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}
t +
}
=
S
w
S
2
D
dA i
t dA i
n p p
A V
2
1
1
C
C
Dp
C
f
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
3
( )
)
`
=
dA j
n p p
A V
2
1
1
C
S
2
L
c
t
<< 1 C
f
> > C
Dp
streamlined body
c
t
~ 1 C
Dp
> > C
f
bluff body
Streamlining: One way to reduce the drag
reduce the flow separationreduce the pressure drag
increase the surface area increase the friction drag
Trade-off relationship between pressure drag and friction drag
Trade-off relationship between pressure drag and friction drag
Benefit of streamlining: reducing vibration and noise
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
4
Qualitative Description of the Boundary Layer
Flow-field regions for high Re flow about slender bodies:
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
5
t
w
= shear stress
t
w
rate of strain (velocity gradient)
=
0 y
y
u
=
c
c
large near the surface where
fluid undergoes large changes to
satisfy the no-slip condition
Boundary layer theory and equations are a simplified form
of the complete NS equations and provides t
w
as well as a
means of estimating C
form
. Formally, boundary-layer
theory represents the asymptotic form of the Navier-Stokes
equations for high Re flow about slender bodies. The NS
equations are 2
nd
order nonlinear PDE and their solutions
represent a formidable challenge. Thus, simplified forms
have proven to be very useful.
Near the turn of the last century (1904), Prandtl put forth
boundary-layer theory, which resolved DAlemberts
paradox: for inviscid flow drag is zero. The theory is
restricted to unseparated flow. The boundary-layer
equations are singular at separation, and thus, provide no
information at or beyond separation. However, the
requirements of the theory are met in many practical
situations and the theory has many times over proven to be
invaluable to modern engineering.
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
6
The assumptions of the theory are as follows:
Variable order of magnitude
u U O(1)
v o<<L O(c) c = o/L
x c
c
1/L O(1)
y c
c
1/o O(c
-1
)
v o
2
c
2
The theory assumes that viscous effects are confined to a
thin layer close to the surface within which there is a
dominant flow direction (x) such that u ~ U and v << u.
However, gradients across o are very large in order to
satisfy the no slip condition; thus,
y c
c
>>
x c
c
.
Next, we apply the above order of magnitude estimates to
the NS equations.
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
7
2 2
2 2
u u p u u
u v
x y x x y
v
| | c c c c c
+ = + +
|
c c c c c
\ .
1 1 c c
-1
c
2
1 c
-2
2 2
2 2
v v p v v
u v
x y y x y
v
| | c c c c c
+ = + +
|
c c c c c
\ .
1 c c 1 c
2
c c
-1
0
y
v
x
u
=
c
c
+
c
c
1 1
Retaining terms of O(1) only results in the celebrated
boundary-layer equations
2
2
u u p u
u v
x y x y
v
c c c c
+ = +
c c c c
0
y
p
=
c
c
0
y
v
x
u
=
c
c
+
c
c
elliptic
parabolic
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
8
Some important aspects of the boundary-layer equations:
1) the y-momentum equation reduces to
0
y
p
=
c
c
i.e., p = p
e
= constant across the boundary layer
from the Bernoulli equation:
= +
2
e e
U
2
1
p constant
i.e.,
x
U
U
x
p
e
e
e
c
c
=
c
c
Thus, the boundary-layer equations are solved subject to
a specified inviscid pressure distribution
2) continuity equation is unaffected
3) Although NS equations are fully elliptic, the
boundary-layer equations are parabolic and can be
solved using marching techniques
4) Boundary conditions
u = v = 0 y = 0
u = U
e
y = o
+ appropriate initial conditions @ x
i
edge value, i.e.,
inviscid flow value!
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
9
There are quite a few analytic solutions to the boundary-
layer equations. Also numerical techniques are available
for arbitrary geometries, including both two- and three-
dimensional flows. Here, as an example, we consider the
simple, but extremely important case of the boundary layer
development over a flat plate.
Quantitative Relations for the Laminar Boundary
Layer
Laminar boundary-layer over a flat plate: Blasius solution
(1908) student of Prandtl
0
y
v
x
u
=
c
c
+
c
c
2
2
y
u
y
u
v
x
u
u
c
c
v =
c
c
+
c
c
u = v = 0 @ y = 0 u = U
@ y = o
We now introduce a dimensionless transverse coordinate
and a stream function, i.e.,
o
v
= q
y
x
U
y
( ) q v =
f xU
Note:
x
p
c
c
= 0
for a flat plate
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
10
( ) q
'
=
c
q c
q c
c
=
c
c
=
f U
y y
u
=
'
U / u f
( ) f f
x
U
2
1
x
v
'
q
v
=
c
c
=
Substitution into the boundary-layer equations yields
0 f 2 f f =
' ' '
+
' ' Blasius Equation
0 f f =
'
= @ q = 0 1 f =
'
@ q = 1
The Blasius equation is a 3
rd
order ODE which can be
solved by standard methods (Runge-Kutta). Also, series
solutions are possible. Interestingly, although simple in
appearance no analytic solution has yet been found.
