M337 2013

M337: Meromorphic Functions

In a margin note in Section 1.3 of Unit D1, it is stated that the only functions f : ? ? that ? , in the way given can be extended to functions of the extended complex plane f : ? there, are rational functions. This note is to prove this. First, we need a definition. A function f which is analytic everywhere in a region R except at poles of f is said to be a meromorphic function in R . Throughout, we will assume that functions do not have any removable singularities as these can be removed in the usual way so that the extended function is analytic at such points. We will also assume that any removable singularity at has been removed as described in Section 1.3. It is shown in Section 1.3 of Unit D1, that any rational function on ? treated in this way can be ? whose only singularities are poles. extended to a function of the extended complex plane ? Clearly, a rational function is a meromorphic function on ? as its only singularities are poles and the extended function is meromorphic on the extended complex plane, as shown in Section 1.3. To , is a prove the converse, that any meromorphic function on the extended complex plane, ? rational function, we need a result from elementary topology. In what follows En is the ordinary Euclidean line, plane, space, or higher n-dimensional space. The case we are interested in is E2 = H2 , the real plane, that has the same topology as the complex plane. An open covering of a subset S En is any collection of open sets + such that S
U +

U.

In other words, the sets of + together cover S, or each point of S belongs to at least one of the sets of + . A subcovering of S is then a subcollection of + that still covers S. More precisely, * is a subcovering of S if * + and S
U *

U.

Heine-Borel Theorem Any open covering of a closed and bounded set in En has a finite subcovering. For a proof see a book on Real Analysis or a book on elementary Topology. Topology books take this covering property as the definition of a compact set, but for M337 this Theorem can be stated as: Any open covering + of a compact set K in ? has a finite subcovering ., that is, . is a finite collection of sets from + that cover K. Simple examples 1. The collection of open discs + = {Da, b : a, b } , where Da, b = {z : |z (a + ib)| < 1} is an open covering of the plane ? , but no finite number of these open discs cover ? . Of course, ? is not compact as it is not bounded. 2. The collection of open rectangles + = {Rn : n } , where Rn = {z : 1 / n < Re (z) < 3 / n and 1 < Im (z) < 2} is an open covering of the open unit square S = {z : 0 < Re (z) < 1 and 0 < Im (z) < 1} , but no finite number of the rectangles cover S. This time S is not compact because it is not closed. 3. If we add the open rectangle R0 = {z : 1 < Re (z) < 1 / 106 and 1 < Im (z) < 2} to the collection in example 2, then the new collection + = {Rn : n and n = 0} covers the closure of S, S = {z : 0 Re (z) 1 and 0 Im (z) 1} which is compact. There is a finite subcover of S consisting of 1,000,001 of the rectangles, but no fewer will cover. 4. An open covering of a non-compact set may have a finite subcovering as, for example, the finite subcover in the previous example also covers S ; but for a non-compact set there will always be some open covering of the set that has no finite subcovering. 1

M337 2013

, if and only if it is a Theorem A function is meromorphic in the extended complex plane, ? rational function. Proof. Clearly, a rational function is meromorphic (see above and Section 3.1 of Unit D1). . Since f either has a pole at or is analytic at Conversely, let f be a meromorphic function in ? , there exists a punctured open disc at on which f is differentiable. So, for some R > 0 ,

{z ? : |z| > R} . f is differentiable on [By the definition and method on p12 in Section 1.3, Unit D1, g (w) = f (1 / w) is differentiable on a punctured open disc centred at 0 , say {w ? : 0 < |w| < r}, and this corresponds to the above punctured open disc at by taking R = 1 / r.] So, all the poles of f , other than any pole at , are in the closed disc
K = {z ? : |z| R} . Since poles are isolated singularities, for each pole K , there exists r > 0 such that the open disc D = {z ? : |z| < r} contains no other poles. Also, for each point K at which f is analytic, there exists r > 0 such that f is differentiable on the open disc D = {z ? : |z| < r} and so D contains no poles. The collection of all these open discs, D and D , is an open covering of K. Since K is closed and bounded, it is compact, and so a finite collection . of these discs covers K. As none of the D contain any of the poles and each D contains only the pole , . must include all the D . Hence there are only a finite number of poles. Let these poles be 1 , 2 , . . . . . . . . , n and let their orders be m1 , m2 , . . . . . . . . , mn , respectively. Define the function h (z) = (z 1)m1 (z 2)m2 . . . . . . . . . (z n)mn f (z) . By Theorem 3.2 (A) and (B) of Unit B4, the function h (z) is differentiable on ? (after removing the removable singularities at the i ) and so analytic on ?. By Taylors Theorem and Corollary, in Unit B3, h (z) has a Taylor Series valid on ? ,

h (z) = Now the polynomial

k=0

akzk ,

for all z ?.

p (z) = (z 1)m1 (z 2)m2 . . . . . . . . . (z n)mn has a pole of order M = m1 + m2 + . . . . . . . . . . + mn at , because the function
m1 m2 mn 1 1 1 1 q (w) = p = 1 2 . . . . . . . . . n w w w w has largest negative power term wM and so a pole of order M at 0. Let l 0 be the order of any pole of f at , where l = 0 covers the case of no pole at . Then h (z) has a pole of order N = M + l at . Now

() ( ()

)(

1 h = w

k=0

akwk ,

for |w| > 0

and, as this has a pole of order N at 0 , ak = 0 , for all k > N . This means that h (z) =
k=0

akzk ,

for all z ? ,

is a polynomial. Consequently, f (z) = h (z) / p (z) is a rational function. I A function meromorphic only in ? may not be rational. For example, the only singularities of f (z) = 1 / sin z in ? are poles at k , for all k , but, being infinite in number, f cannot be a rational function. In fact f has an essential singularity at (consider g (w) = 1 / sin (1 / w) at 0). 2