Buddhism

Two major branches of Buddhism are recognized: Theravada ("The School of the Elders") and Mahayana ("The Great Vehicle"). Theravada has a widespread following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Mahayana is found throughout East Asia and includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism, Shingon, and Tiantai (Tendai). In some classifications, Vajrayana practiced mainly in Tibet and Mongolia, and adjacent parts of China and Russiais recognized as a third branch, while others classify it as a part of Mahayana. Life of the Buddha This narrative draws on the Nidnakath biography of the Theravda sect in Sri Lanka, which is ascribed to Buddhaghoa in the 5th century CE.[9] Earlier biographies such as the Buddhacarita, the Lokottaravdin Mahvastu, and the Mahyna / Sarvstivda Lalitavistara Stra, give different accounts. Scholars are hesitant to make unqualified claims about the historical facts of the Buddha's life. Most accept that he lived, taught and founded a monastic order, but do not consistently accept all of the details contained in his biographies. According to author Michael Carrithers, while there are good reasons to doubt the traditional account, "the outline of the life must be true: birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death."[12] In writing her biography of Buddha, Karen Armstrong noted, "It is obviously difficult, therefore, to write a biography of the Buddha that meets modern criteria, because we have very little information that can be considered historically sound... [but] we can be reasonably confident Siddhatta Gotama did indeed exist and that his disciples preserved the memory of his life and teachings as well as they could. The evidence of the early texts suggests that Siddhrtha Gautama was born in a community that was on the periphery, both geographically and culturally, of the northeastern Indian subcontinent in the 5th century BCE.[14] It was either a small republic, in which case his father was an elected chieftain, or an oligarchy, in which case his father was an oligarch. According to the Theravada Tripitaka scriptures[which?] (from Pali, meaning "three baskets"), Gautama was born in Lumbini in modern-day Nepal, around the year 563 BCE, and raised in Kapilavastu.[15][16]

According to this narrative, shortly after the birth of young prince Gautama, an astrologer visited the young prince's fatherKing uddhodanaand prophesied that Siddhartha would either become a great king or renounce the material world to become a holy man, depending on whether he saw what life was like outside the palace walls. uddhodana was determined to see his son become a king, so he prevented him from leaving the palace grounds. But at age 29, despite his father's efforts, Gautama ventured beyond the palace several times. In a series of encounters known in Buddhist literature as the four sightshe learned of the suffering of ordinary people, encountering an old man, a sick man, a corpse and, finally, an ascetic holy man, apparently content and at peace with the world. These experiences prompted Gautama to abandon royal life and take up a spiritual quest. Gautama first went to study with famous religious teachers of the day, and mastered the meditative attainments they taught. But he found that they did not provide a permanent end to suffering, so he continued his quest. He next attempted an extreme asceticism, which was a religious pursuit common among the Shramanas, a religious culture distinct from the Vedic one. Gautama underwent prolonged fasting, breath-holding, and exposure to pain. He almost starved himself to death in the process. He realized that he had taken this kind of practice to its limit, and had not put an end to suffering. So in a pivotal moment he accepted milk and rice from a village girl and changed his approach. He devoted himself to anapanasati meditation, through which he discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way (Skt. madhyam-pratipad[17]): a path of moderation between the extremes of self-indulgence and selfmortification.[18][19] Gautama was now determined to complete his spiritual quest. At the age of 35, he famously sat in meditation under a sacred fig tree known as the Bodhi tree in the town of Bodh Gaya, India, and vowed not to rise before achieving enlightenment. After many days, he finally destroyed the fetters of his mind, thereby liberating himself from the cycle of suffering and rebirth, and arose as a fully enlightened being (Skt. samyaksabuddha). Soon thereafter, he attracted a band of followers and instituted a monastic order. Now, as the Buddha, he spent the rest of his life teaching the path of awakening he had discovered, traveling throughout the northeastern part of the Indian subcontinent,[20][21] and died at the age of 80 (483 BCE) in Kushinagar, India. Buddhist concepts

