CFD Simulation of Complex Flows in Turbomachinery and Robust Optimization of Blade Design

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING Department of Mechanical Engineering
CFD Simulation of Complex Flows in Turbomachinery and Robust Optimization of Blade Design
Submitted to the Department of Mechanical Engineering Doctor of Philosophy at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel July 2010
(Xiaodong Wang)
Prof. Chris Lacor Prof. Charles Hirsch Prof. Shun Kang
Advisors:
CFD Simulation of Complex Flows in Turbomachinery and Robust Optimization of Blade Design
by
Xiaodong Wang
Submitted to the Department of Mechanical Engineering Doctor of Philosophy at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel July 2010
Advisors:
Prof. Chris Lacor Prof. Charles Hirsch Prof. Shun Kang
Print: Silhouet, Maldegem c 2010 Xiaodong Wang 2010 Uitgeverij VUBPRESS Brussels University Press VUBPRESS is an imprint of ASP nv (Academic and Scientic Publishers nv) Ravensteingalerij 28 B-1000 Brussels Tel. +32 (0)2 289 26 50 Fax +32 (0)2 289 26 59 E-mail: info@vubpress.be www.vubpress.be
ISBN 978 90 5487 819 3 NUR 173 Legal Deposit D/2010/11.161/142
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Abstract
Turbomachinery is a kind of widely used equipment in industrial engineering, which usually has complex congurations. The performance of turbomachinery is related closely to the complicated internal ow. A good understanding of the internal ow is the keystone of the high performance turbomachinery design. Moreover, the increasing rigorous demands of modern aerodynamic designs require advanced optimal design methodologies. The main research work of the present thesis is contributed to these two points. The rst part of this thesis focuses on the numerical analysis of the lm cooling ow and 3D unsteady ow within turbomachinery. A relatively simple model of a at plate with a single square cooling hole is adopted to investigate the effect of the blowing ratio on the local ow structure nearby a cooling hole. Steady and unsteady RANS simulations and DES simulations are performed. The simulated results show a stable symmetric vortex structure when the blowing ratio is low (< 0.8); with the increase of blowing ratio, the ow structure becomes unstable and evolves gradually into a new stable asymmetric ow structure. While the cooling ow closing to the at plane are warped into the dominated CVP, which decrease the cooling effect greatly. Therefore, the blowing ratio should be lower than a critical blowing ratio. Further steady simulations are performed on the AGTB planar cascades with lm cooling at the leading edge. Three different cooling holes congurations of slots, radial inclined holes and straightforward holes are simulated respectively under different blowing ratios. Based on the validation to experiment data, the analysis mainly focuses on the impacts of the cooling ow on the main ows and the related additional losses. The simulation results show a large separation ow exists downstream the slots which leads to the deterioration of cooling effect and large additional losses; The cooling ows issue from the inclined holes are distributed more uniformly than that from the straightforward holes. However, the additional losses of the former are a little bit larger than that of the latter. For 3D unsteady ows in blade passages, a low speed axial turbine i
from AIST (Japan) is adopted as the simulated model. Unsteady simulations using nonlinear harmonic (NLH) method are performed. The discussions mainly focus on the unsteady properties of ow within blade passages based on the validation to experiment data. The comparison shows that the compressibility of the uid used in simulations has great inuence on the simulated results for the low speed ow simulation. The simulated result using incompressible uid has a good agreement with the experiment data, while the performance of the simulation using compressible uid is not so good. However, the simulated results also show the effectiveness of the NLH method on treatment of unsteady R/S interactions. Increasing the number of harmonics can improve the simulated results. In general, if only one R/S interface exists, using 2 harmonics can provide a satised result since the third order harmonic is quite small. The second part of the present thesis, an aerodynamic optimization framework based on CFD simulations, multi-objective optimization algorithm and articial neural network (ANN) is developed. In this framework, the most widely used multi-objective genetic algorithm NSGA-II is employed. Firstly the coupled method of NSGA-II and ANN is tested using a set of classical mathematical testing problems, ZDT problems. It is shown that the optimized results of NSGA-II are stuck easily into a local optimum. An improved crowding distance is proposed to adjust the selecting strategy to enhance the capability of jumping out the local optimum due to the predication error of ANN. Meanwhile, a novel Coarse-to-Fine iteration strategy is employed to improve the prediction accuracy of articial neural network to approach the real Pareto front gradually. The improved results of testing problems illustrated the effects of improving strategies. A practical industrial application is performed on the multi working points optimization on the NASA Rotor37. A trade-off solution is chosen using multi-criteria decision method from the converged Pareto front, which shows better performance than that of the single objective optimization. A robust optimization is also performed on rotor37 under stochastic outlet static pressures. A non-intrusive probabilistic collocation method is employed to quantify the uncertainty. The overall performance of the optimized results is better than that of the origin design, and the sensitiveness to uctuations of the outlet static pressure is decreased simultaneously. The nal chapter of this thesis summarizes the conclusions of the present PhD research and discusses future challenges for high credible CFD analysis and robust optimization of turbomachinery in general.
ii

