Satellite Communications

Multiple Access (Ch.6)

Two way communication
Inbound or forward link: The communication link
from the subscriber to the service provider via satellite.
Outbound or reverse link: The communication link
from the service provider to the subscriber via satellite.
----- inbound link
Out bound link

Multiple Access ?
Multiple access is a technique whereby a
variable number of users can access a
common resource for the purpose of
communications. Or Share the Transmission
Resource i.e. Radio Spectrum

Satellite Multiple Access
The ability of the satellite to carry many signals at the same time is
known as multiple access.
It is also called multiple destination because transmissions from each
earth station are received by all the other earth stations in the system
Multiple access allows the communication capacity of the satellite to
be shared among a large number of earth stations, and to
accommodate the different mixes (voice, video, data, facsimile) of
communication traffic that are transmitted by earth station
Such signals can be sent through the same satellite using multiple
access and multiplexing techniques
Multiplexing is the process of combining a number of signals
into a single signal at one location, so that it can processed
by a single amplifier or transmitted over a single radio
channel
Multiplexing is part of multiple access capability of all satellite systems
Where do you find multiple access used?

Multiple access is employed in most wireless
systems, particularly in satellite systems and cellular
systems.
The users interface with the common resource (i.e.,
the satellite transponder) via an air interface at the
physical layer
Similar to multiplexing in a wire-line system
Aim is to maximize system capacity thru dynamic
resource allocation and spectrum reuse
Multiple Access 1
Why do you need multiple access?

Multiple access has many advantages
Increases efficiency for provider
Reduces costs to user
Enhances network control
Enables more flexible designs
Multiple Access 2
Design Importance
The designer of a satellite communication system must make decisions
about the form of multiple access to be used
The multiple access technique used will influence:
the system capacity
the system flexibility
the system costs
the ability to earn revenue
Basic problem in any multiple access system is how to permit a
changing group of earth stations to share a satellite such that
Capacity is maximized
Bandwidth is used efficiently
Flexibility is maintained
Cost to user is minimized
Revenue to operator is maximized
Should allow for changing patterns of traffic over satellite life
time(10-15 years)
How do you achieve multiple access?

We must be able to separate users from each
other inside the common resource
Three primary techniques
Use a unique frequency (FDMA) flexible
and simple
Use a unique time slot (TDMA) popular
Use a unique code (CDMA) highly secure
Multiple Access 3
FDMA
Band pass filter extracts signal in the correct
frequency slot (band)
TDMA
De-multiplexer captures signal in the correct
time slot
CDMA
Direct sequence (DS) or frequency hopped (FH)
De-spreader or de-hopper extracts signal with
the correct code
Multiple Access 4
Frequency Division Multiple Access
(FDMA)
Satellite frequency is already broken into bands, and is broken in to
smaller channels in Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA).
Each user transmits all of the time, but on a different frequency
Overall bandwidth within a frequency band is increased due to frequency
reuse (a frequency is used by two carriers with orthogonal polarization)

Time Division Multiple Access
(TDMA)
Each user transmits at the same frequency, but not at the same
time
TDMA breaks a transmission into multiple time slots, each one
dedicated to a different transmitter

Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA)
In CDMA, Each user use the same carrier frequency and
may transmits simultaneously (i.e. at the and time)
Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA)-3D View
More MATs
FDMA can be performed in two ways:
If the resources (frequency, time, code) are allocated in advance, it is
pre-assigned multiple access or fixed assignment multiple access
(FAMA) OR The sub-channel assignments are of a fixed
allotment. Ideal for broadcast satellite communication.
In case of Pre-Assigned System, a given number of available voice-
band channels from each earth station are assigned to a dedicated
destination.Some-times wastage of Precious BW Resource
If the resources are allocated in response to changing traffic
conditions in a dynamic manner it is demand assigned multiple
access (DAMA) or The sub-channel allotment based on
demand. Ideal for point to point communication.
In case of Demand-Assigned System, Resources allocation is on need
basis, versatile and efficient usages of Radio Spectrum, but a
Complex Mechanism is required at all Earth Stations/Users
Difference between multiplexing &
multiple Access
Multiplexing is sharing of resources on links inside the network i.e. core
network. (The links between the network elements (NEs) of service
provider or between two service providers). Multiple Access is sharing
of resources on the access part of the network.
The main difference between TDM and TDMA (also FDM/FDMA, etc) is
that with TDM (also FDM, etc.) the signals multiplexed (i.e. sharing a
resource) come from the same node, whereas for TDMA (also FDMA,
etc.) the signals multiplexed come from different sources/transmitters.

