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Signs and symptoms of domestic violence on children:

Children communicate their distress in many different ways. Often the way in which children express their distress is closely linked to their stage of development. General guidelines when considering the traumatic reactions of children at different developmental stages include the following:

Infants
Infants depend on adults to look after them. They sense the emotions of their caregiver and respond accordingly. If the adult is calm and responsive and is able to maintain their daily routine, the child will feel secure and symptoms will be minimized. If the adult is anxious and overwhelmed, the infant will feel unprotected and may display a variety of symptoms, including: Fussing Sleep problems Disruptions in eating Withdrawal Lethargy and unresponsiveness

Toddlers
At this age children begin to interact with the broader physical and social environment. As with infants, toddlers depend on adults to look after them and will respond to traumatic situations as well or as poorly as their adult caretakers. Common reactions in toddlers include: Sleep problems Disruptions in eating Increased tantrums Toileting problems (e.g. wetting him/herself) Increased clinging to caretaker Withdrawal

Preschool Children
Children at this age may have more social interactions outside of the family. Their language, play, social and physical skills are more advanced. With these skills, they are more capable of

expressing their thoughts and feelings, particularly following a traumatic event. Common responses include: Sleep problems Disruptions in eating Increased tantrums Bed-wetting Irritability and frustration Defiance Difficulty separating from caretakers Preoccupation with traumatic events

School-Age Children
Children at this age are more independent, are better able to talk about their thoughts and feelings, and are engaged in friendships and participation in group activities. They also possess better skills to cope with challenges or difficulties. When confronted with a traumatic event, school-age children may exhibit the following symptoms: Sleep problems Disruptions in eating Difficulty separating from caretakers Preoccupation with details of traumatic event Anxiety and aggression School difficulties Problems with attention and hyperactivity

Adolescents
Adolescence is a time during which youth may feel out of control due to the physical changes that are occurring to their bodies. They experience struggles to become independent from their families and rely more heavily on relationships with peers and teachers. They may show a

tendency to deny or exaggerate what happens around them and to feel that they are invincible. When exposed to a traumatic event, adolescents may show the following symptoms: Sleep problems Preoccupation with details of traumatic event Hopelessness Anxiety and aggression School difficulties Unrealistic sense of power Difficulties with relationships (Sterne & Poole, 2010).

Impact on children who witness domestic violence:

Children who witness domestic violence often manifest behavioral and emotional problems, poor academic performance, and delinquency. Sadly, violence against women and violence against children often coexist in families. The frequency of child abuse doubles in families experiencing intimate partner violence, compared to families with nonviolent partners, and the rate of child abuse escalates with the severity and frequency of the abuse against the mother. It is generally recognized that the well-being of children who witness domestic violence is tied closely to that of their mothers but the mothers interests and the childs may not always be identical or even compatible. A mother may face serious concerns about her financial and physical well-being if she separates from her violent partner. She may lack resources or social networks to extricate her from dangerous relationships, and the communitys support system may be inadequate. Her efforts to seek help may be thwarted by waiting lists, lack of insurance or high fees for services. She may believe that she and her children are better off staying with the violent partner despite the consequences (Sterne & Poole, 2010). Family Violence research indicates that even when children are not direct targets of violence in the home, they can be harmed by witnessing its occurrence. Children who live in situations of family violence can suffer immediate and permanent physical harm, even death. They can also experience short and long-term emotional, behavioral and developmental problems, including post-traumatic stress disorder. In some cases of physical and sexual abuse, the victims have

considerable problems with behavior, negative peer involvement, depression, anxiety, violence to others, developmental delays, irregular school attendance and inappropriate sexual behavior. It is known that witnessing family violence is as harmful as experiencing it directly. Often parents believe that they have shielded their children from intimate partner violence, but research indicates that children see or hear many of the incidents. Children who witness family violence suffer the same consequences as those who are directly abused. In other words, a child who witnesses intimate partner violence is experiencing a form of child abuse. Some of the problems that children experiences are below:

Behavioral problems:
The behavioral responses of children who witness domestic violence may include acting out, withdrawal, or anxiousness to please. The children may exhibit signs of anxiety and have a short attention span which may result in poor school performance and attendance. They may experience developmental delays in speech, motor or cognitive skills. They may also use violence to express themselves displaying increased aggression with peers or mother. They can become self-injuring (Sterne & Poole, 2010).