- RANS URANS DES 0.8 AGTB AIST CFD NSGA-II ZDT NSGA-II
iii
NSGA-II Coarse-to NASA 37 CFD 37 CFD

Fine
iv
Acknowledgments
When I nished the last word of this thesis, I am so exciting on what I have done. Four years ago, I had little experience on CFD simulations and Turbomachinery; I never used the Genetic algorithm and Articial Neural Network; I knew nothing about the Polynomial Chaos or Probabilistic Collocation methods. But, now I nished my PhD thesis using all these knowledge and methods. I learned a lot in the past four years which will be the most precious time in my life. There are many people to whom I wish to express my gratitude. Without their help, I couldnt nish this thesis. The rst person whom I would like to gratefully acknowledge is my promoter in China, Prof. Shun Kang, who gave me the opportunity to do a PhD under his guidance. I thank him for his valuable suggestions during my PhD research, as well as for granting me sufcient freedom to pursue my own ideas. Secondly, I am greatly indebted to my promoters in Belgium, Prof. Charles Hirsch and Prof. Chris Lacor. The extensive knowledge and board vision of Prof.Hirsch in CFD and Turbomachinery elds gave me a deep impression. The valuable weekly discussions and kind suggestions from Prof.Lacor make my research work easier. It is a pleasure and a privilege to work with them. My gratitude also goes to the IT support of our system administrator Alain W ery. I greatly appreciate him for his good mood and everlasting patience through the perpetual stream of requests and computer problems coming towards him. I am pleased to acknowledge our secretary Jenny Dhaes and my colleagues in STRO of VUB: Ghader Ghorbaniasl, Patryk Widera, Matteo Parsani, Vivek Agnihotri, Mahdi Zakyani, Willem Deconinck, Khairy Elsayed, Floriane Krause, Dean Vucinic. We have nice discussions and good fun at the coffee corner and KK bar. I also wan to thank the colleagues in NUMECA Inc.: Alban Ligout, Cristian Dinescu, Michel Pottiez, et al. They gave me lot of technical support on code development; v
thank Dr. Takayuki Matsunuma from AIST (Japan) for data share and suggestions. In addition, special thanks also goes to aunt Yan Cao, who gave me a lot of help when I was in Brussels. I also want to say thanks to my colleagues in NCEPU : Prof. Xiaodong Zhang, Liping Dai, Zhonyao Fan, Huirong Wei, Lei Song, Li Ma, Liping Sun, Junyu Liang, Zuoming Yin, Jingxiong Yin, Wenbo Shao, Jie Li et al. for the support and help during my research. In addition, the same thanks also for my classmates in Doctorial Class 0624 and the colleagues in Numeca-Beijing Ltd. Last, but certainly not least, I would like to thank my parents, my sisters, and my girlfriend Jing Li, for the support they have given me throughout my education and PhD research.
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Jury members
President Prof. Johan DECONINCK Vrije Universiteit Brussel Prof. Rik PINTELON Vrije Universiteit Brussel Prof. Steve VANLANDUIT Vrije Universiteit Brussel Prof. Herman DECONINCK Von Karman Institute Prof. Erik DICK Universiteit Gent Prof. Charles HIRSCH NUMECA International Prof. Xiaodong ZHANG North China Electric Power University Promoter Prof. Chris LACOR Vrije Universiteit Brussel Prof. Shun KANG North China Electric Power University
Vice-president
Secretary
Members
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Contents
1 Introduction 1.1 Turbomachinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.1 Development of Turbomachinery . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.2 Research Progress of Internal Flows in Turbomachinery 1.2 Computational Fluid Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.1 Application of CFD in Turbomachinery . . . . . . . . 1.2.2 Verication and Validation of CFD Simulations . . . 1.2.3 Non-deterministic CFD Methodologies . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Robust optimization of turbomachinery . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.1 General Aerodynamic Design of Turbomachinery . . 1.3.2 Multi-objective Optimization Methods . . . . . . . . . 1.3.3 Robust Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Complex Flows in Turbomachinery 2.1 General Review on Secondary Flows . . . . . . 2.1.1 Classical Secondary Flow Models . . . . 2.1.2 Modern Secondary Flow Models . . . . . 2.1.3 Latest Secondary Flow Models . . . . . 2.2 Unsteady Flow within turbomachinery . . . . . 2.2.1 Conditional Unsteadiness . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 Inherent Unsteadiness . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Film Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1 Film Cooling Flow on A Flat Plate . . . 2.3.2 Film Cooling Flow in Turbine Cascades 1 1 2 4 5 5 7 8 9 9 11 12 13 13 14 14 18 19 20 21 24 26 28 31 31 32 32
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3 Numerical Methods 3.1 Governing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.1 The Mass Conservation Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.2 The Momentum Conservation Equation . . . . . . . . ix
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3.1.3 The Energy Conservation Equation . . . . . . . 3.1.4 Rotating Frame of Reference . . . . . . . . . . . Finite Volume Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 General Introduction of Discretization Method . 3.2.2 Mesh Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.3 Spatial Discretization of Convective Term . . . . 3.2.4 Spatial Discretization of Diffusive Term . . . . . 3.2.5 Explicit Multistage Runge-Kutta Scheme . . . . Accelerating Convergence Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 Implicit Residual Smoothing . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 Multigrid Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Turbulence Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1 Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes Equations . . 3.4.2 Turbulence model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.3 Large Eddy Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.4 Detached Eddy Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dual-time Stepping Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rotor/Stator Interaction Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.1 Steady Simulation Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.2 Unsteady Simulation Treatment . . . . . . . . . 3.6.3 Harmonic Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Uncertainty Quantication in CFD . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.1 Intrusive Polynomial Chaos Method . . . . . . . 3.7.2 Non-intrusive Polynomial Chaos Method . . . . 3.7.3 Non-intrusive Probabilistic Collocation Method
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34 36 39 39 39 41 42 42 43 43 44 46 48 49 55 57 57 58 59 60 60 63 64 67 68
4 Numerical Simulations on Film Cooling 4.1 Jets in Crossow on A Flat Plate . . . . 4.1.1 Review of Experiment . . . . . . 4.1.2 Numerical Model . . . . . . . . . 4.1.3 Results of Steady Simulations . . 4.1.4 Results of Unsteady Simulations 4.2 Cooling Flow in Turbine Cascades . . . 4.2.1 Review of the Experiment . . . . 4.2.2 Computational Model and Mesh 4.2.3 Simulation Results and Analysis 4.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x
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71 . 71 . 71 . 73 . 75 . 88 . 90 . 92 . 97 . 99 . 112
5 Numerical Simulations on Three Dimensional Flows in Axial Turbine 115 5.1 Review of Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 5.2 Numerical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 5.2.1 Geometry Model and Mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 5.2.2 Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 5.2.3 Numerical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 5.3 Simulation Results and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 5.3.1 Time-averaged Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . 120 5.3.2 Time-resolved Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . 123 5.3.3 Effect of the Harmonic Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 5.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 6 Development of Multi-objective Aerodynamic Optimization Framework 133 6.1 General Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 6.2 General Principles of GA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 6.2.1 Encoding and Decoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 6.2.2 Fitness Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 6.2.3 Genetic Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 6.2.4 Control Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 6.3 Multi-objective Genetic Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 6.3.1 Pareto Optimal Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 6.3.2 NSGA-II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 6.3.3 SPEA2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 6.3.4 Performance Evaluation Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 6.3.5 Comparison between NSGA-II and SPEA2 . . . . . . 150 6.4 Coupled Method with Approximation Model . . . . . . . . . . 153 6.4.1 Articial Neural Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 6.4.2 Integration of NSGA-II into Design3D . . . . . . . . . 157 6.4.3 Test Results of the Coupled Method . . . . . . . . . . 158 6.5 Improving Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 6.5.1 Improved Crowding Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 6.5.2 Coarse-to-ne Iteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 6.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 7 Application of Robust Optimization on An Axial Compressor181 7.1 Design Background of the NASA Rotro37 . . . . . . . . . . . 182 7.1.1 Application Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 7.1.2 Parametric Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 7.1.3 Numerical Model and Mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 xi
7.2 Multiple Working Points Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.1 Setting Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.2 Optimization Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Robust Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.1 Uncertainty Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.2 Optimization setting Statement . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.3 Optimization Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.4 Effect of Penalty Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.5 Effect of the Number of Initial Training Samples . 7.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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185 185 186 193 193 194 195 200 201 203 205 205 205 207 208 211 213 215
8 Conclusions and Perspectives 8.1 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.1 Numerical Simulations of Complex Flows . . . . . . . 8.1.2 Multi-objective Optimization of Aerodynamic Design 8.2 Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . List of publications List of projects participated in Bibliography
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List of Figures
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 Waterwheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GP7200 Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S1 and S2 surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Impact of CFD on SNECMA fan performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 3 6 7 15 16 17 17 18 20 22 23 24 25 26 26 27 38 40 44 46 72 73 74 75 75 77
Classical secondary ow model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Modern secondary ow model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Synchronous evolution of horseshoe and passage vortices . . Structure of inlet horseshoe vortex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vortex patterns of secondary ows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Endwall vortex pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Periodic wake shedding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pressure contour of wake ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wake ow in blade passage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instantaneous absolute velocity contour pattern at nozzle exit Blade with cooling holes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pattern of lm cooling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vortex systems of JICF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rotating frame . . . . . . . . Control volume approaches. Multigrid method . . . . . . Full multigrid strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Experiment of JICF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Computational domain of JICF . . . . . . . . . . . Mesh for simulations on JICF . . . . . . . . . . . . Residual convergence curves of steady simulations Residual convergence curves of DES simulations . Prole of Vx at the central plane . . . . . . . . . . xiii
4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22 4.23 4.24 4.25 4.26 4.27 4.28 4.29 4.30 4.31 4.32 4.33 4.34 4.35 4.36 4.37 4.38
Contour pattern of Vx at the central plane . . . . . . . . . . . Contour pattern of Vz at the outlet of the cooling hole . . . . Limiting streamline pattern on the at plate . . . . . . . . . Detailed view of Limiting streamline pattern on at plate . Spatial streamline pattern of Horseshoe vortex . . . . . . . . Spatial streamline pattern of vortices system nearby the cooling hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Detailed view of vortices system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Top view of streamline pattern of CVP . . . . . . . . . . . . . Velocity vectors and streamline patterns of the horseshoe vortex at the central plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Streamline patterns of vortices system . . . . . . . . . . . . . Origin of the secondary CVP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Prole of the time averaged Vx at the central plane . . . . . Time averaged contour pattern of velocity on the at plate (100 physical time steps) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Time averaged contour pattern of velocity of the at plate (400 physical time steps) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instantaneous velocity of DES (M=0.5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instantaneous velocity of URANS (M=0.5) . . . . . . . . . . . Instantaneous velocity of DES (M=1.0) . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instantaneous velocity of URANS (M=1.0) . . . . . . . . . . . Instantaneous vorticity isosurface of DES (M=0.5) . . . . . . Instantaneous vorticity isosurface of URANS (M=0.5) . . . . Instantaneous vorticity isosurface of DES (M=1.0) . . . . . . Instantaneous vorticity isosurface of URANS (M=1.0) . . . . Geometry of AGTB cascade and the cooling congurations . Buttery mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Convergence history of steady simulation on AGTB-B1 . . . Static pressure distributions on the blade surface of different models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Static pressure distributions under the same inlet condition Static pressure distributions of AGTB-B1 with different blowing ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Static pressure distribution at the leading edge . . . . . . . . Streamline pattern at midspan of AGTB-S (M=0.7) . . . . . Streamline patterns of AGTB-S at different spanwise sections close to the midspan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Streamline patterns of AGTB-B1 at different spanwise sections close to the midspan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv
78 79 81 82 83 84 85 86 86 87 88 89 91 92 93 93 94 94 95 95 96 96 97 99 99 100 101 101 102 102 102 103
4.39 Streamline patterns of AGTB-B2 at different spanwise sections close to the midspan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 4.40 Streamline patterns of AGTB-S at midspan . . . . . . . . . . 104 4.41 Limiting streamline patterns on the blade surface of AGTB 105 4.42 Limiting streamline patterns on the blade surface of AGTB-S 106 4.43 Streamline pattern near the cooling slot . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 4.44 Streamline patterns on the blade surface of AGTB-B1 . . . . 108 4.45 Streamline patterns on the blade surface of AGTB-B2 . . . . 109 4.46 Spatial streamline patterns of cooling ow for different models110 4.47 Flow pattern in two cross-sections of AGTB-B1 . . . . . . . . 110 4.48 Losses evolution through the blade passage . . . . . . . . . . 112 4.49 Isolines patterns of total pressure losses of different models 113 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 Proles of blades of the AIST turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Domain of the AIST turbine model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Mesh for AIST turbine model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Spanwise distribution of velocity at stator inlet . . . . . . . . 119 Convergence history of simulations on ows in AIST turbine 121 Steady simulated spanwise distribution of velocity at stator outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Comparison of the ow patterns on the stator suction surface. 124 Velocity contour pattern at the stator exit . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Spanwise distribution of velocity at stator outlet at different time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Time-resolved absolute velocity at the stator exit . . . . . . . 127 Time-resolved entropy increase isolines pattern at midspan 128 Time-resolved entropy contour patterns at three spanwise sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Time-resolved relative velocity contour pattern at t = 0 T (axial position ZRT /Cax,RT = 0.853). The middle gure presents the steady simulation result using incompressible uid for comparison. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Time-resolved relative velocity contour patterns . . . . . . . 130 Harmonic pressure amplitude on the blade surface of rotor at midspan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Isolines of Entropy increase at midspan. . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Pareto front with two objectives. . . . . . Procedures of NSGA-II and SPEA2. . . . The real Pareto fronts of ZDTs problems. Example of the conguration of BPNN. . xv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 149 152 154
5.14 5.15 5.16 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4
6.5 Transfer functions of ANN. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6 Pareto front of ZDT1 problem using coupled optimization method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7 Pareto front of ZDT2 problem using ANN. . . . . . . . . . . . 6.8 Convergence and spacing metrics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.9 Pareto front of ZDT problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.10 Pareto front of ZDT1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.11 Pareto front of ZDT2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.12 Effect of DoE on optimized results of ZDT1 . . . . . . . . . . 6.13 Effect of DoE on optimized results of ZDT2 . . . . . . . . . . 6.14 Effect of DoE on convergence and spacing metrics of ZDT . . 6.15 Example of ith generation of population . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.16 Selection process using the original crowding distance . . . . 6.17 Improved selection process using improved crowding distance 6.18 Optimized resutls of ZDT1 problems using the improved crowding distance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.19 Optimized results of ZDT2 problems using the improved crowding distance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.20 Convergence and spacing metrics of ZDT problems. . . . . . 6.21 Optimized results of ZDT problems using the improved crowding distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.22 Example of Fuzzy MCDM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.23 Global ow chart of the optimization framework. . . . . . . . 6.24 Improved results of ZDT2 using coarse-to-ne iterations. . . 6.25 Convergence history of boundary points . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.26 Pareto front of ZDT1 problems using the improved crowding distance, coarse-to-ne iterations and boundary control . . . 6.27 Pareto front of ZDT2 problems using the improved crowding distance, coarse-to-ne iterations and boundary control . . . 6.28 Convergence and spacing metrics of ZDT problems using the improved coupled method with boundary control . . . . . . . 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5
155 159 160 160 162 162 163 164 164 165 166 167 168 168 169 169 170 173 174 175 176 177 178 178
Parametric model of rotor37 blade. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Swept model and curved model of blades . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Convergence and spacing metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Pareto front of multi-objective optimization . . . . . . . . . . 186 Aerodynamic performance of multi-objective optimization results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 7.6 Comparison of the aerodynamic performance . . . . . . . . . 189 7.7 Comparison of the blade proles at different spanwise sections.190 xvi
7.8 Contour patterns of the relative Mach number of the initial design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9 Contour patterns of relative the Mach number of the nal design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.10 Limiting streamline patterns on the suction surface. . . . . . 7.11 Blade geometry of the initial design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12 Blade geometry of the trade-off design obtained by the multiobjective optimization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.13 Blade geometry of the single objective optimization result using weighting functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14 Blade geometry of the single objective optimization result using a combined objective. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15 Comparison of aerodynamic performances of different optimization designs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16 Convergence and spacing metrics for multi-objective optimization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17 Pareto front of the multi-objective optimization. . . . . . . . 7.18 Convergence history using the penalty setting1. . . . . . . . 7.19 Convergence history using the penalty setting2. . . . . . . . 7.20 Convergence history using the penalty setting3. . . . . . . . 7.21 Convergence history using different number of initial training samples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
191 191 192 196 196 197 197 198 198 199 201 202 202 203
xvii
xviii
List of Tables
3.1 Comparison of the approximation method for turbulence . . 3.2 Constants of Spalart-Allmaras model . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 54
4.1 Boundary conditions and blowing ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 4.2 Boundary conditions for M=0.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 4.3 Boundary conditions for M=1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 5.1 Specications of turbine cascades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 6.1 Mathematical test problems for MOGA . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 6.2 Convergence and Spacing metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 7.1 General congurations of rotor37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Discrete levels of design variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Comparisons of design variables of the multi-objective optimization results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 Comparison of design variables between the nal design and the single objective optimization result . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 Distribution of the CPU time in one global iteration. . . . . . 7.6 Comparison of the CPU time cost in optimizations with and without the approximation model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7 Collocation points and weights. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8 Settings of the penalty function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9 Values of the design variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.10 Comparison of the total performances of different optimization designs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.11 Penalty setting 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12 Penalty setting 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.13 Penalty setting 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix 182 185 187 189 192 193 193 194 195 199 200 200 201
7.14 Comparison of the optimization results using different penalty settings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
xx
Nomenclature
1D 2D 3D ANN BR CFD CMF CVP DES DNS FDM FEM FVM IPCM IRS JICF LDV LE LES MC MCDM MOGA N-S NIPCM NIPRCM PC PRC R-K RANS One dimensional Two dimensional Three dimensional Articial Neural Network Blowing ratio Computational uid dynamics Choked mass ow rate Counter-rotating vortex pair Detached eddy simulation Direct numerical simulation Finite difference method Finite element method Finite volume method Intrusive Polynomial Chaos Method Implicit Residual Smoothing Jets in cross-ow Laser Doppler Velocimetry Leading edge Large eddy simulation Monte Carlo Multi-criteria decision making Multi-objective genetic algorithm Navier-Stokes Non-intrusive Polynomial Chaos Method Non-intrusive Probabilistic Collocation Method Polynomial Chaos Probabilistic Collocation Runge-Kutta Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes xxi
TE TPC TWR URANS V&V ax C cf i imp j jet l max min P p pc r ref RT S s sc sLc sP c ST t uns V w wip Symbols tI tV 2
Trailing edge Total pressure coefcient Thrust-to-weight ratio Unsteady Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes Verication and Validation Value in axial direction Convection term Value associated to the Cross-ow Cell or individual or generation index Imposed value Cell or individual or generation index Value associated to Jets Index of multigrid Maximum value Minimum value Pressure side Passage Pressure side corner Rotating frame of reference Reference value Value associated to rotor Suction side sub-grid Suction side corner Suction side leading edge corner Pressure side leading edge corner Value associated to stator Turbulent Unsteady Diffusive term Value associated to a wall Wall vortex induced by the passage vortex Inviscid time step Viscous time step Second order center difference operator Turbulent dissipation rate Thermal conductivity, JK 1 m1 s1 , or Karman constant Dynamic viscosity coefcient, kgm1 s1 , or membership funcxxii
Subscripts
t v t xx , ... F FC FV Q U u x CP E H h k l M P p Pt Pr Q R r Re s Sij t Tt u v v W w
tion dynamic turbulent, or eddy, viscosity Bulk viscosity coefcient, kgm1 s1 kinematic turbulent, or eddy, viscosity Vorticity, s1 Mass density, kg Viscous stress tensor elements, P a Body force, N Vector format of diffusive term Vector format of convection term Vector format of source term Vector format of transition term velocity vector Vector of coordinate Pressure coefcient, dimensionless Specic total energy, Jkg 1 Specic total enthalpy, Jkg 1 Specic internal enthalpy, Jkg 1 Turbulent kinetic energy Mixing length Blowing ratio Penalty function Static pressure, P a Total pressure, P a Prandtl Number Generalized source item Residual Specic gas constant, about 287Jkg 1K 1 for air Reynolds number, dimensionless Entropy, Jkg 1 K 1 Strain-rate tensor time, s Total temperature, K x-component of velocity, ms1 y -component of velocity, ms1 Specic volume, m3 kg 1 Weights z -component of velocity, ms1
Superscripts Fluctuation i inner layer of B-L model xxiii
L l n o S s
Value on the nest level of multigrid Index of multigrid Order of Runge-Kutta method outer layer of B-L model Value after residual smoothing sub-grid
xxiv
Chapter 1
Introduction
As the title suggests, the present thesis is devoted to the investigations on two parts related to turbomachinery. The rst part, namely aerodynamic analysis for turbomachinery in particular, mainly focuses on the analysis of the complex ows within the blade passage of turbomachinery, in which CFD (Computational uid dynamics) simulation is adopted as analytical tool. For the second part, a state-of-the-art robust optimization technology is developed and applied to the optimization of a typical turbomachinery caseNASA rotor37. In this chapter, a brief introduction of the research background is presented.
1.1 Turbomachinery
Turbomachinery is widely used equipment in industry, agriculture and daily life. Such as compressors and turbines in a jet engine; steam turbine in power plants; propeller for ships, hydraulic turbines for irrigation, wind turbines for green energy, small fans for CPU cooling, and so on. A common feature of these devices is that they all work with uid and have rotating component. Gorla [1] gives a general denition of turbomachinery which says Turbomachinery is a device in which energy transfer occurs between a owing uid and a rotating element due to dynamic action, and results in a change in pressure and momentum of the uid. In general, the rotating element is named rotor which is usually composed of one or several rows of rotating blades. In general, there also exits a stator which is also composed of rows of blades, but not rotating. A pair of stator and rotor constitutes a stage. 1
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
According to the way of energy transfer, turbomachines are generally divided into two main categories. The rst category is used primarily to generate power which is called Turbine, including steam turbines, gas turbines and hydraulic turbines. The main function of the second category is to increase the total pressure of the working uid by consuming power which includes compressors, pumps and fans. According to inlet and outlet ow directions, turbomachines can be classied into two types: axial turbomachinery and radial turbomachinery. However, this thesis only focuses on the axial turbomachinery. More detail classication and description about the congurations can be found in [2].
1.1.1
Development of Turbomachinery
The usage of turbomachinery has a long history. It is recorded that the waterwheel, a kind of primitive turbomachinery, was invented and used for power generation more than hundred years ago. As illustrated in Figure 1.1, although the conguration is simple, it does follow the same basic principle with other complicated modern turbomachineries, for instance the compressor and the gas turbine in a jet engine.
Figure 1.1: Waterwheel (Tiangong Kaiwu, by Yingxing Song, 1637).
A jet engine, for example the latest GP7200 engine (Pratt & Whiteney) as shown in Figure 1.2, is generally composed of compressor, combustion chamber and gas turbine. The air is compressed in compressor before en2
1.1. TURBOMACHINERY
tering the combustion chamber where it is mixed with fuel and combustion occurs. Then the gas with high pressure and high temperature ows through gas turbines and leaves the engine through a nozzle. While expanding through the turbine blades, power is released from the gas and drives the turbine rotating.
Figure 1.2: GP7200 Jet fan engine (Pratt & Whiteney).
The jet engine was rst invented in the 1930s1940s, which gave the opportunity of rapid development to turbomachinery. From the initial turbojet engine to the modern turbofan engine with large bypass ratio, the evolution of jet engine requires more advanced compressors and turbines with higher stage pressure ratio and higher efciency. Since 1988, the military of USA launched a series of research projects to develop advanced turbines, such as IHPTET (Integrated High Performance Turbine Engine Technology), VAATE(Versatile Affordable Advanced Turbine Engines ) etc. The primary goal is to double the thrust-to-weight ratio (TWR) of engine which will reach to 1520, decrease the fuel consumption ratio by 15%30%. Compressor and turbine are two core components of jet engine. The performance of a jet engine strongly depends on the design level of compressor and turbine. Therefore, signicant researching efforts have been spent on improving the performance of turbomachinery. Today, the modern compressor stage has an efciency of about 90% and the modern turbine stage has an efciency of up to 95% [3]. Further improvements become more and more difcult and require much deeper understanding of the ow eld inside of the turbomachinery. Meanwhile, in industrial eld, steam turbine and gas turbine are the main instruments of power generation. Due to the energy crisis, design of advanced turbine with higher efciency is much more crucial than ever before. Therefore, similar strong demands of improving the performance 3
of turbomachinery are also brought forward.
1.1.2
Research Progress of Internal Flows in Turbomachinery
The design of turbomachinery is a complex task due to the complicated ow phenomena and interaction of multi-disciplines which involves aerodynamics, heat transfer, structural dynamic, control theory, materials and manufacture engineering etc. Among these design processes, aerodynamic analysis is the keystone of the design, which decides the performance of turbomachinery directly. While, without numerical technologies (CFD simulation and numerical optimization), it is impossible to meet the increasing rigorous requirements of design. Hence, the research on numerical aerodynamic analysis and numerical design of turbomachinery are outstandingly important, which gives the motivation of the present Ph.D research. The aerodynamic performance of turbomachinery mainly depends on the complex internal ows which usually are strongly three dimensional, viscous and unsteady. The ows in blade passages may be laminar, turbulent and transitional, and may include wake ow and secondary ows etc. There also may exist other complicated ow phenomena, such as transition, boundary layer separation, shock and shock-boundary layer interaction, the unsteady interaction between the blade rows, the interactions between the blade row and endwall, etc. In 1999, a NASA report of Numerical Simulation of Complex Turbomachinery Flows [3] stated four typical complex ows in turbomachinery which have been investigated extensively and may remain being the key research problems of turbomachinery in next few decades. These ows are: 1 Unsteady ow 2 Transition to turbulence 3 Film cooling 4 Three dimensional ow in turbine including tip leakage effect The investigation in the present thesis will cover the lm cooling ows and 3D unsteady ows in turbines. A detailed literature review and discussion of existing ow models are included in Chapter 2, followed by simulations of lm cooling on a at plate and planar cascades in Chapter 4. The investigation of three dimensional unsteady ow in turbines with tip leakage is presented in Chapter 5. 4
1.2. COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS
1.2 Computational Fluid Dynamics

