentes tamaos de papel, obtenidas
en el laboratorio y descritas, para estos experimentos.
M
D
M R o
(3)
Donde
2
M hL =
es la masa de la hoja,
|
(
\ .
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 24
Para poder estimar la dimensin fractal de masa de las probetas se grafic la masa y el
dimetro promedio de cada probeta como se muestra a continuacin en la fig.3 y 4,
posteriormente mediante una regresin lineal se obtuvo la lnea de tendencia que mejor
se ajust a los datos experimentales y esa fue una relacin potencial, la pendiente de la
misma es la dimensin fractal o fraccional de masa de las probetas. Como se mencion
anteriormente la dimensin fractal de las probetas debera estar entre 2 y 3,
efectivamente se corrobor que la dimensin fractal de masa de las esferas esta dentro
del parmetro preestablecido.
Fig. 3 Medidas de los dimetros de las probetas.
Fig.4.- Pesaje de la probeta
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 25
2.6 PRUEBAS DE RELAJACIN
2.6.1 Relajacin en bolas arrugadas aleatoriamente
La carga y el esfuerzo de deformacin en bolas de papel plexoplegables aleatoriamente
bajo una compresin axial se analizar de manera conjunta con datos experimentales y
expresiones matemticas, en la experimentacin se realizaran probetas de la siguiente
forma, como se observa en la fig.5.
Fig.5 bola corrugada (plexoplegable).
2.6.2 Relajacin a esfuerzo constante
Este tipo de ensayo puede ser utilizado para pruebas extensas, es decir para lapsos de
tiempos grandes y se observa que la relajacin es lenta y constante donde vara el
dimetro de la probeta cada determinado tiempo segn el tipo de papel, el ensayo consta
de un peso muerto calibrado colocado encima de la probeta, como se observa en la fig.6.
Fig. 6 Relajacin a esfuerzo constante (carga no vara).
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 26
2.6.3 Relajacin a deformacin constante
En este caso en especfico se mantiene la deformacin constante que se encuentra en un
dispositivo especial, adems se introduce en una cmara cerrada transparente de acrlico
para su visualizacin en donde se puede variar la humedad de forma controlada por que el
material es altamente higroscpico. Este tipo de ensayo es ms delicado por las variables
de humedad y temperatura antes mencionadas, se introduce la probeta en medio de las
platinas, las tuercas sujetan el peso empleado en el ensayo a deformacin constante, la
base antivibratoria nos permite evitar las vibraciones externas y la celda de carga registra
los datos para ser analizados en una PC, ilustrada en la fig.7.
Fig.7 Relajacin a deformacin contante (se puede variar la temperatura).
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 27
3.-DESARROLLO
EXPERIMENTAL
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 28
La geometra de las bolas de papel arrugadas son examinadas, el anlisis resalta algunos
aspectos fsicos, matemticos e intuitivos del problema en este trabajo de investigacin,
se estudia el fenmeno de arrugamiento, para lo cual, se har uso de papel Kraft, Plasil
Lustre y Amrica. Como se tiene conocimiento el papel es un material plexoplegable,
poroso con una estructura anisotrpica con una orientacin asimtrica en la distribucin
de las fibras debido a su proceso de fabricacin.
3.1 Anlisis Esfuerzo - deformacin
Para medir el esfuerzo frente a la deformacin existe una mquina universal de ensayos
(MTS-858-5).
Dichas probetas estn normalizadas, es decir, estn calibradas para que los resultados del
ensayo a traccin se puedan comparar, la probeta es de seccin rectangular longitud
calibrada 100mm de forma recta y el rea se obtiene A=W* espesor del papel. Ilustrada
en la fig.8.
Fig. 8 Mquina de ensayos universales MTS-858 y tamao de cada probeta.
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 29
Se midi el espesor de cada tipo de papel, adems se evalu la densidad y el gramaje para el papel
kraft, plasil lustre amrica.
Tabla. 1 Medidas de espesor, densidad y gramaje.
Tipo
papel
Kraft Plasil Lustre Amrica
Espesor
t (mm)
0.142 0.077 0.096 0.104
D. std 0.01 0.001 0.002 0.01
Densidad
(gr/m)
83 75 78 80
D. std 3 4 2 1
Gramaje
(grs)
82.1 76.2 77.1 79.3
D. std 1.2 1.4 1 1.5
Se examin la porosidad y tamao de fibras en el (MEB) para analizar las fibras, fibrillas
huecos y poros adems de analizar el efecto de la humedad conocido como
higroexpansividad.
Tabla. 2 Porcentajes de porosidad y tamao de fibras.
Tipo papel Porosidad
%
D. std T/P
fibras
micras
D. std
Kraft 43.49% 5.2 37.11 1.68
Plasil 40.58% 4.7 39.45 2.8
Lustre 47.28% 1.7 25.85 5.8
Amrica 45.63% 2.5 37.36 4.6
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 30
3.1.1 Grficas esfuerzo - deformacin.
Fig. 9 Esfuerzo deformacin transversal, longitudinal y mdulo de Young transversal y
longitudinal.
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
E
S
F
U
E
R
Z
O
N
/
m
m
2
DEFORMACIN mm/mm
PAPEL KRAFT
esf def long
esf def trans
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
E
S
F
U
E
R
Z
O
N
/
m
m
2
DEFORMACIN mm/mm
PAPEL PLASIL
esf def long
esf def trans
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02
E
S
F
U
E
R
Z
O
N
/
m
m
2
DEFORMACIN mm/mm
PAPEL LUSTRE
esf-def-long
esf-def-trans
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02
E
S
F
U
E
R
Z
O
N
/
m
m
2
DEFORMACIN mm/mm
PAPEL AMERICA
esf-def-long
esf-def-trans
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 31
Tabla. 3 Muestra los datos de los papeles ensayados ( Kraft, Klasil, Lustre y Amrica).
(propiedades mcanicas).
Propiedades mecnicas
Mdulo de elasticidad
N/mm
Esfuerzo de cedencia
N/mm
Esfuerzo de ruptura N/mm
Tipo de
papel
Long. D.
Std
Trans. D.
Std
Long D.
Std
Tra D.
Std
Long D.
Std
Trans D. Std
Kratf 1790 89 612.9 43 12.6 1.0 6.4 1 26 2.3 11.8 1.3
Plasil 3276 82 880.2 45 24 2 14 1.2 37 2.1 23.6 1.2
Lustre 3188 75 1068 52 30.2 1.1 14 1.1 47.4 2.4 24 1.5
Amrica 3471 88 909 31 28 1.3 12 0.8 46 2.1 20 1.1
Tabla. 4 Datos de Tenacidad y Resilencia.
Tipo de
papel
Resilencia J/mm Tenacidad J/mm
Long D. Std Trans D. Std Long D. Std Trans D. Std
Kraft 0.945 0.04 0.131 0.02 0.670 0.03 0.130 0.02
Plasil 0.21 0.02 0.144 0.02 1.039 0.04 0.432 0.01
Lustre 0.211 0.01 0.14 0.01 0.836 0.02 0.679 0.02
Amrica 0.258 0.02 0.096 0.02 1.071 0.03 0.107 0.01
3.2 Anlisis de microscopa electrnica de barrido en papel.
El propsito de este anlisis es observar las fibras, las microfibras, con humedad
controlada mostradas en la fig. 10, adems del tamao de las mismas as como sus
huecos y poros internos de las fibras para observar y analizar los papeles escogidos en la
investigacin. Adems de examinar cmo afecta la humedad la temperatura y todas las
variables que se puedan observar en este anlisis. En fibras naturales el Microscopio
Electrnico de Barrido se utiliza para examinar:
Detalles superficiales de fibras (con humedad ambiente y humedad alta controlada) fig. 10.
Modificaciones en las formas de las fibras o en detalles superficiales (el crecimiento de la fibra
en alta humedad con respecto a la humedad ambiente) fig. 10 (A, B).
Daado de fibras (se observa que algunas fibras se juntan y otras desaparecen formando fibras
ms juntas) fig. 10.
Construccin de tejidos y microfibrillas (esta parte se logra apreciar en la fig. 10 y 11 donde se
observa que despus de aplicarle humedad alta las fibras cambian de tamao).
Fractografa de fibras expandidas o ensanchadas por la humedad (Higroexpansividad) fig. 10.
Dimensiones de caractersticas de fibras desde diferentes ngulos fig. 11 y 12.
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 32
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 33
3.2.1 Anlisis de Absorcin de agua
La cantidad de agua que puede absorber un papel depender de los tipos de fibras que lo
constituyan (largas o cortas), del proceso de fabricacin y de los ingredientes no fibrosos,
como las cargas y los encolantes. De hecho, el agua puede ser absorbida por el papel, a
nivel fsico, en dos formas: una es por efecto capilar, penetrando entre las fibras y fibrillas,
mientras que la otra se presenta cuando el agua se aloja en los huecos o poros grandes
que existen entre las fibras, saturando todos los espacios disponibles como se observa en
la fig. (A). Cabe aclarar que el papel puede contener humedad entre las fibras y dentro de
ellas y que para regular la absorcin de agua del papel, el tamao de la partcula de agua
es de 0.001 micras que alcanza a penetrar en el poro, fig. 10 (A, B, C,) y fig. 11.
El papel es un material altamente poroso, como se puede ver por su peso especfico bajo,
comparado con el de la celulosa, su principal componente. El peso especfico del papel,
de 0.5 a 0.8 g/cm, es bastante menor que el de la celulosa, de 1.5. La porosidad se puede
definir como la relacin entre el volumen del espacio ocupado por aire en un papel y su
volumen total.
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 34
El contenido de aire, en papeles comunes suele ser del 50% y puede llegar hasta un 70%.
Este aire se encuentra en el papel, en 3 formas: 1) poros reales que son aberturas que
atraviesan la hoja, 2) poros superficiales que slo estn conectados con una de sus
superficies y 3) huecos que contienen aire en el interior de la hoja. Existen estudios en los
que se ha determinado que el volumen de poros reales en un papel comn es solamente
de un 1.6% del total del volumen de aire que contiene, correspondiendo el resto a los
poros superficiales, que no atraviesan la hoja y a huecos en su interior. La porosidad es
una propiedad muy importante; sin embargo, se le determina al papel muy pocas veces y
slo en estudios de laboratorio.
La porosidad de un papel depende de su composicin y de su estructura, por lo tanto,
depende tanto de los materiales empleados como de la forma en que ha sido fabricado.