MULTIPLEXING (dial up internet)
Multiple Access (satellite internet)
FDMA (1)
Satellite frequency is already broken into bands, and is broken in to
smaller channels in Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA).
Users share the bandwidth (i.e. the frequency available) within the
common resource
Time is common to all signals
Overall bandwidth within a frequency band is increased due to
frequency reuse (a frequency is used by two carriers with orthogonal
polarization). Need to develop a frequency plan, either from user
requests or from market forecasts.
The number of sub-channels is limited by three factors:
Thermal noise (too weak a signal will be effected by background
noise).
Intermodulation noise (too strong a signal will cause noise).
Crosstalk (cause by excessive frequency reusing).
The transponder in the satellite requires a loading plan to minimize
intermodulation (IM) product
FDMA (2): Transponder Loading
Plan
Available transponder bandwidth
typically 27 to 72 MHz
Four medium-sized
FM signals
One large and four
small digital signals
Important to Calculate Intermodulation
Products
Intermodulation ?
It is an unwanted amplitude modulation of signals
containing two or more different frequencies in a
system with non-linearities.
The intermodulation between each frequency
component will form additional signals at
frequencies that are often at sum and difference
frequencies of the original frequencies.
Sometimes filtering can remove the IM products,
but if they are within the bandwidth of the
transponder they cannot be filtered out.
Intermodulation Products (1)
Intermodulation (IM)
When two, or more, signals are present in a channel,
the signals can mix together to form some
unwanted products
With three signals, e
1
, e
2
and e
3
, present in a
channel, IM products can be second-order, third-
order, fourth-order, etc.

E
E
1
a
1
cose
1
t
E
2
a
1
cose
2
t
.
.
.
Non-linear
system
V
i
(t ) V
o
(t )
Linear summation
gain
= a
1
Small-signal
IM Product Order
First-order is e
1
, e
2
, e
3
, and e
4

Second-order is e
1
+ e
2
, e
1
+ e
3
, e
1
+ e
4
, e
2
+ e
3
,
Third-order is e
1
+ e
2
+ e
3
, e
1
+ e
2
- e
3
, 2e
1
- e
2
, 2e
2
- e
1
..
Terms falling inside the amplifier bandwidth are important
Usually, only the odd-order IM products fall within the
passband of the channel. First order terms are the desired
signal.
Amplitude reduces as order rises
Most important are third-order IM (3IM) products, such
as
IM terms are:
e
i
+ e
j
- e
k
, 2e
i
- e
j

With two carriers
IM Product Order
Third-order IM is important because third
order IM products have frequencies close
to the signals that generate the inter-
modulation, and are within the
transponder bandwidth
Intermodulation Distortion
(Mathematical)
Intermodulation distortion is relevant to devices that handle
multiple frequencies.
Consider an input signal with two frequencies
1
and
2
:
v
i
= A cos
1
t + B cos
2
t
Non-linearity in the device function is represented by
v
o
= a
0
+ a
1
v
i
+ a
2
v
i
2
+ a
3
v
i
3
neglecting higher order terms
In this model, a
1
represents the linear component of the system, which would
normally be dominant, a
2
represents the square-law component and so on.
Considering the system input to consist of two carriers of frequencies
1
and
2

and of amplitudes E
1
/a
1
and E
2
/a
1.

Therefore, device output is
v
o
= a
0
+ a
1
(A cos
1
t + B cos
2
t) DC and fundamental


+ a
2
(A cos
1
t + B cos
2
t)
2
2
nd
order terms

+ a
3
(A cos
1
t + B cos
2
t)
3
3
rd
order terms
Problems to Solve
Derive the following:
v
o
= a
0
+ a
1
(A cos
1
t + B cos
2
t)


+ a
2
[ A
2
(1+cos
1
t)/2 + AB cos (
1
+
2
)t +
AB cos (
1

2
)t + B
2
(1+cos
2
t)/2 ] +

a
3
(A cos
1
t + B cos
2
t)
3

Hint: Use the identity:
cos cos = [cos( + ) + cos( )] / 2
Simplify a
3
(A cos
1
t + B cos
2
t)
3
linear component (a
1
) gives rise to just two output signals at
frequencies
1
and
2
; the square-law component (a
2
) gives
rise to four output signals at frequencies 2
1
, 2
2
and
1

2
; the cube-law component (a
3
) gives rise to six output
signals at frequencies 3
1
, 3
2
, 2
1

