SpiraxSarco-B10-Steam Distribution

Block 10 Steam Distribution Introduction to Steam Distribution Module 10.
Module 10.1
Introduction to Steam Distribution
The Steam and Condensate Loop 10.1.1

Block 10 Steam Distribution Introduction to Steam Distribution Module 10.1
Introduction to Steam Distribution

The steam distribution system is the essential link between the steam generator and the steam
user.
This Module will look at methods of carrying steam from a central source to the point of use. The
central source might be a boiler house or the discharge from a co-generation plant. The boilers
may burn primary fuel, or be waste heat boilers using exhaust gases from high temperature
processes, engines or even incinerators. Whatever the source, an efficient steam distribution
system is essential if steam of the right quality and pressure is to be supplied, in the right quantity,
to the steam using equipment. Installation and maintenance of the steam system are important
issues, and must be considered at the design stage.
Steam system basics
From the outset, an understanding of the basic steam circuit, or ‘steam and condensate loop’ is
required – see Figure 10.1.1. As steam condenses in a process, flow is induced in the supply
pipe. Condensate has a very small volume compared to the steam, and this causes a pressure
drop, which causes the steam to flow through the pipes.
Space
Steam Steam heating
Pan Pan system
Condensate
Process
vessel
Steam
Condensate
Condensate
Steam
Make-up
water
Feedtank Condensate
Feedpump
Fig. 10.1.1 A typical basic steam circuit
The steam generated in the boiler must be conveyed through pipework to the point where its
heat energy is required. Initially there will be one or more main pipes, or ‘steam mains’, which
carry steam from the boiler in the general direction of the steam using plant. Smaller branch
pipes can then carry the steam to the individual pieces of equipment.
When the boiler main isolating valve (commonly called the ‘crown’ valve) is opened, steam
immediately passes from the boiler into and along the steam mains to the points at lower pressure.
The pipework is initially cooler than the steam, so heat is transferred from the steam to the pipe.
The air surrounding the pipes is also cooler than the steam, so the pipework will begin to transfer
heat to the air.
Steam on contact with the cooler pipes will begin to condense immediately. On start-up of the
system, the condensing rate will be at its maximum, as this is the time where there is maximum
temperature difference between the steam and the pipework. This condensing rate is commonly
called the ‘starting load’. Once the pipework has warmed up, the temperature difference between
the steam and pipework is minimal, but some condensation will occur as the pipework still
continues to transfer heat to the surrounding air. This condensing rate is commonly called the
‘running load’.
10.1.2 The Steam and Condensate Loop

The resulting condensation (condensate) falls to the bottom of the pipe and is carried along by
the steam flow and assisted by gravity, due to the gradient in the steam main that should be
arranged to fall in the direction of steam flow. The condensate will then have to be drained from
various strategic points in the steam main.
When the valve on the steam pipe serving an item of steam using plant is opened, steam flowing
from the distribution system enters the plant and again comes into contact with cooler surfaces.
The steam then transfers its energy in warming up the equipment and product (starting load),
and, when up to temperature, continues to transfer heat to the process (running load).
There is now a continuous supply of steam from the boiler to satisfy the connected load and to
maintain this supply more steam must be generated. In order to do this, more water (and fuel to
heat this water) is supplied to the boiler to make up for that water which has previously been
evaporated into steam.
The condensate formed in both the steam distribution pipework and in the process equipment
is a convenient supply of useable hot boiler feedwater. Although it is important to remove this
condensate from the steam space, it is a valuable commodity and should not be allowed to
run to waste. Returning all condensate to the boiler feedtank closes the basic steam loop, and
should be practised wherever practical. The return of condensate to the boiler is discussed
further in Block 13, ‘Condensate Removal’, and Block 14,’Condensate Management’.
The working pressure
The distribution pressure of steam is influenced by a number of factors, but is limited by:
o The maximum safe working pressure of the boiler.
o The minimum pressure required at the plant.
As steam passes through the distribution pipework, it will inevitably lose pressure due to:
o Frictional resistance within the pipework (detailed in Module 10.2).
o Condensation within the pipework as heat is transferred to the environment.
Therefore allowance should be made for this pressure loss when deciding upon the initial
distribution pressure.
A kilogram of steam at a higher pressure occupies less volume than at a lower pressure. It follows
that, if steam is generated in the boiler at a high pressure and also distributed at a high pressure,
the size of the distribution mains will be smaller than that for a low-pressure system for the same
heat load. Figure 10.1.2 illustrates this point.
2.0
Specific volume m³/kg
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
0 6 2 4 8 10 12 14
Pressure bar g
Fig. 10.1.2 Dry saturated steam - pressure /specific volume relationship
Generating and distributing steam at higher pressure offers three important advantages:
o The thermal storage capacity of the boiler is increased, helping it to cope more efficiently with
fluctuating loads, minimising the risk of producing wet and dirty steam.
o Smaller bore steam mains are required, resulting in lower capital cost, for materials such as
pipes, flanges, supports, insulation and labour.
o Smaller bore steam mains cost less to insulate.

Having distributed at a high pressure, it will be necessary to reduce the steam pressure to each
zone or point of use in the system in order to correspond with the maximum pressure required
by the application. Local pressure reduction to suit individual plant will also result in drier steam
at the point of use. (Module 2.3 provides an explanation of this).
Note: It is sometimes thought that running a steam boiler at a lower pressure than its rated
pressure will save fuel. This logic is based on more fuel being needed to raise steam to a higher
pressure.
Whilst there is an element of truth in this logic, it should be remembered that it is the connected
load, and not the boiler output, which determines the rate at which energy is used. The same
amount of energy is used by the load whether the boiler raises steam at 4 bar g, 10 bar g or
100 bar g. Standing losses, flue losses, and running losses are increased by operating at higher
pressures, but these losses are reduced by insulation and proper condensate return systems.
These losses are marginal when compared to the benefits of distributing steam at high pressure.
Pressure reduction
The common method for reducing pressure at the point where steam is to be used is to use a
pressure reducing valve, similar to the one shown in the pressure reducing station Figure 10.1.3.
Pressure Safety valve

reducing valve
Separator
Steam Steam
Strainer
Trap set
Condensate
Fig. 10.1.3 Typical pressure reducing valve station
A separator is installed upstream of the reducing valve to remove entrained water from incoming
wet steam, thereby ensuring high quality steam to pass through the reducing valve. This is discussed
in more detail in Module 9.3 and Module 12.5.
Plant downstream of the pressure reducing valve is protected by a safety valve. If the pressure
reducing valve fails, the downstream pressure may rise above the maximum allowable working
pressure of the steam using equipment. This, in turn, may permanently damage the equipment,
and, more importantly, constitute a danger to personnel.
With a safety valve fitted, any excess pressure is vented through the valve, and will prevent this
from happening (safety valves are discussed in Block 9).
Other components included in the pressure reducing valve station are:
o The primary isolating valve - To shut the system down for maintenance.
o The primary pressure gauge - To monitor the integrity of supply.
o The strainer - To keep the system clean.
o The secondary pressure gauge - To set and monitor the downstream pressure.
o The secondary isolating valve - To assist in setting the downstream pressure on no- load
conditions.

Questions
1. Distributing steam at high pressure, instead of low pressure, will have the following
effect.
a | Heat losses from the pipes will be less. ¨
b | A lower storage capacity in the high pressure pipes. ¨
c | High pressure small bore steam pipes cost less to install and insulate. ¨
d | The steam pipes will be smaller creating wet steam. ¨
2. A steam pressure reducing valve is fitted to:

a | Prevent the pressure at the plant exceeding its safe working pressure. ¨
b | Help dry the steam supply to the plant. ¨
c | Reduce the flash steam losses as condensate passes through the plant steam traps. ¨
d | Supply the plant with steam at the designed temperature and pressure. ¨
3. The start-up condensate load of a steam main is generally greater than the running load
because:
a | The pipework and fittings are cold, so steam is required to heat it up to steam
temperature. ¨
b | The steam space within the pipework has to be charged with steam to the
desired running pressure. ¨
c | The boiler crown valve or stop valve is opened very slowly and initially there
is insufficient pressure to discharge condensate through the steam traps. ¨
d | On initial opening of the crown valve, the steam distribution pressure will be low
and the enthalpy of evaporation of low pressure steam is greater than at high pressure
so a greater mass of steam will be condensed. ¨
4. The pressure at which steam is supplied to the plant should be dictated by:
a | The boiler operating pressure. ¨
b | The steam distribution pressure. ¨
c | The maximum allowable safe working pressure of the plant. ¨
d | The plant design pressure and temperature. ¨
5. Which of the following results in pressure losses in distribution pipework?

a | Sizing the pipes on low pressure instead of high pressure. ¨
b | Frictional resistance within and heat loss from the pipe and fittings. ¨
c | Sizing the pipes on start-up load of the plant. ¨
d | Large steam users. ¨
6. The steam pipe after a pressure reducing valve is likely to be:

a | Smaller than the upstream pipe because of the smaller volume of low pressure steam. ¨
b | The same size as the connection to the plant. ¨
c | Larger than the upstream pipe because the volume of the low pressure steam
is greater. ¨
d | The same size as the upstream pipe because the flowrate through each pipe
is the same. ¨
Answers
1: c, 2: d, 3: a, 4: d, 5: b 6: c


Block 10 Steam Distribution Pipes and Pipe Sizing Module 10.2
Module 10.2
Pipes and Pipe Sizing

Pipes and Pipe Sizing

Standards and wall thickness
There are a number of piping standards in existence around the world, but arguably the most
global are those derived by the American Petroleum Institute (API), where pipes are categorised
in schedule numbers.
These schedule numbers bear a relation to the pressure rating of the piping. There are eleven
Schedules ranging from the lowest at 5 through 10, 20, 30, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120, 140 to schedule
No. 160. For nominal size piping 150 mm and smaller, Schedule 40 (sometimes called standard
weight) is the lightest that would be specified for steam applications.
Regardless of schedule number, pipes of a particular size all have the same outside diameter (not
withstanding manufacturing tolerances). As the schedule number increases, the wall thickness
increases, and the actual bore is reduced. For example:
o A 100 mm Schedule 40 pipe has an outside diameter of 114.30 mm, a wall thickness of 6.02
mm, giving a bore of 102.26 mm.
o A 100 mm Schedule 80 pipe has an outside diameter of 114.30 mm, a wall thickness of 8.56
mm, giving a bore of 97.18 mm.
Only Schedules 40 and 80 cover the full range from 15 mm up to 600 mm nominal sizes and are
the most commonly used schedule for steam pipe installations.
This Module considers Schedule 40 pipework as covered in BS 1600.
Tables of schedule numbers can be obtained from BS 1600 which are used as a reference for the
nominal pipe size and wall thickness in millimetres. Table 10.2.1 compares the actual bore sizes
of different sized pipes, for different schedule numbers.
In mainland Europe, pipe is manufactured to DIN standards, and DIN 2448 pipe is included in
Table 10.2.1.
Table 10.2.1 Comparison of pipe standards and actual bore diameters.
Nominal size pipe (mm) 15 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100 150
Schedule 40 15.8 21.0 26.6 35.1 40.9 52.5 62.7 77.9 102.3 154.1
Schedule 80 13.8 18.9 24.3 32.5 38.1 49.2 59.0 73.7 97.2 146.4
Bore (mm)
Schedule 160 11.7 15.6 20.7 29.5 34.0 42.8 53.9 66.6 87.3 131.8
DIN 2448 17.3 22.3 28.5 37.2 43.1 60.3 70.3 82.5 107.1 159.3
In the United Kingdom, piping to BS 1387, (steel tubes and tubulars suitable for screwing to
BS 21 threads) is also used in applications where the pipe is screwed rather than flanged.
They are commonly referred to as Blue Band and Red Band; this being due to their banded
identification marks. The different colours refer to particular grades of pipe:
o Red Band, being heavy grade, is commonly used for steam pipe applications.
o Blue Band, being medium grade, is commonly used for air distribution systems, although it is
sometimes used for low-pressure steam systems.
The coloured bands are 50 mm wide, and their positions on the pipe denote its length. Pipes less
than 4 metres in length only have a coloured band at one end, while pipes of 4 to 7 metres in
length have a coloured band at either end.
Fig. 10.2.1 Red band, branded pipe, - heavy grade, Fig. 10.2.2 Blue band, branded pipe, - heavy grade,
up to 4 metres in length between 4-7 metres in length

Pipe material
Pipes for steam systems are commonly manufactured from carbon steel to ANSI B 16.9 A106.
The same material may be used for condensate lines, although copper tubing is preferred in
some industries.
For high temperature superheated steam mains, additional alloying elements, such as chromium
and molybdenum, are included to improve tensile strength and creep resistance at high
temperatures.
Typically, pipes are supplied in 6 metre lengths.
Pipeline sizing
The objective of the steam distribution system is to supply steam at the correct pressure to the
point of use. It follows, therefore, that pressure drop through the distribution system is an important
feature.
Bernoullis Theorem (Daniel Bernoulli 1700 - 1782) is discussed in Block 4 - Flowmetering.
DArcy (DArcy Thompson 1860 - 1948) added that for fluid flow to occur, there must be more
energy at Point 1 than Point 2 (see Figure 10.2.3). The difference in energy is used to overcome
frictional resistance between the pipe and the flowing fluid.
hf
h1
h2
Pipe diameter (D) Flow velocity (u)
Length (L)
Point 1 Point 2
Fig. 10.2.3 Friction in pipes
This is illustrated by the DArcy equation (Equation 10.2.1):
K = I/Xò Equation 10.2.1

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Where:
hf = Head loss to friction (m)
f = Friction factor (dimensionless)
L = Length (m)
u = Flow velocity (m /s)
g = Gravitational constant (9.81 m /s²)
D = Pipe diameter (m)
It is useful to remember that:
o Head loss to friction (hf) is proportional to the velocity squared (u²).
o The friction factor (f) is an experimental coefficient which is affected by factors including:
- The Reynolds Number (which is affected by velocity).
- The reciprocal of velocity².
Because the values for f are quite complex, they are usually obtained from charts.