As writing was uncommon in India at the time Gautama lived, the constructs of his life and teachings were passed on orally until they were written down, probably during the first century BCE.[22][dubious discuss] The English word "Buddhism" is relatively new. It was first used in the Oxford English Dictionary of 1801 (spelled "Boudhism") and its spelling changed to the present one in 1816, in a comment published in the Asiatic Journal ("The name and peculiarities of Buddhism have a good deal fixed my attention").[23] "The Three Jewels", Buddha, Dharma and Sangha,[24][dubious discuss] as well as the concepts of karma,[25] rebirth (and reincarnation[26]) and the practice of yoga[27] existed before Gautama lived but they later became associated with Buddhism. Life and the world Samsara is "the cycle of birth and death. Sentient beings crave pleasure and are averse to pain from birth to death. In being controlled by these attitudes, they perpetuate the cycle of conditioned existence and suffering (sasra), and produce the causes and conditions of the next rebirth after death. Karma Karma (from Sanskrit: "action, work") in Buddhism is the force that drives sasrathe cycle of suffering and rebirth for each being. Good, skillful deeds (Pli: "kusala") and bad, unskillful (Pli: "akusala") actions produce "seeds" in the mind that come to fruition either in this life or in a subsequent rebirth.[29] The avoidance of unwholesome actions and the cultivation of positive actions is called la (from Sanskrit: "ethical conduct"). In Buddhism, karma specifically refers to those actions (of body, speech, and mind) that spring from mental intent ("cetana"),[30] and bring about a consequence or fruit, (phala) or result (vipka). In Theravada Buddhism there can be no divine salvation or forgiveness for one's karma, since it is a purely impersonal process that is a part of the makeup of the universe. In Mahayana Buddhism, the texts of certain Mahayana sutras (such as the Lotus Sutra, the Angulimaliya Sutra and the Nirvana Sutra) claim that reciting or merely hearing their texts can expunge great swathes of negative karma. Some forms of Buddhism (for example, Vajrayana) regard the recitation of mantras as a means for cutting off previous negative karma.[31] The Japanese Pure Land teacher Genshin taught that Amida Buddha has the power to destroy the karma that would otherwise bind one in sasra.[5][6] Rebirth

Rebirth refers to a process whereby beings go through a succession of lifetimes as one of many possible forms of sentient life, each running from conception[32] to death. Buddhism rejects the concepts of a permanent self or an unchanging, eternal soul, as it is called in Hinduism and Christianity. Each rebirth takes place within one of five realms according to Theravadins, or six according to other schools.[33][34] These are further subdivided into 31 planes of existence:[35] 1. Naraka beings: those who live in one of many Narakas (Hells); 2. Preta: sometimes sharing some space with humans, but invisible to most people; an important variety is the hungry ghost;[36] 3. Animals: sharing space with humans, but considered another type of life; 4. Human beings: one of the realms of rebirth in which attaining Nirvana is possible; 5. Asuras: variously translated as lowly deities, demons, titans, antigods; not recognized by Theravda (Mahavihara) tradition as a separate realm;[37] 6. Devas including Brahmas: variously translated as gods, deities, spirits, angels, or left untranslated. Rebirths in some of the higher heavens, known as the uddhvsa Worlds (Pure Abodes), can be attained by only skilled Buddhist practitioners known as angmis (non-returners). Rebirths in the arupa-dhatu (formless realms) can be attained by only those who can meditate on the arpajhnas, the highest object of meditation. Suffering's causes and solution The Four Noble Truths "I teach suffering, its origin, cessation and path. That's all I teach", declared the Buddha 2500 years ago. The Four Noble Truths contain the essence of the Buddha's teachings. It was these four principles that the Buddha came to understand during his meditation under the bodhi tree. 1. The truth of suffering (Dukkha) 2. The truth of the origin of suffering (Samudya) 3. The truth of the cessation of suffering (Nirodha) 4. The truth of the path to the cessation of suffering (Magga)

The Buddha is often compared to a physician. In the first two Noble Truths he diagnosed the problem (suffering) and identified its cause. The third Noble Truth is the realisation that there is a cure. The fourth Noble Truth, in which the Buddha set out the Eightfold Path, is the prescription, the way to achieve a release from suffering. Suffering (Dukkha) Suffering comes in many forms. Three obvious kinds of suffering correspond to the first three sights the Buddha saw on his first journey outside his palace: old age, sickness and death. But according to the Buddha, the problem of suffering goes much deeper. Life is not ideal: it frequently fails to live up to our expectations. Human beings are subject to desires and cravings, but even when we are able to satisfy these desires, the satisfaction is only temporary. Pleasure does not last; or if it does, it becomes monotonous. The Buddha taught that the root of all suffering is desire, tanh. This comes in three forms, which he described as the Three Roots of Evil, or the Three Fires, or the Three Poisons. The three roots of evil These are the three ultimate causes of suffering:

Greed and desire, represented in art by a rooster Ignorance or delusion, represented by a pig Hatred and destructive urges, represented by a snake Nirvana Nirvana means extinguishing. Attaining nirvana - reaching enlightenment means extinguishing the three fires of greed, delusion and hatred. Someone who reaches nirvana does not immediately disappear to a heavenly realm. Nirvana is better understood as a state of mind that humans can reach. It is a state of profound spiritual joy, without negative emotions and fears. Someone who has attained enlightenment is filled with compassion for all living things.