2
and
1
2
2
and
so on.
Two-Tone Distortion Products
Order for distortion product mf
1
nf
2
is |m| + |n|
Nunber of distortion products Frequencies
Order Harmonic Intermod. Total Harmonic Intrmodulation
2 2 2 4 2f
1
, 2f
2
f
1
+ f
2
, f
2
f
1

3 2 4 6 3f
1
, 3f
2

2f
1
f
2
, 2f
2
f
1

4 2 6 8 4f
1
, 4f
2

2f
1
2f
2
, 2f
2
2f
1
, 3f
1
f
2
, 3f
2
f
1

5 2 8 10 5f
1
, 5f
2

3f
1
2f
2
, 3f
2
2f
1
, 4f
1
f
2
, 4f
2
f
1

6 2 10 12 6f
1
, 6f
2

3f
1
3f
2
, 3f
2
3f
1
, 5f
1
f
2
, 5f
2
f
1
,
4f
1
2f
2
, 4f
2
2f
1

7 2 12 14 7f
1
, 7f
2

4f
1
3f
2
, 4f
2
3f
1
, 5f
1
2f
2
, 5f
2
2f
1
,
6f
1
f
2
, 6f
2
f
1

N 2 2N 2 2N Nf
1
, Nf
2

. . . . .
Intermodulation Products (2):
Example
Amplifier bandwidth is from 10 to 11 GHz
Two carriers exist in the amplifier, one at 10.5
GHz and the other at 10.6 GHz
At what frequency will the third order inter-
modulation product appear at?
Answer:
Intermodulation Products (3):
Example (cont.)
The two third-order IM products are 10.4 and 10.7
GHz
We therefore have:
Why is this a problem?
IM can cause in-band interference
If a new user now accesses the amplifier at 10.4 or 10.7 GHz,
the new signals fall right on top of the intermodulation signals
So the intermodulation signals will interfere with them & produce
cross talk.
Intermodulation Products (4):
Example (cont.)
Intermodulation Products (5)
Extremely important to calculate where intermodulation
products will fall
Avoid regularly spaced carrier signals
Satellite systems have very complicated software to calculate
IM products
IM products become more severe as an amplifier becomes
non-linear/output of transponder (amplifier) increases towards
saturation
To achieve linearity, amplifiers should not be run at their
maximum saturation (rated) power
Reducing the output power increases life. Process is called
backing off an amplifier
The output power of an operating transponder is related
to its saturated output power by output backoff

IM Example
Suppose 3 carriers are carrying three different signals in
FDMA mode & pass through HPA of transponder. One carrier
is at 1 MHz, second at 2 MHz & third at 3 MHz. Due to non-
linear properties of HPA the 1 & 2 MHz frequencies will
produce two intermodulation products i.e. 2-1 = 1 MHz & 2+1
= 3 MHz . As there are valid signals already present at 1 &
3MHz so the intermodulation signals will interfere with them &
produce cross talk.
To avoid inter modulation products the carrier power of each
signal in FDMA must be reduced before passing through HPA.
This is called back off.
Amplifiers (1)
In the transponder(amplifier),the output power level is controlled by the input power
When the transponder is operated at output back-off,t he input power is reduced by the
input back-off
The non-linearity of the transponder causes the input and output back-off values to be
unequal
Saturated output power
Manufacturers usually specify
Small signal gain
This is the gain of the amplifier when it is
operating in its linear region
1 dB compression point
This is the point 1 dB down from the linear gain
line
Amplifiers (2)
Amplifiers (3)
As in the previous example, care must be
taken when interpreting the stated
characteristics
Summary:
For 55 W maximum power read 46 W
For linear gain read 35 W maximum output
power
If there is more than one carrier, power is
divided up as ratio of occupied bandwidth
Amplifiers (4)
Amplifiers (5): Multi-Carrier
Example
Amplifier has linear output power of 50 W,
and bandwidth of 50 MHz
Two signals, occupying 20 MHz and the
other 30 MHz
Find: Output power of each of the signals?
Answer:
The 30 MHz signal uses 30 W
The 20 MHz signal uses 20 W
FDMA Advantages
Simplest to implement
Generally less supervisory control required
Can achieve lowest bandwidth and power
requirements
Cheapest
Quickest customer acceptance
FDMA Limitations
IM can cause C/N to fall
Back-off is needed to reduce IM
Parts of band cannot be used because of IM
Transponder power is shared amongst carriers
Power balancing must be done carefully
Frequencies get tied to routes
Requires guard bands b/w the frequency bands
to reduce adjacent channel interference.