Example 10.2.1 - Water pipe

Determine the difference in pressure between two points 1 km apart in a 150 mm bore
horizontal pipework system. The water flowrate is 45 m³ / h at 15°C and the friction factor
for this pipe is taken as 0.005
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In practice whether for water pipes or steam pipes, a balance is drawn between pipe size and
pressure loss.
Oversized pipework means:
o Pipes, valves, fittings, etc. will be more expensive than necessary.
o Higher installation costs will be incurred, including support work, insulation, etc.
o For steam pipes a greater volume of condensate will be formed due to the greater heat loss. This,
in turn, means that either:
- More steam trapping is required, or
- Wet steam is delivered to the point of use.
In a particular example:
o The cost of installing 80 mm steam pipework was found to be 44% higher than the cost of 50
mm pipework, which would have had adequate capacity.
o The heat lost by the insulated pipework was some 21% higher from the 80 mm pipeline than
it would have been from the 50 mm pipework. Any non-insulated parts of the 80 mm pipe
would lose 50% more heat than the 50 mm pipe, due to the extra heat transfer surface area.
Undersized pipework means:
o A lower pressure may only be available at the point of use. This may hinder equipment
performance due to only lower pressure steam being available.
o There is a risk of steam starvation.
o There is a greater risk of erosion, waterhammer and noise due to the inherent increase in
steam velocity.
As previously mentioned, the friction factor (f) can be difficult to determine, and the calculation
itself is time consuming especially for turbulent steam flow. As a result, there are numerous graphs,
tables and slide rules available for relating steam pipe sizes to flowrates and pressure drops.
One pressure drop sizing method, which has stood the test of time, is the pressure factor method.
A table of pressure factor values is used in Equation 10.2.2 to determine the pressure drop for a
particular installation.
) = 3 3 Equation 10.2.2

/
Where:
F = Pressure factor
P1 = Factor at inlet pressure
P2 = Factor at a distance of L metres
L = Equivalent length of pipe (m)

Example 10.2.2
Consider the system shown in Figure 10.2.4, and determine the pipe size required from the
boiler to the unit heater branch line. Unit heater steam load = 270 kg /h.
P1 = 7 bar g P2 = 6.6 bar g
L = 150 m
150 m (original pipe length)

+ 10 % (allowance for pipe fittings)
= 165 m (revised pipe length)
Boiler at Unit heater

Revised load to supply the heater battery is
7.0 bar g at 6.6 bar g
270 kg/h + 5.8% = 286 kg/h
286 kg/h 270 kg/h
Fig. 10.2.4 System used to illustrate Example 10.2.2
Although the unit heater only requires 270 kg /h, the boiler has to supply more than this due to
heat losses from the pipe.
The allowance for pipe fittings
The length of travel from the boiler to the unit heater is known, but an allowance must be
included for the additional frictional resistance of the fittings. This is generally expressed in terms
of equivalent pipe length. If the size of the pipe is known, the resistance of the fittings can be
calculated. As the pipe size is not yet known in this example, an addition to the equivalent length
can be used based on experience.
o If the pipe is less than 50 metres long, add an allowance for fittings of 5%.
o If the pipe is over 100 metres long and is a fairly straight run with few fittings, an allowance for
fittings of 10% would be made.
o A similar pipe length, but with more fittings, would increase the allowance towards 20%.
In this instance, revised length = 150 m + 10% = 165 m
The allowance for the heat losses from the pipe
The unit heater requires 270 kg /h of steam; therefore the pipe must carry this quantity plus the
quantity of steam condensed by heat losses from the main. As the size of the main is yet to be
determined, the true calculations cannot be made, but, assuming that the main is insulated, it
may be reasonable to add 3.5% of the steam load per 100 m of the revised length as heat losses.

In this instance, the additional allowance =

[
Revised boiler load = 270 kg /h + 5.8% = 286 kg /h
From Table 10.2.2 (an extract from the complete pressure factor table, Table 10.2.5, which can
be found in the Appendix at the end of this Module) F can be determined by finding the
pressure factors P1 and P2, and substituting them into Equation 10.2.2.
Table 10.2.2 Extract from pressure factor table (Table 10.2.5)
Pressure bar g Pressure factor (F)
6.5 49.76
6.6 51.05
6.7 52.36
6.9 55.02
7.0 56.38
7.1 57.75

From the pressure factor table:

P1 (7.0 bar g) = 56.38
P2 (6.6 bar g) = 51.05
Substituting these pressure factors (P1 and P2 ) into Equation 10.2.2 will determine the value for F:
) 3 3 Equation 10.2.2

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P
)
Following down the left-hand column of the pipeline capacity and pressure drop factors table
(Table 10.2.6 - Extract shown in Table 10.2.3); the nearest two readings around the requirement
of 0.032 are 0.030 and 0.040. The next lower factor is always selected; in this case, 0.030.
Table 10.2.3 Extract from pipeline capacity and pressure factor table (Table 10.2.6)
Pipe size (DN)
Factor 15 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100 150 200
(F)
Capacity (kg /h)
0.025 10.99 33.48 70.73 127.3 209.8 459.7 834.6 1 367 2 970 8 817 19 332
0.030 12.00 36.78 77.23 137.9 229.9 501.1 919.4 1 480 3 264 9 792 20 917
0.040 14.46 44.16 93.17 169.2 279.5 600.7 1 093 1 790 3 923 11 622 25 254
Although values can be interpolated, the table does not conform exactly to a straight-line graph,
so interpolation cannot be absolutely correct. Also, it is bad practice to size any pipe up to the
limit of its capacity, and it is important to have some leeway to allow for the inevitable future
changes in design.
From factor 0.030, by following the row of figures to the right it will be seen that:
o A 40 mm pipe will carry 229.9 kg /h.
o A 50 mm pipe will carry 501.1 kg /h.
Since the application requires 286 kg /h, the 50 mm pipe would be selected.
Having sized the pipe using the pressure drop method, the velocity can be checked if required.
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Viewed in isolation, this velocity may seem low in comparison with maximum permitted
velocities. However, this steam main has been sized to limit pressure drop, and the next smaller
pipe size would have given a velocity of over 47 m/s, and a final pressure less than the
requirement of 6.6 bar g.

As can be seen, this procedure is fairly complex and can be simplified by using the nomogram
shown in Table 10.2.7 (in the Appendix at the end of this Module). The method of use is explained
in Example 10.2.3.
Example 10.2.3
Using the data from Example 10.2.2, determine the pressure drop using the nomogram
shown in Figure 10.2.5 (same as Table 10.2.7).
Inlet pressure = 7 bar g
Steam flowrate = 286 kg /h
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Method:
o Select the point on the saturated steam line at 7 bar g, and mark Point A.
o From point A, draw a horizontal line to the steam flowrate of 286 kg /h, and mark Point B.
o From point B, draw a vertical line towards the top of the nomogram (Point C).
o Draw a horizontal line from 0.24 bar /100 m on the pressure loss scale (Line DE).
o The point at which lines DE and BC cross will indicate the pipe size required. In this case, a
40 mm pipe is too small, and a 50 mm pipe would be used.
20
C
10
5
10
15
3
20
2
25
Pressure loss bar / 100 m
30
40
1
50
60
70
80
0.5
100
125
0.3
150
D E
200
0.2
mm
250
300
0.1
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400
500
iam
pip 600
0.05
ed
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0.02
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Steam pressure bar g
um
50% vacu
10
0 bar g
20
30
0.5
50
100
1
200
2
300
500
3
0
100
5
3 0 00
00
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20
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50
15
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20
000
20
temperature
000
30
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50
curve
flow 00
rat
100
B
am 200 0
50
70
100
Ste
100 200 300 400 500

Steam temperature °C
Fig. 10.2.5 Steam pipeline sizing chart - Pressure drop

Sizing pipes on velocity

From the knowledge gained at the beginning of this Module, and particularly the notes regarding
the DArcy equation (Equation 10.2.1), it is acknowledged that velocity is an important factor in
sizing pipes. It follows then, that if a reasonable velocity could be used for a particular fluid
flowing through pipes, then velocity could be used as a practical sizing factor. As a general rule, a
velocity of 25 to 40 m /s is used when saturated steam is the medium.
40 m /s should be considered an extreme limit, as above this, noise and erosion will take place
particularly if the steam is wet.
Even these velocities can be high in terms of their effect on pressure drop. In longer supply lines,
it is often necessary to restrict velocities to 15 m /s to avoid high pressure drops. It is recommended
that pipelines over 50 m long are always checked for pressure drop, no matter what the velocity.
By using Table 10.2.4 as a guide, it is possible to select pipe sizes from known data; steam
pressure, velocity and flowrate.
Table 10.2.4 Saturated steam pipeline capacities in kg /h for different velocities (Schedule 40 pipe)
Pipe size (nominal)
15 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100 125 150
Pressure Velocity
Actual inside pipe diameter Schedule 40
bar g m/s
15.80 20.93 26.64 35.04 40.90 52.50 62.70 77.92 102.26 128.20 154.05
Pipeline capacity kg /h
15 9 15 25 43 58 95 136 210 362 569 822
0.4 25 14 25 41 71 97 159 227 350 603 948 1 369
40 23 40 66 113 154 254 363 561 965 1 517 2 191
15 10 18 29 51 69 114 163 251 433 681 983
0.7 25 17 30 49 85 115 190 271 419 722 1 135 1 638
40 28 48 78 136 185 304 434 671 1 155 1 815 2 621
15 12 21 34 59 81 133 189 292 503 791 1 142
1 25 20 35 57 99 134 221 315 487 839 1 319 1 904
40 32 56 91 158 215 354 505 779 1342 2 110 3 046
15 18 31 50 86 118 194 277 427 735 1 156 1 669
2 25 29 51 83 144 196 323 461 712 1 226 1 927 2 782
40 47 82 133 230 314 517 737 1 139 1 961 3 083 4 451
15 23 40 65 113 154 254 362 559 962 1 512 2 183
3 25 38 67 109 188 256 423 603 931 1 603 2 520 3 639
40 61 107 174 301 410 676 964 1 490 2 565 4 032 5 822
15 28 50 80 139 190 313 446 689 1 186 1 864 2 691
4 25 47 83 134 232 316 521 743 1 148 1 976 3 106 4 485
40 75 132 215 371 506 833 1 189 1 836 3 162 4 970 7 176
15 34 59 96 165 225 371 529 817 1 408 2 213 3 195
5 25 56 98 159 276 375 619 882 1 362 2 347 3 688 5 325
40 90 157 255 441 601 990 1 411 2 180 3 755 5 901 8 521
15 39 68 111 191 261 430 613 947 1 631 2 563 3 700
6 25 65 114 184 319 435 716 1 022 1 578 2 718 4 271 6 167
40 104 182 295 511 696 1 146 1 635 2 525 4 348 6 834 9 867
15 44 77 125 217 296 487 695 1 073 1 848 2 904 4 194
7 25 74 129 209 362 493 812 1 158 1 788 3 080 4 841 6 989
40 118 206 334 579 788 1 299 1 853 2 861 4 928 7 745 11 183
15 49 86 140 242 330 544 775 1 198 2 063 3 242 4 681
8 25 82 144 233 404 550 906 1 292 1 996 3 438 5 403 7 802
40 131 230 373 646 880 1 450 2 068 3 194 5 501 8 645 12 484
15 60 105 170 294 401 660 942 1 455 2 506 3 938 5 686
10 25 100 175 283 490 668 1 101 1 570 2 425 4 176 6 563 9 477
40 160 280 453 785 1 069 1 761 2 512 3 880 6 682 10 502 15 164
15 80 141 228 394 537 886 1 263 1 951 3 360 5 281 7 625
14 25 134 235 380 657 896 1 476 2 105 3 251 5 600 8 801 12 708
40 214 375 608 1 052 1 433 2 362 3 368 5 202 8 960 14 082 20 333