After death an enlightened person is liberated from the cycle of rebirth, but Buddhism gives no definite answers as to what happens next. Path to the cessation of suffering (Magga) The final Noble Truth is the Buddha's prescription for the end of suffering. This is a set of principles called the Eightfold Path. The Eightfold Path is also called the Middle Way: it avoids both indulgence and severe asceticism, neither of which the Buddha had found helpful in his search for enlightenment. Noble Eightfold Path

The eight stages are not to be taken in order, but rather support and reinforce each other: 1. Right Understanding - Samm ditthi

Accepting Buddhist teachings. (The Buddha never intended his followers to believe his teachings blindly, but to practise them and judge for themselves whether they were true.)

2. Right Intention - Samm sankappa

A commitment to cultivate the right attitudes.

3. Right Speech - Samm vc

Speaking truthfully, avoiding slander, gossip and abusive speech.

4. Right Action - Samm kammanta

Behaving peacefully and harmoniously; refraining from stealing, killing and overindulgence in sensual pleasure.

5. Right Livelihood - Samm jva

Avoiding making a living in ways that cause harm, such as exploiting people or killing animals, or trading in intoxicants or weapons.

6. Right Effort - Samm vyma

Cultivating positive states of mind; freeing oneself from evil and unwholesome states and preventing them arising in future.

7. Right Mindfulness - Samm sati

Developing awareness of the body, sensations, feelings and states of mind.

8. Right Concentration - Samm samdhi

Developing the mental focus necessary for this awareness.

The eight stages can be grouped into Wisdom (right understanding and intention), Ethical Conduct (right speech, action and livelihood) and Meditation (right effort, mindfulness and concentration). The Four Immeasurables 1. Middle Way 2. Nature of existence Buddhist scholars have produced a remarkable quantity of intellectual theories, philosophies and world view concepts (see, for example, Abhidharma, Buddhist philosophy and Reality in Buddhism). Some schools of Buddhism discourage doctrinal study, and some regard it as essential practice. In the earliest Buddhist teachings, shared to some extent by all extant schools, the concept of liberation (Nirvana)the goal of the Buddhist pathis closely related to the correct understanding of how the mind causes stress. In awakening to the true nature of clinging, one develops dispassion for the objects of clinging, and is liberated from suffering (dukkha) and the cycle of incessant rebirths (sasra). To this end, the Buddha recommended viewing things as characterized by the three marks of existence.

3. Three Marks of Existence The Three Marks of Existence are impermanence, suffering, and not-self. Dependent arising The Twelve Nidnas describe a causal connection between the subsequent characteristics or conditions of cyclic existence, each one giving rise to the next: 1. Avidy: ignorance, specifically spiritual ignorance of the nature of reality;[55] 2. Saskras: literally formations, explained as referring to karma; 3. Vijna: consciousness, specifically discriminative;[56] 4. Nmarpa: literally name and form, referring to mind and body;[57] 5. ayatana: the six sense bases: eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mindorgan; 6. Spara: variously translated contact, impression, stimulation (by a sense object); 7. Vedan: usually translated feeling: this is the "hedonic tone", i.e. whether something is pleasant, unpleasant or neutral; 8. T: literally thirst, but in Buddhism nearly always used to mean craving; 9. Updna: clinging or grasping; the word also means fuel, which feeds the continuing cycle of rebirth; 10. Bhava: literally being (existence) or becoming. (The Theravada explains this as having two meanings: karma, which produces a new existence, and the existence itself.);[58] 11. Jti: literally birth, but life is understood as starting at conception;[59] 12. Jarmaraa: (old age and death) and also okaparidevadukhadaurmanasyopysa (sorrow, lamentation, pain, sadness, and misery).