Finally, it should be recognized that the Blasius solution is
a similarity solution, i.e., the non-dimensional velocity
profile f' vs. q is independent of x. That is, by suitably
scaling all the velocity profiles have neatly collapsed onto a
single curve.
Now, lets consider the characteristics of the Blasius
solution:
U
u
vs. y
U
v
vs. y
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
11
5
Re
x
x
o =
value of y where u/U
= .99
Re
x
U x
v
=
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
12
v
' '
= t
U / x 2
) 0 ( f U
w
see below
i.e.,
x Re
664 . 0
U
2
c
x
2
w
f
u
= =
t
=
L U
Wall shear stress:
3 2
0.332
w
U
x
t
=
or ( ) 0.332 Re
w x
U x t
=
Other:
}
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
= o
o
0
x
*
Re
x
7208 . 1 dy
U
u
1 displacement thickness
measure of displacement of inviscid flow due to
boundary layer
}
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
= u
o
0
x
Re
x
664 . 0 dy
U
u
U
u
1 momentum thickness
measure of loss of momentum due to boundary layer
H = shape parameter =
u
o
*
=2.5916
Note:
= plate width
= plate length
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
13
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
14
For flat plate or o for general case
Quantitative Relations for the Turbulent
Boundary Layer
2-D Boundary-layer Form of RANS equations
0
y
v
x
u
=
c
c
+
c
c
( ) v u
y
y
u p
x y
u
v
x
u
u
2
2
e
' '
c
c
c
c
v + |
.
|
\
|
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
requires modeling
Momentum Integral Analysis
Historically similarity and AFD methods used for idealized
flows and momentum integral methods for practical
applications, including pressure gradients. Modern
approach: CFD.
To obtain general momentum integral relation which is
valid for both laminar and turbulent flow
( )dy continuity ) v u ( equation momentum
0 y
}
+
=
( )
dx
dU
U
H 2
dx
d
c
2
1
U
f
2
w
u
+ +
u
= =
t
dx
dU
U
dx
dp
=
flat plate equation 0
dx
dU
=
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
15
} |
.
|
\
|
= u
o
0
dy
U
u
1
U
u
momentum thickness
u
o
=
*
H shape parameter
dy
U
u
1
0
*
} |
.
|
\
|
= o
o
displacement thickness
Can also be derived by CV analysis as shown next for flat
plate boundary layer.
Momentum Equation Applied to the Boundary Layer
Consider flow of a viscous fluid at high Re past a flat plate, i.e.,
flat plate fixed in a uniform stream of velocity
Ui .
Boundary-layer thickness arbitrarily defined by y =
% 99
o
(where,
% 99
o
is the value of y at u = 0.99U). Streamlines outside
% 99
o
will
deflect an amount
*
o (the displacement thickness). Thus the
streamlines move outward from
H y =
at 0 = x to
*
o o + = = = H Y y
at
1
x x =
.
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
16
Conservation of mass:
CS
V ndA -
}
=0=
0 0
H H
Udy udy
o
-
+
+
} }
Assume incompressible flow (constant density):
( ) ( )
} } }
+ = + = =
Y Y Y
dy U u UY dy U u U udy UH
0 0 0
Substituting
*
o + = H Y defines displacement thickness:
dy
U
u
Y
}
|
.
|
\
|
=
0
*
1 o
*
o is an important measure of effect of BL on external flow.
Consider alternate derivation based on equivalent flow rate:
} }
=
o o
o
0
*
udy Udy
Flowrate between
*
o and o of inviscid flow=actual flowrate, i.e., inviscid flow rate
about displacement body = viscous flow rate about actual body
} } } }
|
.
|
\
|
= =
o o o o
o
0
*
0 0 0
1
*
dy
U
u
udy Udy Udy
w/o BL - displacement effect=actual discharge
For 3D flow, in addition it must also be explicitly required that
*
o
is a stream surface of the inviscid flow continued from outside of
the BL.