Due to the complexity of the internal ow in turbomachinery, numerical simulations are extensively used for the investigation as an important auxiliary tool to experiments which usually are expensive and time consuming, even difcult to perform at some specic conditions, for instance the High-altitude experiments. Computational Fluid Dynamics, known today as CFD, is dened as the set of methodologies that enable the computer to provide us with a numerical simulation of uid ows, a denition of CFD is summarized by Hirsch in his book [4]. A uid eld can be described by a set of Partial Differential Equations (PDEs) which is known as Navier-Stokes (N-S) equations. However, this set of PDEs is highly nonlinear so that analytical solutions are available only for a limited number of simple cases. For most cases, even it is unknown if the analytical solution exists. CFD solves the PDEs using numerical methodologies, which gives a practical alternative solution for uid mechanic problems. Usually three basic methodologies are necessary for a whole CFD simulation, including spatial discretization methods (preprocess module), time integration method and turbulent ow approximation method (solver), ow visualization method (postprocess module). While, for certain complicated cases, some additional methods are needed, for instant the treatment of R/S interaction of turbomachinery. The numerical methods adopted in the presented thesis are introduced in Chapter 3 in detail.
1.2.1 Application of CFD in Turbomachinery

The aerodynamic performance of turbomachinery is related to the physical properties of the internal ow which is full three dimensional, viscous and unsteady. However, it is still difcult to simulate the internal ow in an exact way. Some approximation models of the internal ow were proposed and used in practical designs, which usually are called aerodynamic models. With the development of computation method, the aerodynamic models go through four levels: 1D and 2D model, quasi 3D model, full 3D model and unsteady full 3D model. In the 1940s and the early 1950s, due to the weak computational power, great simplications had to be introduced into the N-S equations. The one dimensional mass ow rate conservation model or simple radial equilibrium equation model were widely used [5]. While some additional empirical models have to be used to revise the results which usually takes lots of experiments and the accuracy is far away from being satisfactory. 5
In 1952, the proposal of quasi-three-dimensional ow theory by Wu [6] became a milestone of the numerical simulation of ow in turbomachinery. The quasi-three-dimensional ow theory, also known as two relative stream surface method, is based on two families of stream surface, named S1/S2 stream surface. The S1 stream surfaces are blade-to-blade surfaces as shown in Figure 1.3, which are usually assumed as surfaces of revolution for simplication. The S1 calculation is the basis for dening the detailed blade shape. The S2 stream surfaces are hub-to-tip surfaces, which represent the spanwise proles of the ow. Therefore, the calculation of S2 stream surfaces is usually called throughow calculation. The quasithree-dimensional calculation is performed with the iterations between S1 calculation and S2 calculation. This method is so successful in the period with weak computational power that it becomes the dominated design method till 1980s. As Denton commented Wus S1/S2 approach was far ahead of his time [7]. Afterward, several numerical schemes based on through-ow method are proposed in 1960s, such as the streamline curvature method [8] and the matrix method [9] (also called the stream function method [7]). Due to the simplicity and ability to cope with mixed subsonicsupersonic ow, the streamline curvature method became the most widely used through-ow method [10]. Even today, some improved streamline curvature methods are still used in some investigations [11].
Figure 1.3: Illustration of S1 and S2 surfaces (Novack, 1967 [8]).
With the development of computer technology, the Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) simulations are developed rapidly since 1980s. In the same time, a couple of turbulence models are proposed successively to complete RANS model. In most design processes, the steady RANS simulations give satised prediction of overall performance. While in elaborate design processes, unsteady RANS (URANS) simulations are needed since 6
1.2. COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS

the ows in turbomachinery are highly unsteady. Respecting to the approximation level of geometry, CFD simulation of turbomachinery developed from 2D to 3D, from planar cascade to annular cascade, from single blade passage to whole ring, from single stage to multi stages. The increase of model accuracy to the real geometry has signicant effects on turbomachinery design. Figure 1.4 shows the impact of CFD on the performance improvement of aircraft engine in SNECMA (France) over a period of almost 30 years. The evolution, from the initial use of simple 2D potential ow models in the early 1970s to the current applications of full 3D Navier-Stokes code, has led to a overall gain in efciency close to 10 points.
Figure 1.4: Impact of CFD on SNECMA fan performance, over a period of 30 years (Escuret, 1998 [12]).
In recent years, Large Eddy Simulation (LES) and Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS) are getting more popular, which can predict turbulent effects with more accuracy, at the cost however of signicantly increased CPU time. For simulations of turbomachinery, the current computation power is far away from affording such high costly computations. The unsteady RANS simulations of whole stage or multi stages will be the focus of the current research.
1.2.2 Verication and Validation of CFD Simulations

With the fast development of CFD application in industrial engineering, the quality and credibility of industrial application of CFD becomes a criti7
cal question faced by engineers, especially for the designer of turbomachinery which needs sophisticated design. And it has also become an important research topic of CFD [13, 14] in recent years. In 1996, AIAA [15] proposed a guide for verication and validation of CFD simulations, in which two components are suggested. Firstly, the accuracy of the solution to a computational model should be assessed primarily by comparison with known solutions, called Verication, to ensure the accuracy of numerical methodology; secondly, the simulated results should be compared with experimental data, called Validation, to assess approximation of the numerical model used in CFD simulation to real physical model. The sources of numerical error, such as grid density, computational domain scale, which exist mostly in CFD simulation, are listed in references [16, 17]. Since the solver used in the present work, FineTM /Turbo from NUMECA Inc., has been veried by a large number of applications, verication will not be involved in the present thesis. However, all the simulations in the present thesis are validated by comparison with experimental data.
1.2.3
Non-deterministic CFD Methodologies
Although the CFD simulations have been performed extensively, so far most of them are still deterministic simulations which use deterministic models, deterministic boundary conditions and deterministic solvers. However, for real physical problems, there often exist lots of uncertain factors caused by the manufacturing process and the variation of working conditions, which may have signicant inuence on the performance, such as the uncertain variation of geometry, uncertainty of boundary conditions, working parameters and ow property. It should be noted that these factors are different from the numerical error handled in Verication and Validation (V&V). However, the inuences of all these factors have not been included in the current framework of CFD credibility research. The aim of the deterministic simulation is searching for the deterministic solution. Obviously, there might be large potential risks if the performance of a design objective, such as turbine, compressor, aircraft, etc., is sensitive to some uncertain variable. Even a minimal variation of the random variable could lead then to catastrophic results. Therefore, in recent years, NASA and European Union launched a series of research projects [18, 19] for non-deterministic analysis methodology in aero-space research, to advance the robustness of design and analysis of complex systems. Due to the high nonlinear property of control equation and turbulence models, it is more difcult to implement the non-deterministic method in uid dynamics eld than in solid mechanics eld. Thus, investigations on the 8
1.3. ROBUST OPTIMIZATION OF TURBOMACHINERY

non-deterministic methodology for CFD have been the main focuses and difculties in these research projects. Non-deterministic analysis for CFD normally consists of two intimately components. The rst one is involved in retrieving parametric uncertain property of random variable itself from the reliable data. The second one pertains to the inuence of uncertain model input or model parameter on output parameters, namely propagation of uncertainty in ow eld. As can be concluded from experience of many industrial applications that the uncertain input or model parameters usually are stochastic variables with some certain probability distribution. However, it still needs a long term experimental and statical investigation to verify the type of distribution functions for specic cases. Thus, it is far beyond the scope of present numerical analysis which mainly focuses on the second component. In other words, the non-deterministic physical problem can be treated as a stochastic process, and the distribution function of random variable is supposed to be known. The present thesis will not tend to discuss non-deterministic CFD methodologies in detail. However, in the second part of the thesisrobust optimization, the non-deterministic CFD simulations have to be used to quantify the uncertainty. Therefore, in Chapter 3, the schemes of two kinds of non-deterministic methods are introduced briey.
1.3 Robust optimization of turbomachinery