Islam
Islam (English /zlm/;[note 1] Arabic: al-islm IPA: [slm] ( listen)[note 2]) is a monotheistic and Abrahamic religion articulated by the Qur'an, a text considered by its adherents to be the verbatim word of God (Arabic: Allh) and by the teachings and normative example (called the Sunnah and composed of Hadith) of Muhammad, considered by them to be the last prophet of God. An adherent of Islam is called a Muslim. Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable and the purpose of existence is to love and serve God.[1][2] Muslims also believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed at many times and places before, including through Abraham, Moses and Jesus, whom they consider prophets.[3] They maintain that previous messages and revelations have been partially changed or corrupted over time,[4] but consider the Qur'an to be both the unaltered and the final revelation of God.[5] Religious concepts and practices include the five pillars of Islam, which are basic concepts and obligatory acts of worship, and following Islamic law, which touches on virtually every aspect of life and society, providing guidance on multifarious topics from banking and welfare, to warfare and the environment. God Islam's most fundamental concept is a rigorous monotheism, called tawhd (Arabic: ). God is described in chapter 112 of the Qur'an as:[25] "Say: He is God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him." (112:1-4) Muslims repudiate the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and divinity of Jesus, comparing it to polytheism, but accept Jesus as a prophet. In Islam, God is beyond all comprehension and Muslims are not expected to visualize God. God is described and referred to by certain names or attributes, the most common being Al-Rahmn, meaning "The Compassionate" and Al-Rahm, meaning "The Merciful" (See Names of God in Islam).[26] Allh is the term with no plural or gender used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews to reference God, while ilh (Arabic: ) is the term used for a deity or a god in general.[32] Other non-Arab Muslims might use different names as much as Allah, for instance "Tanr" in Turkish or "Khod" in Persian. Angels

Belief in angels is fundamental to the faith of Islam. The Arabic word for angel (Arabic: malak) means "messenger", like its counterparts in Hebrew (malakh) and Greek (angelos). According to the Qur'an, angels do not possess free will, and worship God in total obedience.[33] Angels' duties include communicating revelations from God, glorifying God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at the time of death. They are also thought to intercede on man's behalf. The Qur'an describes angels as "messengers with wingstwo, or three, or four (pairs): He [God] adds to Creation as He pleases..."[34] Revelations The Islamic holy books are the records which most Muslims believe were dictated by God to various prophets. Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injil (Gospels), had become distortedeither in interpretation, in text, or both.[4] The Qur'an (literally, Reading or Recitation) is viewed by Muslims as the final revelation and literal word of God and is widely regarded as the finest piece of literature work in the Arabic language.[35][36][37] Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur'an were revealed to Muhammad by God through the archangel Gabriel (Jibrl) on many occasions between 610 CE until his death on June 8, 632 CE.[38] While Muhammad was alive, all of these revelations were written down by his companions (sahabah), although the prime method of transmission was orally through memorization.[39] After the death of Muhammad, it was compiled in the time of Abu Bakr, the first caliph, and was standardized under the administration of Uthman, the third caliph. The Qur'an is divided into 114 suras, or chapters, which combined, contain 6,236 yt, or verses. The chronologically earlier suras, revealed at Mecca, are primarily concerned with ethical and spiritual topics. The later Medinan suras mostly discuss social and moral issues relevant to the Muslim community.[40] The Qur'an is more concerned with moral guidance than legal instruction, and is considered the "sourcebook of Islamic principles and values".[41] Muslim jurists consult the hadith, or the written record of Prophet Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Qur'an and assist with its interpretation. The science of Qur'anic commentary and exegesis is known as tafsir.[42] When Muslims speak in the abstract about "the Qur'an", they usually mean the scripture as recited in Arabic rather than the printed work or any translation of it. To Muslims, the Qur'an is perfect only as revealed in the original Arabic; translations are necessarily deficient because of language differences, the fallibility of translators, and the impossibility of preserving the original's inspired style. Translations are

therefore regarded only as commentaries on the Qur'an, or "interpretations of its meaning", not as the Qur'an itself.[43] Prophets Muslims identify the prophets of Islam (Arabic: nab ) as those humans chosen by God to be his messengers. According to the Qur'an[44] the descendants of Abraham and Imran were chosen by God to bring the "Will of God" to the peoples of the nations. Muslims believe that prophets are human and not divine, though some are able to perform miracles to prove their claim. Islamic theology says that all of God's messengers preached the message of Islamsubmission to the will of God. Resurrection and judgment Belief in the "Day of Resurrection", Yawm al-Qiymah (Arabic: ) is also crucial for Muslims. They believe the time of Qiymah is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiymah are described in the Qur'an and the hadith, and also in the commentaries of scholars. The Qur'an emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death.[46] On Yawm al-Qiymah, Muslims believe all mankind will be judged on their good and bad deeds. The Qur'an lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such as disbelief (Arabic: Kufr), and dishonesty; however, the Qur'an makes it clear God will forgive the sins of those who repent if he so wills.[47] Good deeds, such as charity and prayer, will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and bliss, with Qur'anic references describing its features and the physical pleasures to come. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.[48] Yawm al-Qiymah is also identified in the Qur'an as Yawm ad-Dn (Arabic: ), [49] [50] "Day of Religion"; as-sah (Arabic: ), "the Last Hour"; and al-Qriah [51] (Arabic: ), "The Clatterer." Predestination In accordance with the Islamic belief in predestination, or divine preordainment (alqad wa'l-qadar), God has full knowledge and control over all that occurs. This is explained in Qur'anic verses such as "Say: 'Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us: He is our protector'..."[52] For Muslims, everything in the world that occurs, good or evil, has been preordained and nothing can happen unless