Alternatively the pipe size can be calculated arithmetically. The following information is required,
and the procedure used for the calculation is outlined below.
Information required to calculate the required pipe size:
u = Flow velocity (m /s)
vg = Specific volume (m³ /kg)
ms = Mass flowrate (kg /s)
V = Volumetric flowrate (m³ /s) = ms x vg
From this information, the cross sectional area (A) of the pipe can be calculated:
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π ['ò
LH
X
Rearranging the formula to give the diameter of the pipe (D) in metres:
[
' =
π [X
[
'=
π [X
Example 10.2.4
A process requires 5 000 kg /h of dry saturated steam at 7 bar g. For the flow velocity not to
exceed 25 m /s, determine the pipe size.
Where:
)ORZYHORFLW\X P V
6SHFLILFYROXPHDWEDUJY J Pó NJ
0DVVIORZUDWH NJ KRU NJ V
9ROXPHWULFIORZUDWH [Y J
9ROXPHWULFIORZUDWH NJ V [Pó NJ

9ROXPHWULFIORZUDWH Pó V
Therefore, using:
9ROXPHWULFIORZUDWH ( )
&URVVVHFWLRQDODUHD$
)ORZYHORFLW\ ( X )
π['ò
X
[
'ò π[X
[
' π[X
[
3LSHGLDPHWHU'
π[
3LSHGLDPHWHU' PRUPP
Since the steam velocity must not exceed 25 m /s, the pipe size must be at least 130 mm; the
nearest commercially available size, 150 mm, would be selected.
Again, a nomogram has been created to simplify this process, see Figure 10.2.6.

Example 10.2.5
Using the information from Example 10.2.4, use Figure 10.2.6 to determine the minimum
acceptable pipe size
Inlet pressure = 7 bar g
Steam flowrate = 5 000 kg /h
Maximum velocity = 25 m /s
Method:
o Draw a horizontal line from the saturation temperature line at 7 bar g (Point A) on the pressure
scale to the steam mass flowrate of 5 000 kg /h (Point B).

o From point B, draw a vertical line to the steam velocity of 25 m /s (Point C). From point C, draw
a horizontal line across the pipe diameter scale (Point D).
o A pipe with a bore of 130 mm is required; the nearest commercially available size, 150 mm,
would be selected.
600
500
400
300
/s
m 200
city
lo 150
ve 5
m D
ea C
St
Pipe diameter mm
10
100
20
30
50
0
10 50
1 50
40
30
20
10 Steam pressure bar g

/h
kg
ate 10 50% va
cuum
r
w 20 0
flo 3
m 0 bar g
ea 50
St 0
10 0.5
0 1
20 00 2
3 0
50 3
00 5
10
00 A 7
2 0 000 B 10
3 00 Saturation
50 0 temperature
15
00 20
10 0 curve
00 0 30
20 0 00 0
3 00 50
50 00 70
00
10 00 100
00
20
100 200 300 400 500

Fig. 10.2.6 Steam pipeline sizing chart - Velocity

Sizing pipes for superheated steam duty

Superheated steam can be considered as a dry gas and therefore carries no moisture.
Consequently there is no chance of pipe erosion due to suspended water droplets, and steam
velocities can be as high as 50 to 70 m/s if the pressure drop permits this. The nomograms in
Figures 10.2.5 and 10.2.6 can also be used for superheated steam applications.
Example 10.2.6
Utilising the waste heat from a process, a boiler /superheater generates 30 t /h of superheated
steam at 50 bar g and 450°C for export to a neighbouring power station. If the velocity is not
to exceed 50 m /s, determine:
1. The pipe size based on velocity (use Figure 10.2.8).
2. The pressure drop if the pipe length, including allowances, is 200 m (use Figure 10.2.7).
Part 1
o Using Figure 10.2.8, draw a vertical line from 450°C on the temperature axis until it intersects
the 50 bar line (Point A).

o From point A, project a horizontal line to the left until it intersects the steam mass flowrate
scale of 30 000 kg /h (30 t /h) (Point B).
o From point B, project a line vertically upwards until it intersects 50 m /s on the steam velocity
scale (Point C).
o From Point C, project a horizontal line to the right until it intersects the inside pipe diameter
scale.
The inside pipe diameter scale recommends a pipe with an inside diameter of about 120 mm.
From Table 10.2.1 and assuming that the pipe will be Schedule 80 pipe, the nearest size would
be 150 mm, which has a bore of 146.4 mm.
Part 2
o Using Figure 10.2.7, draw a vertical line from 450°C on the temperature axis until it intersects
the 50 bar line (Point A).
o From point A, project a horizontal line to the right until it intersects the steam mass flowrate
scale of 30 000 kg /h (30 t /h) (Point B).
o From point B, project a line vertically upwards until it intersects the inside pipe diameter scale
of (approximately) 146 mm (Point C).
o From Point C, project a horizontal line to the left until it intersects the pressure loss bar/100 m
scale (Point D).
The pressure loss bar /100 m scale reads about 0.9 bar /100 m. The pipe length in the example
is 200 m, so the pressure drop is:
P
3UHVVXUHGURS [EDU EDU
P
This pressure drop must be acceptable at the process plant.

Using formulae to establish steam flowrate on pressure drop

Empirical formulae exist for those who prefer to use them. Two formulae are shown below that
have been tried and tested over many years, and which appear to give results close to the pressure
factor method. The advantage of using these formulae is that they can be programmed into a
scientific calculator, or a spreadsheet, and consequently used without the need to look up tables
and charts. The second formula requires the specific volume of steam to be known, which means
it is necessary to look up this value from a steam table.
Pressure drop formula 1

( 3 ) ( 3 )
/ '
Where:
P1 = Upstream pressure (bar a)
P2 = Downstream pressure (bar a)
L = Length of pipe (m)
m = Mass flowrate (kg /h)
D = Pipe diameter (mm)
Pressure drop formula 2

∆3
/YJ ò
'
Where:
DP = Pressure drop (bar)
L = Length of pipe (m)
vg = Specific volume of steam (m³ /kg)
m = Mass flowrate (kg /h)
D = Pipe diameter (mm)
Summary
o The selection of piping material and the wall thickness required for a particular installation is
stipulated in standards such as BS 806 (1993) and ASME 31.1.
o Selecting the appropriate pipe size (nominal bore) for a particular application is based on
accurately identifying pressure and flowrate. The pipe size may be selected on the basis of:
- Velocity (usually pipes less than 50 m in length).
- Pressure drop (as a general rule, the pressure drop should not normally exceed 0.1 bar /50 m.

Appendix
Table 10.2.5 Pressure drop factor (F) table
Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure
bar a factor (F) bar g factor (F) bar g factor (F)
0.05 0.0301 2.05 8.748 7.60 64.84
0.10 0.0115 2.10 9.026 7.70 66.31
0.15 0.0253 2.15 9.309 7.80 67.79
0.20 0.0442 2.20 9.597 7.90 69.29
0.25 0.0681 2.25 9.888 8.00 70.80
0.30 0.0970 2.30 10.18 8.10 72.33
0.35 0.1308 2.35 10.48 8.20 73.88
0.40 0.1694 2.40 10.79 8.30 75.44
0.45 0.2128 2.45 11.40 8.40 77.02
0.50 0.2610 2.50 11.41 8.50 78.61
0.55 0.3140 2.55 11.72 8.60 80.22
0.60 0.3716 2.60 12.05 8.70 81.84
0.65 0.4340 2.65 12.37 8.80 83.49
0.70 0.5010 2.70 12.70 8.90 85.14
0.75 0.5727 2.75 13.03 9.00 86.81
0.80 0.6489 2.80 13.37 9.10 88.50
0.85 0.7298 2.85 13.71 9.20 90.20
0.90 0.8153 2.90 14.06 9.30 91.92
0.95 0.9053 2.95 14.41 9.40 93.66
1.013 1.0250 3.00 14.76 9.50 95.41
3.10 15.48 9.60 97.18
3.20 16.22 9.70 98.96
Pressure Pressure 3.30 16.98 9.80 100.75
bar g factor (F) 3.40 17.75 9.90 102.57
0 1.025 3.50 18.54 10.00 104.40
0.05 1.126 3.60 19.34 10.20 108.10
0.10 1.230 3.70 20.16 10.40 111.87
0.15 1.339 3.80 21.00 10.60 115.70
0.20 1.453 3.90 21.85 10.80 119.59
0.25 1.572 4.00 22.72 11.00 123.54
0.30 1.694 4.10 23.61 11.20 127.56
0.35 1.822 4.20 24.51 11.40 131.64
0.40 1.953 4.30 25.43 11.60 135.78
0.45 2.090 4.40 26.36 11.80 139.98
0.50 2.230 4.50 27.32 12.00 144.25
0.55 2.375 4.60 28.28 12.20 148.57
0.60 2.525 4.70 29.27 12.40 152.96
0.65 2.679 4.80 30.27 12.60 157.41
0.70 2.837 4.90 31.29 12.80 161.92
0.75 2.999 5.00 32.32 13.00 166.50
0.80 3.166 5.10 33.37 13.20 171.13
0.85 3.338 5.20 34.44 13.40 175.83
0.90 3.514 5.30 35.52 13.60 180.58
0.95 3.694 5.40 36.62 13.80 185.40
1.00 3.878 5.50 37.73 14.00 190.29
1.05 4.067 5.60 38.86 14.20 195.23
1.10 4.260 5.70 40.01 14.40 200.23
1.15 4.458 5.80 41.17 14.60 205.30
1.20 4.660 5.90 42.35 14.80 210.42
1.25 4.866 6.00 43.54 15.00 215.61
1.30 5.076 6.10 44.76 15.20 220.86
1.35 5.291 6.20 45.98 15.40 226.17
1.40 5.510 6.30 47.23 15.60 231.50
1.45 5.734 6.40 48.48 15.80 236.97
1.50 5.961 6.50 49.76 16.00 242.46
1.55 6.193 6.60 51.05 16.20 248.01
1.60 6.429 6.70 52.36 16.40 253.62
1.65 6.670 6.80 53.68 16.60 259.30
1.70 6.915 6.90 55.02 16.80 265.03
1.75 7.164 7.00 56.38 17.00 270.83
1.80 7.417 7.10 57.75 17.20 276.69
1.85 7.675 7.20 59.13 17.40 282.60
1.90 7.937 7.30 60.54 17.60 288.58
1.95 8.203 7.40 61.96 17.80 294.52
2.00 8.473 7.50 63.39 18.00 300.72