* Lam=o/3
* Turb=o/8
Inviscid flow about * body
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
17
Conservation of x-momentum:
( ) ( )
0 0
H Y
x
CS
F D uV ndA U Udy u udy = = - = +
} } }
dy u H U D Drag
Y
}
= =
0
2 2
= Fluid force on plate = - Plate force on CV (fluid)
Again assuming constant density and using continuity:
}
=
Y
dy
U
u
H
0
2 2
0 0
0
/
Y
Y x
w
D U u Udy u dy dx t = =
} } }
dy
U
u
U
u
U
D
Y
|
.
|
\
|
= =
}
1
0
2
u
where, u is the momentum thickness (a function of x only), an
important measure of the drag.
2
0
2 2 1
x
D f
D
C c dx
U x x x
u
= = =
}
( )
2
2
1
2
w
f f D
d d
c c xC
dx dx
U
t u
= = =
2
f
c
d
dx
u
=
dx
d
U
w
u
t
2
=
Per unit span
Special case 2D
momentum integral
equation for dp/dx = 0
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
18
Simple velocity profile approximations:
) / / 2 (
2 2
o o y y U u =
u(0) = 0 no slip
u() = U matching with outer flow
u
y
()=0
Use velocity profile to get C
f
(o) and u(o) and then integrate
momentum integral equation to get o(Re
x
)
* = /3
= 2/15
H= */= 5/2
2
2
1/ 2
* 1/ 2
1/ 2
1/ 2
2 /
2 /
2 2 (2 / 15)
1/ 2
15
30
/ 5.5 / Re
Re / ;
/ 1.83/ Re
/ 0.73/ Re
1.46 / Re 2 ( )
w
f
x
x
x
x
D L f
U
U d d
c
U dx dx
dx
d
U
dx
U
x
Ux
x
x
C C L
t o
o u
o
o o
o
v
o
u
=
= = =
=
=
=
=
=
=
= =
10% error, cf. Blasius
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
19
Approximate solution Turbulent Boundary-Layer
Re
t
= 510
5
~ 310
6
for a flat plate boundary layer
Re
crit
~ 100,000
dx
d
2
c
f
u
=
as was done for the approximate laminar flat plate
boundary-layer analysis, solve by expressing c
f
= c
f
(o) and
u = u(o) and integrate, i.e. assume log-law valid across
entire turbulent boundary-layer
B
yu
ln
1
u
u
*
*
+
v k
=
at y = o, u = U
B
u
ln
1
u
U
*
*
+
v
o
k
=
2 / 1
f
2
c
Re
|
.
|
\
|
o
or 5
2
c
Re ln 44 . 2
c
2
2 / 1
f
2 / 1
f
+
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
o
6 / 1
f
Re 02 . c
o
~ power-law fit
neglect laminar sub layer and
velocity defect region
c
f
(o)
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
20
Next, evaluate
} |
.
|
\
|
=
u
o
0
dy
U
u
1
U
u
dx
d
dx
d
can use log-law or more simply a power law fit
7 / 1
y
U
u
|
.
|
\
|
o
=
( ) o u = o = u
72
7
dx
d
U
72
7
dx
d
U U
2
1
c
2 2 2
f w
o
=
u
= = t
dx
d
72 . 9 Re
6 / 1
o
=
o
or
1/7
0.16Re
x
x
o
=
7 / 6
x o almost linear
1/7
0.027
Re
f
x
c =
( )
1/7
0.031 7
Re 6
f f
L
C c L = =
These formulas are valid for a fully turbulent flow over a
smooth flat plate from the leading edge. Assuming the
transition from laminar to turbulent occurs at Re larger than
10
5
, those formulas in general give better results for
sufficiently large Reynolds number Re
L
> 10
7
.
Note: cannot be used to
obtain c
f
(o) since t
w
i.e., much faster
growth rate than
laminar
boundary layer
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
21
Alternate forms by using the same velocity profile u/U =
(y/o)
1/7
assumption but using an experimentally determined
shear stress formula t
w
= 0.0225U
2
(v/Uo)
1/4
are:
1/5
0.37Re
x
x
o
=
1/5
0.058
Re
f
x
c =
1/5
0.074
Re
f
L
C =
shear stress:
2
1/5
0.029
Re
w
x
U
t =
These formulas are valid only in the range of the
experimental data, which covers Re
L
= 5 10
5
~ 10
7
for
smooth flat plates.