Entre las operaciones que influyen especialmente se encuentran: refinacin, encolado,
prensado y calandrado. Es evidente que un papel al ser recubierto, reducir
considerablemente su porosidad, debido a que el recubrimiento de la superficie, tapa los
poros y a que sufre una compresin alta.
En la siguiente seccin de esta investigacin consiste en la caracterizacin fractal, que se
presentan en los materiales; ejemplos, rugosidad como investigaciones anteriores de
Alexander Balankin y otros hechas con hojas de papel aluminio. Ilustrada en la fig.13. [41].
Fig. 13.-Ejemplo de papel aluminio arrugado [41].
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 35
3.3 Anlisis de la dimensin fractal de masa
La dimensin fractal de masa se obtuvo para cada tipo de papel y tamao de hoja con el
dimetro y la masa promedio junto con la desviacin estndar.
Tabla 5. Medidas de la probeta para la obtencin de la Dimensin fractal de masa
(papel Kratf).
PROBETAS
(20
P/BOLA)
TAM. DE
HOJA mm
LxL(cuadrada)
DIAM.
PROM
mm
DESV.
STD.
MASA
grs.
DESV. STD.
BOLA 1 100 x 100 31.1305 0.31 0.85106 0.02
BOLA 2 200 x 200 53.6447 0.43 3.44752 0.01
BOLA 3 400 x 400 94.807 1.29 13.8252 0.02
BOLA 4 600 x 600 114.99 2.13 28.6197 0.02
Fig. 14 Obtencin de la dimensin fractal de masa para el papel Kraft.
y = 1E-04x
2.6285
R = 0.9966
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
M
A
S
A
g
r
s
DIMETRO mm
DIMENSION FRACTAL DE MASA DE
PAPEL KRAFT
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 36
Tabla 6. Medidas de la probeta para la obtencin de la Dimensin fractal de masa
(papel Plasil).
PROBETAS
(20 P/BOLA)
TAM. DE HOJA
mm
LxL(cuadrada)
DIAM. PROM
mm
DESV. STD. MASA grs. DESV. STD.
BOLA 1 100 x 100 29.439 0.26 0.63294 0.02
BOLA 2 200 x 200 51.4902 0.38 2.4592 0.02
BOLA 3 400 x 400 93.382 1.21 9.4329 0.01
BOLA 4 600 x 600 111.35 2.001 20.2356 0.01
Fig. 15 Obtencin de la dimensin fractal de masa para el papel Plasil.
Tabla 7. Medidas de la probeta para la obtencin de la Dimensin fractal de masa
(papel Lustre).
PROBETAS
(20 P/BOLA)
TAM. DE HOJA
mm
LxL(cuadrada)
DIAM. PROM
mm
DESV. STD. MASA grs. DESV. STD.
BOLA 1 100 x 100 30.0943 0.28 0.82381 0.03
BOLA 2 200 x 200 52.436 0.36 3.2548 0.02
BOLA 3 400 x 400 92.3916 1.16 12.753 0.01
BOLA 4 600 x 600 113.548 2.23 28.0345 0.03
y = 0.0001x
2.5134
R = 0.9924
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
M
A
S
g
r
s
DIMETROS mm
DIMENSIN FRACTAL DE MASA
PAPEL PLASIL
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 37
Fig. 16 Obtencin de la dimensin fractal de masa para el papel Lustre.
Tabla 8. Medidas de la probeta para la obtencin de la Dimensin fractal de masa
(papel Amrica).
PROBETAS
(20 P/BOLA)
TAM. DE HOJA
mm
LxL(cuadrada)
DIAM. PROM
mm
DESV. STD. MASA grs. DESV. STD.
BOLA 1 100 x 100 31.003 0.32 0.84283 0.02
BOLA 2 200 x 200 52.3429 0.38 3.3392 0.01
BOLA 3 400 x 400 92.843 1.03 12.6359 0.02
BOLA 4 600 x 600 113.7 1.94 27.349 0.02
Fig. 17 Obtencin de la dimensin fractal de masa para el papel Amrica.
y = 0.0001x
2.5918
R = 0.9953
0
10
20
30
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
M
A
S
A
g
r
s
DIMETROS mm
DIMENSIN FRACTAL DE MASA
PAPEL LUSTRE
y = 0.0001x
2.6015
R = 0.9956
0
10
20
30
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
M
A
S
A
g
r
s
DIMETROS mm
DIMENSIN FRACTAL DE MASA
PAPEL AMRICA
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 38
Tabla. 9 Dimensin fractal de masa de los diferentes papeles
TIPO DE PAPEL DIMENSIN FRACTAL DE
MASA PROMEDIO
DESV. STD.
KRAFT 2.6285 0.02
PLASIL 2.5134 0.05
LUSTRE 2.5918 0.22
AMRICA 2.6015 0.04
3.3.1 Teora de partculas de Edwards
El propsito de la teora de Edwards puede ser descrito de la forma siguiente, llevando
una configuracin segura alcanzada dinmicamente, las fsicas observables son obtenidas
de un promedio, bajo la distribucin de equilibrio usual correspondientes al volumen,
energa, etc. Pero restringiendo el clculo de la configuracin entrelazada o definida como
estado inherente como la configuracin establecida en el panorama de la energa
potencial. La fuerte hiptesis ergdica de toda la configuracin de la red entrelazada de
un volumen dado puede ser tomada para poder obtener ecuaciones de probabilidad y
estadstica guiada para la definicin de entropa configuracional como la logartmica de
el nmero de configuraciones conjuntas () y dando un volumen (v) y una energa de
configuraciones conjuntas (E) asociada con la entropa configuracional que son los estados
variables como una compactividad ( )
1
/
E
S V
+ = c c y la temperatura configuracional.
1
conf
V
S
T
E
c | |
=
|
c
\ .
(4)
Donde es una parte importante temperatura efectiva en la mecnica estadstica de los
sistemas congelados en estado inherente. En general + y
conf
T son variables
independientes especficamente la temperatura configuracional determina la liberacin
de energa en el sistema el cual gobierna la compactividad de la variacin del volumen.
Siguiendo la idea original mostrada por Edwards y Oakeshot [42]. En artculos previos se
sugieren que estas propiedades mecnicas de materiales delgados corrugados
aleatoriamente pueden ser comprendidas con las teora de termodinmica de Edwards de
la red de arrugas, generalmente de esta forma, la respuesta mecnica de hojas arrugadas
aleatoriamente con una carga externa es determinada por el volumen y la forma, que
dependen de la liberacin de energa de la red corrugada.
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 39
En particular, el comportamiento mecnico de las hojas plexoplegables aleatoriamente en
un estado determinado de carga es dominada por la dependencia de volumen de la
entalpa de la red corrugada, donde la respuesta de la red corrugada sujeta a compresin
axial es controlada por la dependencia de la forma de la entropa de la red.
Por lo tanto, bajo el incremento de la presin hidrosttica, el dimetro (R) de una bola
plexoplegable de una hoja delgada decrece como R P
o
o
donde P (el la presin fija
constante) y el exponente de escalamiento se espera sea universal para una hoja de
comportamiento plstico, donde en el caso de las hojas plsticas y elasto-plsticas el valor
de es dependiente de la disipacin de energa; en crestas corrugadas adems la presin
es fijada (p= const) el dimetro de una bola plexoplegable de una hoja elasto-plstica o
una hoja predominantemente plstica decrece logartmicamente conforme avanza el
tiempo.
Por lo tanto, una fuerza plexoplegable es contrada en el dimetro de la bola, la hoja
plexoplegable elasto-plstica incrementa logartmicamente en periodos de varios das. En
contraste a esto, una bola plexoplegable de un material predominantemente plstico
como una hoja de papel aluminio, no incrementa el tamao despus de que la fuerza
plexoplegable es contrada. Porque se registra una pequea cantidad insuficiente de
energa elstica almacenada en las arrugas del material.
Bajo un incremento de fuerza compresiva axial, el comportamiento mecnico de una bola
plexoplegable de una hoja elstica o elasto-plstica con una dimensin lateral libre est
gobernada por la forma que depende de la entropa de la red corrugada. Este concepto es
demostrado en la fuerza aplicada F est relacionada con la razn de compresin.
/ H R = como,
(5)
Donde K
0
es la rigidez de la bola, R es el dimetro de la bola antes de la compresin,
H= R- es la altura de la bola en la direccin de la compresin [43]. Donde es el
desplazamiento correspondiente / c nh R = es el radio de compresin mnima. Mientras
nh es el espesor mnimo posible de la hoja plexoplegable del dimetro inicial R bajo una
compresin axial h es el espesor de la hoja y n es el nmero incomprensible de capas [43].
0
1
1
c
F K
c
(
=
(
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 40
Adems est demostrado que la rigidez axial de la hoja corrugada aleatoriamente, es una
funcin lineal de la temperatura configuracional definida.
1
0 0 conf
K k T
= (6)
Bajo una fuerza de compresin constante F
0
= const el tamao de H de bola corrugada
plexoplegabe de una hoja elasto-plstica decrece lentamente, como se aprecia en la
grfica de la fig. 18.
Fig.18 La curva fuerza de compresin de la bola plexoplegable con un tamao de L= 400
mm bajo una compresin axial con una velocidad de carga de 2mm/seg. La curva 2
muestra la fuerza de relajacin compresiva, la curva 3 muestra el rgimen transitorio en
el intervalo de la razn de compresin de
F2
=0.2775
F1
0.3279, donde en la curva
4 se muestra la descarga.
La dependencia de h en un tiempo no es continua, pero mejor dicho es interrumpido por
varios cambios repentinos los cuales pueden ser atribuidos a los colapsos repentinos en
las arrugas. Adems de que esto est fundamentado en su conjunto en varios cambios en
la altura de la bola.
H(t)= H(0)-H= R[(0) ] puede ser razonable ajustado por una simple relacin de la
forma.
ln
t
a
s
| |
=
|
\ .
(7)
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 41
a y que son parmetros ajustables, est debera ser o tener sobresaltos fuera del
comportamiento logartmico, esto es observado en los experimentos con las dimensiones
laterales libres, tambin cuando la dimensin lateral de la probeta comprimida axialmente
son confinadas.
F= F
0
exp [-(t/
0
)
] (8)
3.7 Relajacin de fuerza compresiva bajo un radio de compresin establecido
En este caso se fundamenta que la relajacin de fuerza compresiva bajo un radio de
compresin establecida;
0
1 ln 1
F
t
F F |
t
( | |
= +
| (
\ .