permitted by God. According to Muslim theologians, although events are preordained, man possesses free will in that he has the faculty to choose between right and wrong, and is thus responsible for his actions. According to Islamic tradition, all that has been decreed by God is written in al-Lawh al-Mahfz, the "Preserved Tablet".[53] Five pillars The Pillars of Islam (arkan al-Islam; also arkan ad-din, "pillars of religion") are five basic acts in Islam, considered obligatory for all believers. The Quran presents them as a framework for worship and a sign of commitment to the faith. They are (1) the shahadah (creed), (2) Daily prayers (salat), (3) Almsgiving (zakah), (4) Fasting during Ramadan and (5) The pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) at least once in a lifetime. The Shia and Sunni sects both agree on the essential details for the performance of these acts. Testimony The Shahadah,[55] which is the basic creed of Islam that must be recited under oath with the specific statement: "'ahadu 'al-l ilha ill-llhu wa 'ahadu 'anna muammadan raslu-llh", or "I testify there are no deities other than God alone and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God." This testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam. Muslims must repeat the shahadah in prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.[56] Prayer Ritual prayers, called alh or alt (Arabic: ) , must be performed five times a day. Salah is intended to focus the mind on God, and is seen as a personal communication with him that expresses gratitude and worship. Salah is compulsory but flexibility in the specifics is allowed depending on circumstances. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language, and consist of verses from the Qur'an.[57] A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name, masjid. The word mosque in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated to

Islamic worship, although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller, privately owned mosque and the larger, "collective" mosque (masjid jmi`).[58] Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the Muslim community as a place to meet and study. Modern mosques have evolved greatly from the early designs of the 7th century, and contain a variety of architectural elements such as minarets.[59] Shia Islam permits combining prayers in succession.[60] Alms-giving "Zakt" (Arabic: zakh "alms") is giving a fixed portion of accumulated wealth by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy, and also to assist the spread of Islam. It is considered a religious obligation (as opposed to voluntary charity) that the well-off owe to the needy because their wealth is seen as a "trust from God's bounty". The Qur'an and the hadith also suggest a Muslim give even more as an act of voluntary alms-giving (adaqah). Fasting Fasting, (Arabic: awm), from food and drink (among other things) must be performed from dawn to dusk during the month of Ramadhan. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God, and during it Muslims should express their gratitude for and dependence on him, atone for their past sins, and think of the needy. Sawm is not obligatory for several groups for whom it would constitute an undue burden. For others, flexibility is allowed depending on circumstances, but missed fasts usually must be made up quickly.[62] Pilgrimage The pilgrimage, called the ajj (Arabic: a) during the Islamic month of Dhu alHijjah in the city of Mecca. Every able-bodied Muslim who can afford it must make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime. Rituals of the Hajj include walking seven times around the Kaaba, touching the black stone if possible, walking or running seven times between Mount Safa and Mount Marwah, and symbolically stoning the Devil in Mina.[63]