Table 10.2.6 Pipeline capacity and pressure factor table

Pipe size (mm)
Factor 15 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100 150 200 250 300
F
Capacity (kg /h)
0.00016 30.40 55.41 90.72 199.1 598.2 1 275 2 329 3 800
0.00020 16.18 34.32 62.77 103.0 225.6 662.0 1 437 2 623 4 276
0.00025 10.84 17.92 38.19 69.31 113.2 249.9 735.5 1 678 2 904 4 715
0.00030 11.95 19.31 41.83 75.85 124.1 271.2 804.5 1 733 4 172 5 149
0.00035 6.86 12.44 20.59 43.76 80.24 130.0 285.3 845.3 1 823 3 346 5 406
0.00045 3.62 7.94 14.56 23.39 50.75 92.68 150.9 333.2 979.7 2 118 3 884 6 267
0.00055 4.04 8.99 16.18 26.52 57.09 103.8 170.8 373.1 1 101 2 382 4 338 7 057
0.00065 4.46 9.56 17.76 29.14 62.38 113.8 186.7 409.8 1 207 2 595 4 781 7 741
0.00075 4.87 10.57 19.31 31.72 68.04 124.1 203.2 445.9 1 315 2 836 5 172 8 367
0.00085 5.52 11.98 21.88 35.95 77.11 140.7 230.2 505.4 1 490 3 215 5 861 9 482
0.00100 1.96 5.84 12.75 23.50 38.25 81.89 148.6 245.2 539.4 1 579 3 383 6 228 10 052
0.00125 2.10 6.26 13.57 24.96 40.72 87.57 159.8 261.8 577.9 1 699 3 634 6 655 10 639
0.00150 2.39 7.35 15.17 28.04 45.97 98.84 179.3 295.1 652.8 1 908 4 091 7 493 11 999
0.00175 2.48 7.51 16.30 29.61 49.34 103.4 188.8 311.1 686.5 2 017 4 291 7 852 13 087
0.0020 2.84 8.58 18.63 33.83 56.39 118.2 215.8 355.5 784.6 2 305 4 904 8 974 14 956
0.0025 3.16 9.48 20.75 37.25 61.30 132.0 240.5 391.3 881.7 2 456 5 422 10 090 16 503
0.0030 3.44 10.34 22.5 40.45 66.66 143.4 262.0 429.8 924.4 2 767 6 068 11 033 18 021
0.0040 4.17 12.50 26.97 48.55 80.91 173.1 313.8 514.9 1 128 3 330 7 208 13 240 21 625
0.0050 4.71 14.12 30.40 54.92 90.23 196.1 354.0 578.6 1 275 3 727 8 189 14 858 24 469
0.0060 5.25 15.69 35.80 60.31 99.05 215.8 392.3 647.3 1 412 4 148 9 072 16 476 26 970
0.0080 6.08 18.34 39.23 70.12 116.2 251.5 456.0 750.3 1 648 4 879 10 543 19 173 31 384
0.0100 6.86 20.64 44.13 79.44 130.4 283.9 514.9 845.9 1 863 5 492 11 867 21 576 35 307
0.0125 7.35 22.20 47.28 81.00 140.1 302.1 547.3 901.9 1 983 5 867 12 697 23 074 37 785
0.0150 8.27 25.00 53.33 95.62 157.2 342.0 620.6 1 020 2 230 6 620 14 251 25 974 42 616
0.0175 8.58 26.39 55.78 100.4 165.6 360.4 665.1 1 073 2 360 6 994 15 017 27 461 44 194
0.0200 9.80 30.16 63.75 114.7 189.3 411.9 760.1 1 226 2 697 7 993 17 163 31 384 50 508
0.0250 10.99 33.48 70.73 127.3 209.8 459.7 834.6 1 367 2 970 8 817 19 332 34 750 56 581
0.0300 12.00 36.78 77.23 137.9 229.9 501.1 919.4 1 480 3 264 9 792 20 917 37 697 62 522
0.0400 14.46 44.16 93.17 169.2 279.5 600.7 1 093 1 790 3 923 11 622 25 254 45 604 75 026
0.0500 16.43 49.53 104.4 191.2 313.8 676.7 1 231 2 020 4 413 13 044 28 441 51 489 85 324
0.060 18.14 52.96 115.7 210.8 343.2 750.3 1 373 2 231 4 855 14 368 31 384 57 373
0.080 21.08 62.28 134.8 245.2 402.1 872.8 1 594 2 599 5 688 16 672 36 532
0.100 24.03 70.12 152.0 277.0 456.0 980.7 1 804 2 942 6 424 18 879
0.120 25.99 77.48 167.7 306.5 500.2 1 079 1 986 3 236 7 110 20 841
0.150 28.50 84.13 183.9 334.2 551.7 1 195 2 161 3 494 7 769
0.200 34.32 102.0 220.7 402.1 622.0 1 427 2 599 4 217 9 317
0.250 37.72 112.7 245.2 447.9 735.5 1 565 2 876 4 668
0.300 41.37 122.7 266.6 487.3 804.5 1 710 3 126 5 057
0.350 43.34 128.7 283.2 514.9 841.0 1 802 3 2.61
0.400 49.93 147.1 323.6 588.4 961.1 2 059 3 727
0.450 50.31 150.0 326.6 600.2 979.9 2 083
0.500 55.90 166.7 362.9 666.9 1 089 23 214
0.600 62.28 185.3 402.1 735.5 1 201
0.700 63.07 188.8 407.6 750.9
0.800 72.08 215.8 465.8 858.1
0.900 73.28 218.4 476.6

Table 10.2.7 Steam pipeline sizing chart - Pressure drop

20
10
10
3
15
2
20
25
30
Pressure loss bar/100 m
40
1
50
60
70
80
100
0.5
125
15 0
mm
200
0.3
250
300
eter
0.2
400
500
diam
ipe 600
0.1
de p
0.05
Insi
0.03
0.02
0.01
cuum
50% va
g
0 bar
10
20
30
0.5
50
1
100
200
300
2
5 00
3
100
3 00 0
0
2 00
5
0
5 00
00
7
30 0000
10 0
h
00
10
kg /
00
20
000
50 0
15
rate
flow 0
am 00 00
Saturation
100
20
temperature
30
2
curve
50
Ste
70
100
100 200 300 400 500


Table 10.2.8 Steam pipeline sizing chart - Velocity

600
500
400
300
/s 200
m
ity
loc
ve 5
m
ea
Pipe diameter mm
St 10 100
20
30
50
0
10 50
1 50
40
30
20
10 Steam pressure bar g

/h
kg
te cuum
ra 50% va
w 0
flo 1
ea
m 20 0 0 bar g
St 3
50 0.5
0 1
10
0 2
20 00
3 0 3
50 5
00
10 7
00 10
2 0 000
3 00 15
50 0 20
00 Saturation
10 0 temperature 30
00 0
20 00 0 curve
30 00 50
50 00 70
000
1 00 100
000
2
100 200 300 400 500


Questions
1. A boiler is operated at 10 bar g and is required to supply 500 kg /h of saturated steam at

9.8 bar g to equipment 110 m away. The pipe run is torturous and contains many fittings
adding 20% to the equivalent length. What size pipe should be selected?
a | 100 mm nominal bore ¨
b | 80 mm nominal bore ¨
c | 50 mm nominal bore ¨
d | 65 mm nominal bore ¨
2. A 100 mm steam pipe has been selected for a particular steam flowrate with
8.3 bar g at the inlet and 7.7 bar g at the end of the run. Calculations show that, for
this flowrate and size of pipe, the pressure at the end of the run will actually be
7.9 bar g. Which of the following is true?
a | The steam velocity is higher than expected, and could cause noise ¨
b | The pipe has some additional spare capacity for future additional loads ¨
c | The resistance to flow is higher than expected ¨
d | A larger pipe is required ¨
3. A 40 m long 5 bar g saturated steam pipe is to be sized to carry 850 kg /h of steam.
Should the pipe be sized on velocity or pressure drop?
a | Pressure drop to limit the steam velocity ¨
b | On a velocity over 40 m/s ¨
c | On a velocity of about 25 m/s ¨
d | Either, provided the steam velocity does not exceed, approximately 5 m /s ¨
4. A 40 m pipe incorporating a number of bends and fittings is to be sized by the velocity

method to handle 1 200 kg /h of saturated steam at 4 bar g. What size pipe is required?
a | 100 mm ¨
b | 80 mm ¨
c | 125 mm ¨
d | The pipe should be sized on pressure drop, and not by velocity ¨
5. A straight run of pipe 30 m long and carrying saturated steam at 10 bar g is to be sized
by the velocity method to pass 20 000 kg /h. What size pipe is required?
a | 175 mm ¨
b | 150 mm ¨
c | 200 mm ¨
d | 250 mm ¨
6. From the following, what is the effect of sizing a 100 m long, 8 bar g steam pipe by the
velocity method?
a | Sizing by velocity takes no account of pressure drop along the pipe ¨
b | If the velocity is more than 40 m /s, the pressure drop along the pipe may be
very small and in practice a small pipe may be used ¨
c | If a low velocity is selected, the chosen pipe will probably be undersized resulting
in steam starvation at the plant ¨
d | Over a length of 100 m, the noise of steam flow can be unacceptable ¨
Answers
1: d, 2: b, 3: c, 4: a, 5: d, 6: a


Block 10 Steam Distribution Steam Mains and Drainage Module 10.3
Module 10.3
Steam Mains and Drainage

Steam Mains and Drainage

Throughout the length of a hot steam main, an amount of heat will be transferred to the
environment, and this will depend on the parameters identified in Block 2 - Steam Engineering
and Heat Transfer, and brought together in Equation 2.5.1.
∆7
= N$ Equation 2.5.1
ì
Where:
Q = Heat transferred per unit time (W)
k = Thermal conductivity of the material (W /m K or W /m °C)
A = Heat transfer area (m²)
DT = Temperature difference across the material (K or °C)
= Material thickness (m)
With steam systems, this loss of energy represents inefficiency, and thus pipes are insulated to
limit these losses. Whatever the quality or thickness of insulation, there will always be a level of
heat loss, and this will cause steam to condense along the length of the main.
The effect of insulation is discussed in Module 10.5. This Module will concentrate on disposal of
the inevitable condensate, which, unless removed, will accumulate and lead to problems such
as corrosion, erosion, and waterhammer.
In addition, the steam will become wet as it picks up water droplets, which reduces its heat
transfer potential. If water is allowed to accumulate, the overall effective cross sectional area of
the pipe is reduced, and steam velocity can increase above the recommended limits.
Piping layout
The subject of drainage from steam lines is covered in the UK British Standard BS 806:1993,
Section 4.12.
BS 806 states that, whenever possible, the main should be installed with a fall of not less than
1:100 (1 m fall for every 100 m run), in the direction of the steam flow. This slope will ensure that
gravity, as well as the flow of steam, will assist in moving the condensate towards drain points
where the condensate may be safely and effectively removed (See Figure 10.3.1).
30 - 50 metre intervals
Gradient
Gradient 1:100 Steam
1:100
Trap set
Steam Trap set
Trap set
Condensate
Condensate
Condensate
Fig. 10.3.1 Typical steam main installation

Drain points
The drain point must ensure that the condensate can reach the steam trap. Careful consideration
must therefore be given to the design and location of drain points.
Consideration must also be given to condensate remaining in a steam main at shutdown, when
steam flow ceases. Gravity will ensure that the water (condensate) will run along sloping pipework
and collect at low points in the system. Steam traps should therefore be fitted to these low
points.

The amount of condensate formed in a large steam main under start-up conditions is sufficient
to require the provision of drain points at intervals of 30 m to 50 m, as well as natural low points
such as at the bottom of rising pipework.
In normal operation, steam may flow along the main at speeds of up to 145 km/h, dragging
condensate along with it. Figure 10.3.2 shows a 15 mm drain pipe connected directly to the
bottom of a main.
Steam Flow
Condensate
Steam trap set

Fig. 10.3.2 Trap pocket too small
Although the 15 mm pipe has sufficient capacity, it is unlikely to capture much of the condensate
moving along the main at high speed. This arrangement will be ineffective.
A more reliable solution for the removal of condensate is shown in Figure 10.3.3. The trap line
should be at least 25 to 30 mm from the bottom of the pocket for steam mains up to 100 mm,
and at least 50 mm for larger mains. This allows a space below for any dirt and scale to settle.
Steam Flow
Pocket Condensate
Steam trap set

