HASIL CARIAN : GENG OUM SHAH ALAM

The Continuity of LifePresentation Transcript

1. The Cycles of Life The cell cycle, or cell-division cycle, is the sequence of events leading from the end of one cell division to the end of the next division. Multiplication of cells is called cell duplication. The life cycle is the sequence of events leading from the adults of one generation to the equivalent adults of the next generation. Multiplication of individuals is called reproduction. For unicellular organisms, the cell cycle and the life cycle are the same reproduction and cell duplication are identical. For multicellular organisms, the life cycle of an individual includes many cell cycles because its cells remain together after division.

2. o For multicellular organisms (like us), cell duplication permits an organism to grow and develop from a single cell to trillions of cells, to repair and replace worn-out cells, and in some cases, to make asexual reproduction possible.

3. Genome The DNA of the organism, called its genome, directs the events of the cell cycle and the life cycle. o A prokaryotic cell contains a single, circular, naked molecule of DNA. o A eukaryotic cell contains multiple, linear DNA molecules in the nucleus. An actual E. coli DNA molecule is much, much larger.

4. Eukaryotic DNA If the molecules were laid end-to-end, each human cell contains about 2 m of DNA, which has to fit into a tiny nucleus about 5-10 m in diameter. To do this, a cell uses a DNA packaging system: it wraps each DNA molecule around proteins called histones. The resulting DNA-protein complex is called a chromatin fiber.

5. When chromatin fibers compact even further, they form the familiar, thick chromosomes that can be seen under the light microscope. Chromosomes are present only during cell division.

HASIL CARIAN : GENG OUM SHAH ALAM

6. As cell division begins, each chromosome consists of two identical chromatids attached at the centromere. o Each chromatid contains a single DNA molecule. o Chromatids attached to each other contain identical molecules of DNA and are called sister chromatids. 7. During cell division, the sister chromatids of each chromosome separate, producing two daughter chromosomes. o Each daughter chromosome therefore contains a single DNA molecule. 8. For convenience, we will call a chromosome that contains sister chromatids a "duplicated chromosome" and one without sister chromatids an "unduplicated chromosome" and will use these terms throughout the cell cycle. 9. All members of the same species have the same number of chromosomes. o Although different species often have different numbers of chromosomes, some may have the same number. For example, the cells of dogs usually contain 78 chromosomes, those of kangaroos 12, those of humans and guppies 46, and those of chimpanzees, orangutans, and gorillas all contain 48. 10. Though similar in basic appearance, different chromosomes of a species vary slightly in size and shape. Also, when chromosomes are stained with special dyes, they develop distinctive patterns of bright and dark bands. o For example, these are the duplicated chromosomes of a normal human male. The Human Chromosomes Human karyotype. 11. Haploid and Diploid Cells The body cells of animals and many plants have two of each distinct chromosome, but their gametes (eggs or sperm) normally have only one of each. o A cell with two of each distinct chromosome is diploid it has two sets of chromosomes. Most often, one set came from the female parent (the maternal chromosomes) and the other set from the male parent (the paternal chromosomes). o A cell with one of each distinct chromosome is haploid it has one set of chromosomes. 12. Human Paternal Chromosomes Human Maternal Chromosomes

HASIL CARIAN : GENG OUM SHAH ALAM

13. Karyotype of Human Cell with Both Parental Sets of Chromosomes 14. Homologous Chromosomes Each matching pair of chromosomes in a diploid cell is called a homologous pair. Genes, but not alleles o Homologous chromosomes (or homologs) possess the same genes at the same locations, but not necessarily the same alleles. Alleles of the same gene 15. Sex Chromosomes and Autosomes In most animals and some plants, one pair of chromosomes, called the sex chromosomes, determines whether an individual is male or female. It may be nonhomologous in one of the sexes. All other chromosomes are called autosomes. o In humans and most other mammals, the sex chromosomes are homologous in females (XX) but non-homologous in males (XY). 16. The Prokaryotic Cell Cycle In prokaryotes, cell growth and chromosome duplication take place throughout most of the cell cycle, and daughter chromosomes are distributed to daughter cells in association with the plasma membrane. 17. The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle In eukaryotes, however, the cell cycle is more complex and can be divided into: o Interphase, by far the longest part of the cell cycle, which can be divided into: G1 phase S phase G2 phase cell growth DNA synthesis cell growth o Cell division, formation of daughter cells, which can be divided into: Mitosis division of the nucleus Cytokinesis division of the cytoplasm 18. The S Phase During the S phase, chromosomes are duplicated. 19. DNA content per diploid cell doubles during interphase, from one DNA molecule per chromosome in G1 phase to two DNA molecules per chromosome in G2 phase. 20. Mitosis Mitosis can be divided into four stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Whitefish blastula cell in early prophase.