Sikhism
Sikhism is a monotheistic religion founded during the 15th century in the Punjab region, by Guru Nanak Dev [3] which continued to progress with ten successive Sikh gurus (the last teaching being the holy scripture Gur Granth Shib Ji). It is the fifthlargest organized religion in the world, with approximately 30 million Sikhs.[4] This system of religious philosophy and expression has been traditionally known as the Gurmat (literally 'wisdom of the Gur'). Punjab, India is the only region in the world with a majority Sikh population.[5] Sikhs are expected to embody the qualities of a "Sant-Siph"a saint-soldier. One must have control over one's internal vices and be able to be constantly immersed in virtues clarified in the Guru Granth Sahib. The origins of Sikhi lie in the teachings of Guru Nanak and his successors. The essence of Sikh teaching is summed up by Nanak in these words: "Realization of Truth is higher than all else. Higher still is truthful living".[7] Sikh teaching emphasizes the principle of equality of all humans and rejects discrimination on the basis of caste, creed, and gender. Sikh principles encourage living life as a householder. Sikhi is a monotheistic[8][9] and a revealed religion.[10] In Sikhi, Godtermed Vhigur is shapeless, timeless, and sightless (i.e., unable to be seen with the physical eye): nirakr, akaal, and alakh. The beginning of the first composition of Sikh scripture is the figure "1"signifying the universality of God. It states that God is omnipresent and infinite with power over everything, and is signified by the term k akr.[11] Sikhs believe that before creation, all that existed was God and God's hukam (will or order).[12] When God willed, the entire cosmos was created. From these beginnings, God nurtured "enticement and attachment" to my, or the human perception of reality.[13] While a full understanding of God is beyond human beings,[11] Nanak described God as not wholly unknowable. God is omnipresent (sarav vipak) in all creation and visible everywhere to the spiritually awakened. Nanak stressed that God must be seen from "the inward eye", or the "heart", of a human being: devotees must meditate to progress towards enlightenment. Guru Nanak Dev emphasized the revelation through meditation, as its rigorous application permits the existence of communication between God and human beings.[11] God has no gender in Sikhi (though translations may incorrectly present a male God); indeed Sikhi teaches that God is "Akaal Purkh" with characteristic of "Nirankar" (Niran meaning "without" and kar meaning "form", hence

"without form"). In addition, Nanak wrote that there are many worlds on which God has created life.[14] History Main article: History of Sikhism Guru Nanak (14691539), the founder of Sikhism, was born in the village of Ri Bhi d Talwand, now called Nankana Sahib (in present-day Pakistan).[20] His parents were Khatri Hindus of the Bedi clan. As a boy, Nanak was fascinated by God and religion. He would not partake in religious rituals or customs and oddly meditated alone. His desire to explore the mysteries of life eventually led him to leave home and take missionary journeys. In his early teens, Nanak caught the attention of the local landlord Rai Bular Bhatti, who was moved by his amazing intellect and divine qualities. Rai Bular Bhatti was witness to many incidents in which Nanak enchanted him and as a result Rai Bular Bhatti and Nanak's sister Bibi Nanki, became the first persons to recognise the divine qualities in Nanak. Both of them then encouraged and supported Nanak to study and travel. At the age of thirty, Nanak went missing and was presumed to have drowned after going for one of his morning baths to a local stream called the Kali Bein. On the day he arrived, he declared: "There is no Hindu, there is no Muslim" (in Punjabi, "n ki hind n ki musalmn"). It was from this moment that Nanak would begin to spread the teachings of what was then the beginning of Sikhi.[21] Although the exact account of his itinerary is disputed, he is widely acknowledged to have made five major journeys, spanning thousands of miles, the first tour being east towards Bengal and Assam, the second south towards Andhra and Tamil Nadu, the third north towards Kashmir, Ladakh, and Tibet, and the fourth tour west towards Baghdad and Mecca.[22] In his last and final tour, he returned to the banks of the Ravi River to end his days.[23] 3 important rules of living 1. Nam Sim to meditate of the Holy Scripture 2. Kirat Karma to earn livelihood by your own effort 3. Chakna to share fortune efforts, time to the less fortunate Rahit Maryada Code of Discipline Signh means lion Kaur means Princess

Hukam acceptance to the will of God Granth Sahid the holy book of Sikhism Gurdwara place of worship Granthi person to read and explain the granth sahib Khanda symbolizes truth and justice

5 symbols to be wore by males and females 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Kachera symbolizes readiness to fight Kara steel band wear on the wrist Kesh uncut hair kirpan sword kangha - comb

Prohibitions in Sikhism Further information: Prohibitions in Sikhism and Diet in Sikhism There are a number of religious prohibitions in Sikhism. Prohibited are: 1. Cutting hair: Cutting hair is strictly forbidden in Sikhism. Sikhs are required to keep unshorn hair. 2. Intoxication: Consumption of alcohol, drugs, tobacco, and other intoxicants is not allowed. Intoxicants are strictly forbidden for a Sikh.[47][48][49] However the Nihangs of Punjab take an infusion of cannabis to assist meditation.[50] 3. Adultery: In Sikhism, the spouses must be physically and mentally faithful to one another.[47][48][49] 4. Blind spirituality: Superstitions and rituals should not be observed or followed, including pilgrimages, fasting and ritual purification; circumcision; idols & grave worship; compulsory wearing of the veil for women; etc. 5. Material obsession: Obsession with material wealth is not encouraged in Sikhism.