Other empirical formulas for smooth flat plates are as
follows:
( ) 732 . Re log 98 . c
L
L f
=
o
( )
3 . 2
x f
65 . Re log 2 c
=
For the experimental/empirical formulas, the boundary
layer is usually tripped by some roughness or leading
edge disturbance, to make the boundary layer turbulent
from the leading edge.
Total
shear-stress
coefficient
Local
shear-stress
coefficient
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
22
Finally, composite formulas that take into account both the
initial laminar boundary layer and subsequent turbulent
boundary layer, i.e. in the transition region (5 10
5
< Re
L
<
8 10
7
) where the laminar drag at the leading edge is an
appreciable fraction of the total drag:
or
with transitions at Re
t
= 5 10
5
for all cases.
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
23
Bluff Body Drag
Drag of 2-D Bodies
First consider a flat plate
both parallel and normal to
the flow
( ) 0 i
n p p
A V
2
1
1
C
S
2
Dp
=
}
=
}
t
=
S
w
2
f
dA i
t
A V
2
1
1
C
=
2 / 1
L
Re
33 . 1
laminar flow
=
5 / 1
L
Re
074 .
turbulent flow
where C
p
based on experimental data
vortex wake
typical of bluff body flow
flow pattern
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
24
( )
}
=
S
2
Dp
dA i
n p p
A V
2
1
1
C
=
}
S
p
dA C
A
1
= 2 using numerical integration of experimental data
C
f
= 0
For bluff body flow experimental data used for C
D
.
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
25
In general, Drag = f(V, L, , , c, t, c, T, etc.)
from dimensional analysis
c/L
|
.
|
\
|
c
=
= . etc , T ,
L
,
L
t
, Ar Re, f
A V
2
1
Drag
C
2
D
scale factor
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
26
Potential Flow Solution: u
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
sin
r
a
r U
2
2 2
U
2
1
p V
2
1
p
+ = +
2
2 2
r
2
p
U
u u
1
U
2
1
p p
C
+
=
=
( ) u = =
2
p
sin 4 1 a r C surface pressure
Flow Separation
Flow separation:
The fluid stream detaches itself from the surface of the body at
sufficiently high velocities. Only appeared in viscous flow!!
Flow separation forms the region called separated region
r
u
r
1
u
r
c
c
=
u c
c
=
u
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
27
Inside the separation region:
low-pressure, existence of recirculating/backflows
viscous and rotational effects are the most significant!
Important physics related to flow separation:
Stall for airplane (Recall the movie you saw at CFD-PreLab2!)
Vortex shedding
(Recall your work at CFD-Lab2, AOA=16! What did you see in
your velocity-vector plot at the trailing edge of the air foil?)
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
28
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
29
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
30
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
31
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
32
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
33
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
34
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
35
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
36
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
37
Terminal Velocity
Terminal velocity is the maximum velocity attained by a
falling body when the drag reaches a magnitude such that
the sum of all external forces on the body is zero. Consider
a sphere using Newton Second law:
d b g
F F F F ma = + =
when terminal velocity is attained
0 F a = =
:
d b g
F F F + =
or
( )
2
0
1
2
D p Sphere fluid
V C A V = Sphere
For the sphere
2
4
p
A d
t
=
and
V
3
6
Sphere d
t
=
The terminal velocity is:
( )( )
1 2
0
4 3
sphere fluid
D fluid
d
V
C
= (
(
Magnus effect: Lift generation by spinning
Breaking the symmetry causes the lift!
Z
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
38
Effect of the rate of rotation on the lift and drag coefficients of a
smooth sphere:
Lift acting on the airfoil
Lift force: the component of the net force (viscous+pressure) that
is perpendicular to the flow direction
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
39
Variation of the lift-to-drag ratio with angle of attack:
The minimum flight velocity:
Total weight W of the aircraft be equal to the lift
A C
W
V A V C F W
L
L L
max ,
min
2
min max ,
2
2
1
= = =
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
40
< 0.3 flow is incompressible,
i.e., ~ constant
Effect of Compressibility on Drag: CD = CD(Re,
Ma)
a
U
Ma
=
speed of sound = rate at which infinitesimal
disturbances are propagated from their
source into undisturbed medium
Ma < 1 subsonic
Ma ~ 1 transonic (=1 sonic flow)
Ma > 1 supersonic
Ma >> 1 hypersonic
C
D
increases for Ma ~ 1 due to shock waves and wave drag
Ma
critical
(sphere) ~ .6
Ma
critical
(slender bodies) ~ 1
For U > a: upstream flow is not warned of approaching
disturbance which results in the formation of
shock waves across which flow properties
and streamlines change discontinuously
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
41