In this section, a general description about the second topic of the present thesis which is related to the optimal design of turbomachinery is presented. However, only the aerodynamic design of turbomachinery blades is considered here since the shape of blade has great impact on the overall performance. The optimal design is usually composed of aerodynamic design method and optimization method. The former is closely related to CFD simulations, while the latter is mainly involved in numerical optimization algorithms.
1.3.1 General Aerodynamic Design of Turbomachinery

The traditional trial-and-error design method fully depends on the experience of designers, which can not ensure the design is global optimal. Usually it is time and labor consuming due to the long design cycle. With the rapid development of computational technology, the numerical design method based on CFD and optimization algorithms start to be adopted in 9
aerodynamic design procedures. According to different denitions of optimization objectives, the numerical design methods can be classied into two groups: inverse design and optimal design. In inverse design, the blade geometry is modied to minimize the difference of proles of pressure or velocity between the designed and the specied. This method is widely used in 1980s and 1990s since it provides a cheap way for numerical aerodynamic design, such as 2D blade optimization in Meauze[20] and 3D blade optimization in Demeulenaere [21]. Whereas, considerable experience of the designer is still needed to give a proper prole of pressure or velocity. In optimization design, the geometry of the blade is sought to maximize the overall performance parameters, such as efciency, total pressures ratio, etc. In some sense, it is not so efcient as inverse design which has clear direction at the beginning, while it makes the design process less dependent on designers experience, which gives the potential possibility of better design than specied by designer. Nowadays, both of these two methods are used in practical design and improved by coupling some new numerical technologies. Jameson [22] used a joint gradient method coupling the inverse design and the gradient optimization method for 2D airfoil design. Tiow et al [23] expanded this framework with a global optimization technology, simulated annealing optimization algorithm, in the design of transonic axial cascades. Oyama et al [24] optimized the NASA rotor67 using a parallel genetic algorithm and full 3D CFD simulations. In their research, thousands of CFD computations are needed to obtain the global optimal solution. Although the numerical simulation is getting more accurate and fast, it is still time and computational labor consuming. In that view, these methods are still far away from industrial application [25]. Hirsch et al. [26, 27] proposed an efcient integrated optimization platform based on CFD simulation, which uses genetic algorithm for optimization and Articial Neural Network (ANN) as an approximation model. A coarse-to-ne approaching strategy is performed to improve the prediction of approximation model through the iterations between CFD simulation and optimization. Ahn and Kim [28] developed a similar optimization technology for optimization of NASA rotor37. The response surface method and linear programming were adopted. All these technologies reduced the computational cost and design time greatly. Many new optimization methods using three dimensional CFD simulations and global optimization algorithms are constantly being proposed. The research work in the present thesis will follow the framework of Hirsch et al. 10
1.3. ROBUST OPTIMIZATION OF TURBOMACHINERY
1.3.2 Multi-objective Optimization Methods

In practical optimization design, there often exist multi optimization objectives. The classical optimization method usually converts a multi-objective optimization problem into a single objective problem using penalty functions or weighting coefcients. However, for most cases, these objectives often are incompatible. Its difcult to set the appropriate penalty functions or weighting functions which really depends on the experience and preferences of the designer. Moreover, only one optimal result is obtained after optimization. The designers have no alternative options to choose. In fact, in most cases, there is no best solution by nature, but an innite number of feasible solutions which represent different levels of trade-off between the objectives. This set of solutions is called Pareto optimal set or Pareto Front. A couple of novel Multi-objective optimization algorithms based on Pareto optimal concept are proposed and applied into optimal design. They provide a set of non-inferior solutions rather than one best solution, which represents a more reasonable optimal nature. The practical application of multi-objective optimization algorithms in engineering design is still far away from success, especially in aerodynamic design. High computational cost and convergence are two critical problems needed to be investigated. Poloni et al [29] implemented hybrid multi-objective optimization on the n keel of a sailing yacht based on CFD simulation. Firstly, they performed a multi-objective genetic algorithm (MOGA) to give an approximation of Pareto-optimal front. Then a single objective optimization is started from several specic points on the approximated Pareto-optimal front. In order to reduce the computational cost, small population size and evolution generations are imposed in MOGA. However, during the optimization process, the real Pareto front was not reached. Benini [30] proposed a multi-objective optimization algorithm, named Genetic Diversity Evaluation Method(GeDEM), and applied it to optimization of NASA rotor37. They used exact evaluation by CFD simulation rather than approximation model. Although small size population of 20 and evolution generations of 100 are used, more than thousands of CFD computations are still needed to get the converged Pareto front, which is extremely computational expensive. Moreover, a small size of population can not provide a smooth Pareto-optimal front which increases the risk of less convergence. It therefore can be concluded that a multi-objective optimization is to be preferred and that, with the present computational power, an approximation model is necessary for aerodynamic optimization of turbomachinery. A key issue is how to improve the combination effect of approximation model and multi-objective optimization algorithm. In Chapter 6 of the 11
present thesis, a coupled multi-objective optimization framework based on the multi-objective genetic algorithm and ANN is developed and tested by standard mathematical problems. A practical application on multi working points optimization of NASA roto37 is presented in Chapter 7
1.3.3
Robust Optimization
A further advanced optimization is the robust optimization which involves the optimization approaches considering the inuence of uncertainties, with the aim of improving the performance of design with less sensitiveness to the random parameters. The robust optimization of turbomachinery is a state-of-the-art technology which is reported in literatures only in recent years. However the differences between robust optimization and normal optimization only exist in objective denitions and CFD solver. In robust optimization, the effect of uncertainties usually is one of the objectives to be optimized or one of the constraints, which requests the nondeterministic CFD solver to handle the uncertainty quantication. The present robust optimization research is one part of the EU project: NODESIM-CFD (Non-Deterministic Simulation for CFD Based on Design Methodologies) [31] which intends to contribute to the development of a new paradigm for CFD based virtual prototyping by incorporating the relevant operational, geometrical and numerical uncertainties in the simulation process. In Chapter 7, a robust optimization on NASA rotor37 with uncertainty outlet pressure is presented, where a probabilistic collocation method is employed to quantify the uncertainties. Different strategies of objective denition are performed to investigate the effect of objective definition on the optimization results.
12
Chapter 2
Complex Flows in Turbomachinery

The internal ows within a blade passage of turbomachinery are strongly three dimensional, viscous ows which may include laminar ow, turbulent ow and transitional ow. Moreover, they are fully unsteady due to the interactions between blade rows in a stage or multistage machine. There also exist secondary ows including the ows due to passage vortices in the endwall range, radial ow near blade surfaces, and tip leakage ow and leakage vortex, shock and shock boundary layer interaction in high speed conditions, wakes ows, even some specic ows, for instance lm cooling ows nearby the cooling holes. In the present chapter, a literature review on investigations of secondary ows, unsteady ows and lm cooling ows is given, followed by discussions on the existing ow models.
2.1 General Review on Secondary Flows

The important 3D viscous ow phenomena within a blade passage of turbomachinery are boundary layers and their separations, tip clearance ows and wakes, which are most responsible of energy losses existing in blade passage. Hence, the losses in an axial compressor or turbine can be mainly classied as [32]: 1 Prole losses due to blade boundary layers and their separations and wake mixing; In high speed condition, shock/boundary layer interac13
CHAPTER 2. COMPLEX FLOWS IN TURBOMACHINERY

tion may exist. 2 Endwall boundary layer losses, including secondary ow losses and tip clearance losses. 3 Mixing losses due to the mixing of various secondary ows, such as the passage vortex and tip leakage vortex. Among all these losses, the most complex one is the secondary ow loss. That is why considerable research on the secondary ow phenomena has been done in last decades. Secondary ow is dened as the difference between the real ow and a primary ow, which is related to the development of boundary layer on endwall and blade surface, the evolution of vortices in passage, and detached ows. Based on topology analysis and experiments, as well as the numerical simulations in recent decades, a couple of secondary ow models are proposed which are presented below.
2.1.1
Classical Secondary Flow Models
The so-called classical secondary ow model, as illuminated in Figure 2.1, is proposed by Hawthorne [33] for the rst time according to the theory of inviscid ow in 1955. This model presents the components of vorticity in the ow direction when a ow with inlet vorticity is deected through a cascade. The main vortex, so-called passage vortex, represents the distribution of secondary circulation, which occurs due to the distortion of the vortex laments of the inlet boundary layer passing with the ow through a curved surface. The vortex sheet at the trailing edge is composed of the trailing lament vortices and the trailing shed vorticity whose sense of rotation is opposite to that of the passage vortex. The classical vortex model attributes the secondary ow losses to the generation and evolution of passage vortex, which reveals the basic mechanism of secondary ow losses. However, this model is relatively simple, in which the interaction between the inlet boundary layer and blade force was not considered. Moreover, the vortex system within passage is only single passage vortex in half of the passage height range with other vortices absence.
2.1.2
Modern Secondary Flow Models
When a shear ow along the solid wall approaches a blade standing on the wall, the shear ow will be separated from the wall and roll up into a vortex in front of the blade leading edge. This vortex is called horseshoe vortex due 14
2.1. GENERAL REVIEW ON SECONDARY FLOWS
Figure 2.1: Classical secondary ow model (Hawthorne, 1955 [33]).
to its particular shape. This well known phenomenon is rstly observed in the ow around cylinders. The oil ow visualizations by Fritsche in 1955 [34] show the evidence of the horseshoe vortex in accelerating cascades. In 1966, Klein presents a ner cascade vortex model with both the passage and horseshoe vortices as depicted in Figure 2.2(a). While, the pioneering work for detailed analysis of secondary ow patterns in turbine cascades in general is done in 1977 by Langston et al [35] who proposed the well known modern vortex model in cascade. Three vortices are presented in this model, as depicted in Figure 2.2(b). Langston explains the interaction between the horseshoe vortex and the passage vortex, and the development of the passage vortex. The big differences between Langstons model and Kleins model exist in twofold: [36] 1 Langston clearly postulates that the pressure side leg of the leading edge horseshoe vortex, which has the same sense of rotation as the passage vortex, merges with and becomes part of the passage vortex. 2 Langston claries that the suction side leg of the leading edge horseshoe vortex which rotates in the opposite sense to the passage vortex, continuing in the suction side endwall corner, while the presentation of Klein suggests that this vortex is gradually dissipated in contact with the passage vortex. The rst point from Langston is supported by the light sheet experiment by Marchal and Sieverding [37] in 1977. While, the results of this experiment also show the counter-rotating vortex, called counter vortex by 15
(a) by Klein, 1966
(b) by Langston, 1977
Figure 2.2: Modern secondary ow model[36].
Langston, in the trailing edge plane on the midspan side of the passage vortex rather than in the corner, which is not consistent with the second point from Langston. An essential piece of information about the evolution of the horseshoe and passage vortices was contributed by Moore and Smith [38] in 1983. They found the pressure side leg of horseshoe vortex HP from leading edge of one blade gathered with the suction side leg of the horseshoe vortex HS from the adjacent blade leasing edge and the boundary layer on blade. A more detailed explanation of the synchronous evolution of horseshoe and passage vortices is given in late 1983 by Sieverding and Van den Bosch [39], as illustrated in Figure 2.3. The gure shows two stream surfaces, SS1 and SS2 ; the former starts upstream inside the endwall boundary layer, while the latter outside the endwall boundary layer at different axial positions in the blade passage. Approaching the leading edge the lateral extremities of stream surface SS1 start to roll up into the two counterrotating legs of the horseshoe vortex, HP and HS , the main part of the stream surface being nearly undisturbed. Behind the leading edge plane the whole stream surface starts slowly to rotate, and gathering with HS and HP to gradually develop into the passage vortex. The ow visualizations show that the pressure side leg of the horseshoe vortex, HP , follows basically a smooth curve through the passage without any noticeable vortical motion, which would indeed suggest that its core coincides with that of the passage vortex, while the suction side leg of the horseshoe vortex, HS , wraps itself around the passage vortex core [36]. Although Sieverding [36] gave an excellent review of the vortex models up to 1985, where the secondary ow vortex structures were described in 16
2.1. GENERAL REVIEW ON SECONDARY FLOWS
Figure 2.3: Synchronous evolution of horseshoe and passage vortices, (Sieverding and Van den Bosch, 1983 [39]).
detail, the investigation on secondary ows are more active and new models continually emerge. In 1986, a more clear ow visualization of horseshoe vortex is illustrated by Ishii and Honami [40] using oil lm and smoke wire technique. They present a new ow model of three-dimensional turbulent detached region on the plane of symmetry, as depicted in Figure 2.4. Four types of vortices exist in the detached region which can be divided into two part: region I and II. Region I includes the horseshoe vortex and corner vortex, while region II contains the detachment point, the separation and counter vortex.
Figure 2.4: New ow model of three-dimensional turbulent detached region on the plane of symmetry (Ishii and Honami, 1986 [40]).
17
2.1.3
Latest Secondary Flow Models
In 1987, Sharma and Butler [41] proposed a secondary ow pattern which is slightly different to that from Langston. This pattern, shown in Figure 2.5(a), demonstrates that the suction side leg of the horseshoe vortex wraps itself around the passage vortex instead of adhering to the suction side. This result is similar to the results of Moore [38] and Sieverding [39]. However, in 1988, another pattern is given by Goldstein and Spores [42], shown in Figure 2.5(b), which is different to Sharmas again. Based on mass transfer results, they suggested that the suction side leg of the horseshoe vortex stays above the passage vortex and travels with it. This ow pattern is similar to that suggested by Jilek [43] in 1986. The major difference among these three models is the location of the suction side leg of the horseshoe vortex. Since it is difcult to be detected due to the small size, most literatures can not demonstrate the develop of this vortex clearly.
(a) by Sharma and Butler, 1987 [41]
(b) by Goldstein and Spores, 1988 [42]
Figure 2.5: Vortex pattern of secondary ows.
In 1997, a very detailed secondary ow visualization study was performed by Wang [44] et al. They proposed a more comprehensive but more complicated secondary ow pattern, as illustrated in Figure 2.6, which includes the passage vortex, the horseshoe vortex, the wall vortex and the corner vortex. The development of the horseshoe vortex nearby the endwall is effected by the boundary layer on endwall and the blade surface. In modern advanced blade, the leading edge radius of blade is so small that can be compared with the thick of boundary layer. Hence, the separation of boundary layer on endwall generates the multi-vortex structures 18
2.2. UNSTEADY FLOW WITHIN TURBOMACHINERY