6. Sacrifice of creatures: The practice of sati (widows throwing themselves on the funeral pyre of their husbands), ritual animal sacrifice to celebrate holy occasions, etc. are forbidden. 7. Non-family-oriented living: A Sikh is encouraged NOT to live as a recluse, beggar, yogi, monastic (monk/nun) or celibate. Sikhs are to live as saint-soldiers. 8. Worthless talk: Bragging, lying, slander, "back-stabbing", etc. are not permitted. The Guru Granth Sahib tells the Sikh, "Your mouth has not stopped slandering and gossiping about others. Your service is useless and fruitless."[51] 9. Priestly class: Sikhism does not have priests, they were abolished by Guru Gobind Singh (the 10th Guru of Sikhism).[52] The only position he left was a Granthi to look after the Guru Granth Sahib, any Sikh is free to become Granthi or read from the Guru Granth Sahib.[52] 10. Eating meat killed in a ritualistic manner (Kutha meat): Sikhs are strictly prohibited from eating meat from animals slaughtered in a religiously prescribed manner (such as dhabihah or shechita, known as Kutha meat, when the animal is killed by exsanguination via throat-cutting),[53] or any meat where langar is served.[54] The meat eaten by Sikhs is known as Jhatka meat.[55][56] 11. Having premarital or extramarital sexual relations[4

Hinduism Hinduism is the predominant religion[3][4] of the Indian subcontinent, and one of its indigenous religions. Hinduism includes Shaivism, Vaishnavism and rauta among numerous other traditions. It also includes historical groups, for example the Kapalikas. Among other practices and philosophies, Hinduism includes a wide spectrum of laws and prescriptions of "daily morality" based on karma, dharma, and societal norms. Hinduism is a conglomeration of distinct intellectual or philosophical points of view, rather than a rigid common set of beliefs.[5] Hinduism is formed of diverse traditions and has no single founder.[6] Among its direct roots is the historical Vedic religion of Iron Age India and, as such, Hinduism is often called the "oldest living religion"[7] or the "oldest living major religion" in the world

Etymology
The word Hindu is derived (through Persian) from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, the historic local appellation for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent, which is first mentioned in the Rig Veda.[11][12][13] The word Hindu was borrowed into European languages from the Arabic term al-Hind, referring to the land of the people who live across the River Indus,[14] itself from the Persian term Hind,

which refers to all Indians. By the 13th century, Hindustn emerged as a popular alternative name of India, meaning the "land of Hindus".[15]

Devas and avatars

Detail of the Phra Prang, the central tower of the Wat Arun ("Temple of Dawn") in Bangkok, Thailand - showing Indra on his three-headed elephant Erawan (Airavata) The Hindu scriptures refer to celestial entities called Devas (or dev in feminine form; devat used synonymously for Deva in Hindi), "the shining ones", which may be translated into English as "gods" or "heavenly beings".[108] The devas are an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in art, architecture and through icons, and mythological stories about them are related in the scriptures, particularly in Indian epic poetry and the Puranas. They are, however, often distinguished from Ishvara, a supreme personal god, with many Hindus worshiping Ishvara in one of its particular manifestations (ostensibly separate deities) as their ia devat, or chosen ideal.[109][110] The choice is a matter of individual preference,[111] and of regional and family traditions.[111] Hindu epics and the Puranas relate several episodes of the descent of God to Earth in corporeal form to restore dharma to society and to guide humans to moksha. Such an incarnation is called an Avatar. The most prominent avatars are of Vishnu and include Rama (the protagonist in Ramayana) and Krishna (a central figure in the epic Mahabharata).

Karma and samsara

Main article: Karma in Hinduism Karma translates literally as action, work, or deed,[112] and can be described as the "moral law of cause and effect".[113] According to the Upanishads an individual, known as the jiva-atma, develops sanskaras (impressions) from actions, whether physical or mental. The linga sharira, a body more subtle than the physical one but less subtle than the soul, retains impressions, carrying them over into the next life, establishing a unique trajectory for the individual.[114] Thus, the concept of a universal, neutral, and never-failing karma intrinsically relates to reincarnation as well as to one's personality, characteristics, and family. Karma binds together the notions of free will and destiny. This cycle of action, reaction, birth, death and rebirth is a continuum called samsara. The notion of reincarnation and karma is a strong premise in Hindu thought. The Bhagavad Gita states: As a person puts on new clothes and discards old and torn clothes, similarly an embodied soul enters new material bodies, leaving the old bodies.(B.G. 2:22)[