(9)
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 42
Donde la fuerza F
0
es relacionada por
F
de acuerdo con la relacin (5) la cual y
F
t
son
parmetros de ajuste, adems se fundamentan con los parmetros establecidos y son
independientes estadsticas del tamao de la hoja, el radio L/R y la fuerza inicial F
0
(
F
) en
las fig. 19. (A, B, C, D). Donde:
F
=razn de compresin fija =parmetro ajustable
F
t
= Tiempo de prueba
Fig. 19 A y B).- Dispositivo de la mquina MTS-858-5 a esfuerzo constante. C).-
Dispositivo de carga aplicada a esfuerzo constante. D).-Dispositivo de relajacin a
deformacin constante.
A B
C D
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 43
El ensayo en la cmara cerrada con temperatura controlada se utiliz un higrmetro de
temperatura y humedad registradas directamente a una PC para analizar el ensayo de
relajacin con temperatura variable y humedad variable y observar como vara la
relajacin en la grfica ilustrada en la fig. 20.
Fig.20 Los efectos de cambios abruptos en temperatura ambiente de la curva 1 y de la
humedad en la curva 2 en la relajacin de la fuerza compresiva en la curva 3 en la
probeta corrugada aleatoriamente.
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 44
Cuando las hojas de papel son comprimidas hasta convertirlas en esferas, trae como
consecuencia una red de dobleces permanentes, formados durante el proceso de
arrugamiento al ser precomprimidas de forma manual, se dejan reposar en un lapso
considerable de 1 a 3 das para despus someterlas a la relajacin constante en la
mquina universal.
Para el ensayo de relajacin en el extensmetro laser se elabor el mismo tamao de
probeta de manera esferoidal de las hojas cuadradas de L= 100, 200, 400 y 600 mm. Se
coloc el dispositivo sobre una base antivibratoria, para alinear el extensmetro con las
etiquetas de marca para obtener resultados ms exactos y analizar grficas ms precisas y
sin sobresaltos, como se aprecia en la fig. 21.
Fig. 21 A).-Medidas de dimetros del ensayo de relajacin en el extensmetro lser.
B).- Posicin de la probeta con la maquina y la base antivibratoria con carga
aplicada.
C).- obtencin de datos con el extensmetro laser.
A B
C
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 45
4.- Anlisis y
discusin de
Resultados
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 46
En el anlisis de las medidas de espesor, el papel kraft tiene el mayor espesor, mientras
que el papel plasil muestra el espesor ms pequeo, por lo tanto el papel kraft obtiene
mayor densidad que el papel plasil, debido a que el papel kraft presenta mayor gramaje
que el papel plasil que muestra un menor gramaje.
En las propiedades mecnicas, el papel amrica obtuvo un mayor Mdulo Elstico y el
papel kraft fue de menor Mdulo Elstico, el esfuerzo de cedencia fue mayor para el
papel lustre mientras, que el papel kraft presenta el menor esfuerzo de cedencia, debido a
las estructuras y tamaos de las fibras de cada material.
En el ensayo de resilencia el papel kraft presenta la mayor resilencia, pero obtuvo la
menor tenacidad, mientras que el plasil se adjudica la menor resilencia pero alcanz la
mayor tenacidad por la razn de que el papel kraft exhibe una mayor porosidad.
En las micrografas del (MEB) se encuentra el anlisis de porosidad, el papel lustre tiene
mayor porosidad y el papel plasil obtuvo la menor porosidad, aunque en el papel lustre
tiene fibras ms grandes que el papel plasil, pero el papel lustre es el que vara ms en el
espesor.
En el anlisis de las fibras se observa que cuando se presenta la humedad al 99%, el
tamao de las fibras aumenta ya que la partcula de agua alcanza a penetrar en el poro,
fenmeno que se le denomina higroexpansividad y otros le llaman expansin de fibras,
mientras que las fibras observadas al 35% de humedad se mantienen del tamao normal.
El ensayo de relajacin en la cmara cerrada permite controlar mejor la humedad y la
temperatura, ya que cuando vara la humedad hay sobresaltos o picos en la grfica de
carga contra tiempo que alteran la prueba de relajacin.
Se examina el fenmeno de la relajacin constante de los distintos materiales
mencionados, despus de comprimir las probetas por medio de una carga axial
controlada, se examinan las variaciones de las deformaciones elasto-plsticas en funcin
de carga vs tiempo.
La importancia de este estudio del fenmeno de relajacin radica en el uso de la
geometra fractal, sta es adecuada para caracterizar la distribucin del fenmeno de
relajamiento dentro de un amplio intervalo de escalas, como mtodo de resolucin para
analizar el comportamiento complejo que se presenta en las bolas de papel arrugadas,
una vez planteado el modelo matemtico, se puede determinar las tendencias del
comportamiento estimando los resultados obtenidos en los ensayos de relajacin de las
bolas corrugadas.
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 47
Cuando las hojas de papel son comprimidas hasta convertirlas en bolas, trae como
consecuencia una red de dobleces permanentes, formados durante el proceso de
arrugamiento al ser comprimidas en forma manual de manera instantnea, debido a que
en los dobleces formados se almacena energa aplicada al comprimirlas, misma que
empieza a disiparse, lo que provoca la relajacin en las bolas corrugadas.
Los resultados obtenidos sugieren que los valores de los exponentes de escalamiento de
las probetas arrugadas manual y aleatoriamente son similares en los diferentes tipos de
materiales.
El anlisis de ensayo de relajacin es realizado con la finalidad de examinar diferentes
materiales, para explicar las propiedades que pueden ser aprovechadas en el estudio de
mecnica de materiales, pues actualmente no se cuentan con datos normalizados para
este tipo de ensayos.
Como se observa la relajacin es instantnea solo despus de haber comprimido la esfera
corrugada, el tiempo total de las mediciones clasificadas por tipo y tamao de bola por
separado fue de 1 da (t=24 horas) debido a que fue el tiempo necesario para este anlisis
y observar la disipacin de la energa, la fig. 22 que se presenta a continuacin se observa
la relajacin.
Los datos obtenidos durante las mediciones en la celda de carga y del higrmetro digital
definen los incrementos del dimetro y la variacin de la temperatura y la humedad
respectivamente.
Fig.22 Relajacin de una bola corrugada
-200
-180
-160
-140
-120
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000
C
A
R
G
A
N
E
W
T
O
N
S
TIEMPO EN SEGUNDOS
ENSAYO DE RELAJACIN
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 48
4.1 Anlisis de relajacin a deformacin constante de papel Kraft, Plasil, Lustre y
Amrica.
Para cada tipo de papel se hizo una grfica, y se tom una regresin lineal de carga contra
tiempo y se encontraron los modelos matemticos que determinan el fenmeno de la
relajacin de las bolas corrugadas de los papeles. La deformacin de las superficies
corrugadas en las bolas de los 4 tipos de papeles es determinada por una expresin
logartmica.
Bajo el incremento de la fuerza de compresin la razn de compresin de la frmula 5
(vase la fig. 18.) cual puede ser descrita en la forma F= K
0
e
donde
e
= u/H
e
es la fuerza
efectiva, tamao efectivo de la bola en la direccin de la compresin,
He=H - nh = (R - nh ) u (10)
Donde: K
0
=rigidez de la bola
e=
deformacin de la probeta
R= dimetro de la bola
nh
= numero de capas incompresibles
u = desplazamiento H= altura de la bola antes de la compresin
Grfica de la fuerza (esfuerzo efectivo) en papel Kraft con un tamao de probeta de L=
400 mm y una velocidad de carga de 2mm/seg, presentados en la fig. 22. F().
Encontrados en la Ec. 5.
Fig. 23 Grficas de datos presentados en la fig. 18 y se muestra F (e).
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 49
La figura 24 muestra la parte inicial de F (e) mostrando el comportamiento log-log
encontrados en la Ec. 5.
Fig. 24 Grfica log-log de F contra e.
La curva de la Fig. 18 muestra la fuerza de relajacin compresiva, la curva 3 muestra el
rgimen transitorio en el intervalo de la razn de compresin de
F2
=0.2775
F1
0.3279. En la fig. 25 se muestra la fuerza de relajacin con una razn de compresin fija de
F1
0.3279.
Fig. 25 Grfica de la curva de F (e)
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 50
La grfica de la fig. 26 muestra la forma semilogartmica de la fuerza de relajacin de los
datos encontrados en la curva solida 1 encontrados de la Ec.9 con
F
= 10.92 seg. Y =
0.044, los datos mostrados de la curva 2 son encontrados con la funcin exponencial
encontrada Ec. 9. Con
0
= 6.6 das y = 0.245.
Fig. 26 Grfica de fuerza de relajacin con un radio de compresin fija.
La altura de las bolas de papel incrementa despus de la relajacin constante (a
compresin) en la mquina universal e incrementan una relacin logartmica diferente,
segn el tipo de probeta, papel Kraft, papel Plasil, papel Lustre y papel Amrica
respectivamente como se muestra a continuacin.
Tabla. 10 Valores de la Rigidez de la bola (K
0)
y el coeficiente de correlacin (R
2
) de los
diferentes papeles
TIPO DE PAPEL K
0
R
2
KRAFT 80.17 0.999
PLASIL 71.45 0.99
LUSTRE 75.8 0.998
AMRICA 80 0.974
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 51
4.2 Relajacin a esfuerzo constante
El dimetro de las probetas de papel aumenta luego de la compactacin a las que fueron
sometidas, ya que existe una relajacin de la deformacin por lo que se tomaron medidas
del incremento del dimetro en funcin del tiempo en diversos lapsos para conocer a
detalle la relajacin constante a las que estn sometidas las probetas en los 4 diferentes
papeles. Donde, L es el tamao de la hoja (en cm) para el factor de escalamiento, =10,
20,40 y 60; y L= 10.Estas probetas fueron arrugadas y comprimidas manualmente de
forma aleatoria hasta obtener una forma esfrica con un dimetro aproximado R(L),
mostradas en la fig. 27.
Fig. 27 Conjunto de bolas de papel arrugadas y comprimidas manualmente (para ser
sometidas al ensayo de relajacin)
Este tipo de relajacin es realizado con la ayuda del extensmetro laser, en el ensayo la
carga externa no vara, inmediatamente se mide su dimetro inicial ya que en ese preciso
momento empez la relajacin y el dimetro se vara continuamente hasta liberar el
mximo de energa registrable en la mquina. Mostrada en la fig.28.