at the leading edge of blade, Vph . Due to a strong pressure gradient the pressure side leg of the horseshoe vortex moves toward the suction side after it enters the passage. Meanwhile it entrains the main ow and the inlet boundary layer forming a multi-vortex leg. When this multi-vortex leg reaches suction surface, at approximately 1/4 of the surface distance from the leading edge where it encounters the suction side leg Vsh from adjacent blade, it is gradually squeezed into a single vortex. These two vortices wrap each other and develop into a strong vortex in blade passage, the so-called passage vortex, Vp . The passage vortex stays close to the suction surface, and rotates in a counterclockwise direction when viewing the ow in the ow direction. With the entraining the main ow and boundary layer, it is lifted away from the endwall and increases in size as it travels downstream. Very close to the suction wall a small but very intense vortex is found, which is named Wall Vortex by Wang [44], Vwip . This vortex originates near the merging point of two legs of the horseshoe vortex and rotates with reverse direction against the passage vortex. Then, it swept up on the suction surface by the passage vortex and stays above the latter. The corner vortices is too small to be caught using smoke ow visualization technique, while the surface ow visualization by Jabbari et al. [45] in 1992 and the local measurement of naphthalene mass transfer by Goldstein et al. [46] in 1994 indicate the existence of the corner vortices, which are illustrated as VsLc , VpLc , Vsc and Vpc in Figure 2.6. Wang et al. suppose these corner vortices are formed by the separation of the boundary layer very closed to the leading edge corner. In 2001, Langston [47] reviewed these new models after the Sieverdings review. Laster in the same year, Zhou and Han [48] gave a more comprehensive review of all these models. They concluded that the good understanding of the secondary ow in turbomachinery can help greatly to control the vortices within passage and decrease the losses.
2.2 Unsteady Flow within turbomachinery

During early investigations, the ow in turbomachinery is assumed to be steady. In blade passage of stator, the absolute velocity of ow is supposed steady in respect to the absolute reference frame, while in blade passage of rotor, the relative velocity of ow is supposed to be steady in respect to the relative reference frame. This hypothesis has been used for decades in design of turbomachinery. Even today, in the preliminary design of turbomachinery, it is still adopted. However, the ow in turbomachinery is inherently unsteady, as proven by Dean [49] through an adiabatic friction19
Figure 2.6: Endwall vortex pattern (Wang et al., 1997 [44]).
less model of turbomachinery. Greitzer [50] redescribed this model and gave a more clear explaination. In some sense, the unsteadiness is mainly due to the relative motions of rotor and stator. Although the steady ow model using the relative frame of reference in rotor gives an time averaged approximation of the unsteady ow in turbomachinery. However, it is just suitable for the primary design. In the elaborate design phase, unsteadiness plays a important role which can increase losses, blade vibration, noise generation and affect the heat transfer. A good understanding of the unsteady ow in turbomachinery is necessary for advanced design. According to Greitzer [51], the unsteady ow in turbomachinery can be classied into two groups: inherent unsteadiness and conditional unsteadiness.
2.2.1
Conditional Unsteadiness
The conditional unsteadiness is mainly caused by the sudden changes of the working condition. When turbomachinery is working on the start stage, acceleration stage or off-design condition, the uctuation of working condition might lead to the unsteady rotating stall and surge of com20

pressor. Sometimes, the distortion of inlet ow or the asymmetric outlet condition of vector nozzle also might lead to the unsteadiness. Rotating Stall Taking an axial compressor for example, the instantaneous uctuations of rotating speed, or inlet pressure or outlet pressure may disturb the ow in passage. The disturbance may cause the increase of incidence angle of a part of ow which leads to the separation ow on suction side of blade. The separation ow will block the mean ow in blade passage and affect the adjacent range to generate new separated ow. This instability will be propagated against the rotating direction in circumferential face, leading to the so-called rotating stall. Rotating stall is an asymmetric unstable status of the internal ow. The separation ow rotating with the blade will cause the periodic uctuation of the pressure on blades surface, and then result in a periodic stress on blades, which will decrease the life of blades. Surging Surging of compressor is marked by a complete breakdown of the continuous steady ow throughout the whole compressor, resulting in large uctuating of ow with time and also in subsequent mechanical damage to the compressor. The phenomenon of surging should not be confused with the stalling of a compressor stage. Usually, the stalling is assumed to be the cause and the beginning of surging.
2.2.2 Inherent Unsteadiness

The inherent unsteadiness is mainly due to the relative motion and interaction between rotor and stator. In general, it involves three parts: the interaction of potential ows in adjacent blade rows; the interaction between the wake ow and blade rows downstream; the interaction between the secondary ows and blade rows. Interaction between Adjacent Blade Rows The rst part comes from the changing of the relative position of rotor to stator which results in the periodic uctuation of the pressure. This uctuation is propagated both upstream and downstream as disturbance waves. The researching from Greitzer [51] shows the impact of the disturbance is 21

obvious if the ratio of axial gap between blade rows to the cascade pitch is lower than 0.5, and which increases with the increase of axial velocity. Interaction between wake Flow and Blade Rows The second part, unsteady wake, is a quite common ow phenomenon, not only in turbomachinery. Due to the thickness of the trailing edge of blade, the ows after the blade generate a high dissipation region, called wake, which is similar to the ow passed a circular cylinder where a famous wake ow Von Karman vortex street can be observed. When a viscous ow passes a cylinder or an airfoil, a regular vortex shedding can be found behind the cylinder, which results in a zone with fully turbulent ow and high dissipation. The pressure on the surface of cylinder will uctuate with the vortex shedding. A similar ow phenomenon exists in the bypass ow after a blade, as shown in Figure 2.7. In this gure, Gehrer et al. [52] predicts the instantaneous streamline patterns of the periodic vortex shedding through unsteady simulations with low Re number k model. Figure 2.8 shows the results of unsteady simulation performed by Wang and He [53], in which the instantaneous pressure contour patterns of wake for both laminar ow and turbulent ow through unsteady simulations are presented clearly .
Figure 2.7: Periodic wake shedding (Gehrer et al., 2000 [52]).
The wake ow in multi-stage turbomachinery is more complicated 22
(a) Laminar ow
(b) Turbulence ow
Figure 2.8: Pressure contour of wake ow (Wang and He, 2001 [53]).
than vortex shedding after circle cylinder since it will be distorted and deformed by the blade when ows through the blade row downstream as shown clearly in Figure 2.9 by Hodson [54]. This unsteady transport process could last to the next few blade rows and mix with new wake ows to forming highly nonuniform unsteady ow in blade passage. Interaction between Secondary Flows and Blade Rows The third part is similar to the second one, in which the second ows are also sheared by the blade rows downstream during the transport process. The distortion and mixing of these vortices will enhance the nonuniformity of the ow. Schlienger et al. [55] investigated the interaction between secondary ows and blade rows through experiments on a low speed turbine with two stages. It is found that the characteristic of the unsteady ow eld at the rotor hub exit is primarily a result of the interaction between the rotor indigenous passage vortex and the remnants of the secondary ow structures that are shed from the rst stator blade row. Moreover, there exist interactions among secondary ows, wake and blade rows, which results in more complicated unsteady ow. Matsunuma [56] investigated this interaction effect on a low speed turbine of single stage, with the instantaneous absolute velocity contour pattern at the nozzle exit shown in Figure 2.10. The experimental results suggest that the secondary vortices are periodically and three-dimensionally distorted at the rotor inlet. A curious tangential high turbulence intensity region 23
Figure 2.9: Velocity vector of wake ow perturbation (Stieger, 2005[54]).
spread at the tip side is observed at the front of the rotor, which is because of the axial stretch of the nozzle wake due to the effects of the nozzle passage vortex and rotor potential ow eld.
2.3 Film Cooling

According to the theory of Carnot cycle, increasing the inlet temperature of gas turbine is an effective way to increase the efciency and capacity of a turbine. In order to enhance the performance of jet engine and gas turbine, the temperature of the gas owing into a turbine blade passage has been raised continually in recent years, which might result in the damage of blades, especially the leading edge (LE) which is exposed to the hot gas directly. Although new high temperature materials have been investigated and used constantly, it is obvious that they couldnt follow the rising pace of the inlet temperature. For the aero jet engine with TWR of 10, the inlet temperature of the turbine has been increased to 1850K1950K. Whereas, the modern materials cannot stand temperature higher than 1200K1400K [3]. According to the IHPTET and VAATE projects, the TWR of the engine will be increased to 1520 in 2020s. At that time, the 24
2.3. FILM COOLING
Figure 2.10: Instantaneous absolute velocity contour pattern at nozzle exit (T. Matsunuma, 2006 [56]).
inlet temperature will be over 2400K which will be far above the temperature can be withstood by modern meterials. So effective cooling methods for the blades must be used to ensure the turbine works normally and to extend lifetime of the blades. Four types of cooling methods, such as Convection cooling, Impingement cooling, Film cooling and Effusion cooling [57], and their hybrid methods are used in practical engineering. Usually, the effusion cooling can provides the best cooling among these four methods, while it is seldom used because it will weaken the structure strength of blades greatly. Convection cooling and impingement cooling are usually used in conditions where the temperature is lower than 1600K since they cannot provide protection to the surface of blades. Film cooling is the only way can be used in whole range of the temperature is higher than 1600K. Figure 2.11 shows the conguration of a blade with cooling holes at the leading edge and trailing edge and the corresponding perspective of intern channels. The working principle of lm cooling can be illustrated as Figure 2.12. In lm cooling, the cold uid colored in blue jet from the cooling holes or slots distributed on blade surface. It is curved downstream under the press and friction of hot main ow colored in pink in the gure, then forms a thin cooling lm on the surface which separates the blade surface from hot gas. 25
(a) Cooling holes at the leading edge and trailing edge
(b) Perspective of cooling holes
Figure 2.11: Blade with cooling holes.
Meanwhile, it takes the sporadic ames and radiant heat to downstream. Hence, it can protect the blade surface effectively.
Figure 2.12: Pattern of lm cooling.
2.3.1
Film Cooling Flow on A Flat Plate
Many investigations focus on a at plate model since it is relatively simple and could provide the basic research of lm cooling in a cascade. The ow structure nearby the cooling hole has great impact on the cooling effect that indicates a good understanding of the ow structure nearby the cooling hole is the keystone of improving the cooling effect. Film cooling 26
2.3. FILM COOLING

ow mixed with the main ow downstream of the holes forms a typical jets-in-crossow (JICF) problem which involves a system of vortices ow. Margason provided a very comprehensive review of investigations on JICF [58] during the past fty years till 1990s, in which several distinguishable features of JICF were noted : 1 When the jets ow out from the exit of cooling hole, it is defected by main crossow to follow a curved path. At the same time, due to shearing of the cross ow along the lateral edges, the jets form a counter-rotating vortex pair (CVP), also called kidney vortex, which dominates the ow structure nearby the cooling hole; 2 Similar to the ow around cylinder, the cross ow near to the exit of cooling hole forms a stagnation point and a horseshoe vortex. However, it is much weaker and smaller than CVP. 3 The main ow, which bypassed the jets ow, forms a wake region downstream which is the weakest. One analogy relates it to the Karman-Benard vortex street. Another concept describes it as an unsteady ow separation region. This three-vortices model is also illustrated in Figure 2.13(a). The CVP is the dominant vortex, while others are all belong to secondary vortices. Some investigations [59, 60] include the vestiges of the free jet ring vortices as a fourth vortex system, as depicted in Figure 2.13(b) from Fric and Roshko.
(a) By Margason, 1993 [58]
(b) By Fric and Roshko, 1994 [59]
Figure 2.13: Sketch of vortex systems of JICF.
27