Fig. 10.3.3 Trap pocket properly sized
The bottom of the pocket may be fitted with a removable flange or blowdown valve for cleaning
purposes.
Recommended drain pocket dimensions are shown in Table 10.3.1 and in Figure 10.3.4.
Table 10.3.1 Recomended drain pocket dimensions
Mains diameter - D Pocket diameter - d1 Pocket depth - d2
Up to 100 mm nb d1 = D Minimum d2 = 100 mm
125 - 200 mm nb d1 = 100 mm Minimum d2 = 150 mm
250 mm and above d1 ³ D / 2 Minimum d2 = D
Steam D Steam main
d2 d1
Float trap with

in-built sensor
Condensate return
Fig. 10.3.4

Waterhammer and its effects

Waterhammer is the noise caused by slugs of condensate colliding at high velocity into pipework
fittings, plant, and equipment. This has a number of implications:
o Because the condensate velocity is higher than normal, the dissipation of kinetic energy is
higher than would normally be expected.
o Water is dense and incompressible, so the cushioning effect experienced when gases encounter
obstructions is absent.
o The energy in the water is dissipated against the obstructions in the piping system such as
valves and fittings.
Steam
Condensate
Steam
Slug
Steam
Fig. 10.3.5 Formation of a solid slug of water
Indications of waterhammer include a banging noise, and perhaps movement of the pipe.
In severe cases, waterhammer may fracture pipeline equipment with almost explosive effect,
with consequent loss of live steam at the fracture, leading to an extremely hazardous situation.
Good engineering design, installation and maintenance will avoid waterhammer; this is far better
practice than attempting to contain it by choice of materials and pressure ratings of equipment.
Commonly, sources of waterhammer occur at the low points in the pipework (See Figure 10.3.6).
Such areas are due to:
o Sagging in the line, perhaps due to failure of supports.
o Incorrect use of concentric reducers (see Figure 10.3.7) - Always use eccentric reducers with
the flat at the bottom.
o Incorrect strainer installation - They should be fitted with the basket on the side.
o Inadequate drainage of steam lines.
o Incorrect operation - Opening valves too quickly at start-up when pipes are cold.
Steam
Concentric
reducer Condensate Riser
Steam
Condensate
Steam
Condensate Strainer with

hanging basket
Fig. 10.3.6 Potential sources of waterhammer

Eccentric reducer
Correct
Steam
Condensate
Incorrect
Steam
Condensate Concentric reducer
Fig. 10.3.7 Eccentric and concentric pipe reducers

To summarise, the possibility of waterhammer is minimised by:
o Installing steam lines with a gradual fall in the direction of flow, and with drain points installed
at regular intervals and at low points.
o Installing check valves after all steam traps which would otherwise allow condensate to run
back into the steam line or plant during shutdown.
o Opening isolation valves slowly to allow any condensate which may be lying in the system to
flow gently through the drain traps, before it is picked up by high velocity steam. This is
especially important at start-up.
Branch lines
Steam Steam main Steam
Branch line
Steam
Fig. 10.3.8 Branch line
Branch lines are normally much shorter than steam mains. As a general rule, therefore, provided
the branch line is not more than 10 metres in length, and the pressure in the main is adequate, it
is possible to size the pipe on a velocity of 25 to 40 m/s, and not to worry about the pressure drop.
Table 10.2.4 Saturated steam pipeline capacities for different velocities in Module 10.2 will
prove useful in this exercise.

Branch line connections

Branch line connections taken from the top of the main carry the driest steam (Figure 10.3.8). If
connections are taken from the side, or even worse from the bottom (as in Figure 10.3.9 (a)),
they can accept the condensate and debris from the steam main. The result is very wet and dirty
steam reaching the equipment, which will affect performance in both the short and long term.
The valve in Figure 10.3.9 (b) should be positioned as near to the off-take as possible to minimise
condensate lying in the branch line, if the plant is likely to be shutdown for any extended periods.
(a) Incorrect
(b) Correct
Fig. 10.3.9 Steam off-take
Drop leg
Low points will also occur in branch lines. The most common is a drop leg close to an isolating
valve or a control valve (Figure 10.3.10). Condensate can accumulate on the upstream side of
the closed valve, and then be propelled forward with the steam when the valve opens again -
consequently a drain point with a steam trap set is good practice just prior to the strainer and
control valve.
Steam
Isolation Control
Drop leg valve valve
Strainer
Unit
heater
Isolation valve
Isolation valve
Trap set
Trap set
Condensate Condensate
Fig. 10.3.10 Diagram of a drop leg supplying a unit heater

Rising ground and drainage

There are many occasions when a steam main must run across rising ground, or applications
where the contours of the site make it impractical to lay the pipe with the 1:100 fall proposed
earlier. In these situations, the condensate must be encouraged to run downhill and against the
steam flow. Good practice is to size the pipe on a low steam velocity of not more than 15 m /s, to
run the line at a slope of no less than 1:40, and install the drain points at not more than 15 metre
intervals (see Figure 10.3.11).
The objective is to prevent the condensate film on the bottom of the pipe increasing in thickness
to the point where droplets can be picked up by the steam flow.
Increase
in pipe
Steam diameter Fall
velocity 1:40 Fall
Steam 30 m/s
1:100 Fall 15 m/s
velocity
30 m/s
30 - 50 m 15 m
15 m
Fig. 10.3.11 Reverse gradient on steam main

Steam separators
Modern packaged steam boilers have a large evaporating capacity for their size and have limited
capacity to cope with rapidly changing loads. In addition, as discussed in Block 3 The Boiler
House, other circumstances, such as . . .
o Incorrect chemical feedwater treatment and /or TDS control
o Transient peak loads in other parts of the plant
. . . can cause priming and carryover of boiler water into the steam mains.
Separators, as shown by the cut section in Figure 10.3.12, may be installed to remove this water.
Air and incondensable gases vented
Dry steam out
Wet steam in
Moisture to trap set

Fig. 10.3.12 Cut section through a separator

As a general rule, providing the velocities in the pipework are within reasonable limits, separators
will be line sized. (Separators are discussed in detail in Module 12.5)
A separator will remove both droplets of water from pipe walls and suspended mist entrained in
the steam itself. The presence and effect of waterhammer can be eradicated by fitting a separator
in a steam main, and can often be less expensive than increasing the pipe size and fabricating
drain pockets.
A separator is recommended before control valves and flowmeters. It is also wise to fit a separator
where a steam main enters a building from outside. This will ensure that any condensate produced
in the external distribution system is removed and the building always receives dry steam. This is
equally important where steam usage in the building is monitored and charged for.
Strainers
When new pipework is installed, it is not uncommon for fragments of casting sand, packing,
jointing, swarf, welding rods and even nuts and bolts to be accidentally deposited inside the
pipe. In the case of older pipework, there will be rust, and in hard water districts, a carbonate
deposit. Occasionally, pieces will break loose and pass along the pipework with the steam to rest
inside a piece of steam using equipment. This may, for example, prevent a valve from opening /
closing correctly. Steam using equipment may also suffer permanent damage through wiredrawing
- the cutting action of high velocity steam and water passing through a partly open valve. Once
wiredrawing has occurred, the valve will never give a tight shut-off, even if the dirt is removed.
It is therefore wise to fit a line-size strainer in front of every steam trap, flowmeter, reducing valve
and regulating valve. The illustration shown in Figure 10.3.13 shows a cut section through a
typical strainer.
Fig. 10.3.13 Cut section through a Y-type strainer.

Steam flows from the inlet A through the perforated screen B to the outlet C. While steam
and water will pass readily through the screen, dirt cannot. The cap D, can be removed, allowing
the screen to be withdrawn and cleaned at regular intervals. A blowdown valve can also be fitted
to cap D to facilitate regular cleaning.
Strainers can however, be a source of wet steam as previously mentioned. To avoid this situation,
strainers should always be installed in steam lines with their baskets to the side.
Strainers and screen details are discussed in Module 12.4.

How to drain steam mains

Steam traps are the most effective and efficient method of draining condensate from a steam
distribution system.
The steam traps selected must suit the system in terms of:
o Pressure rating
o Capacity
o Suitability
Pressure rating
Pressure rating is easily dealt with; the maximum possible working pressure at the steam trap will
either be known or should be established.
Capacity
Capacity, that is, the quantity of condensate to be discharged, which needs to be divided into
two categories; warm-up load and running load.
Warm-up load - In the first instance, the pipework needs to be brought up to operating
temperature. This can be determined by calculation, knowing the mass and specific heat of the
pipework and fittings. Alternatively, Table 10.3.2 may be used.
o The table shows the amount of condensate generated when bringing 50 m of steam main up
to working temperature; 50 m being the maximum recommended distance between trapping
points.
o The values shown are in kilograms. To determine the average condensing rate, the time taken
for the process must be considered. For example, if the warm-up process required 50 kg of
steam, and was to take 20 minutes, then the average condensing rate would be:
PLQXWHV
$YHUDJHFRQGHQVLQJUDWH [NJ
PLQXWHV
$YHUDJHFRQGHQVLQJUDWH NJ K
o When using these capacities to size a steam trap, it is worth remembering that the initial
pressure in the main will be little more than atmospheric when the warm-up process begins.
However, the condensate loads will still generally be well within the capacity of a DN15 low
capacity steam trap. Only in rare applications at very high pressures (above 70 bar g), combined
with large pipe sizes, will greater trap capacity be needed.
Running load - Once the steam main is up to operating temperature, the rate of condensation is
mainly a function of the pipe size and the quality and thickness of the insulation.
For accurate means of calculating running losses from steam mains, refer to Module 2.12 Steam
consumption of pipes and air heaters. Alternatively, for quick approximations of running load,
Table 10.3.3 can be used which shows typical amounts of steam condensed each hour per 50 m
of insulated steam main at various pressures.

Table 10.3.2 Amount of steam condensed to warm-up 50 m of schedule 40 pipe (kg)

Note: Figures are based on an ambient temperature of 20°C, and an insulation efficiency of 80%
Steam -18°C
pressure Steam main size (mm) correction
bar g 50 65 80 100 125 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 600 factor
1 5 9 11 16 22 28 44 60 79 94 123 155 182 254 1.39
2 6 10 13 19 25 33 49 69 92 108 142 179 210 296 1.35
3 7 11 14 20 25 36 54 79 101 120 156 197 232 324 1.32
4 8 12 16 22 30 39 59 83 110 131 170 215 254 353 1.29
5 8 13 17 24 33 42 63 70 119 142 185 233 275 382 1.28
6 9 13 18 25 34 43 66 93 124 147 198 242 285 396 1.27
7 9 14 18 26 35 45 68 97 128 151 197 250 294 410 1.26
8 9 14 19 27 37 47 71 101 134 158 207 261 307 428 1.25
9 10 15 20 28 38 50 74 105 139 164 216 272 320 436 1.24
10 10 16 20 29 40 51 77 109 144 171 224 282 332 463 1.24
12 10 17 22 31 42 54 84 115 152 180 236 298 350 488 1.23
14 11 17 23 32 44 57 85 120 160 189 247 311 366 510 1.22
16 12 19 24 35 47 61 91 128 172 203 265 334 393 548 1.21
18 17 23 31 45 62 84 127 187 355 305 393 492 596 708 1.21
20 17 26 35 51 71 97 148 220 302 362 465 582 712 806 1.20
25 19 29 39 56 78 108 164 243 333 400 533 642 786 978 1.19
30 21 32 41 62 86 117 179 265 364 437 571 702 859 1 150 1.18
40 22 34 46 67 93 127 194 287 395 473 608 762 834 1 322 1.16
50 24 37 50 73 101 139 212 214 432 518 665 834 1 020 1 450 1.15
60 27 41 54 79 135 181 305 445 626 752 960 1 218 1 480 2 140 1.15
70 29 44 59 86 156 208 346 510 717 861 1 100 1 396 1 694 2 455 1.15
80 32 49 65 95 172 232 386 568 800 960 1 220 1 550 1 890 2 730 1.14
90 34 51 69 100 181 245 409 598 842 1011 1 288 1 635 1 990 2 880 1.14
100 35 54 72 106 190 257 427 628 884 1062 1 355 1 720 2 690 3 030 1.14
120 42 64 86 126 227 305 508 748 1 052 1265 1 610 2 050 2 490 3 600 1.13
Table 10.3.3 Condensing rate of steam in 50 m of schedule 40 pipe - at working temperature (kg / h)
Note: Figures are based on an ambient temperature of 20°C, and an insulation efficiency of 80%
Steam -18°C
pressure Steam main size (mm) correction
bar g 50 65 80 100 125 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 600 factor
1 5 5 7 9 10 13 16 19 23 25 28 31 35 41 1.54
2 5 6 8 10 12 14 18 22 26 28 32 35 39 46 1.50
3 6 7 9 11 14 16 20 25 30 32 37 40 45 54 1.48
4 7 9 10 12 16 18 23 28 33 37 42 46 51 61 1.45
5 7 9 11 13 17 20 24 30 36 40 46 49 55 66 1.43
6 8 10 11 14 18 21 26 33 39 43 49 53 59 71 1.42
7 8 10 12 15 19 23 28 35 42 46 52 56 63 76 1.41
8 9 11 14 16 20 24 30 37 44 49 57 61 68 82 1.40
9 9 11 14 17 21 25 32 39 47 52 60 64 72 88 1.39
10 10 12 15 17 21 25 33 41 49 54 62 67 75 90 1.38
12 11 13 16 18 23 26 36 45 53 59 67 73 81 97 1.38
14 12 14 17 20 26 30 39 49 58 64 73 79 93 106 1.37
16 12 15 18 23 29 34 42 52 62 68 78 85 95 114 1.36
18 14 16 19 24 30 36 44 55 66 72 82 90 100 120 1.36
20 15 17 21 25 31 37 46 58 69 76 86 94 105 125 1.35
25 15 19 23 28 35 42 52 66 78 86 97 106 119 141 1.34
30 17 21 25 31 39 47 51 73 87 96 108 118 132 157 1.33
40 20 25 30 38 46 56 70 87 104 114 130 142 158 189 1.31
50 24 29 34 44 54 65 82 102 121 133 151 165 184 220 1.29
60 27 32 39 50 62 74 95 119 140 155 177 199 222 265 1.28
70 29 35 43 56 70 82 106 133 157 173 198 222 248 296 1.27
80 34 42 51 66 81 97 126 156 187 205 234 263 293 350 1.26
90 38 46 56 72 89 106 134 171 204 224 265 287 320 284 1.26
100 41 50 61 78 96 114 149 186 220 242 277 311 347 416 1.25
120 52 63 77 99 122 145 189 236 280 308 352 395 440 527 1.22