Fig.28 Datos de la relajacin constante dimetro contra tiempo.
y = 0.0288ln(x) + 1.0321
R = 0.9556
1
1.05
1.1
1.15
1.2
1.25
1 10 100 1000
D
i
m
e
t
r
o
m
m
Tiempo en segundos
Relajacion constante papel Kraft
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 52
Relajacin constante de dimetro vs tiempo del papel plasil.
Fig.29 Datos de la relajacin constante dimetro contra tiempo.
Relajacin constante de dimetro vs tiempo del papel lustre.
Fig.30 Datos de la relajacin constante dimetro contra tiempo.
y = 0.0115ln(x) + 1.0261
R = 0.9357
0.98
1
1.02
1.04
1.06
1.08
1.1
1 10 100 1000
D
i
m
e
t
r
o
m
m
Tiempo en seg
Relajacion constante papel Plasil
y = 0.0182ln(x) + 1.0241
R = 0.9512
0.98
1
1.02
1.04
1.06
1.08
1.1
1.12
1.14
1 10 100 1000
D
i
m
e
t
r
o
m
m
Tiempo en seg
Relajacion constante papel Lustre
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 53
Relajacin constante de dimetro vs tiempo del papel amrica.
Fig.31 Datos de la relajacin constante dimetro contra tiempo.
Tabla. 11 Tabla de relajacin constante
TIPO DE PAPEL ECUACIN R
2
KRAFT D1= 0.0288 ln (t) + 1.0321 0.955
PLASIL D2= 0.0115 ln (t) + 1.0261 0.935
LUSTRE D3= 0.0182 ln (t) + 1.0241 0.951
AMRICA D4= 0.145 ln (t) + 1.0231 0.950
La grfica semilogartmica de compresin contra el tiempo t para la bola plexoplegable de
una hoja cuadrada de papel Kraft con un tamao de L=400 mm es sujeta a una fuerza de
compresin constante despus es subaplicada una masa M= 20.718 kg, la bola es
comprimida casi instantneamente,
M
= 0.3279 y la decrece con el tiempo con una
razn de compresin de
T1
=0.2658 y la posicin de la platina es fijada por 3 horas,
despus t= 3 hrs, el plato es liberado, la bola casi instantneamente es comprimida
t2
=
0.2611 de los datos de la curva de la fig. 32. De t
1
y t
2
muestran la descarga y carga
respecto a
T1
y
t2
respectivamente.
y = 0.0145ln(x) + 1.0231
R = 0.9506
0.9
0.95
1
1.05
1.1
1.15
1 10 100 1000
D
i
m
e
t
r
o
m
m
Tiempo en seg
Relajacion constante papel Amrica
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 54
Fig.32 Se observa la grafica semi-logartmica de la razn de compresin respecto al
tiempo del papel kraft.
En la siguiente grfica se muestra la relajacin bajo una fuerza compresiva con una razn
de compresin fijada en bolas hechas de hojas cuadradas L= 600 mm,
M
= 0.230(1). L= 400
mm,
M
= 0.148 (2). L= 200 mm,
M
= 0.3 (3). L= 100 mm,
M
= 0.135 (4). Mostrada en la
fig.33.
Fig.33 Se observa la relajacin de la fuerza compresiva de una razn de compresin
fijada de hojas de papel kraft, L=600 mm(1), 400mm(2), 200mm(3), 100mm(4).
En la siguiente grfica se muestra la relajacin bajo una fuerza compresiva con una razn
de compresin fijada en bolas hechas de hojas cuadradas L= 600 mm,
M
= 0.229(1). L= 400
mm,
M
= 0.214 (2). L= 200 mm,
M
= 0.31 (3). L= 100 mm,
M
= 0.129 (4). Mostrada en la
fig.34.
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 55
Fig.34 Se observa la relajacin de la fuerza compresiva de una razn de compresin
fijada de hojas de papel plasil, L=600 mm(1), 400mm(2), 200mm(3), 100mm(4).
En la siguiente grfica se muestra la relajacin bajo una fuerza compresiva con una razn
de compresin fijada en bolas hechas de hojas cuadradas L= 600 mm,
M
= 0.142(1). L= 400
mm,
M
= 0.221 (2). L= 200 mm,
M
= 0.35 (3). L= 100 mm,
M
= 0.147 (4). Mostrada en la
fig.35.
Fig.35 Se observa la relajacin de la fuerza compresiva de una razn de compresin
fijada de hojas de papel lustre, L=600 mm(1), 400mm(2), 200mm(3), 100mm(4).
En la siguiente grfica se muestra la relajacin bajo una fuerza compresiva con una razn
de compresin fijada en bolas hechas de hojas cuadradas L= 600 mm,
M
= 0.167(1). L= 400
mm,
M
= 0.234 (2). L= 200 mm,
M
= 0.329 (3). L= 100 mm,
M
= 0.151 (4). Mostrada en la
fig.36.
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 56
Fig.36 Se observa la relajacin de la fuerza compresiva de una razn de compresin
fijada de hojas de papel Amrica, L=600 mm(1), 400mm(2), 200mm(3), 100mm(4).
En esta investigacin tambin se predice la relacin que puede ser expresada para el caso
de dependiente del tiempo de la hoja plexoplegable bajo una compresin axial.
( )
e
F K t
c
c = Cuando
e
c = constante (14)
( )
1
e F
K t F c
= Cuando F= constante (15)
Donde K(t) y K
F
son la dependiente del tiempo regida por el radio de compresin
constante y de la constante de la compresin de fuerza, respectivamente.
Tambin la relajacin de fuerza compresiva del radio de deformacin establecido y la
relajacin de esfuerzo efectiva de la fuerza de compresin constante son controladas por
la dependiente del tiempo de las bolas rgidas especficamente.
( )
0
1 ln 1
F
t
K t K
c
|
t
( | |
= +
( |
\ .
(16)
Mientras
( )
1 1
0
1 (1 ) ln 1
F
t
K t K c
t
( | |
= + +
( |
\ .
(17)
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 57
En los anlisis donde se introduce vapor para aumentar la humedad inicial de 50% hasta
una humedad de casi el 99% se examina el comportamiento de la relajacin y se
determina que influye la humedad en la relajacin contante observndose unos picos
tanto en la lnea humedad como en la lnea de la relajacin a esfuerzo constant
Relajacin de papel kraft de dimetro vs tiempo.
Fig. 37 Relajacin libre medidas de extensmetro laser (papel kraft).
y = 0.0073ln(x) + 1.0071
R = 0.9464
0.99
1
1.01
1.02
1.03
1.04
1.05
1.06
1 10 100 1000
D
i
m
t
e
t
r
o
m
m
Tiempo en seg
Relajacin papel Kraft
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 58
Relajacin de papel plasil de dimetro vs tiempo.
Fig. 38 Relajacin libre medidas del extensmetro laser (papel plasil).
Relajacin de papel lustre de dimetro vs tiempo.
Fig. 39 Relajacin libre medidas de extensmetro laser (papel lustre).
y = 0.0022ln(x) + 1.0021
R = 0.965
0.998
1
1.002
1.004
1.006
1.008
1.01
1.012
1.014
1.016
1 10 100 1000
D
i
m
t
e
t
r
o
m
m
Tiempo en seg
Relajacin papel Plasil
y = 0.0022ln(x) + 1.0107
R = 0.8258
0.995
1
1.005
1.01
1.015
1.02
1.025
1 10 100 1000
D
i
m
e
t
r
o
m
m
Tiempo en seg
Relajacin papel Lustre
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 59
Relajacin de papel amrica de dimetro vs tiempo.
Fig.40 Relajacin libre medidas del extensmetro laser (papel Amrica).
TABLA 12 MEDIDAS DE RELAJACIN CON EL EXTENSMETRO LASER
TIPO DE PAPEL K
0
R
2
KRAFT 0.0073 0.94
PLASIL 0.0022 0.96
LUSTRE 0.0022 0.82
AMRICA 0.0540 0.9127
y = 0.0054ln(x) + 1.0131
R = 0.9127
0.99
1
1.01
1.02
1.03
1.04
1.05
1 10 100 1000
D
i
m
e
t
r
o
e
n
m
m
Tiempo en seg
Relajacin papel Amrica
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 60
Conclusiones
Se analiz a detalle la relajacin de materiales y su comportamiento, evaluando las
propiedades fsicas y mecnicas, se compararon con los modelos propuestos y se puede
concluir lo siguiente:
- Se evalu el tamao de poro y el tamao de fibras y fibrillas mediante el microscopio
electrnico de barrido con diferentes rangos de humedad en cada tipo de papel Kraft, Plasil,
Lustre, Amrica. Y claramente visible que el agua penetra dentro del material en los poros,
as mismo en los poros de la fibra y modifica las propiedades mecnicas de la bola.
- Se calcul la dimensin fractal de masa para cada tipo de papel Kraft, Plasil, Lustre,
Amrica que se ubican en un rango de 2 y 3, como se ha demostrado en otros trabajos
anteriores.
- En base a ensayos de esfuerzo deformacin se obtuvieron las propiedades mecnicas
como mdulo de elasticidad, esfuerzo de cendencia, esfuerzo de ruptura, resilencia y
tenacidad, observando que las diferencias entre ellas son pequeas.
- Se examin que en la relajacin de los papeles se comporta de manera similar y se
demuestra que las variables en el ensayo como humedad y vibraciones pueden variar el
comportamiento mecnico y alterar los resultados de relajacin.
- Se estudi la liberacin de energa que ocurre lenta y constantemente en los 4 tipos de
papeles Kraft, Plasil, Lustre y Amrica.
- Se encontr la razn de compresin de la respuesta a la fuerza de compresin de relajacin,
mediante la mecnica estadstica de Edwards de sistemas granulares mediante la
temperatura configuracional.
- Se examin que el material aunque sea anisotrpico aleatorio y adems fibroso,
proporciona una buena alternativa para el desarrollo de modelos fsicos que describan mejor
el comportamiento de materiales ligeros y configuraciones geomtricas y estructurales, que
permitan que se obtengan medios de disipacin de energa mecnica a problemas de
impacto y/o fatiga en sistemas mecnicos estructurales.
- En esta investigacin se obtuvo informacin importante que impulse nuevas lneas de
investigacin, en diferentes campos de la ciencia e ingeniera de materiales.
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 61
RECOMENDACIONES
- Trabajar con diferentes papeles que sean metlicos o de otro tipo para analizar
cmo se comportan papel cobre, aluminio latn y papeles acerados.