Hale et al [61] performed similar investigations on the ow structure near multiple cooling holes through surface streak experiments and numerical simulations. A secondary counter-rotating vortex pair with the opposite rotation sense of the CVP was observed in their experiments. This secondary CVP was also found by Yuan et al. in [62] where it was named wall wake vortex. Kang [63] investigated the ow structure nearby a single cooling hole in a at plate using numerical simulations and topological analysis, and gave a comprehensive explain of the vortex structure of jets in crossow. The ow structure nearby cooling hole is associated with the mixing process which is inuenced by many factors, such as main ow Re number, holes geometry, surface curvature, injection angle, blowing ratio, etc. However, for the model with certain congurations, the blowing ratio is the main factor. Hence, large investigated efforts have been contributed to the effect of blowing ratios. Ajersch et al. [64] investigated the jets in crossow on a at plate using both experiments and RANS simulations in 1997. A model of square cooling holes on a at plate was tested under different blowing ratios. The investigation results show the CVP clearly for blowing ratios of 1.0 and 1.5, while that is less distinct for blowing ratio of 0.5 where the jet is too weak to penetrate through the inlet turbulent boundary layer. The interactions between jets and the main ow was enhanced with the increase of the blowing ratio. However, the 3D ow structures are absent in the discussion. Kang et al. [65] simulated the same model using RANS simulations and presented the 3D vortex systems and development of the vortex rings nearby the cooling hole. Also based on the same experiment, Tyagi and Acharya [66] and Ma [67], using LES and RANS simulations respectively, simulated three square cooling holes with different aspect ratios under xed blowing ratio. It is found that the intensity of CVP will increase with the increase of the aspect ratio. In the present thesis, DES and RANS simulations are also performed on the experimental model of Ajersch. The details of experiments and numerical simulations are presented in Chapter 4.
2.3.2
Film Cooling Flow in Turbine Cascades
Although the investigation of jets in cross ow on a at plate can depict the ow structure nearby the cooling hole and reveal the interaction behavior between the main ow and jets, it is only focus on the local view and far from the practical application in turbine cascade. However, due to the impact of difference of geometry, streamwise pressure gradient and secondary ows in the main ow, the structure of lm cooling jets in a 28
2.3. FILM COOLING

turbine cascade may not the same as those on a at plate. Schwarz et al. [68, 69] presented their experiment results of lm cooling on generic curved surfaces with three different relative strength curvatures. The laterally averaged lm cooling effectiveness was observed to increase with increasing curvature until the cooling lm separates on strongly curved wall. Koc et al. [70] investigated the lm cooling effectiveness of rectangular holes on a curved surface with different curvatures. They indicated that there exist the optimal curvature and the best blowing ratio for a given curvature. Meanwhile, the effect of cooling holes geometry was also investigated by many researchers. Hyams and Leylek [71] investigated numerically the streamwise inclined jets on a at plate with ve distinct lm cooling congurations, including cylindrical, forward-diffused, laterally diffused, inlet shaped and cusp-shaped holes. They found that the laterally diffused lm hole provides the best cooling effect. Dittmar et al. [72] performed experiments on the suction side of a turbine guide vane to investigate the cooling effectiveness of four different cooling hole congurations, such as cylindrical holes, discrete slots, straight fan-shaped holes and compound angle fan-shaped holes, with the same blowing ratio. They concluded that the fan-shaped holes show very good effectiveness values at moderate and high blowing ratios. However, at low blowing ratios, all congurations show similar lm-cooling effectiveness. Kim et al. [73] also performed experimental investigations on the inuence of injection holes with different exit shapes at the leading edge of cylindrical body models under various blowing ratio and found that the conventional cylindrical holes have poor lm cooling performance compared to the shaped holes with diffused exit. Dieter et al. [74] investigated numerically the mixing phenomena of spanwise inclined holes. Bunker [75] gave a review on investigations of shaped hole lm cooling over the past 30 years. He summarized the benets of shaped lm holes using expanded exits of fan and/or laidback geometries with higher centerline and laterally averaged adiabatic lm effectiveness, and little variation in effectiveness over blowing ratios from 0.5 to 2, low sensitivity to free-stream turbulence intensity variations. An excellent series of experimental investigations on lm cooling in turbine cascades were performed by Fottner and his research team (Beeck et al.[76], 1992, Ardey and Fottner [77] 1997, [78] 1998). They had made a systemically investigation on the ow eld within a high pressure planar turbine cascade with lm cooling injections (holes and slots) at the leading edge through experiments. The experimental models are designed with two slot arrays or two cylindrical hole arrays located at the two sides of blade leading edge. Two different hole geometries, vertical and spanwise 29

inclined respect with to the blade surface, were tested. Detail experiments data are provided for validation, including the pressure distribution on blade surface and oil visualization patterns. Theodoridis et al. [79, 80] investigated the same cascade with slots and vertical holes using 2D and 3D numerical simulations, respectively. While they only focused on the validation between simulated results and experiment data, seldom discussion on the ow eld was presented. Wang et al. [81] also simulated the ow in the same cascade with vertical holes. They found that jets only inuence the pressure distribution in a small local range. A recirculation region is observed behind the cooling hole, which is related to the Counter rotating vortex pair generated by interaction between jets and the main ow. However, the 3D ow structures at different congurations are still unclear. In addition, the cooling air is usually extracted from the compressor, which will affect the performance of a whole engine. And the interaction between cooling ow and main ow in blade passage may increase the ow losses greatly. However, the additional losses produced by jets are not included in the investigations above. Wang and kang [82, 83] simulated all three models in the same experiment. Based on a good agreement of the comparison between simulated results and experimental data, the ow structures for different model and additional losses were discussed. The details of the simulated results and discussion are presented in Chapter 4.
30
Chapter 3
Governing Equations and Numerical Methods

In the present chapter, the numerical methods used in this thesis are described in detail, including the governing equations of uid, the classical nite volume method and turbulence approximation. In particular, the steady and unsteady treatments to the rotor/stator interaction, including Domain Scaling Method, Phase Lagged Method and Non-linear Harmonic Method, are introduced. At the end of this chapter, the mathematical background of stochastic analysis for non-deterministic CFD simulation is introduced, followed by descriptions of Intrusive Polynomial Chaos Method and Non-intrusive Probabilistic Collocation Method which are used for uncertainty quantication.
3.1 Governing Equations

The motion of a uid can be completed described by the conservation law for the three basic properties: mass, momentum and energy, which usually is expressed in a set of equations. When applied to a perfect viscous uid, these equations are known as the Navier-Stokes equations, while for a perfect inviscid uid, they are known as Euler equations. 31
CHAPTER 3. NUMERICAL METHODS
3.1.1
The Mass Conservation Equation
The law for mass conservation is a general statement of kinematic nature, which illuminates the empirical fact that the variation of mass ow of a uid system equals to the mass ow passed through the boundary of the system. The mass conservation equation, also called the Continuity Equation, can be expressed in + (u) = 0, t (3.1)
where is the mass density, t is time and u is the velocity vector. denotes the divergence operator, then the expansion of the second item in the above equation is (ux ) (uy ) (uz ) (u) = + + , (3.2) x y z where, ux , uy , uz are the components of u in x, y, z direction, respectively. For incompressible ow, is constant in whole ow eld, then Eq.3.1 can be reduced to the divergence free condition for the velocity: u = 0. (3.3)
If the ow is steady, then will not change with time, then Eq.3.1 can be replaced by (u) = 0. (3.4)
3.1.2
The Momentum Conservation Equation
The momentum conservation law is the expression of the generalized Newtons second law, dening the equation of motion of a uid which means the momentum variation of a uid system equals to the total external forces imposed on it. The momentum conservation equation involves three components: (ux ) + (ux u) t (uy ) + (uy u) t (uz ) + (uz u) t p xx yx zx + + + + Fx , x x y z p xy yy zy = + + + + Fy , y x y z p xz yz zz = + + + + Fz , z x y z =
(3.5)
where p denotes the static pressure, ii and Fi , (i = x, y, z ) are the components of viscous stress shear tensor and body force F. This equation is 32
3.1. GOVERNING EQUATIONS

valid for both Newtonian uid and non-Newtonian uid. For Newtonian uid, the components of are dened by ux + u, x uy = 2 + u, y uz = 2 + u, z = 2
xx yy zz
(3.6)
and ux uy + y x ux uz + z x uz uy + z y
xy = yx xz = zx yz = zy
= = =
, , , (3.7)
where is the dynamic viscosity coefcient of uid and is the second viscosity coefcient. The latter is related to a viscous stress caused by the change of the volume, thus it is also called volume viscosity or bulk viscosity. For most uids, the Stokess hypothesis is satised [4]: 2 + 3 = 0. (3.8)
Another viscosity coefcient , called Kinematic Viscosity, is often used which is dened as = /. Substituting Eq.3.6 and Eq.3.7 into Eq.3.5 and utilizing Eq.3.8, the N-S equations of motion is obtained: (ux ) + (ux u) = t (uy ) + (uy u) = t (uz ) + (uz u) = t 33 p + Qx , x p uy + Qy , y p uz + Qz , z ux
(3.9)

where is the Laplace operator. Qi (i = x, y, z ) denotes the generalized source item which can be expanded as Qx = Fx + + x ux x + y uy x + z uz x
Qy
Qz
((u)), x ux Fy + x y + ((u)), y ux Fz + x z + ((u)). z
uy y
uz y (3.10)
uy z
uz z
According to Graves [84], the shear stress from the volume viscosity can be neglected for the majority of uid ows. For incompressible uids, the source items can be reduced to the body force F. Therefore, Eq.3.9 can be rewritten in a vector format: (u) + u (u) = (u) p + F. t (3.11)
The second item on the left-hand side of Eq.3.11 is called convective item, while the rst item on the right-hand side is called diffusive item. The ratio between momentum of the convection item and the diffusion item gives an important dimensionless number Re, the so-called Reynolds number: Re = |u|L . (3.12)
Substituting the dynamic viscosity with the kinematic viscosity , then gives L|u| Re = . (3.13)
3.1.3
The Energy Conservation Equation
The energy conservation law is also referred to as the expression of the rst principle of thermodynamics, which states that the variation of total energy in a uid system are the work of the forces acting on the system 34

plus the heat transmitted into the system. Hence, the energy conservation equation can be expressed by (E ) + (E u) = (k T ) + (pu + u) + WF + qH , t (3.14)
where, E denotes the specic total energy, k is the thermal conductivity coefcient, T is the absolute temperature, WF and qH denote the work of body forces and the heat source item, respectively. Usually, the specic total energy E is related to the specic internal energy e and the kinetic energy by |u|2 E =e+ . (3.15) 2 Another useful state variable is the total internal enthalpy H which is dened as p p |u|2 H =E+ =e+ + . (3.16) 2 The related specic internal enthalpy is h=e+ p = cp T, (3.17)
where, cp is the specic heat, which is can be related to and k by a dimensionless number Pr = cp /k , namely Prandtl Number, which indicates the the ratio of momentum diffusivity (kinematic viscosity) and thermal diffusivity. Introducing Eq.3.15 and Eq.3.17 into Eq.3.14 leads to the conservation equation for enthalpy: (h) + (hu) = (k T ) + ( u) + qH . t (3.18)
Usually, a additional correlative equation between p and is needed, which is called state equation. For perfect gas, the state equation is p = RT, (3.19)
where R is the Molar gas constant, which is about 287J/kgK for air. Then, a closed system of six unknowns (p, T, , ux, uy , uz ) with ve nonlinear partial differential equations and a state equation is obtained. A compact general format of N-S equation can be expressed in: U + FC = FV + Q. t 35 (3.20)

The items of equation 3.20 in sequence are transient term, convective term, diffusive term and source term. The expansion of the transient term U is: ux U= uy . uz E The convection term FC and the diffusive term FV denote the vector as below, respectively: u ux u + px (3.21) FC = uy u + py , uz u + pz (E + p)u and FV = Q= 0 x y z u + k T 0 Sx Sy Sz WF + qH . .
(3.22)
The last term Q is:
More details about the governing equations of uid dynamics and more comprehensive discussions can be found in Hirsch [4] and White [85].
3.1.4
Rotating Frame of Reference
Accounting for the particular ow situation in turbomachinery, it is necessary to be able to describe the ow behavior relatively to a rotating frame of reference that is attached to the rotor. Without loss of generality, it is assumed that the moving part of turbomachinery is rotating steadily with angular velocity around the machine axis along which a coordinate z is aligned. 36