Suitability
A mains drain trap should consider the following constraints:
o Discharge temperature - The steam trap should discharge at, or very close to saturation
temperature, unless cooling legs are used between the drain point and the trap. This means
that the choice is a mechanical type trap (such as a float, inverted bucket type, or thermodynamic
traps).
o Frost damage - Where the steam main is located outside a building and there is a possibility
of sub-zero ambient temperature, the thermodynamic steam trap is ideal, as it not damaged
by frost. Even if the installation causes water to be left in the trap at shutdown and freezing
occurs, the thermodynamic trap may be thawed out without suffering damage when brought
back into use.
o Waterhammer - In the past, on poorly laid out installations where waterhammer was a common
occurrence, float traps were not always ideal due to their susceptibility to float damage.
Contemporary design and manufacturing techniques now produce extremely robust units for
mains drainage purposes. Float traps are certainly the first choice for proprietary separators as
high capacities are readily achieved, and they are able to respond quickly to rapid load increases.
Steam traps used to drain condensate from steam mains, are shown in Figure 10.3.14. The
thermostatic trap is included because it is ideal where there is no choice but to discharge
condensate into a flooded return pipe.
The subject of steam trapping is dealt with in detail in the Block 11, Steam Trapping.
Ball float type Thermodynamic type Thermostatic type Inverted bucket type
Fig. 10.3.14 Steam traps suitable for steam mains drainage
Steam leaks
Steam leaking from pipework is often ignored. Leaks can be costly in both the economic and
environmental sense and therefore need prompt attention to ensure the steam system is working
at its optimum efficiency with a minimum impact on the environment.
Figure 10.3.15 illustrates the steam loss for various sizes of hole at various pressures. This loss can
be readily translated into a fuel saving based on the annual hours of operation.
Hole size
500 12.5 mm
400
Steam leak rate kg/h
10 mm
300
200 7.5 mm
100 5 mm
3 mm
0
1 2 3 4 5 10
Fig. 10.3.15 Steam leakage rate through holes

Summary
Proper pipe alignment and drainage means observing a few simple rules:
o Steam lines should be arranged to fall in the direction of flow, at not less than 100 mm per
10 metres of pipe (1:100). Steam lines rising in the direction of flow should slope at not less
than 25 mm per 10 metres of pipe (1:40).
o Steam lines should be drained at regular intervals of 30 - 50 m and at any low points in the
system.
o Where drainage has to be provided in straight lengths of pipe, then a large bore pocket should
be used to collect condensate.
o If strainers are to be fitted, then they should be fitted on their sides.
o Branch connections should always be taken from the top of the main from where the driest
steam is taken.
o Separators should be considered before any piece of steam using equipment ensuring that dry
steam is used.
o Traps selected should be robust enough to avoid waterhammer damage and frost damage.

Questions
1. Which of the following is true of wet steam?

a| It can cause waterhammer if allowed to build up ¨
b| It can corrode pipes if allowed to continue ¨
c| It causes erosion of bends ¨
d| All of the above ¨
2. What is the effect of installing a steam main horizontally level?

a| None, provided the pipe is drained at 30 - 50 m intervals ¨
b| Complete drainage will be less effective, and waterhammer could result ¨
c| Larger diameter drain points should be fitted ¨
d| Condensate will not reach the drain points ¨
3. Steam pipeline strainers should be fitted with their baskets on the side to:
a| Prevent condensate filling the body and being carried over
to the equipment being protected ¨
b| Provide a greater screening area ¨
c| Extend the periods between cleaning the strainer ¨
d| Provide more effective removal of the debris ¨
4. Using the velocity method, what size pipe is required to carry 500 kg /h of steam at
6 bar g over a 40 m run with a rising slope? (The specific volume of steam at 6 bar g is
0.272 m³ /kg
a| 40 mm ¨
b| 80 mm ¨
c| 50 mm ¨
d| 65 mm ¨

5. A correctly sized pilot operated reducing valve has been installed in a pressure reducing
station supplying an autoclave, as shown in Figure 10.3.16. What is wrong with the
installation?
DN20
pressure Safety
reducing valve
valve
DN25
stop valve
Steam at 280 kg /h of
7 bar g steam at 5 bar g
DN25 DN32
DN25 strainer stop valve
separator
Steam trap set

Condensate
Fig. 10.3.16
a| The pipe after the PRV is at a lower pressure, and steam has a higher volume,
so the pipe should be larger than 32 mm ¨
b| The upstream strainer and isolation valve should be
the same size as the reducing valve ¨
c| The separator should be one size larger than the pipework
to avoid excessive pressure drop ¨
d| There is no downstream pressure gauge before the DN32 stop valve ¨
6. As a minimum, horizontal runs of 150 mm steam main should be drained at intervals of:
a| Every 15 metres via 100 mm bore drain pockets, 100 mm deep ¨
b| Every 30 - 50 metres via 150 mm bore drain pockets, 100 mm deep ¨
c| Every 15 metres via 100 mm bore drain pockets, 150 mm deep ¨
d| Every 30 - 50 metres via 100 mm bore drain pockets, 150 mm deep ¨
Answers
1: d, 2: b, 3: a, 4: d, 5: d, 6: d

Block 10 Steam Distribution Pipe Expansion and Support Module 10.4
Module 10.4
Pipe Expansion and Support

Pipe Expansion and Support

Allowance for expansion
All pipes will be installed at ambient temperature. Pipes carrying hot fluids such as water or
steam operate at higher temperatures.
It follows that they expand, especially in length, with an increase from ambient to working
temperatures. This will create stress upon certain areas within the distribution system, such as
pipe joints, which, in the extreme, could fracture. The amount of the expansion is readily calculated
using Equation 10.4.1, or read from an appropriate chart such as Figure 10.4.1.
Expansion ( mm ) = L ∆T α Equation 10.4.1
Where:
L = Length of pipe between anchors (m)
∆T = Temperature difference between ambient temperature and operating temperatures (°C)
α = Expansion coefficient (mm /m °C) x 10-3
α) (mm /m °C x 10-3)
Table 10.4.1 Expansion coefficients (α
Temperature range (°C)
Material <0 0 - 100 0 - 200 0 - 300 0 - 400 0 - 500 0 - 600 0 - 700
Carbon steel 0.1% - 0.2% C 12.8 13.9 14.9 15.8 16.6 17.3 17.9 -
Alloy steel 1% Cr 0.5% Mo 13.7 14.5 15.2 15.8 16.4 17.0 17.6 -
Stainless steel 18% Cr 8% Ni 9.4 20.0 20.9 21.2 21.8 22.3 22.7 23.0
Example 10.4.1
A 30 m length of carbon steel pipe is to be used to transport steam at 4 bar g (152°C). If the pipe
is installed at 10°C, determine the expansion using Equation 10.4.1.
Expansion ( mm ) = L ∆T α
Where: L = 30 m
∆T = 152°C - 10 °C
∆T = 142°C
α in the range 0 - 200 = 14.9 x 10-3 mm m °C for carbon steel pipe
Expansion = 30 m x 142°C x 14.9 x 10 -3 mm m °C
Expansion = 63.5 mm
Alternatively, the chart in Figure 10.4.1 can be used for finding the approximate expansion of a
variety of steel pipe lengths - see Example 10.4.2 for explanation of use.
Example 10.4.2
Using Figure 10.4.1. Find the approximate expansion from 15°C, of 100 metres of carbon steel
pipework used to distribute steam at 265°C.
Temperature difference is 265 - 15°C = 250°C.
Where the diagonal temperature difference line of 250°C cuts the horizontal pipe length line
at 100 m, drop a vertical line down. For this example an approximate expansion of 330 mm is
indicated.

Temperature difference °C
50 100 200 300 400 500
220
200
Example
10.4.2
Length of pipe (m) 100
50
40
30
20
10
0
10 2010030 40 50200 300 500 1 000 2 000
Expansion of pipe (mm)
Fig. 10.4.1 A chart showing the expansion in various steel pipe lengths at various temperature differences
Table 10.4.2 Temperature of saturated steam
bar g 1 2 3 4 5 7.5 10 15 20 25 30
°C 120 134 144 152 159 173 184 201 215 226 236
Pipework flexibility
The pipework system must be sufficiently flexible to accommodate the movements of the
components as they expand. In many cases the flexibility of the pipework system, due to the
length of the pipe and number of bends and supports, means that no undue stresses are imposed.
In other installations, however, it will be necessary to incorporate some means of achieving this
required flexibility.
An example on a typical steam system is the discharge of condensate from a steam mains drain
trap into the condensate return line that runs along the steam line (Figure 10.4.2). Here, the
difference between the expansions of the two pipework systems must be taken into account.
The steam main will be operating at a higher temperature than that of the condensate main, and
the two connection points will move relative to each other during system warm-up.
Steam Steam main Steam
Trap set
Condensate Condensate
Fig. 10.4.2 Flexibility in connection to condensate return line
The amount of movement to be taken up by the piping and any device incorporated in it can
be reduced by ‘cold draw’. The total amount of expansion is first calculated for each section
between fixed anchor points. The pipes are left short by half of this amount, and stretched
cold by pulling up bolts at a flanged joint, so that at ambient temperature, the system is stressed
in one direction. When warmed through half of the total temperature rise, the piping is
unstressed. At working temperature and having fully expanded, the piping is stressed in the
opposite direction. The effect is that instead of being stressed from 0 F to +1 F units of force,
the piping is stressed from -½ F to + ½ F units of force.

In practical terms, the pipework is assembled cold with a spacer piece, of length equal to half the
expansion, between two flanges. When the pipework is fully installed and anchored at both
ends, the spacer is removed and the joint pulled up tight (see Figure 10.4.3).
L Spacer
piece
Position after cold draw Half calculated

expansion over
Neutral position length L
Hot position
Fig. 10.4.3 Use of spacer for expansion when pipework is installed
The remaining part of the expansion, if not accepted by the natural flexibility of the pipework
will call for the use of an expansion fitting.
In practice, pipework expansion and support can be classified into three areas as shown in
Figure 10.4.5.
Anchor Sliding support Expansion fitting Sliding support Anchor

point A point B point C point B point A
Fig. 10.4.4 Diagram of pipeline with fixed point, variable anchor point and expansion fitting
The fixed or ‘anchor’ points ‘A’ provide a datum position from which expansion takes place.
The sliding support points ‘B’ allow free movement for expansion of the pipework, while keeping
the pipeline in alignment.
The expansion device at point ‘C’ is to accommodate the expansion and contraction of the pipe.
Fig. 10.4.5 Chair and roller Fig. 10.4.6 Chair roller and saddle
Roller supports (Figure 10.4.5 and 10.4.6) are ideal methods for supporting pipes, at the same
time allowing them to move in two directions. For steel pipework, the rollers should be
manufactured from ferrous material. For copper pipework, they should be manufactured from
non-ferrous material. It is good practice for pipework supported on rollers to be fitted with a
pipe saddle bolted to a support bracket at not more than distances of 6 metres to keep the
pipework in alignment during any expansion and contraction.