- Analizar las ventajas de trabajar en un laboratorio totalmente sellado donde las
variables como humedad temperatura sean ms controladas.
- Trabajar en una plataforma antivibratoria, para evitar movimientos y vibraciones
desde la base de la estructura.
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 62
BIBLIOGRAFA
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ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 66
ANEXOS
Medicin de fibras
KRAFT DATOS EN
MICRAS
1 37.11
2 35.36
3 36.09
4 38.27
5 37.24
6 39.2
7 35.5
8 39.1
9 34.1
10 37.3
11 37.12
12 39.01
13 39.1
14 35.12
PROMEDIO 37.1157143
DESV STD 1.68732248
TABLA.12 MEDICIN DE FIBRAS DE PAPEL KRAFT
Medicin de fibras
PLASIL DATOS EN
MICRAS
1 46.08
2 34
3 49.15
4 34.1
5 36.1
6 45.5
7 34.3
8 33.52
9 42.5
10 44.3
11 36.2
12 44.02
13 33.2
PROMEDIO 39.4592308
DESV STD 5.83964962
TABLA. 13 MEDICIN DE FIBRAS DE PAPEL PLASIL
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 67
Medicin de Fibras
LUSTRE DATOS EN
MICRAS
1 27.23
2 24.01
3 21.18
4 29.4
5 29.3
6 22.1
7 28.01
8 26
9 25.06
10 24.8
11 29.18
12 24.03
PROMEDIO 25.8583333
DESV STD 2.80391879
TABLA. 14 MEDICIN DE FIBRAS DE PAPEL LUSTRE
Medicin de fibras
AMRICA DATOS EN
MICRAS
1 44.08
2 36.07
3 41.15
4 35.1
5 32.1
6 32.2
7 32.3
8 33.12
9 41.5
10 42.3
11 35.2
12 44.5
13 36.1
PROMEDIO 37.3630769
DESV STD 4.68102977
TABLA. 15 MEDICIN DE FIBRAS DE PAPEL
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 68
KRAFT
PORCENTAJE DE
POROSIDAD
1 45.7
2 40.01
3 41.1
4 45
5 46.3
6 43
7 44
8 46
9 39.06
10 46.59
11 41.2
12 44.03
PROMEDIO 43.4991667
DESV STD 2.60161998
TABLA. 16 PORCENTAJE DE POROSIDAD PAPEL KRAFT
PLASIL
PORCENTAJE DE
POROSIDAD
1 42.08
2 37.29
3 41.2
4 43.19
5 49.17
6 32.28
7 38.39
8 32.18
9 41.57
10 42.26
11 45.25
12 40.6
13 42.15
PROMEDIO 40.5853846
DESV STD 4.71152066
TABLA.17 PORCENTAJE DE POROSIDAD PAPEL PLASIL
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 69
LUSTRE
PORCENTAJE DE
POROSIDAD
1 47.11
2 45.96
3 46.29
4 48.27
5 47.24
6 49.2
7 45.5
8 49.1
9 44.1
10 47.93
11 47.12
12 49.91
13 49.1
14 45.12
PROMEDIO 47.2821429
DESV STD 1.73993005
TABLA.18 PORCENTAJE DE POROSIDAD DE PAPEL PLASIL
AMRICA
PORCENTAJE DE
POROSIDAD
1 47.3
2 44.01
3 41
4 49.4
5 46.3
6 43.5
7 44.01
8 46
9 45.06
10 47.8
11 49.18
12 44.03
PROMEDIO 45.6325
DESV STD 2.50465793
TABLA.19 PORCENTAJE DE POROSIDAD DE PAPEL AMRICA
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 70
Fig. 41 Relajacin constante adquisicin de datos desde el inicio de la prueba.
Fig. 42 Relajacin constante cuando se aplica la carga
-120
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000
C
A
R
G
A
N
TIEMPO SEG
RELAJACIN
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000
C
A
R
G
A
N
TIEMPO SEG
RELAJACIN
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 71
Fig. 43 Relajacin constante
Fig.44 Relajacin constante
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
50
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000
C
A
R
G
A
N
TIEMPO SEG
RELAJACIN
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
50
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000
C
A
R
G
A
N
TIEMPO SEG
RELAJACIN
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 72
Fig.45 Dimensin fractal de masa papel kraft
Fig.46 Dimensin fractal de masa papel kraft
y = 0.0001x
2.5902
R = 0.9956
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
M
A
S
A
g
r
s
DIMETROS mm
DIMENSION FRACTAL DE MASA DE
PAPEL KRAFT
y = 0.0001x
2.5684
R = 0.9956
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
M
A
S
A
g
r
s
DIMETROS mm
DIMENSION FRACTAL DE MASA DE
PAPEL KRAFT
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 73
Fig.47 Dimensin fractal de masa papel kraft
Fig.48 Dimensin fractal de masa papel kraft
y = 0.0001x
2.581
R = 0.9936
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
M
A
S
A
g
r
s
DIMETRO mm
DIMENSION FRACTAL DE MASA DE
PAPEL KRAFT
y = 0.0001x
2.6022
R = 0.9917
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
M
A
S
A
g
r
s
DIMETRO EN mm
DIMENSION FRACTAL DE MASA DE
PAPEL KRAFT
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 74
Fig.49 Dimensin fractal de masa papel kraft
Fig.50 Dimensin fractal de masa papel plasil
y = 0.0001x
2.5646
R = 0.9934
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
M
A
S
A
g
r
s
DIMETRO mm
DIMENSION FRACTAL DE MASA DE
PAPEL KRAFT
y = 0.0002x
2.4096
R = 0.9893
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
M
A
S
A
g
r
s
DIMETROS mm
DIMENSIN FRACTAL DE MASA
PAPEL PLASIL
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 75
Fig.51 Dimensin fractal de masa papel plasil
Fig.52 Dimensin fractal de masa papel plasil
y = 0.0002x
2.4345
R = 0.9868
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
M
A
S
A
g
r
s
DIMETROS mm
DIMENSIN FRACTAL DE MASA
PAPEL PLASIL
y = 0.0002x
2.4411
R = 0.9854
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
M
A
S
A
g
r
s
DIMETRO EN mm
DIMENSIN FRACTAL DE MASA
PAPEL PLASIL
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 76
Fig.53 Dimensin fractal de masa papel plasil
Fig.54 Dimensin fractal de masa papel plasil
y = 0.0003x
2.3589
R = 0.9639
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
M
A
S
A
g
r
s
DIMETRO mm
DIMENSIN FRACTAL DE MASA
PAPEL PLASIL
y = 0.0003x
2.3836
R = 0.9634
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
M
A
S
A
g
r
s
DIMETROS mm
DIMENSIN FRACTAL DE MASA
PAPEL PLASIL
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 77
Fig.55 Dimensin fractal de masa papel lustre
Fig.56 Dimensin fractal de masa papel lustre
y = 0.0001x
2.5552
R = 0.9974
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
M
A
S
A
g
r
s
DIMETRO EN mm
DIMENSIN FRACTAL DE MASA
PAPEL LUSTRE
y = 0.0002x
2.4768
R = 0.9998
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
M
A
S
A
g
r
s
DIMETROS mm
DIMENSIN FRACTAL DE MASA
PAPEL LUSTRE
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 78
Fig.57 Dimensin fractal de masa papel lustre
Fig.58 Dimensin fractal de masa papel lustre
y = 0.0003x
2.361
R = 0.9984
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
M
A
S
A
g
r
s
DIMETROS mm
DIMENSIN FRACTAL DE MASA
PAPEL LUSTRE
y = 0.0009x
2.0975
R = 0.9968
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
M
A
A
g
r
s
DIMETROS mm
DIMENSIN FRACTAL DE MASA
PAPEL LUSTRE
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 79
Fig.59 Dimensin fractal de masa papel lustre
Fig.60 Dimensin fractal de masa papel amrica
y = 0.0011x
2.0668
R = 0.9984
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
M
A
S
A
g
r
s
DIMETROS mm
DIMENSIN FRACTAL DE MASA
PAPEL LUSTRE
y = 0.0001x
2.6169
R = 0.9965
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
M
A
S
A
g
r
s
DIMETROS mm
DIMENSIN FRACTAL DE MASA
PAPEL AMRICA
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 80
Fig.61 Dimensin fractal de masa papel amrica
Fig.62 Dimensin fractal de masa papel amrica
y = 1E-04x
2.6392
R = 0.9982
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
M
A
S
A
g
r
s
DIMETROS mm
DIMENSIN FRACTAL DE MASA
PAPEL AMRICA
y = 9E-05x
2.6501
R = 0.9989
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
M
A
S
A
g
r
s
DIMETROS MM
DIMENSIN FRACTAL DE MASA
PAPEL AMRICA
ANLISIS EXPERIMENTAL DE LA RELAJACION EN MATERIALES COMPLEJOS PLEXOPLEGABLES
EXAMEN DOCTORAL Pgina 81
Fig.63 Dimensin fractal de masa papel amrica
Fig.64 Dimensin fractal de masa papel amrica
y = 0.0001x
2.5617
R = 0.9999
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
M
A
S
A
g
r
s
DIMETROS mm
DIMENSIN FRACTAL DE MASA
PAPEL AMRICA
y = 0.0001x
2.5372
R = 0.9997
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
M
A
S
A
g
r
s
DIMETROS mm
DIMENSIN FRACTAL DE MASA
PAPEL AMRICA
PHYSICAL REVIEW E 84, 021118 (2011)
Slow dynamics of stress and strain relaxation in randomly crumpled elasto-plastic sheets
Alexander S. Balankin, Orlando Susarrey Huerta, Francisco Hern andez M endez, and Juli an Pati no Ortiz
Grupo Mec anica Fractal, Instituto Polit ecnico Nacional, M exico Distrito Federal, Mexico 07738
(Received 23 March 2011; revised manuscript received 9 June 2011; published 9 August 2011)
Stress and strain relaxation in randomly folded paper sheets under axial compression is studied both
experimentally and theoretically. Equations providing the best t to the experimental data are found. Our ndings
suggest that, in an axially compressed ball folded from an elastic or elasto-plastic material, the relaxation
dynamics is ruled by activated processes of an energy foci rearrangement in the crumpling network. The
dynamics of relaxation is discussed within a framework of Edwardss statistical mechanics. The functional forms
of the activation barrier between admissible jammed folding congurations of the crumpling network under axial
compression are derived. It is shown that relaxation kinetics can be mapped to activated dynamics of depinning
and creep of elastic interface in a disordered medium.
DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevE.84.021118 PACS number(s): 05.70.Ln, 68.60.Bs, 46.32.+x, 89.75.Fb
I. INTRODUCTION
Recently, there has been much interest in crumpling under
the external loading of different kinds of thin materials,
ranging from the microscopic levelgraphene membranes to
the macroscopic levelhand-folded paper and fault-related
geological formations [18]. The relevant property that all thin
materials share is that their stretching rigidity is much more
than the bending rigidity. Consequently, the forced crumpling
of thin matter provides a particularly clean and simple form of
stress focusing [9] because the elastic energy is concentrated
principally in the crumpling creases (ridges) joining adjacent
vertex points of maximal curvature [1014]. But perhaps the
most salient feature of randomly crumpled matter is its behav-
ior under external loadsfolded materials offer a low resis-
tance to axial compression [1517], whereas, their resistance
to hydrostatic compression is anomalously high [4,12,18].
The mechanical response of a crumpled sheet on an external
force is determined by the crumpling network [2,4,12],
[1519]. The jammed congurations of a crumpling network
in randomly folded matter can evolve under an external
driving force. This evolution involves movements of ridges
and vertices and leads to the rearrangement of energy foci
[2022]. Statistical mechanics and thermodynamics of soft
jammed systems in inherent states can be treated within
a framework of the Edwards approach to the statistical
mechanics description of granular materials [23]. The proposal
of Edwards may be summarized as follows: Given a certain
conguration attained dynamically, physical observables are
obtained by averaging over the usual equilibrium distribution
at the corresponding volume, energy, etc., but restricting the
sum to the jammed conguration or inherent states dened as
the stable congurations in the potential energy landscape. The
strong ergodic hypothesis that all jammed congurations of a
given volume can be taken to have equal statistical probabilities
leads to the denition of congurational entropy S as the
logarithm of the number of jammed congurations () of
a given volume (V) and an energy of jammed conguration
(E), etc. [23]. Associated with congurational entropy are the
state variables, such as compactivity
1
= (S/V)
E
and
congurational temperature,
T
1
conf
= (S/E)
V
, (1)
which play the role of effective temperature in statisti-
cal mechanics of frozen systems in inherent states (see
Refs. [2325]). In general, and T
conf
are independent vari-
ables. Specically, the congurational temperature determines
the energy uctuations in the system, while compactivity
governs the volume uctuations.
Following the original ideas developed by Edwards and
Oakeshott [23], in a previous paper [16], we have suggested
that mechanical properties of randomly crumpled thin matter
can be understood within a framework of Edwardss ther-
modynamics of the crumpling network. Generally, in this
way, the mechanical response of a randomly crumpled sheet
on external loads is determined by the volume and shape
dependences of the free energy of the crumpling network
[16]. In particular, the mechanical behavior of the randomly
folded sheet in a thee-dimensional stress state is dominated by
the volume dependence of the crumpling network enthalpy,
whereas, the response of the crumpling network to axial
compression is controlled by the shape dependence of network
entropy [16].
Accordingly, under increasing hydrostatic pressure, the
diameter (R) of a ball, folded from a thin sheet, decreases
as R P
1 c
c
1
, (2)
where K
0
is the ball stiffness, R is the ball diameter
before compression, H = R u is the ball height in the
direction of compression (see the insets in Fig. 3 of Ref. [16]),
u is the corresponding displacement, and c = nh/R is the
minimal compression ratio, while nh is the minimal possible
thickness of the folded sheet of the initial diameter R under
axial compression (h is the sheet thickness, and n is the number
of incompressible layers) [16]. Moreover, it was shown that
the axial stiffness of the randomly crumpled sheet is a linear
function of congurational temperature dened by Eq. (1), i.e.,
K
0
=
0
T
conf
, (3)
where
0
is a function of the thickness and mechanical
properties of paper [16].
If lateral dimensions of the test specimen, folded from
thin sheets, are free of any connement, an axial compression
of the specimen is accompanied by its lateral expansion.
It has been found experimentally that the lateral expansion
ratio
= R
, where R
1
0
,
where
1
= 3/(1 +2) [4,26].
Under a constant axial compressive force F
0
= const, the
size H of a ball folded from an elasto-plastic sheet slowly
decreases [4,19] (in some experiments, this creep deformation
was observed for several weeks, after which the crumpled sheet
had not yet reached its minimum height [4]). The dependence
of H on time is not continuous but rather is interrupted by
sudden changes, which can be attributed to sudden ridge
collapses [19]. Even so, it was found that the overall change
in the ball height H(t ) = H(0) H = R[(0) ] can
reasonably be tted by a simple relation of the form
= a ln(t /s), (4)
where a and are tting parameters [4,19]. It should be
pointed out that logarithmic behavior (4) was observed in
experiments with free lateral dimensions (see Ref. [19]) as
well as when the lateral dimensions of the axially compressed
specimen were conned (see Ref. [4]). It is also pertinent
to note that logarithmic creep was observed in many elasto-
plastic materials [3134] and is commonly associated with
an Arrhenius-like relaxation kinetics [35], while the effective
temperature, which accounts for temporal uctuations, can be
of thermal or nonthermal nature (see Refs. [4,3640]).
On the other hand, if a crumpled sheet is axially compressed
up to a compression ratio, which is further held constant
( = const), the compressive force slowly decreases in time.
Albuquerque and Gomes [41] demonstrated that, under a
constant compression ratio, the relaxation of compressive force
applied to hand-folded aluminum foil can be well tted with
the stretched exponential function,
F = F
0
exp
, (5)
where and
0
are tting parameters. Furthermore, the
exponent = 0.28 0.03 was suggested to be universal,
while the experimental values were varied in the range from
0.24 to 0.4 [41]. However, numerical simulations performed
in Ref. [42] suggest that should be a function of the fractal
dimension of the folded sheet.
To summarize, the forms and mechanisms of slow stress
and strain relaxation in randomly folded matter under external
forces still are not understood well. Specically, while the
axial deformation (creep) of a folded ball under a constant
force displays logarithmic decay (2) within a wide range of
time, a strong deviation from logarithmic behavior is observed
for the early times [19]. Furthermore, the force relaxation (5)
was studied only in axially compressed predominantly plastic
aluminum foils [41], the mechanical behavior of which differs
from that of balls folded from elasto-plastic sheets, such as a
paper (see Refs. [17,28]). The relaxation of compressive force
in specimens folded fromcrumpled papers has not been tested.
Accordingly, the purpose of this paper is to clarify the
mechanisms and functional forms of stress and strain re-
laxation in hand crumpled elasto-plastic sheets subjected to
axial compression. This paper is organized as follows. In
Sec. II, we describe the details of experiments performed
in this paper. Experimental results and their best empirical
ttings are reported in Sec. III. Section IV is devoted to
the discussion of experimental ndings. Phenomenological
equations, describing the stress and strain relaxation, are
derived, and their physical interpretation is discussed. A brief
summary of the main ndings and conclusions are given in
Sec. V.
II. EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
In this work, the experiments were performed with hand-
folded sheets of Kraft (thickness of h = 0.141 mm) and
Biblia (thickness of h = 0.039 mm) papers. Square sheets
with edge sizes of L = 100, 200, 400, and 600 mm were
hand crumpled into approximately spherical balls. At least
6 balls were folded fromsheets of each size of Kraft paper, and
15 balls were folded from sheets of the size of L = 400 mm
of Biblia paper. Once the folding force is withdrawn, the ball
diameter increases with time for approximately 68 days due
to the strain relaxation in the folding creases (see Ref. [29]).
Therefore, all experiments reported below were performed at
least 10 days after a sheet was folded.
Paper is a composite visco-elasto-plastic material [43].
Paper properties are sensitive to variations in paper moisture
and temperature, which are strongly dependent on ambient
temperature and humidity [34,43]. Accordingly, in this work,
the ambient temperature and humidity were monitored con-
tinuously during each experiment. Furthermore, some force
and strain relaxation experiments had been carried out in
a climatic chamber with controlled temperature (variations
are less than 1
e
,
where
e
= u/H
e
is the effective strain, while
H
e
= H nh = (R nh) u (6)
is the effective ball size in the direction of compression [see
Fig. 1(b)].
Once the compression is suddenly stopped at a xed
compression ratio =
F1
, which is further held constant,
the compressive force decreases in time, as shown in Fig. 1(c).
When, after several hours of relaxation, the compression is
reinitiated, the compressive force quickly increases as is
decreased up to
F2
[see the inset in Fig. 1(a)] such that,
for compression ratios
F2
, the force-compression curve
follows the same relation (2) as before relaxation [see Figs. 1(a)
and 1(b)]. Furthermore, during unloading at the rate of 2 mm/s,
the force-compression curve goes downward up to F(
R
) = 0,
where
R
is the remanent compression ratio [see Fig. 1(a)], the
value of which depends on the loading and unloading rates as
well as on the time of compressive force relaxation under the
constant compression ratio of =
F1
. Once the compression
force is withdrawn, slowly (and almost logarithmically)
increases with time of approximately 1 week.
It should be pointed out that the force-compression relation
(2) cannot be presented in terms of apparent stress ( = F/A
)
and effective strains because the area of loading (A
) is
ill dened during the axial compression test as well as
during ball compression under a constant force. Moreover, the
distributions of stress and strains within an axially compressed
ball are essentially inhomogeneous. However, we noted that,
during stress relaxation under a constant deformation ratio
( =
0
= const), a change in the apparent loading area was
less than 2%. Hence, one can assume that, in this case, the
equality,
(
0
,t )
0
(
0
)
=
F(
0
,t )
F
0
(
0
)
(7)
holds with acceptable accuracy. Notice that equality (7)
was already employed in Ref. [41]. Nevertheless, in this
paper, experimental data and their ttings are given using the
compressive force as the primary experimental attribute.
Figure 2 shows the graph of compressive force relaxation in
a paper ball under a constant compression ratio together with
graphs of air temperature (T ) and humidity (W
H
) obtained
in an experiment carried out in a climatic chamber. One
can see that abrupt changes in air humidity and temperature
are accompanied by changes in compressive force behavior.