Dene w as a velocity eld relative to a rotating system and v = r as the entrainment velocity. Thus, a observer located outside the rotating frame observes the velocity u = w + v = w + r. (3.23)
Introducing Eq.3.23 into Eq.3.1 gives the mass conservation equation in a rotating frame of reference: + [(w + v)] = 0. t Expanding the above equation gives: + v + w + w + v = 0 . t (3.25) (3.24)
The rst term in Eq.3.25 indicates the time rate of change of density at a xed station in an absolute frame of reference. The second term involves the spatial change of density registered by a stationary observer. Combining of these two terms expresses the time rate of change of the velocity within the rotating frame of reference. Since the last term is zero [2], Eq.3.23 is reduced to r + (w) = 0, (3.26) t where, the subscript r refers to the rotating frame of reference. Comparing Eq.3.26 with Eq.3.1, it is found that the mass conservation equation keeps the same expression in both stationary and rotating frames of reference. Without causing confusion, the subscript r can be omitted in general. Using Eq.3.23, the acceleration is also can be redened as du (w + r) = + (w + v) (w + v). dt t Expanding Eq.3.27 and rearranging the items result in du w v = + + w (w) + 2w + v. dt t t (3.28) (3.27)
The rst item on right-hand side expresses the local acceleration of the velocity eld within the rotating frame of reference. The second term and third item denote the angular velocity acceleration and the convective term within the rotating frame of reference,respectively. While, the fourth item and last item are the Coriolis acceleration and the centrifugal acceleration, 37
Figure 3.1: Coriolis and centripetal forces created by the rotating frame of reference (Schobeiri, 2005 [2]).
respectively, which are ctitious forces produced as a result of transformation from stationary frame to rotating frame of reference. Figure 3.1 shows the directions of the velocity and the acceleration, and relationship between the absolute velocity, relative velocity and rotation. Substituting the acceleration in Eq.3.11 and Eq.3.14 separately, equations of motion and energy in rotating frame of reference can be obtained:
(w) (v) + + w (w) + v + 2 w = (w) p + F, t t (3.29) d h+

|w|2 2
|v|2 2
dt
p + (k T ) + ( w) + WF + qH . t (3.30)
It should be noted that WF is the work of body forces in rotating frame of reference, while the subscript r is omitted here. The detailed derivation process of governing equations in rotating frame of reference can be found in Schobeiri [2]. 38
3.2. FINITE VOLUME METHOD
3.2 Finite Volume Method

3.2.1 General Introduction of Discretization Method
Three families of numerical methods are available for discretization of N-S equations: Finite Difference Method (FDM), Finite Element Method (FEM) and Finite Volume Method (FVM). The most traditional method is FDM, which is based on the properties of Taylor Expansions. In FDM, the derivative is estimated straightforward by the ratio of two differences according to the theoretical denition of the derivative. Hence, FDM is probably the simplest method to apply, but it requires that the mesh must be structured and the nodes have to be located on the parallel lines of coordinate, which results in some limitations in application. The second method FEM originates from the eld of structural analysis, which is based on the Weighted Residual Method. In FEM, a computational domain is divided into many small sub-domains, called elements, and reassembled after each element had been analyzed. In fact, it is seldom used in uid dynamic analysis due to the large computational cost. By far the most widely applied method in CFD today is FVM which was developed in 1970s. The strength of FVM is in its direct connection to the physical ow properties. The basis of this method relies on the direct discretization of the integral form of the conservation law, which distinguishes FVM signicantly from FDM. FVM is employed by the solver used in the present thesis, named EURANUS (EURopean Aerodynamic NUmerical Simulator) from NUMECA Inc. Therefore a detailed description of FVM is given below. More complete descriptions about the other two methods can be found in Hirsch [4].
3.2.2 Mesh Generation

In order to solve the N-S equations numerically, the space, also called domain, has to be discretized into a set of time-invariant, non-overlapping volumes (also called cells), which could be polygons, like triangles and quadrilaterals in 2D, and polyhedra, like tetrahedra, pyramids, prisms and hexahedra in 3D. The space discretization forming the so-called mesh or grid. The mesh can be built in a structured way or an unstructured way. Unstructured mesh is more exible for complicated geometries, while the generation process is difcult than that of structured mesh. Moreover, structured meshes have been highly developed and applied successfully in simulation of turbomachinery. Hence, structured meshes are adopted in simulations of this thesis. In FVM, a control volume has to be set for each cell, where the dif39

ferential equations are integrated. There are two kinds control volume approaches: cell-centered approach or cell-vertex approach. The difference between these two approaches can be found in Figure 3.2. The left Figure
(a) Cell centered
(b) Cell vertex
Figure 3.2: Control volume approaches.
3.2(a) shows the cell centered approach which consists in four cells, P, Q, R and S. The black dots denote nodes, while the line segment connecting two nodes is called edge for 2D, or face for 3D. In this approach, the unknowns are stored at the center of cells, then the control volumes are identical to the cells exactly. In the cell vertex approach, as depicted in Figure 3.2(b), the unknowns are stored at the vertices of cells. Thus the control volume has its corner nodes at the cell centers of the original mesh, and its edges are line segments directly connecting these cell centers. In the present work, the cell-centered approach is used. When a control volume is built, then Eq. 3.20 can be integrated over the volume:
V
U dV + t
FC dV =
FV dV +
QdV.
V
(3.31)
Applying Greens theorem to equation 3.31, one gets U dV + t FC dS =

S S
FV dS +
V
QdV,
where, the subscript V and S stand for the volume and the surface of a cell. Within this cell, values of the unknowns are constant which leads to U V + t (FC n)S = 40 (FV n)S + QV, (3.32)
f aces
f aces
3.2. FINITE VOLUME METHOD

where n is the unit normal of the cell surface.
3.2.3 Spatial Discretization of Convective Term

There exist several discretization schemes for the convective term, such as central scheme, rst order upwind scheme, QUICK and MUSCL schemes et al. In present simulations, the second order central scheme is adopted which is described as below. For a cell i, the uxes through its edges are (F n)i+1/2 = 1 [(F n)i + (F n)i+1 ] di+1/2 , 2 (3.33)
where, di+1/2 stands for the articial dispassion term. Equation 3.33 is the standard central scheme. However, as suggested by Hirsch [4], the averaging of uxes could be replaced by the averaging of the unknowns which leads to (F n)i+1/2 = F Ui + Ui+1 2 n di+1/2 . (3.34)
In a certain extent, averaging of the unknowns is more robust than averaging of uxes, especially for high speed ows. For the dissipation term, the Jameson type dissipation [86] with 2nd and 4th order derivatives of the unknowns is adopted: di+1/2 = i+1/2 (Ui+1 Ui ) i+1/2 (Ui+2 3Ui+1 + 3Ui Ui1 ),
(2) (4)
(3.35)
where, (2) and (4) denote the 2nd order dissipation and 4th order dissipation, respectively. They can be calculated as follows: i+1/2 i+1/2
(4) (2)
1 (2) i+1/2 max(i1 , i , i+1 , i+2 ), 2 1 (2) = max 0, (4) i+1/2 i+1/2 , 2 =
(3.36) (3.37)
In Eq. 3.36, i stands for the gradient sensor dened by: i = max pi+1 2pi + pi1 Ti+1 2Ti + Ti1 , pi+1 + 2pi + pi1 Ti+1 + 2Ti + Ti1 (3.38)
In Eqs. 3.36 and 3.37, is the spectral radius multiplied with the cell face area: (3.39) i+1/2 = |u S|i+1/2 + cSi+1/2 , 41

where, c is the speed of sound. The coefcient (2) and (4) are user inputs and the typical values are: 1 1 (2) and (4) . (3.40) 4 128 From Eq. 3.36 to Eq. 3.40, it is seen that (2) is expected to be switched on in order to suppress the oscillatory behavior in the region of strong gradients. However, in uniform regions the pressure sensors will be small, such that the effect of 2nd order dissipation is vanished. The (4) provides some background dissipations which are always active, except in regions where (2) is switched on.
3.2.4
Spatial Discretization of Diffusive Term
For the diffusive term, the discretization is much easier since it is usually in the purely central way. However, both the unknowns and the gradients of the unknowns have to be discretized: 1 Ui+1/2 = (Ui + Ui+1 ), (3.41) 2 1 Ui+1/2 = (Ui + Ui+1 ). (3.42) 2 The gradient U can be obtained from U by using the Greens theorem: U 1 Vi UdV =
Vi
1 Vi
UdS.
Si
(3.43)
3.2.5
Explicit Multistage Runge-Kutta Scheme
A widely used explicit time integration technique, of hight order of accuracy, is multi-stage Runge-Kutta (R-K) method, which is described below in detail. For simplicity, a general ordinary differential equation is employed, which can be written in: dU = F (U ). (3.44) dt The basic idea of R-K method is to evaluate the right-hand side of Eq.3.44 at several values of U in the interval, between nt: U1 U
2
= =
U n + 1 tF (U n ), U n + 2 tF (U 1 ), (3.45) U + tF (U U , 42
q n q 1
, Uq = U
n+1
),
3.3. ACCELERATING CONVERGENCE METHODS

The coefcients i determine the stability area and the order of accuracy of the R-K scheme. The time step t is obtained by the harmonic averaging of the inviscid time step tI and the viscous time step tV : t = tI tV . tI + tV (3.46)
The inviscid and viscous time steps in each cell are scaled with the CFL number through following equations: tI tV = = CF L V , (3.47) |uSi | + |uSj | + |uSk | + c (|Si | + |Sj | + |Sk |) CF LV 2 . (3.48) 8 [|Si |2 + |Sj |2 + |Sz |2 + 2 (|Si Sj | + |Si Sk | + |Sj Sk |)]
In simulations of this thesis, an fourth order R-K scheme is adopted with coefcients being: 1 = 0.125, 2 = 0.306, 3 = 0.587, 4 = 1.
3.3 Accelerating Convergence Methods

In order to enhance the convergence of simulations, some accelerating convergence methods are employed in EURANUS, such as Implicit Residual Smoothing (IRS) and Multigrid method.
3.3.1 Implicit Residual Smoothing

Implicit residual smoothing, also called Residual Averaging, is used in combination with the multi-stage Runge-Kutta method to speed up the convergence. The smoothed residual is obtained by solving the following Alternating Direction Implicit (ADI) formulation [87]:
2 2 2 S (1 i i )(1 j j )(1 k k )Ri,j,k = Ri,j,k ,
(3.49)
S where Ri,j,k is the smoothed residual, Ri,j,k is the original residual. The 2 i,j,k is the second order center difference operator: 2 S i R = Ri1 2Ri + Ri+1 .
(3.50)
43

The smoothed residual is obtained by smoothing successively in the directions i, j and k. The smoothing parameter has the same formulation in i, j and k direction: 1 t . i > 2 i V
3.3.2
Multigrid Method
The implementation of the multigrid method requires a set of meshes from ne to coarse. The coarser mesh is created by dropping nodes of a ner mesh in each direction. According to the stability analysis, high frequency errors are eliminated fast during the iterations on a certain mesh, while the low frequency errors will be difcult to be eliminated by the same mesh. A straightforward idea is to solve the equations on a mesh coarser than the previous one to eliminate the errors with relative high frequency for the ne mesh. Then the R-K scheme loops are implemented iteratively between the coarser mesh and ner mesh, as shown in Figure 3.3, which could accelerate the convergence effectively. According to the numbers of iteration on different mesh level, there exits V cycle, V-sawtooth cycle, W cycle, W-sawtooth cycle, F cycle and F-sawtooth cycle. The detailed description of theses strategies can be found in Zhu [88]. The V cycle, as depicted in Figure 3.3 is used in the present work, which is described below in general. Consider a set of meshes denoted with an index l = 1, . . . , L with L
Figure 3.3: Scheme of the V cycle multigrid strategy [89].
being the nest level. Eq. 3.44 on the nest level can be written as: dU L = FL (U L ), dt 44 (3.51)
3.3. ACCELERATING CONVERGENCE METHODS

where, FL is the spatial discretization operator on the nest mesh L. In like manner, the approximation on a coarser level l is: dU l = Fl (U l ) + fl , dt with fl the forcing function which is dened recursively as: ll+1 fl+1 Fl+1 (U l+1 ) , fl = Fl (Ill+1 U l+1 ) + I (3.53) (3.52)
l represent restriction operators of the unIn this equation, Ill+1 and I l+1 knowns and the residuals, respectively, which are dened as: l Rl+1 I l+1 Ill+1 U l+1 where Rl+1 is dened as: Rl+1 = ff +1 + Fl+1 (U l+1 ), (3.56) = = Rl+1 , V l+1 U l+1 , V l+1 (3.54) (3.55)
and V represents the cell volume. The summation is over the 8 ne cells contained within a coarse cell for a 3D problem. After certain number iterations on mesh l, the same procedures can be implemented till the coarsest mesh is reached. During the time integration on each level mesh, IRS operator usually is performed before going to the next coarse level. Once the solutions on the coarsest mesh is smoothed, the coarse-to-ne sweep of the multigrid cycle is initiated. The current solutions on ner grids are updated with the solution on the next coarser level: U l = U l + Ill1 (U l1 Ill1 U l ). (3.57)
The operator Ill1 is a prolongation operator. The rigorous mathematical treatments about the restriction operator and prolongation operator can be found in Wesseling [90] and Zhu [88]. Based on the multigrid method, a full multigrid strategy (FMG) can be performed to provide a good initial solution to accelerate the convergence. The full multigrid strategy starts the R-K scheme loops with a relative coarse mesh. The solution on that level will not be interpolated to the next ner mesh until it converges to a certain accuracy level. Then the solution on the ner grid is taken as the initial solution for further iteration on that grid level. The process is recursively used until the nest grid is reached, which is illustrated clearly in Figure 3.4. 45
Figure 3.4: Scheme of the full multigrid strategy [89].
3.4 Turbulence Approximation