Cognitive and attitudinal problems:

These include lower cognitive functioning, poor school performance, lack of conflict resolution skills, limited problem solving skills, pro-violence attitudes, and belief in rigid gender stereotypes and male privilege (Sterne & Poole, 2010).

Long-term problems:
These include higher levels of depression and trauma symptoms, and increased tolerance for and use of violence in adult relationships (Sterne & Poole, 2010).

Emotional problems:
The emotional responses of children who witness domestic violence may include fear, guilt, shame, sleep disturbances, sadness, depression, and anger (Sterne & Poole, 2010).

Physical problems:
Physical responses may include stomachaches and or headaches, bedwetting, and loss of ability to concentrate. Some children may also experience physical or sexual abuse or neglect. Others

may be injured while trying to intervene on behalf of their mother or a sibling (Sterne & Poole, 2010). CASE STUDY: Peter Connelly was a 17-month-old British boy who died in London after suffering more than fifty injuries over an eight-month period, during which he was repeatedly seen by NHS health professionals. Baby P's real first name was revealed as "Peter" on the conclusion of a subsequent trial of Peter's mother's boyfriend on a charge of raping a two-year-old. His full identity was revealed when his killers were named after the expiry of a court anonymity order on 10 August 2009. The case caused shock and concern among the public and in Parliament, partly because of the magnitude of Peter's injuries, and partly because Peter had lived in the London Borough of Haringey, North London, under the same child care authorities that had already failed ten years earlier in the case of Victoria Climbi. That had led to a public enquiry which resulted in measures being put in place in an effort to prevent similar cases happening. Peter's mother Tracey Connelly, her boyfriend Steven Barker, and Jason Owen were all convicted of causing or allowing the death of a child, the mother having pleaded guilty to the charge (Spray & Jowett, 2012).

Role of forensic psychologists:

A forensic psychologist is an expert witness who is called on to testify about a defendant's behavior. Using interviews, psychological evidence and the person's background, the psychologist will give their opinion on the mental state and behaviors of the accused. Forensic psychologists also work on cases involving child abuse, domestic violence and psychopathic disorders. This type of psychologist can also create criminal profiles of suspects based on crime scene evidence and provide direction for the interrogations of suspects, as well as offer expert testimony in court about a person's mental health. In a nutshell, forensic psychologists work in many areas of the justice system. In addition to studying mental processes, neuropsychologists also perform tests to see if a person has organic brain damage. During any phase of a child protection case, psychologists may be asked to evaluate different parties for different purposes. Psychologists may act as court-ordered evaluators, or may be retained by the state child protection agency or an organization providing contracted services to the state child protection agency. Psychologists may also be retained by a guardian or by an attorney for the child if one

has been appointed to represent the child. Finally, psychologists may be retained by the parents or counsel representing the parents. As evaluators in child protection cases, psychologists are frequently asked to address the following questions: What maltreatment of the child, if any, occurred in this case? If maltreatment has occurred, how seriously has the childs psychological well-being been affected? What therapeutic interventions would be recommended to assist the child? Can the parents be successfully treated to prevent harm to the child in the future? If so, how? If not, why not? What would be the psychological effect upon the child if returned to the parents? What would be the psychological effect upon the child if separated from the parents or if parental rights are terminated? In the course of their evaluations, and depending upon the septic needs of a given case, psychologists are frequently asked to evaluate the parents and the child individually or together. Psychologists seek to gather information on family history, assess relevant personality functioning, assess developmental needs of the child, explore the nature and quality of the parentchild relationship and assess evidence of trauma. Psychologists typically also consider specic risk factors such as substance abuse or chemical dependency, domestic violence, health status of family members, and the entire family context. In addition, they review information from other sources, including assessments of cultural, educational, religious, and community factors (Arrigo & Shipley, 2005). Particular competencies and knowledge are necessary to perform psychological evaluations in child protection matters so that adequate and appropriate psychological services can be provided to the court, state agencies, or other parties. For example, in cases involving physical disability, such as hearing impairments, orthopedic handicaps, etc., psychologists strive to seek consultation from experts in these areas. This need for consultation may also apply to other aspects of human diversity, such as, but not limited to, ethnic minority status, sexual orientation, and socioeconomic status. Conducting psychological evaluations in child protection matters can be professionally demanding and personally stressful. The demands and stresses of such evaluations

may intensify because the evaluation issues may include child abuse, neglect, and/or family violence. Psychologists remain alert to how these issues may personally affect them and, when appropriate, seek peer or other personal support, and undertake relevant study, training, supervision and or consultation (Arrigo & Shipley, 2005).