We also noted that slow but large variations of T or/and
W
H
also affect the force relaxation behavior. Accordingly,
the experimental data reported below were obtained either in
experiments carried out in a climatic chamber with controlled
air temperature and humidity or in an ambient air environment,
when the variations in air temperature and humidity, during
FIG. 1. (a) The force - compression curve of the ball folded
from a square sheet of Kraft paper with an edge size of L =
400 mm under axial compression with the rate of 2 mm/s: circles,
experimental data; curve 1, data tting with Eq. (2); curve 2
corresponds to the compressive force relaxation shown in panel
(c); curve 3, the transient regime in the range of the compression
ratio of
F1
= 0.2775
F2
= 0.3279, which is shown in more
detail in the inset; and curve 4, unloading with the rate of 2 mm/s.
(b) The force - effective strain curve obtained from the data presented
in panel (a); the top inset shows the amplied initial part of F(
e
)
behavior, while the bottom inset shows the log-log plot of F versus
e
: straight lines, data tting by Eq. (2) with K
0
= 80.17 N and
c = 0.058. (c) Force relaxation at the xed compression ratio of
F1
= 0.3279; the inset shows the semilogarithmic plot of the force
relaxation. Circles, experimental data; solid curve 1, data tting by
Eq. (8) with
F
= 10.92 s and = 0.044; dashed curve 2, data tting
with the stretched exponential function (5) with
0
= 6.6 days and
= 0.245.
the experiment, were less than 2
C and 5%, respectively. If,
during a relaxation test, a change in temperature or humidity
was greater, only the data of the initial time interval (during
which T 1
C and W
H
0.1W
H
) were analyzed.
Besides, in this paper, to have a more intimate reference to
stress relaxation in balls folded from aluminum foil, we also
021118-3
ALEXANDER S. BALANKIN et al. PHYSICAL REVIEW E 84, 021118 (2011)
FIG. 2. Effects of abrupt changes in ambient temperature
(curve 1) and humidity (curve 2) on the relaxation of the compressive
force (curve 3) in the test of an axially compressed ball folded from
a square sheet of Kraft paper with an edge size of L = 400 mm
performed in a climatic chamber.
have performed three stress relaxation tests with balls with
diameters of R = 27 mm folded from square sheets with edge
sizes of L = 240 mm of aluminum foil with thicknesses of
h = 0.02 mm.
In the second series of experiments, the folded balls were
subjected to constant compressive forces F
M
= Mg supplied
by a mass M, where g is the gravitational acceleration constant.
The compressive weight was provided by metal plates with
diameters of 16 cm placed horizontally on the top of the ball
positioned inside of an acrylic tube with a diameter of 16.2 cm,
which ensured that, at all times, the compressive weight was
horizontal within a few degrees (see bottom inset in Fig. 3).
Notice that, in our experiments, the diameters of balls tested
were less that 10 cmsuch that the lateral sides of the balls were
not subjected to any connement. The ball height (distance
between steel plates) was monitored with a laser micrometer
MTS LX-500.
Once a weight M was placed on the ball, the ball almost
instantly was compressed up to a compression ratio of
=
M
such that F
M
= Mg and
M
obeyed the relation (1).
Thereupon, the compression ratio slowly decreased with time
(see the top inset in Fig. 3) for more than 1 month [44].
In some experiments, after several hours of compression
(t
1
), the weight plate was suddenly trapped such that its
position was xed (using a rigid steel string attached to the
weight plate) at =
t 1
= const for a period of time t =
t
2
t
1
(see Fig. 3). It should be pointed out that, during this
period (t = t
2
t
1
), the compressive force did not become
zero, rather it slowly decreased in time in the same way as
observed in the stress relaxation experiments at the constant
FIG. 3. Semilogarithmic graph of compression ratio versus
time t for a ball folded from a square paper sheet of Kraft paper with
an edge size of L =400 mmsubjected to constant compressive force.
After the compressive force is supplied by mass M = 20.718 kg, the
ball, almost instantaneously, is compressed up to
M
= 0.3279 and
then decreases with time up to the compression ratio
t 1
= 0.2658,
at which the position of the plate is xed for 3 h; when after
t = 3 h, the plate is liberated, the ball, almost instantaneously, is
compressed up to
t 2
= 0.2611; circles, experimental data; solid
curve 1, data tting by Eq. (9) with c = 0.058;
= 15.61 s, and
= 0.068; dashed line 2, data tting by logarithmic equation (4)
with a = 0.3432 and = 0.0082; the top inset shows the graph of
versus time excluding the data between t
1
and t
2
, while the bottom
inset shows the experimental setup.
compression ratio described above. When the plate was
liberated again, the ball was compressed almost instantly up to
t 2
, and further compression followed the tendency observed
before the compression was stopped (see Fig. 3). Notice that
similar behavior was observed early in the experiments with
crumpled Mylar sheets [45] reported in Ref. [4].
III. EXPERIMENTAL FINDINGS
The main aim of this paper is to nd analytical expressions
for the functions providing the best ts to the experimental
data of force and effective strain relaxations. Accordingly, we
have tried to t the experimental data with many of the known
forms of a relaxation function [46]. A comprehensive review
of relaxation function forms can be found in Ref. [47]. The
results of our efforts are reported below.
A. Compressive force relaxation under a xed
compression ratio
We found that the compressive force relaxation under a
xed compression ratio =
F
is best tted with the following
relationship:
F = F
0
1 ln
1 +
t
, (8)
where the force F
0
is related to
F
according to relationship (2),
while and
F
are tting parameters [see Figs. 1(b) and 4].
Moreover, we found that tting parameters are statistically
independent of the sheet size, the ratio L/R, and the initial
force F
0
(
F
) [see the captions of Figs. 1(c), 4, and 5]. At
the same time, we noted that
F
was very sensitive to the
paper properties, ambient humidity, and temperature during
021118-4
SLOW DYNAMICS OF STRESS AND STRAIN RELAXATION . . . PHYSICAL REVIEW E 84, 021118 (2011)
FIG. 4. Compressive force relaxation under the xed compres-
sion ratios in balls folded from square sheets of (a) and (b) Kraft
paper [L = 600 mm,
M
= 0.230(1), L = 400 mm,
M
= 0.148(2),
L = 200 mm,
M
= 0.3(3), and L = 100 mm,
M
= 0.135(4)] and
(c) and (d) Biblia paper with L = 300 mm [
M
= 0.180(5),
M
=
0.185(6), and
M
= 0.265(7)]. (a) and (c) Semilogarithmic graphs
of F versus 1 +t /; (b) and (d) log-log graphs of ln(F
0
/F) versus
t . Circles, experimental data; solid lines, data tting by Eq. (8)
with = 0.043 and
F
= 15.99 s. (1), = 0.0397 and
F
= 5.63 s
(2), =0.0424 and
F
=15.5 s (3), =0.0423 and
F
=0.31 s (4),
=0.0427 and
F
=31.1 s (5), =0.0489 and
F
=27.8 s (6), =
0.043 and
F
= 24.4 s (7); dashed lines, data tting by the stretched
exponential function (5) with =0.28 (1), 0.16 (4), and 0.26 (6).
the test, whereas, values of , obtained in 16 force relaxation
experiments with balls folded fromtwo different papers, varied
in a relatively narrowrange of 0.39 0.49 with the mean
= 0.041 0.006 (see Fig. 5). These ndings suggest that
characteristic time scale
F
can be associated with the internal
relaxation process and is determined by the paper properties
that are strongly dependent on the paper moisture and
temperature [48], whereas, seems to be universal. However,
a statistically small number of available experimental data are
rather insufcient to afrm this universality.
We noted that force relaxation in axially compressed paper
balls could not be tted well with Eq. (5) [see Figs. 4(b) and
4(d)]. At the same time, we found that the compressive force
relaxation in an axially compressed ball folded fromaluminum
foil seemed to more closely follow the stretched exponential
function (5) suggested in Ref. [41] rather than Eq. (8) (see
Fig. 6). This nding suggests that mechanisms of the compres-
sive force relaxation in axially compressed balls folded from
elasto-plastic paper sheets and from predominantly plastic
aluminum foil are different. Notice that, previously, the role of
plastic deformations in crumpling mechanics was discussed in
Refs. [11,13,27,28].
B. Strain relaxation (creep) under a constant compressive force
In the case of creep deformation of a crumpled sheet
under constant compressive force F
M
= Mg, we found that
FIG. 5. Statistical distributions f of tting parameters (1)
and (2) for balls folded from sheets of Kraft and Biblia papers
in arbitrary units. Bins, experimental data; curves, data tting by
normal distributions with means = 0.041(1) and = 0.066(2),
respectively.
experimental data on the time dependence of the compression
ratio are best tted with an empirical relationship of the form
(t ) = c +
M
c
1 +(1
M
) ln (1 +t /
)
, (9)
where initial compression ratio (0) =
M
is related to F
M
=
Mg according to the force-deformation relationship (2), while
= 14.4 s, and
= 0.076. Insets show semilogarithmic graphs of Y = 1/ ( c)
versus X = 1 +t / of data taken each minute for 12 h [bottom inset,
data tting by Eq. (9) with c = 0.056,
and
F
to
ambient conditions.
Here, it should be pointed out that, while the available
experimental data for t can be tted well with Eq. (4), we
found that, for any time interval, Eq. (9) provides a somewhat
better t than Eq. (4) (see Fig. 3) or its modication in the
form
=
M
ln(1 +t /
), (10)
where
and
exp [(
M
c) /
= (
M
c)(1
M
) , while
FIG. 8. Data ttings for the strain relaxation in axially com-
pressed balls folded from Kraft paper with the size of L = 400 mm
under the weight of M = 20.718 kg for 25.83 h (1) and Biblia paper
with the size of L = 300 mm under the weight of M = 5 kg for
5 days (2): (a) semilogarithmic graphs of Y = 1/ ( c) versus
X = 1 +t /: symbols, experimental data; straight lines, data tting
by Eq. (9) with: c = 0.058,
= 8.8 s, and
= 0.077 (line 2, R
2
= 0.9999); (b) semilogarithmic graphs of
versus X
= 1 +t /
= 6.9 s,
= 0.0085(curve 2, R
2
= 0.9977), and
M
= 0.4823,
= 8.8 s,
and
= 0.0123 (curve 2, R
2
= 0.9974).
Eq. (4) is the asymptotic of Eq. (10) for times t
1
min, and so one expects that =
and a =
M
+ln(
).
In this way, Eq. (9) is consistent with the experimental results
reported in Ref. [19].