TDMA (1)
With TDMA, only one carrier uses the transponder at any one
time, and therefore, IM products, which result from the nonlinear
amplification of multiple carriers, are absent.
TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) breaks a transmission into
multiple time slots, each one dedicated to a different transmitter.
Users share the time i.e. users to access the whole channel
bandwidth for a fraction of the time, called slot, on a periodic
basis
Frequency is common to all signals
Because the signal information is transmitted in bursts traffic
(variable bit rate), TDMA is only suited to digital signals. Digital
data can be assembled into burst format for transmission and re-
assembled from the received bursts through the use of digital
buffer memories
TDMA concept
Basic TDMA concept: stations transmit bursts in sequence. Burst
synchronization is required, one station is assigned solely for the
purpose of transmitting reference bursts to which the others can
be synchronized.

TDMA using a reference station for burst synchronization
The time interval from the start
of one reference burst to the
next is termed a frame. A frame
contains the reference burst R
and the bursts from the other
earth stations, these being
shown as A, B, and C.
TDMA (2)
Develop a burst traffic time plan from user
capacity requests
Large system burst traffic time plans can
be complicated and difficult to change

TDMA (3): Burst Traffic Time Plan
TDMA plans first organize the users into a
common frame structure
Frame is fixed length in time
Receiver information required to detect start of
the frame
TDMA (4): Burst Traffic Time Plan
(cont.)
Frame is not completely filled (as it is in
TDM)
Guard bands are left between each
payload element and traffic is organized
into a set sequence the burst time plan
Every user must be synchronized in time
Timing is crucial
Users occupy a set portion of the frame according to
the burst time plan
Note:
Guard band times between bursts
Length of burst bandwidth allocated

TDMA (5): Burst Traffic Time Plan
(cont.)
TDMA
For a case of digital speech channel using serial transmission at a
rate (r
sp
), the number of speech channels (n) that can be
transmitted in a TDMA frame shared equally by N earth stations can
be calculated from the duration of frame (T
frame
) in seconds, the
guard band and pre-amble length, t
g
and t
pre
, and the transmitted
bit rate of TDMA system (R
b
).
The time T
d
available in each earth station burst for transmission of
data bits is
T
d
= [T
frame
N(t
g
+ t
pre
)] / N Sec.
Total number of bits transmitted by each ES
C
b
= [T
frame
N(t
g
+ t
pre
)] x R
b
/ T
frame

Number of speech channels carried by each ES.
n = [T
frame
N(t
g
+ t
pre
)] x R
b
/ T
frame
x r
sp
TDMA (6): Schematic
Frame consists of four payload pulses
TDMA (7)
Frame header contains control information
Preamble in each traffic burst provides
synchronization information, signaling information
,and data
Minimum frame length is 125 s
125 s 1 voice channel sampled at 8 kHz
Maximum frame length is determined by traffic
and system requirements
Examples
2 ms for INTELSAT, 120 Mbps TDMA
90 ms for Iridium
TDMA (8): Synchronization
Best if range between user and common
resource is accurately known at all times
Distance between users and common
resource varies continuously
User and common resource must monitor
position of burst within the frame at all
times
TDMA (9): Example
Transponder bandwidth = 36 MHz
Bit rate (QPSK) 60 Mbit/s = 60 bits/s
Four stations share transponder in TDMA using 125
s frames
Preamble = 240 bits
Guard time = 1.6 s
Find:
What is the transponder capacity in terms of 64
kbit/s speech channels?
How many channels can each earth station
transmit?

TDMA (10): Example (cont.)
240 bits /60bits per s =
4 s
TDMA (11): Example (cont.)
Solution
There are four earth stations transmitting within the 125s frame,
so we have
125 s frame gives
125 = (44 s) + (41.6 s) + (4T s)
T = (125 - 16 - 6.4)/4 = 25.65 s is the period of data transmission
for each earth station per frame
60 Mbit/s 60 bits/s, thus 25.65 s = 1539 bits per earth station
per frame.
1 frame is sent every 125 s, i.e., 8000 frames are sent per second.
Voice channels: 8000 words per second, 8 bits per word
Hence channels/earth station = 1539/8 = 192
words/frame/earth station= 192 voice channels/earth station
8 bits/word for a voice channel
TDMA (12): Example (cont.)
(a)What is the transponder capacity in terms of 64
kbit/s speech channels?

Answer: 4x 192 = 768 (64 kbit/s) voice channels

(b)How many channels can each earth station
transmit?