Where two pipes are to be supported one below the other, it is poor practice to carry the bottom
pipe from the top pipe using a pipe clip. This will cause extra stress to be added to the top pipe
whose thickness has been sized to take only the stress of its working pressure.
All pipe supports should be specifically designed to suit the outside diameter of the pipe concerned.
Expansion fittings
The expansion fitting (‘C’ Figure 10.4.4) is one method of accommodating expansion. These
fittings are placed within a line, and are designed to accommodate the expansion, without the
total length of the line changing. They are commonly called expansion bellows, due to the
bellows construction of the expansion sleeve.
Other expansion fittings can be made from the pipework itself. This can be a cheaper way to
solve the problem, but more space is needed to accommodate the pipe.
Full loop
This is simply one complete turn of the pipe and, on steam pipework, should preferably be fitted
in a horizontal rather than a vertical position to prevent condensate accumulating on the upstream
side.
The downstream side passes below the upstream side and great care must be taken that it is not
fitted the wrong way round, as condensate can accumulate in the bottom. When full loops are
to be fitted in a confined space, care must be taken to specify that wrong-handed loops are not
supplied.
The full loop does not produce a force in opposition to the expanding pipework as in some other
types, but with steam pressure inside the loop, there is a slight tendency to unwind, which puts
an additional stress on the flanges.
Flow Flow
Fig. 10.4.7 Full loop

This design is used rarely today due to the space taken up by the pipework, and proprietary
expansion bellows are now more readily available. However large steam users such as power
stations or establishments with large outside distribution systems still tend to use full loop type
expansion devices, as space is usually available and the cost is relatively low.
Horseshoe or lyre loop
When space is available this type is sometimes used. It is best fitted horizontally so that the loop
and the main are on the same plane. Pressure does not tend to blow the ends of the loop apart,
but there is a very slight straightening out effect. This is due to the design but causes no
misalignment of the flanges.
If any of these arrangements are fitted with the loop vertically above the pipe then a drain point
must be provided on the upstream side as depicted in Figure 10.4.8.
Side elevation
Flow Flow
Trap set
Fig. 10.4.8 Horseshoe or lyre loop

Expansion loops
Welded bend
2W ∅
radius = 1.5∅
Welded joint
Fig. 10.4.9 Expansion loop
The expansion loop can be fabricated from lengths of straight pipes and elbows welded at the
joints (Figure 10.4.9). An indication of the expansion of pipe that can be accommodated by
these assemblies is shown in Figure 10.4.10.
It can be seen from Figure 10.4.9 that the depth of the loop should be twice the width, and the
width is determined from Figure 10.4.10, knowing the total amount of expansion expected from
the pipes either side of the loop.
Expansion from neutral position (mm)
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
400
300
200
Nominal pipe size (mm)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
25
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
W = width (metres)
Fig. 10.4.10 Expansion loop capacity for carbon steel pipes

Sliding joint
These are sometimes used because they take up little room, but it is essential that the pipeline
is rigidly anchored and guided in strict accordance with the manufacturers’ instructions;
otherwise steam pressure acting on the cross sectional area of the sleeve part of the joint
tends to blow the joint apart in opposition to the forces produced by the expanding pipework
(see Figure 10.4.11). Misalignment will cause the sliding sleeve to bend, while regular
maintenance of the gland packing may also be needed.
Stay bolts
Pressure acts Gland

on this area packing
Movement due to
pipework expansion
Fig. 10.4.11 Sliding joint
Expansion bellows
An expansion bellows, Figures 10.4.12, has the advantage that it requires no packing (as does
the sliding joint type). But it does have the same disadvantages as the sliding joint in that pressure
inside tends to extend the fitting, consequently, anchors and guides must be able to withstand
this force.
Fig. 10.4.12 Simple expansion bellows

Bellows may incorporate limit rods, which limit over-compression and over-extension of the
element. These may have little function under normal operating conditions, as most simple
bellows assemblies are able to withstand small lateral and angular movement. However, in the
event of anchor failure, they behave as tie rods and contain the pressure thrust forces, preventing
damage to the unit whilst reducing the possibility of further damage to piping, equipment and
personnel (Figure 10.4.13 (b)).
Where larger forces are expected, some form of additional mechanical reinforcement should be
built into the device, such as hinged stay bars (Figure 10.4.13 (c)).
There is invariably more than one way to accommodate the relative movement between two
laterally displaced pipes depending upon the relative positions of bellows anchors and guides. In
terms of preference, axial displacement is better than angular, which in turn, is better than lateral.
Angular and lateral movement should be avoided wherever possible.

Figure 10.4.13 (a), (b), and (c) give a rough indication of the effects of these movements, but,
under all circumstances, it is highly recommended that expert advice is sought from the bellows’
manufacturer regarding any installation of expansion bellows.
Guides
Axial movement
Short
distance Fixing point
Axial movement
Guides
Fig. 10.4.13 (a) Axial movement of bellows

Guides
Small
lateral
Limit rods Large
movement
lateral
movement
Medium Fixing point

distance
Large
lateral
Small
Limit rods movement
lateral
Guides movement
Fig. 10.4.13 (b) Lateral and angular movement of bellows
Hinged stay bars Small

angular
movement
Long Axial
distance movement
Small
angular
movement
Fixing point
Fig. 10.4.13 (c) Angular and axial movement of bellows

Pipe support spacing

The frequency of pipe supports will vary according to the bore of the pipe; the actual pipe
material (i.e. steel or copper); and whether the pipe is horizontal or vertical.
Some practical points worthy of consideration are as follows:
o Pipe supports should be provided at intervals not greater than shown in Table 10.4.3, and run
along those parts of buildings and structures where appropriate supports may be mounted.
o Where two or more pipes are supported on a common bracket, the spacing between the
supports should be that for the smallest pipe.
o When an appreciable movement will occur, i.e. where straight pipes are greater than 15 metres
in length, the supports should be of the roller type as outlined previously.
o Vertical pipes should be adequately supported at the base, to withstand the total weight of the
vertical pipe and the fluid within it. Branches from vertical pipes must not be used as a means
of support for the pipe, because this will place undue strain upon the tee joint.
o All pipe supports should be specifically designed to suit the outside diameter of the pipe
concerned. The use of oversized pipe brackets is not good practice.
Table 10.4.3 can be used as a guide when calculating the distance between pipe supports for
steel and copper pipework.
Table 10.4.3 Recommended support for pipework
Nominal pipe size (mm) Interval of horizontal run Interval of vertical run
Steel Copper (metre) (metre)
bore outside diameter Mild steel Copper Mild steel Copper
15 1.2 2.4 1.8
15 1.8 3.0
20 22 2.4 1.2 3.0 1.8
25 28 2.4 0.5 3.0 2.4
32 35 2.4 1.8 3.7 3.0
40 42 2.4 1.8 3.7 3.0
50 54 2.4 1.8 4.6 3.0
65 67 3.0 2.4 4.6 3.7
80 76 3.0 2.4 4.6 3.7
100 108 3.0 2.4 5.5 3.7
125 133 3.7 3.0 5.5 3.7
150 159 4.5 3.7 5.5
200 6.0 8.5
250 6.5 9.0
300 7.0 10.0
The subject of pipe supports is covered comprehensively in the European standard

EN 13480, Part3.

Questions
1. A DN100 Schedule 40 pipe carries steam at 10 bar g over a length of 80 m. If the pipe is
installed at 10°C, using Equation 10.4.1 and Table 10.4.1, by how much will it expand?
a| 291 mm ¨
b| 196 mm ¨
c| 352 mm ¨
d| 207 mm ¨
2. If the expansion of a pipe from installation to working temperature was 352 mm, what
length of spacer would be used in ‘cold drawing’ the pipe being installed?
a| 352 mm ¨
b| 704 mm ¨
c| 176 mm ¨
d| 88 mm ¨
3. A 100 m run of 80 mm pipe at 15 bar g is supported at its ends and three intermediate
points. It is trapped at intervals of 40 m. Noise and vibration often occurs at start-up.
What do you think is required to put things right?
a| Fit more supports at 3 m intervals ¨
b| Check that the steam traps are removing condensate properly ¨
c| Check that the steam main isolating valve is opened slowly ¨
d| All of the above ¨
4. A 150 mm steam pipe is to incorporate a fabricated expansion loop to take up 125 mm

of expansion. Using Figures 10.4.9 and 10.4.10, what should be the width and length of
the loop?
a| Width : 2.6 m; Depth : 5.2 m ¨
b| Width : 5.2 m; Depth : 2.6 m ¨
c| Width : 5.2 m; Depth : 10.4 m ¨
d| Width : 1.3 m; Depth : 2.6 m ¨
5. What is one advantage of a bellows expansion fitting over a horseshoe loop?

a| It is less expensive ¨
b| Its operating movement can be observed ¨
c| Fewer pipe supports are required ¨
d| It takes up less space ¨
6. Condensate from a heater battery operating at 3.8 bar g returns to a vented pump set
from where it is pumped through a carbon steel pipe to an atmospheric boiler feedtank
which is 85 m away. Using the chart in Figure 10.4.1, what will be the approximate pipe
expansion from an ambient temperature of 0°C?
a| 130 mm ¨
b| 200 mm ¨
c| 160 mm ¨
d| 100 mm ¨
Answers
1: d, 2: c, 3: d, 4: a, 5: d, 6: d

Block 10 Steam Distribution Air Venting, Heat Losses and a Summary of Various Pipe Related Standards Module 10.5
Module 10.5
Air Venting, Heat Losses and a
Summary of Various Pipe Related
Standards

Air Venting, Heat Losses and a Summary of

Various Pipe Related Standards
Air venting
When steam is first admitted to a pipe after a period of shutdown, the pipe is full of air. Further
amounts of air and other non-condensable gases will enter with the steam, although the proportions
of these gases are normally very small compared with the steam. When the steam condenses,
these gases will accumulate in pipes and heat exchangers. Precautions should be taken to discharge
them. The consequence of not removing air is a lengthy warming up period, and a reduction in
plant efficiency and process performance.
Air in a steam system will also affect the system temperature. Air will exert its own pressure within
the system, and will be added to the pressure of the steam to give a total pressure. Therefore, the
actual steam pressure and temperature of the steam /air mixture will be lower than that suggested
by a pressure gauge.
Of more importance is the effect air has upon heat transfer. A layer of air only 1 mm thick can
offer the same resistance to heat as a layer of water 25 µm thick, a layer of iron 2 mm thick or
a layer of copper 15 mm thick. It is very important therefore to remove air from any steam
system.
Automatic air vents for steam systems (which operate on the same principle as thermostatic steam
traps) should be fitted above the condensate level so that only air or steam /air mixtures can reach
them. The best location for them is at the end of the steam mains as shown in Figure 10.5.1.
Balanced pressure air vent
Discharge air to
a safe place
Steam main
Drain to a safe place Condensate

Fig. 10.5.1 Draining and venting at the end of a steam main

The discharge from an air vent must be piped to a safe place. In practice, a condensate line falling
towards a vented receiver can accept the discharge from an air vent.
In addition to air venting at the end of a main, air vents should also be fitted:
o In parallel with an inverted bucket trap or, in some instances, a thermodynamic trap. These traps
are sometimes slow to vent air on start-up.
o In awkward steam spaces (such as at the opposite side to where steam enters a jacketed pan).
o Where there is a large steam space (such as an autoclave), and a steam /air mixture could affect
the process quality.
Reduction of heat losses

Even when a steam main has warmed up, steam will continue condensing as heat is lost by
radiation. The condensing rate will depend upon the steam temperature, the ambient temperature,
and the efficiency of the pipe insulation.
For a steam distribution system to be efficient, appropriate steps should be taken to ensure that
heat losses are reduced to the economic minimum. The most economical thickness of insulation
will depend upon several factors:
o Installation cost.
o The heat carried by the steam.
o Size of the pipework.
o Pipework temperature.
When insulating external pipework, dampness and wind speed must be taken into account.
The effectiveness of most insulation materials depends on minute air cells which are held in a
matrix of inert material such as mineral wool, fibreglass or calcium silicate. Typical installations
use aluminium clad fibreglass, aluminium clad mineral wool and calcium silicate. It is important
that insulating material is not crushed or allowed to waterlog. Adequate mechanical protection
and waterproofing are essential, especially in outdoor locations.
The heat loss from a steam pipe to water, or to wet insulation, can be as much as 50 times greater
than from the same pipe to air. Particular care should be taken to protect steam lines, running
through waterlogged ground, or in ducts, which may be subjected to flooding. The same applies
to protecting the lagging from damage by ladders etc., to avoid the ingress of rainwater.
It is important to insulate all hot parts of the system with the exception of safety valves. This
includes all flanged joints on the mains, and also the valves and other fittings. It was, at one time,
common to cut back the insulation at each side of a flanged joint, to leave access to the bolts for
maintenance purposes. This is equivalent to leaving about 0.5 m of bare pipe.
Fortunately, prefabricated insulating covers for flanged joints and valves are now more widely
available. These are usually provided with fasteners so that they can readily be detached to
provide access for maintenance purposes.
Calculation of heat transfer

The calculation of heat losses from pipes can be very complex and time consuming, and assume
that obscure data concerning pipe wall thickness, heat transfer coefficients and various derived
constants are easily available, which, usually, they are not.
The derivations of these formulae are outside the scope of this Module, but further information
can be readily found in any good thermodynamics textbook. To add to this, an abundance of
contemporary computer software is available for the discerning engineer.