Objectives of human life

Classical Hindu thought accepts the following objectives of human life, that which is sought as human purpose, aim, or end, is known as the pururthas:[125][126] Dharma (righteousness, ethikos) The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad views dharma as the universal principle of law, order, harmony, all in all truth, that sprang first from Brahman. It acts as the regulatory moral principle of the Universe. It is sat (truth), a major tenet of Hinduism. This hearkens back to the conception of the Rig Veda that "Ekam Sat," (Truth Is One), of the idea that Brahman is "Sacchidananda" (TruthConsciousness-Bliss). Dharma is not just law, or harmony, it is pure Reality. In the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad's own words: Verily, that which is Dharma is truth, Therefore they say of a man who speaks truth, "He speaks the Dharma," or of a man who speaks the Dharma, "He speaks the Truth.", Verily, both these things are the same. (Brh. Upanishad, 1.4.14) (2) In the Mahabharata, Krishna defines dharma as upholding both this-worldly and other-worldly affairs. (Mbh 12.110.11). The word Santana means 'eternal', 'perennial', or 'forever'; thus, 'Santana Dharma' signifies that it is the dharma that has neither beginning nor end.[127] Artha (livelihood, wealth) Artha is objective & virtuous pursuit of wealth for livelihood, obligations and economic prosperity. It is inclusive of political life, diplomacy and material well-being. The doctrine of Artha is called Arthashastra, amongst the most famous of which is Kautilya Arthashastra.[128][129][130] Kma (sensual pleasure) Kma (Sanskrit, Pali; Devanagari: ) means desire, wish, passion, longing, pleasure of the senses, the aesthetic enjoyment of life, affection, or love.[131][132] Moka (liberation, freedom from samsara) Moksha (Sanskrit: moka) or mukti (Sanskrit: ), literally "release" (both from a root muc "to let loose, let go"), is the last goal of life. It is liberation from samsara and the concomitant suffering involved in being subject to the cycle of repeated death and reincarnation.[133]

Yoga
In whatever way a Hindu defines the goal of life, there are several methods (yogas) that sages have taught for reaching that goal. Texts dedicated to Yoga include the Bhagavad Gita, the Yoga

Sutras, the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, and, as their philosophical and historical basis, the Upanishads. Paths that one can follow to achieve the spiritual goal of life (moksha, samadhi or nirvana) include:

Bhakti Yoga (the path of love and devotion) Karma Yoga (the path of right action) Rja Yoga (the path of meditation) Jna Yoga (the path of wisdom)[134]

The syllable Om (which represents the Parabrahman) and the Swastika sign (which symbolizes auspiciousness) have grown to represent Hinduism itself, while other markings such as tilaka identify a follower of the faith. Hinduism associates many symbols, which include the lotus, chakra and veena, with particular deities.

Pilgrimage
Following pilgrimage sites are most famous amongst Hindu devotees: Char Dham (Famous Four Pilgrimage sites): The four holy sites Puri, Rameswaram, Dwarka, and Badrinath (or alternatively the Himalayan towns of Badrinath, Kedarnath, Gangotri, and Yamunotri) compose the Char Dham (four abodes) pilgrimage circuit. Kumbh Mela: The Kumbh Mela (the "pitcher festival") is one of the holiest of Hindu pilgrimages that is held every 12 years; the location is rotated among Allahabad, Haridwar, Nashik, and Ujjain. Old Holy cities as per Puranic Texts: Varanasi formerly known as Kashi, Allahabad formerly known as Prayag, Haridwar-Rishikesh, Mathura-Vrindavan, and Ayodhya. Major Temple cities: Puri, which hosts a major Vaishnava Jagannath temple and Rath Yatra celebration; Katra, home to the Vaishno Devi temple; Three comparatively recent temples of fame and huge pilgrimage are Shirdi, home to Sai Baba of Shirdi, Tirumala - Tirupati, home to the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple; and Sabarimala,where Swami Ayyappan is worshipped. Shakti Peethas: Another important set of pilgrimages are the Shakti Peethas, where the Mother Goddess is worshipped, the two principal ones being Kalighat and Kamakhya. While there are different yet similar pilgrimage routes in different parts of India, all are respected equally well, according to the universality of Hinduism. Pilgrimage is not mandatory in Hinduism, though many adherents undertake them