Answer: 192 (64 kbit/s) voice channels (users per
frame)
What happens in the previous example if we use
an INTELSAT 2 ms frame length?
2 ms = 2,000 s = 44 + 41.6 + 4T

Therefore, T = 494.4 s
and, since there are 60 bits/s (60 Mbit/s), we
have T 29,664 bits
Remember we have 128 bits for a satellite channel
TDMA (13): Example (cont.)
With 128 bits for a satellite channel we have
Number of channels/access = 29,664/128
= 231
Capacity has increased due to less overhead

125 s frame 192 channels/access
2 ms frame 231 channels/access
TDMA (13): Example (cont.)
TDMA Advantages
No intermodulation products (if full bandwidth of
the common resource is occupied) means
increased efficiency
Saturated transponder operation possible
A flexible burst traffic time (variable bit rate) plan
optimizes capacity per connection
No guard bands required for wideband system.
There are advantages in digital transmission
techniques. Ex: error correction
TDMA is more amenable to digital transmission
(storage, processing, rate-conversion etc.) than
FDMA

Complex
Each user must transmit at a common
burst rate that is much higher than users
required rate
Must stay in synchronization
Requires complicated channel equalization
in mobile systems
TDMA Disadvantages
CDMA (1)
In CDMA, All user use the same carrier frequency and may
transmits simultaneously (i.e. at the and time) i.e. share
both time and frequency
Separation of signals is through the use of unique codes
(technically, they are mutually orthogonal)
Many users can simultaneously use the same bandwidth
without significantly interfering with one another
Each user is assigned a spreading code
Station 1 code 1
Station 2 code 2


CDMA (2):Orthogonal Codes
CDMA (3)
CDMA is a wireless communications technology that uses the
principle of spread spectrum communication.
Spread spectrum system uses transmission bandwidth (B
SS
)

larger than the signal bandwidth (B). i.e. (B
SS
>> B)


In CDMA, user data is multiplied with a pseudo-noise (PN)
sequence, called the spreading signal.
This causes the spectrum to be spread to several orders of
magnitude greater than minimum signal bandwidth.
Code rate (or chip rate) >> data rate
The Chip Rate is essentially the code rate from the PN
sequence generator
CDMA (4):PN Sequence
PN sequence is a binary sequence that appears random
but can be reproduced in a deterministic manner by
intended receiver. i.e. The information signal is
demodulated at the R
r
by cross correlation with a locally
generated replica of the users PN sequence. (Cross-
correlation with PN sequence of other users results in a
very small noise at the R
r
)
The rate of PN code called the chip rate, must be much
higher than the rate of the information signal. Code rate
(or chip rate) >> data rate

CDMA (5)
The signal is de-spread and is restored to the original
signal


Spreading factor = Processing Gain (G) = Chip Rate/Date Rate = f
c
/f
i
Where f
c
is the chipping frequency (the bit rate of the PN code), f
c
is
Information Frequency (the bit rate of the digital data).
The higher G batter system performance with lower interference.
G
2
indicates the number of possible codes.
Not all of the codes are orthogonal.
There are two ways to spread the bandwidth of the
signal:
Direct sequence-CDMA (DS-CDMA): Occupies full
bandwidth all the time
Frequency hopped-CDMA, FH-CDMA: A pair of
frequencies (one for 1 and one for 0) hop
over the full bandwidth randomly.

CDMA (6)
DS-CDMA
DS-CDMA
DC-CDMA: Spectral Occupation
The spectrum of the carrier c(t), of power C and
frequency f
c
is given by:

Spectrum is broadened
by the spreading ratio
R
c
/R
b
. This is the result
of combining the
message with the chip
sequence.
DS-CDMA: Realization of Multiple
Access
Received signal at the ES is the sum of wanted carrier
together and all other carriers c
i
(t) of the (N-1) other
users (i = 1, 2, .. (N-1))
If the codes have low cross-correlation function, then the
second term (which is like noise) will be very small and
can be neglected.
CDMA (7): DSSS Generation
PN sequence +1, +1, +1, -1, +1, -1, -1 is used to spread the
incoming bits -1 and +1.
+1 in the original bit stream would be transmitted by the chip
stream: +1, +1, +1, -1, +1, -1, -1 and -1 in the original stream is
transmitted by the chip stream: -1, -1, -1, +1, -1, +1, +1
CDMA (8): DSSS Receiver
The original bit stream can be recovered at the receiver if we multiply
the received stream by a synchronized copy of the PN (Pseudo-
random) sequence, which was used at the transmitter.
CDMA (9): DSSS Spectrum
CDMA (10): DSSS Spectrum (cont.)
Flat - usually below the noise
Code must be compressed (de-spread) to
raise the signal above the noise
Receiver must synchronize to a code
sequence which is below the noise
Requires the use of a generator and
correlator
DS-CDMA
The (S/N)
output
in the spread spectrum receiver after the correlator
(S/N)
out
= (C/N)
SS
+ 10 log
10
(G)
In DS-CDMA, number of CDMA signals present at the input of each
receiver, it is usually the unwanted (interfering) CDMA signal as noise.
If the receiver has an input containing Q input signals, each at a power
level C watts, and R
r
thermal noise power is N
t,
the (C/N)
in
for the
wanted signal,
(C/N)
in
= 10 log
10
[C/(N
t
+ (Q-1) x C)] dB
where (N
t
+ (Q-1) x C) watt is the total noise at R
r
input
Term (Q-1) x C = I watt is power of (Q-1) interfering CDMA signals
(S/N)
out
= 10 log
10
[C/(N
t
+ (Q-1) x C)] + 10 log
10
(G) dB
If Q is a large number, [C/(N
t
+ (Q-1) x C)](Q-1) x C) watts
(S/N)
out
= 10 log
10
[C/(N
t
+ (Q-1) x C)] + 10 log
10
(G) = 10
log
10
[M/(Q-1)] dB
If Q is also large such that M>>1
(S/N)
out
= 10 log
10
[M/Q] dB
The bit rate of each signal is
R
b
= R
c
/N = B/ [N x (1+)]
Frequency Hopping (FH CDMA)
f
c
(t) is determined by a set of large N chips.
Where N is the number of possible carrier frequencies.
f
c
changes in hops, such that hop rate is given by:
The frequency synthesizer
output is constant for a
period of T
c
, known as chip
period. i.e. chip rate = R
c
=
1/T
c

System
Clock
FH CDMA
Coherent detection at the receiver will result in:
Second term is eliminated by the low pass filter.
Spectral Occupation:
Three types of systems can be considered:
One frequency hop per information bit R
H
= R
b
Several frequency hops per information bit R
H
R
b
One frequency hop covers several bits R
H
R
b

FH CDMA
e.g. R
H
R
b
,

R
H
is the hop rate
FH CDMA
The various network carriers follow different
trajectories on the grid. Only the carrier whose
trajectory coincides with that regenerated by the
local synthesizer will be demodulated.
at the output of the low pass filter -------- m(t) plus
noise caused by
ci
(t)=
c
which has a small
probability.
The spectrum spread factor is large and is equal to
(B/b).
FH-CDMA
FH-CDMA is based on FDM system in which an
individual users transmission is spread out over a
number of channels over time
Channel choice is varied in a PN fashion. If the carrier is
changed every symbol than it is referred as a fast FH
system, if it is changed every few symbols it is slow
FH system.

Hopping means the
frequencies that are
sent hop randomly
amongst a large set
of frequencies=>
spread signal
FH-Spread Spectrum
Suppose we have decided to have
eight hopping frequencies. In this
case, M is 8 and k is 3. The PN code
generator will create eight different
3-bit patterns. These are mapped to
eight different frequencies in the
frequency table.
The pattern for this station is 101,
111,...,100. The pattern is
pseudorandom it is repeated after
eight hoppings. This means that at
hopping period 1, the pattern is
101. The frequency selected is
700 kHz; the source signal
modulates this carrier frequency
The IInd k-bit pattern selected is 111, which selects the 900-
kHz carrier; the eighth pattern is 100, the frequency is 600 kHz.
After eight hoppings, the pattern repeats, starting from 101
again.
T
H
= Hop Period
FH-Spread Spectrum
Hop rate = R
H

N is the number of possible carrier frequencies
DS-CDMA Capacity
The capacity of a system is approximated by :

is the maximum number of simultaneous calls
is the processing gain
is the total signal to noise ratio per bit
is the inter-cell interference factor.
CDMA (5):DSSS/FHSS Hybrid
CDMA (11): Applications
Military
Anti-jam (AJ)
Low probability of intercept (LPI)
Commercial
VSATs (due to wide beams)
GPS
Microwave cellular systems (IS-95, IS-
95B, IS-2000, WCDMA)
Assignment #1
Read the paper of Arthur C. Clark
Wireless World Magazine and summarize his
suggestions to support Satellite for
Communication purposes