HASIL CARIAN : GENG OUM SHAH ALAM

21. Mitotic Prophase During prophase, chromosomes condense, the spindle apparatus forms, and the nuclear envelope breaks down. The spindle apparatus is made of protein fibers and will distribute daughter chromosomes to daughter nuclei. Whitefish blastula cell in late prophase. 22. Mitotic Metaphase During metaphase, chromosomes align on the equator of the spindle apparatus (an imaginary plane that is midway between the two ends, or poles, of the spindle apparatus) and spindle fibers attach to their centromeres. Whitefish blastula cell in metaphase. 23. Mitotic Anaphase During anaphase, sister chromatids separate and spindle fibers pull the daughter chromosomes to opposite poles. Whitefish blastula cell in anaphase. 24. Mitotic Telophase During telophase, daughter chromosomes decondense, the spindle apparatus breaks down, and a nuclear envelope forms around each group of chromosomes at opposite ends of the cell. Whitefish blastula cell in early telophase. 25. Cytokinesis Cytokinesis often begins during telophase, as you see below. Whitefish blastula cell in late telophase, with cytokinesis nearing completion. 26. The Stages of Mitosis http://vimeo.com/diogenesii/mitosis 27. Summary of Eukaryotic Cell Division 28. Types of Reproduction Reproduction is the multiplication of individual organisms that occurs during the life cycle. There are two major types: o Asexual reproduction (or cloning) is reproduction that occurs without fusion of gametes (eggs and sperm). Each offspring is genetically identical to its parent. o Sexual reproduction is reproduction that involves the fusion of two gametes: a sperm and an egg. Each offspring is genetically different from its parent(s) and (usually) its siblings. 29. Sexual Reproduction Scientists estimate that more than 99.99 % of all eukaryotes reproduce sexually, including virtually all animals and

HASIL CARIAN : GENG OUM SHAH ALAM

plants. o In fact, a complete lack of sexual reproduction is rare among multicellular organisms. 30. Sexual Life Cycles Since a sperm and egg fuse during fertilization, each must have only half the number of chromosomes other body cells have. Otherwise, the fertilized cell would have too many. o So all sexual life cycles include a special type of cell division that reduces the number of chromosomes in each daughter cell by onehalf, called meiosis. Meiosis Fertilization 31. Meiosis Meiosis involves two rounds of cell division, beginning with a diploid germ-line cell and ending with four haploid gametes. There is no interphase and thus no chromosome duplication between the two cell divisions. o The first cell division, called meiosis I, separates homologs and the second division, called meiosis II, separates sister chromatids. o The phases of each division have the same names as those of mitosis, followed by a roman numeral that indicates the division number (I or II). 32. Meiosis vs. Mitosis What makes meiosis different from mitosis is the first cell division of meiosis: o During prophase I, homologous chromosomes pair. Nonsister chromatids exchange equivalent segments of DNA (cross-over). o During metaphase I, homologous pairs (not individual chromosomes) align at the equator of the spindle. o During anaphase I, homologs (not sister chromatids) separate. 33. The DNA content per cell is reduced in meiosis, from two DNA molecules per chromosome in a diploid cell to one DNA molecule per chromosome in a haploid cell. 34. Independent Assortment Because the alignment of homologous pairs along the center of the cell during metaphase I is random, different combinations of parental chromosomes are possible for each daughter cell. This process is known as independent assortment. o So, for example, an egg cell that has the maternal copy of chromosome 1 could have either copy (maternal or paternal) of chromosome 7.

HASIL CARIAN : GENG OUM SHAH ALAM

35. Independent Assortment of Chromosomes http://vimeo.com/diogenesii/assortchromo 36. From independent assortment alone, the possible number of genetically different gametes one individual could produce is 2n, where n is the haploid number of chromosomes. o For example, in humans (in which n = 23) each individual can produce at least 8,388,608 genetically different gametes due to independent assortment. 37. Crossing-Over However, the chromosomes in the gametes are actually new, nonparental chromosomes due to crossing-over. o During crossing-over, nonsister chromatids of each chromosome pair exchange equivalent segments. o Thus, each chromosome is a mixture of maternal and paternal alleles. 38. Crossing-Over during Meiosis http://vimeo.com/diogenesii/crossingover 39. Due to independent assortment and crossing-over, none of the gametes produced by this individual are genetically identical, nor are any chromosomes in them identical to the parental chromosomes. 40. Fertilization Colored scanning electron micrograph of a single sperm fertilizing a human egg. Fertilization is random. o So, just considering the effects of independent assortment and fertilization, any two parents could potentially produce 2n x 2n = 22n genetically different offspring in the case of humans, 246 or about 7.04 x 1013 (that is, about 70 trillion). 41. The astounding genetic variation in the offspring produced by sexual reproduction is important because it is the raw material for natural selection. Sources of Genetic Variation Unique to Sexual Reproduction Genetic Event Effect Independent Different combinations of assortment during maternal and paternal meiosis I chromosomes in gametes Crossing over during meiosis I Different combinations of maternal and paternal alleles in individual chromosomes Fertilization Different combinations of alleles in offspring

HASIL CARIAN : GENG OUM SHAH ALAM

42. Mitosis and Meiosis Compared Feature Mitosis Meiosis Chromosome Occurs in interphase Occurs in interphase Duplication before mitosis begins before meiosis begins Number of divisions One Two Pairing of homologs No Occurs during prophase I Crossing over No Chromosome number Either diploid (2n) or of parent cell haploid (n) Occurs at least once per pair of homologs Diploid (2n) Number of daughter Two cells cells Four cells (usually) Genetic composition Identical to the of daughter cells parent cell One-half of the genes in the parent cell Produces cells for Role in multicellular growth, repair, and organisms asexual reproduction Produces cells for sexual reproduction