This being so, pipe heat losses can easily be found by reference to Table 10.5.1 and a simple
equation (Equation 10.5.1).
The table assumes ambient conditions of between 10 - 21°C, and considers heat losses from bare
horizontal pipes of different sizes with steam contained at various pressures.
Table 10.5.1 Heat emission from pipes
Note: Heat emission from bare horizontal pipes with ambient temperatures between 10°C and 20°C and still air conditions
Temperature Pipe size (DN)
difference 15 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100 150
steam to air °C W/m
60 60 72 88 111 125 145 172 210 250 351
70 72 87 106 132 147 177 209 253 311 432
80 86 104 125 155 171 212 248 298 376 519
90 100 121 146 180 196 248 291 347 443 610
100 116 140 169 207 223 287 336 400 514 706
110 132 160 193 237 251 328 385 457 587 807
120 149 181 219 268 282 371 436 517 664 914
130 168 203 247 301 313 417 490 581 743 1 025
140 187 226 276 337 347 464 547 649 825 1 142
150 208 250 306 374 382 514 607 720 911 1 263
160 229 276 338 413 418 566 670 794 999 1 390
170 251 302 372 455 457 620 736 873 1 090 1 521
180 275 330 407 499 497 676 805 955 1 184 1 658
190 299 359 444 544 538 735 877 1 041 1 281 1 800
200 325 389 483 592 582 795 951 1 130 1 381 1 947
Other factors can be included in the equation, for instance, if a pipe is lagged with insulation
providing a reduction in heat losses to 10% of the uninsulated pipe, then it is multiplied by a
factor of 0.1.
/I
V = Equation 2.12.2
KIJ
Where:
ms = Rate of condensation (kg /h)
Q = Heat emission (W/m) (from Table 10.5.1)
L = Effective length of pipe, allowing for flanges and fittings (m)
f = Insulation factor. e.g.: 1 for bare pipes, 0.1 for good insulation
hfg = Specific enthalpy of evaporation (kJ /kg)
Equivalent lengths:
Pair of mating flanges 0.5 m
Line size valve 1.0 m
Example 10.5.1
50 m of 100 mm pipe has 8 pairs of flanges and two valves, and carries saturated steam at
7 bar g. Ambient temperature is 10°C, and the insulation efficiency is given as 0.1
With reference to Table 10.5.1 and the application of Equation 10.5.1: determine the quantity
of steam that will be condensed per hour:
Part 1 - Without insulation.
Part 2 - With the pipe insulated, but the valves and flanges are left without insulation.
Part 3 - Completely insulated.

Equivalent length of fittings:

(8 pairs of flanges @ 0.5 m) + (2 valves @ 1.0 m) = 6.0 m of pipe
Saturated steam at 7 bar g:
Steam temperature = 170°C
Temperature difference (pipe to ambient temperature) = 170°C - 10°C = 160°C
Enthalpy of evaporation (hfg) = 2 048 kJ /kg
Heat loss per metre of 100 mm pipe (from Table 10.5.1) = 999 W/m
Part 1 - Without insulation:
/I
V = Equation 2.12.2
KIJ
/I
V =
KIJ
[[[
V =

&RQGHQVLQJUDWH NJ K
Part 2 - Pipe insulated, but without insulation on the valves and flanges:
Consider the two elements separately:
/I
,QVXODWHGSLSH V =
KIJ
[[[
V =

+HDWORVVIURPSLSHV V NJ K
/I
8QLQVXODWHGILWWLQJV V =
KIJ
[[[
V =

+HDWORVVIURPILWWLQJV V NJ K
Total condensing rate = heat loss from pipes + heat loss from fittings
Total condensing rate = 8.78 kg /h + 10.54 kg /h = 19.32 kg /h
Part 3 - Pipe and fittings insulated:

/I
V =
K IJ
[[[

V =

&RQGHQVLQJUDWH NJ K

Relevant UK and International Standards

Symbols have been used to indicate, technically equivalent standards (=), and related standards (¹)
respectively.
Table 10.5.2
BS 10 Specification for flanges and bolting for pipes, valves and fittings.
BS 21 =
Specification for pipe threads for tubes and fittings where
ISO 7/1 ¹
pressure tight joints are made on the threads.
ISO 7/2
EN 13480 Specification for metallic industrial piping.
BS 1306 Specification for copper and copper alloy piping systems.
Specification for screwed and socketed tubes and tubulars and for
BS 1387 plain end steel tubes suitable for welding and screwing to BS 21 pipe threads.
Circular flanges for pipes, valves and fittings (Class designated):
- Part 3, Section 3.1 - Specification for steel flanges (¹ ISO 7005).
BS 1560
- Part 3, Section 3.2 - Specification for cast iron flanges (¹ ISO 7005-2).
- Part 3, Section 3.3 - Specification for copper alloy and composite flanges (¹ ISO 7005-3).
BS 1600 Dimensions of steel pipe for the petroleum industry.
EN 10253-1 Specification for butt welding pipe fittings for pressure purposes.
BS 1710 Specification for identification of pipelines.
BS 2779=
Specification for pipe threads for tubes and fittings where
IS0 228/1,
pressure tight joints are not made onthe threads.
ISO 228/2
Specification for dimensions and masses per unit length of welded and seamless steel pipes and
EN 10220 tubes for pressure purposes.
Specification for steel pipes and tubes with specified room temperature properties for pressure
BS 3601 purposes.
EN 10216-2 Specification for steel pipes and tubes for pressure purposes:
EN 10217-2/3/5 carbon and carbon manganese steel with specified elevated temperature properties.
EN 10216-4 Specification for carbon and alloy steel pipes and tubes with
EN 10217-4 specified low temperature properties for pressure purposes.
EN 10216-2
Steel pipes and tubes for pressure purposes:
EN 10217-2
ferritic alloy steel with specified elevated temperature properties.
BS 3604-2
BS 3605-1/2 Austenitic stainless steel pipes and tubes for pressure purposes.
BS 3799 Specification for steel pipe fittings, screwed and socket welded for the petroleum industry.
BS 3974 Specification for pipe supports.
EN 1092-1 3.1 - Specification for steel flanges;
EN 1092-2 3.2 - Specification for cast iron flanges (¹ ISO 7005-2);
BS 4504 3.3 - Specification for copper alloy and composite flanges (¹ ISO 7005-3).
Summary
To summarise the Steam Distribution Block of The Steam and Condensate Loop, the following
checklist may be used to ensure that a steam distribution system will operate efficiently and
effectively:
o Are steam mains properly sized?
o Are steam mains properly laid out?
o Are steam mains adequately drained?
o Are steam mains adequately air vented?
o Is adequate provision made for expansion?
o Can separators be used to improve steam quality?
o Are there leaking joints, glands or safety valves and why?
o Can redundant piping be blanked off or removed?
o Is the system effectively insulated?

Questions
1. As a general rule, where should air vents be fitted in a steam system?

a | At the highest points o
b | On a bypass around a steam trap o
c | At points where air is driven by the incoming steam o
d | Around all steam traps or points adjacent to them o
2. On what principle do automatic air vents operate?

a | They sense the difference in pressure between steam pressure and water pressure
in a steam /air mixture o
b | They are temperature sensitive and remain open until steam at any pressure
reaches them o
c | They remain open until the air passing through them reaches steam temperature o
d | They remain open until steam at saturation temperature reaches them. They will then
close and will remain closed until, the temperature drops by approximately 12°C. o
3. From the following, what is the effect of air in a steam and condensate system?
a | Erosion of pipes o
b | Reduced heat output from the plant o
c | The steam traps will close as they would on sensing steam o
d | The air will prevent steam and condensate reaching the traps o
4. The surface cladding of insulation on a steam main is damaged and allows rain to enter
the lagging. What is the effect?
a | No significant effect o
b | Less condensation will occur in the pipe because the heat transfer rate through water
is less than the heat transfer rate through air o
c | The water will be evaporated and the steam formed will destroy the insulation o
d | Heat losses will increase because the heat transfer rate to water is much greater than
to air o
5. A 75 m long, 150 mm steam main operates at 10 bar g. The main runs outside and the
insulation is claimed to be 80% efficient. Approximately how much steam will be
condensed in meeting heat losses from the pipe?
a | 200 kg /h o
b | 40 kg /h o
c | 97 kg /h o
d | 28 kg /h o
6. If, in Question 5, the insulation was 90% efficient, what would the heat losses now be?
a | 180 kg /h o
b | 20 kg /h o
c | 194 kg /h o
d | 14 kg /h o
Answers
1: c, 2: d, 3: b, 4: d, 5: b, 6: d


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Block 10 Steam Distribution Introduction to Steam Distribution Module 10.

The Steam and Condensate Loop 10.1.1

Introduction to Steam Distribution

Fig. 10.1.1 A typical basic steam circuit

10.1.2 The Steam and Condensate Loop

The Steam and Condensate Loop 10.1.3

Pressure Safety valve

10.1.4 The Steam and Condensate Loop

2. A steam pressure reducing valve is fitted to:

5. Which of the following results in pressure losses in distribution pipework?

6. The steam pipe after a pressure reducing valve is likely to be:

The Steam and Condensate Loop 10.1.5

10.1.6 The Steam and Condensate Loop

The Steam and Condensate Loop 10.2.1

Pipes and Pipe Sizing

10.2.2 The Steam and Condensate Loop

Pipe diameter (D) Flow velocity (u)

Fig. 10.2.3 Friction in pipes

This is illustrated by the DArcy equation (Equation 10.2.1):

K = I/Xò Equation 10.2.1

The Steam and Condensate Loop 10.2.3

Example 10.2.1 - Water pipe

9HORFLW\ VPó K[

K = I/Xò Equation 10.2.1

) = 3 3 Equation 10.2.2

10.2.4 The Steam and Condensate Loop

150 m (original pipe length)

Boiler at Unit heater

The Steam and Condensate Loop 10.2.5

From the pressure factor table:

) 3 3 Equation 10.2.2

10.2.6 The Steam and Condensate Loop

100 200 300 400 500

Fig. 10.2.5 Steam pipeline sizing chart - Pressure drop

The Steam and Condensate Loop 10.2.7

Sizing pipes on velocity

10.2.8 The Steam and Condensate Loop

9ROXPHWULFIORZUDWH  NJ V [Pó NJ

The Steam and Condensate Loop 10.2.9

scale to the steam mass flowrate of 5 000 kg /h (Point B).

10 Steam pressure bar g

100 200 300 400 500

10.2.10 The Steam and Condensate Loop

Sizing pipes for superheated steam duty

the 50 bar line (Point A).

The Steam and Condensate Loop 10.2.11

Using formulae to establish steam flowrate on pressure drop

Pressure drop formula 1

Pressure drop formula 2

10.2.12 The Steam and Condensate Loop

The Steam and Condensate Loop 10.2.13

Table 10.2.6 Pipeline capacity and pressure factor table

10.2.14 The Steam and Condensate Loop

Table 10.2.7 Steam pipeline sizing chart - Pressure drop

Steam pressure bar g

100 200 300 400 500

The Steam and Condensate Loop 10.2.15

Table 10.2.8 Steam pipeline sizing chart - Velocity

10 Steam pressure bar g

100 200 300 400 500

10.2.16 The Steam and Condensate Loop

1. A boiler is operated at 10 bar g and is required to supply 500 kg /h of saturated steam at

4. A 40 m pipe incorporating a number of bends and fittings is to be sized by the velocity

This is illustrated by the DArcy equation (Equation 10.2.1):

K = I/Xò Equation 10.2.1

9HORFLW\ VPó K[

K = I/Xò Equation 10.2.1

) = 3 3 Equation 10.2.2

) 3 3 Equation 10.2.2

9ROXPHWULFIORZUDWH NJ V [Pó NJ

Fig. 10.3.5 Formation of a solid slug of water