IV. DISCUSSION
Creep and compressive force relaxation are inherent
mechanical behaviors of crumpled matter under external
loads. It seems reasonable to assume that both are different
performances of the same physical processes. In this paper,
we also assume that relation (2) can be extended to the case
of time-dependent stiffness of the folded sheet under axial
compression as
F = K
(t )
e
, when
e
= const, (11)
while
e
= K
1
F
(t )F, when F = const, (12)
where K
(t ) and K
F
(t ) are the time-dependent stiffness at the
constant compression ratio and at the constant compression
force, respectively. If so, the compressive force relaxation at
the xed deformation ratio and the effective strain relaxation
at the constant compression force both are controlled by the
021118-6
SLOW DYNAMICS OF STRESS AND STRAIN RELAXATION . . . PHYSICAL REVIEW E 84, 021118 (2011)
time dependence of the ball stiffness. Specically, Eqs. (8),
(11), and (12) imply that
K
(t ) = K
0
1 ln
1 +
t
, (13)
while
K
1
F
(t ) = K
1
0
1 + (1 c) ln
1 +
t
, (14)
such that K
(t )/K
F
(t ) = 1, while K
(0) = K
F
(0) = K
0
. The
difference in the time behavior of the ball stiffness at
the constant compression ratio and at the constant compressive
force can be attributed, at least partially, to different time
behaviors of loading area A
e
=
0
obeys the following evolution equation:
dF
dt
=
0
dK
dt
=
F
0
F
exp
F
0
F
K
0
, (15)
where F
0
= K
0
0
and F = K
0
. Notice that by taking relation
(7) into account, Eq. (15) can be rewritten in terms of apparent
stresses in the form
d/dt = (
0
/
) exp [(
0
) /
0
] ,
which was widely used in the studies of shear and stain
hardening in fcc metals [3638] and band formation in plastic
materials [36,38] and granular media [40].
On the other hand, Eqs. (12) and (14) imply that, under
a constant axial compressive force (F = Mg), the creep
deformation is governed by the following evolution equation:
d
e
dt
F
=
Mg
K
2
F
dK
F
dt
F
=
(1 c)
M
exp
K
0
(
e
M
)
(1 c)Mg
, (16)
where
M
= u
M
/(R
u
M
) = (1
M
)/(
M
c) is the ini-
tial effective strain, while
M
obeys the force-deformation
relationship (2) with F = Mg.
At this point, it is appropriate to note that an exponential
dependence of the relaxation rate on a driving force (equal to or
smaller than its threshold value) is commonly associated with
uctuation controlled kinetics, while temporal uctuations in
the system can have a thermal or nonthermal nature (see, for
example, Refs. [4,3640]). The uctuation controlled kinetics
can be of thermodynamic or pure mechanical nature. However,
in Sec. I, we already stated that the mechanical behavior of
crumpled sheets can be understood within the framework of
Edwardss statistical mechanics of a crumpling network (see
Ref. [16]). Accordingly, below, the relaxation in the crumpled
sheet is also discussed within the same framework.
B. Thermodynamics of relaxation processes
Equations (16) and (17) suggest that relaxation processes
in a crumpled sheet, subjected to axial compression, are
ruled by temporal uctuations, which allows overcoming an
activation barrier U between jammed congurations of the
crumpling network. The intensity of temporal uctuations in
the crumpling network is controlled by the congurational
temperature (1). Accordingly, in the spirit of Edwardss
statistical mechanics, one canexpect that the axial compression
of the randomly folded ball leads to the rearrangement of
energy foci such that the activation barrier U between
admissible jammed congurations of the crumpling network
is a function of compressive force and effective strain. Hence,
the relaxation rates are expected to obey the Arrhenius-like
relation,
F
t
e
,
e
t
F
exp
U
kT
conf
, (17)
where k is the constant analogous to the Boltzmann one (see
Refs. [23,24]).
Taking relationship (3) into account, from the comparison
of Eq. (17) with evolution equation (15), it follows that, in a ball
under a constant compression ratio
0
= (1 +c
0
)/(1 +
0
),
the activation barrier between admissible folding congura-
tions,
U
=
k
0
(F
0
F) (18)
increases as the compressive force decreases due to dissipation
and/or redistribution of the deformationenergy,
E
0
=
u
0
0
Fdu (19)
supplied to the crumpling network during the ball compression
from R to H
0
=
0
R = R u
0
.
In the case of balls folded from elastic sheets, deformation
energy (19) is redistributed due to the rearrangement of energy
foci in the crumpling network, including the redistribution of
elastic energy between the crumpling creases as well as the
buckling and/or disappearance of folds. In the case of elasto-
plastic sheets, a part of deformation energy (19) dissipates due
to plastic deformations in the crumpling creases. Accordingly,
when the compressive force is withdrawn, the ball, which is
folded from an elastic sheet, recuperates its initial size, which
is determined by the initial restrictions [49] but not the initial
shape (see Fig. 2 in Ref. [16]). In contrast to this, the ball,
which is folded from an elasto-plastic material, resets in a
state with remanent deformation
R
< 1 (see Fig. 1(a) of this
paper and Fig. 1 in Ref. [16]) after the compressive force is
withdrawn.
On the other hand, from Eqs. (3), (12), (16), and (17), when
compression ratio decreases under a constant compressive
force F = Mg, it follows that the activation barrier between
admissible folding congurations,
U
F
=
kK
0
0
(1 c)
M
1
(20)
increases as the compression ratio decreases due to the
rearrangement of the energy foci in the crumpling network
and/or the strain relaxation in the crumpling creases.
021118-7
ALEXANDER S. BALANKIN et al. PHYSICAL REVIEW E 84, 021118 (2011)
Furthermore, Eq. (20) can be rewritten in the following
form:
U
F
=
K
0
(1 +
M
)
0
(1 c)
M
1
=
kK
0
0
(1 c)
1 +
K
0
Mg
, (21)
where
= Mg(u u
M
) (22)
is the work of the gravitational force during creep displace-
ment u u
M
= u, while
M
= Mg (R nh u
M
) is the
available potential energy of the weight plate before creep and
so,
=
M
= Mg(R nh u) (23)
is the available potential energy of the weight plate after creep
displacement u.
Equations (21)(23) suggest that, in the case of the ball
folded from an elastic sheet, the energy supplied to the
crumpling network by the work of the gravitational force
during creep displacement (22) is dynamically distributed
in the crumpling network in such a way that the strength
of jammed folding congurations f
C
increases, whereas,
the available potential energy of the weight plate (23),
playing the role of driving force f , decreases. As a result,
the activation barrier increases with the creep displacement.
Once the compressive force is withdrawn, the ball, which
is folded from an elastic sheet, recuperates its initial size
H = R, nonetheless, the ball shape, which is associated with
a specic jammed conguration of the crumpling network,
can differ from the ball shape before compression (see Fig. 2
in Ref. [16]) because there are many equivalent folding
congurations for given experimental conditions. In the case
of the balls folded from elasto-plastic sheets, a part of the
energy, which is supplied by the work (22), dissipates due to
plastic deformations in the crumpling creases. This manifests
in the remanent deformation of the elasto-plastic sheet after
unloading.
It is interesting to note that evolution equation (17), with
the activation barrier that is dened by Eq. (21), takes the form
of an equation for the creep velocity of an interface, which is
driven in a disordered medium by a driving force f less than
a pinning strength f
c
[50],
v exp
U
c
kT
eff
f
c
f
,
where U
c
is the energy scale, T
eff
is the effective temperature of
the disordered medium, while is the creep exponent. Hence,
the dynamics of relaxation in the crumpling network, which is
subjected to axial compression, can be mapped into dynamics
of depinning and creep motions of an elastic interface in a
medium with quenched disorder. This mapping implies that
the driving force of the creep motion is f ()
1/
, while
the pinning strength of the jammed folding congurations is
f
C
1/
. Further analysis is needed to derive an analytic
expression for the creep exponent .
C. Remark
In balls that are folded from predominantly plastic sheets,
such as aluminum foil, most parts of the deformation energy
(19) as well as most parts of the work (22) are irreversibly
dissipated in crumpling creases such that the amount of
accumulated elastic energy is insufcient to initiate the
reverse transitions between jammed folding congurations
of the crumpling network after the compressive force is
withdrawn. Moreover, under increased compression, dynamic
rearrangements in crumpling networks of predominantly
plastic materials are repressed by plastic deformations (see
Refs. [11,13,27]) and so, the relaxation of the compression
force and the creep deformation is determined by the energy
dissipation in the folding creases rather than by the rear-
rangement of the energy foci. As a result, the compressive
force relaxation and creep in balls that are folded from plastic
sheets do not obey evolution equations (15) and (16), rather,
they are controlled by another mechanism that is associated
with the plastic deformations, which are localized in the
crumpling creases. While stretched exponential function (5)
provides a good tting of experimental data on the stress
relaxation in hand-folded aluminum foil (see Fig. 6 and
Ref. [41]), further experimental and theoretical studies are
needed to clarify the mechanisms and functional forms of
stress and strain relaxation in randomly crumpled plastic
sheets.
V. CONCLUSIONS
To summarize, we found experimentally that, in axially
compressed hand crumpled paper, the relaxation of the
compressive force under the constant compression ratio and
the creep deformation under the constant force follow the
relaxation equations (8) and (9), respectively. These equations
determine the formof the corresponding equations of evolution
(15) and (16), which suggest that the relaxation dynamics
in crumpled elastic and elasto-plastic sheets is ruled by
activated processes of the rearrangement of the energy foci
in the crumpling network, whereas, the stress relaxation
in predominantly plastic sheets is controlled by the energy
dissipation in the crumpling creases. We pointed out that
thermodynamics of activated processes in crumpled sheets can
be understood within the framework of Edwardss statistical
mechanics. In this way, explicit functional forms of the
activation barrier between admissible jammed congurations
of the crumpling network under axial compression are derived.
Our ndings suggest that, under a constant compression
ratio, the compressive force decreases due to dissipation
and/or redistribution of the deformation energy supplied to
the crumpled network during ball compression. On the other
hand, under a constant compressive force, the activation
barrier between admissible jammed congurations increases
as an elastic energy, which is supplied by a compressive
021118-8
SLOW DYNAMICS OF STRESS AND STRAIN RELAXATION . . . PHYSICAL REVIEW E 84, 021118 (2011)
force, is released during creep deformation, which is
accompanied by the rearrangement of the energy foci in the
crumpling network and energy relaxation in the crumpling
creases.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was partially supported by the FONCICYT
(M exico-European Union) under Project No. 96095 and the
Government of Mexico City under Grant No. PICCT08-38.
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