A critical numerical method which has been investigated extensively in CFD is the approximation of turbulence which is the most important ow phenomenon in uid dynamics. Turbulent ow is a uid region characterized by chaotic, stochastic property changes, which includes low momentum diffusion, high momentum convection, rapid variation of pressure and velocity in space and time. Since Reynolds observed the turbulent ow and laminar-turbulent transition for the rst time in 1883 [91], turbulence has been investigated for more than one hundred years. However, it is still far away from the thorough understanding of its inner mechanism. In past decades, comprehensive efforts are spent on the numerical investigation of turbulence, and four main numerical methods are developed to deal with turbulence:Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes Simulation (RANS), Large Eddy Simulation (LES), Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS) and Detached Eddy Simulation (DES). Among these four methods, DNS is the most accurate method, while it is also the most expensive one. Since DNS simulates the whole range of turbulent statistic uctuations at all relevant physical scales, the mesh should be very ne. The size of the smallest eddies is inversely proportional to Re3/4 the well known Kolmogrov scale related to the turbulent dissipation. Then, the number of mesh points needed for a 3D simulation should be proportional to Re9/4 . As the time step of integration is determined by the smallest turbulent time scales, which is also proportional to Re3/4 . Therefore, the total computational effort of DNS simulation is proportional to Re3 for homogeneous turbulence [4], which will be extremely expensive for high Reynolds number ow. In LES, the smallest turbulence scales are ltered by employing a socalled Subgrid Scale (SGS) model, while the larger turbulence scales are 46
3.4. TURBULENCE APPROXIMATION

still calculated directly. Therefore a coarser mesh than that of DNS can be used. LES starts more and more to be applied to industrially relevant cases in recent years. However, it is still seldom used in simulations of the complex turbomachinery ow. Moreover, In engineering view, the time accurate details of the turbulent ow have no more practical meaning than the total effect of turbulence for some industrial designs. In fact, that reveals the reason of the prevalence of RANS in engineering applications. In RANS, the properties of turbulent ow are averaged in time domain which leads to the mesh size and time integral scale used in RANS are much larger than in DNS and LES. As a result, RANS simulations run faster even with smaller computational costs compared to that of DNS and LES. However, some empirical or semi-empirical models, known as turbulence model, are required to close the time averaged equations system. Thus, the accuracy of RANS simulation to a turbulent ow is heavily limited by the quantity of turbulence model. Although, a coupled of turbulence models, such as Baldwin-Lomax model, Spalart-Allmaras model, k model, etc, have been developed and applied successfully in plenty of engineering cases. However, none of them has consistent good performance in all elds [92]. In 1997, DES is proposed by Spalart [93], which combines the most favorable aspects of LES and RANS to give a compromised solution. In DES, the ow close to the wall is simulated using RANS, while in separation region, the LES simulation is launched. Then the performance and computational cost of DES are between that of LES and RANS. The comparison of the computational requirement of four methods is summarized by Spalart [94] as listed in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1: Comparison of the approximation methods for turbulence Method 3D URANS DES LES DNS Empiricism strong strong weak none Gride size 10 108 1011.5 1016
7
Number of time steps 103.5 104 106.7 107.7
With curren computer technology, DNS and LES are excluded for the simulation of complex ow. DES has shown great potential with some successful applications [95]. However, for ows in turbomachinery, RANS is still the dominant simulation method. Thus, for simulations of lm cooling in Chapter 4, both RANS and DES methods are employed, while for simulations of 3D ow in turbine and optimization of compressor, only RANS is 47

used.
3.4.1
Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes Equations
The basic tool required for the derivation of the RANS equations from the instantaneous Navier-Stokes equations is the Reynolds decomposition. Reynolds decomposition refers to separation of the ow variable into two parts, a mean (time-averaged) component and a uctuating component: u p = = u + u , p + p , (3.58)
where the overline stands for time averaged value and the superscript stands for uctuation. Note that, the time averaged value of rst order uctuation is zero, = 0, while that of second order is usually not zero. Introducing Eq.3.58 into Eq.3.3 and Eq.3.11, and averaging them in time domain result in the Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes equations. u (u) + u (u) t = 0, = p + (u) (u u ), (3.59) (3.60)
where, u u represents the correlation between uctuating velocities, which is called Reynolds stress tensor. The expanding format of this tensor is
u 1 u1 u u = u2 u 1 u 3 u1
u 1 u2 u2 u 2 u 3 u2
Note that, in Eq.3.60 the body force F is omitted for expressing convenience. For compressible ows, the extra products of density uctuations with other uctuating quantities can be averaged by using a density-weighted averaging, called Favre-averaging [4], through = , with = = + , 0.
u 1 u3 . u 2 u3 u3 u 3
48

As mentioned above, the application of RANS requires additional turbulence models to relate the unknown Reynolds stress tensors with mean quantities. A comprehensive investigations on turbulence models are performed and a wide variety of models are developed. According to the way to build the relation, there are two main categories, namely the Eddy Viscosity Models (EVM) and Reynolds Stress Models (RSM). In EVM, a viscosity t or t generated by turbulence is introduced according to the Boussinesq assumption:
u i uj = t
ui uj + y x
2 3
k + t
ui x
ij ,
(3.61)
where, ui , uj are the components of mean velocity. Since the averaged value of mean value is the same, the overline for mean value is omitted hereafter. ij is Kronecker delta. k is the turbulent kinetic energy, k= 1 uu 2 i i (i = 1, 2, 3). (3.62)
According to the number of equations used to determine t or t , the EVM can be classied into Algebraic model, for instance the Baldwin-Lomax (BL) model; One equation model, for instance the Spalart-Allmaras (SA) model; Two equation model, for instance the well known k model and the k model. All these models are applied with varying degrees of success. However, none of the available turbulence models offers a totally accurate description of turbulent ows [96, 97]. While, in RSM, a set of momentum equations of Reynolds stress and a length scale determining equation are sought to calculate the Reynolds stress directly. In some cases, they could provide better approximation of turbulence than that of EVM. Whereas, the computational efforts need by RSM is much larger than that of EVM, which results in a less widely use of RSM compared to EVM. In the present thesis, SA model is employed due to the robustness and less computational cost [98], which is introduced below in detail. The details about other turbulence models can be found in Wilcox [92].
3.4.2 Turbulence model

Baldwin-Lomax model Baldwin-Lomax (B-L) model is a zero-equation model. The so-called zero equation model means the turbulent viscosity is related to mean variables by a algebraic equation, not by a differential equation. B-L model is a 49

double-layer model. The turbulent viscosity of inner layer is determined by the Prandtl mixing length model; the turbulence viscosity of the outer layer is determined by the mean ow rate and the length scale. i, n nc t t = (3.63) o, nn
t c
where, n is the normal distance from the calculated point to the wall. nc i is the minimal value of n, when the turbulent viscosity t equals to the o turbulent viscosity t . i The inner viscosity t can be calculated by:
i t = l2 | |.
(3.64)
In the equation above, the mixing length l can be calculated respectively by: l y+ = = kn 1 ey /A w w n . w
+ +
where, k and A+ are constants, which usually can be 0.4 and 26, respectively. w and w are the density and dynamic viscosity of the ow close to the wall, respectively. w is the friction force on the wall. The vorticity in Eq.3.64 can be calculated by: i = ijk uj . xk
o The outer turbulent viscosity t can be calculated by: o t = KCcp Fwake FKleb (n).
(3.65)
where, K and Ccp are constants, which usually are 0.0168 and 1.6, respectively. nmax Fmax , Fwake = min 2 Cwk nmax (u2 + v 2 + w2 )max (u2 + v 2 + w2 )min /Fmax . where, Cwk is constant, usually has a value of 1. The value of nmax and Fmax are determined by the following function: F (y ) = y | ||1 en 50
+
/A+
|.
(3.66)

Fmax is the maximum value of F (y ) normal to the wall, nmax equals to the value of y when F (y ) is maximum. In Eq.3.65, Fkleb is the Klebanoff intermittency factor: FKleb = 1 + 5.5(nCKleb /nmax )6
1
(3.67)
where, the constant CKleb usually has a value of 0.3. Spalart-Allmaras Model Spalart-Allmaras model, proposed by Spalart and Allmaras [99], is a oneequation turbulence model which belongs to the eddy viscosity models family. Basically, it is a transport equation for the eddy viscosity t , in which the Reynolds stresses are given by u v = 2t Sij . Here, Sij denotes the strain-rate tensor: 1 u v Sij = + . 2 y x The basic SA model is derived for free shear ows with high Re number in which the turbulence is found only where vorticity is present. Then the eddy viscosity t is given as follows: 1 t dt = cb1 St + (t t ) + cb2 (t )2 cw1 fw dt d
2
(3.68)
where cb1 , cb2 and cw1 are all constants with the subscript b stands for basic and w stands for wall. The rst term on the right-hand side suggests the effect of the production term, in which S denotes the magnitude of the vorticity: S ij = = 2ij ij , 1 u v ( ). 2 y x
The second item indicates the effect of the diffusion term which naturally focuses on spatial derivatives of t . The dimensionless number is the turbulent Prandtl number which indicates the ratio between the momentum eddy diffusivity and the heat transfer eddy diffusivity. The third item reects the blocking effect of a wall on the eddy viscosity, in which the subscript w stands for wall and d is the distance to the wall. The construction of fw is inspired by algebraic models in which the mixing length can be dened as l = t /S . While Spalart and Allmaras suggest to use the square 51

of l/d for convenience, where is the karm an Constant. A satisfactory fw function suggested by them is: fw g r = g 1 + c6 w3 g 6 + c6 w3
1/6
, (3.69)
= r + cw2 (r6 r), , 2 d2 S
However, in the buffer layer and the viscous sublayer, the basic S-A model needs an additional modication. Spalart and Allmaras introduced a modied viscosity coefcient which equals to t except in the viscous region: t = fv1 , where, fv1 is a switch function: fv 1 = 3 3 . + c3 v1
Here, is the ratio between turbulence viscosity and the molecular viscosity, = / . The subscript v stands for viscous. : The production term in Eq.3.68 is improved by replacing S with S S fv 2 = S+ 1 fv 2 , 2 d2 (3.70) (3.71)
. 1 + fv1
maintain the log-layer The function fv2 is constructed, like fv1 , to ensure S behavior all the way to the wall. Then the Eq.3.68 has become d 1 = cb1 S + (( + ) ) + cb2 ( )2 cw1 fw dt d
2
(3.72)
By far, the terms provides control over the laminar regions of the shear layers are absent, which has two aspects: keeping the ow laminar where desired and obtaining transition where desired. In the laminar region, is usually less than , then there will be t /350 because of the damping by fv1 . In order to make is a stable solution, the production term is multiplied by (1 ft2 ) leading to ft2 = ct3 exp(ct4 2 ). 52

The subscript t stands for trip which means that transition in the real ow is imposed by an actual trip, or that it is natural but its location is known. In order balance the budget near the wall, an opposite change is added to the destruction term. In addition, a source term ft1 is added to initiate transition near the specied trip points in a smoother manner, and to retain a local formulation. The function ft1 is as follows ft1 = ct1 gt exp ct2
2 t 2 2 (d2 + gt dt ) . U 2
In above equation, dt is the distance from the computational eld point to the trip, which is on a wall. t is the wall vorticity at the trip, and U is the difference between the velocity at the computational eld point and that at the trip. The odd factor gt is obtained by: gt = min (0.1, U/(t xt )) , where, x is the grid spacing along the wall at the trip. This factor is needed only for numerical reasons. Without the grid dependence of gt , the streamwise inuence domain of the trip would scale with the boundarylayer thickness, which could be very small in the laminar region. As a result, that domain would easily fall between two streamwise gride points. The gt factor guarantees that the trip term is nonzero over a few streamwise stations. The Gaussian function in ft1 connes the inuence domain of the trip terms as needed which is roughly a semi-ellipse. Applying these adaptions for laminar region to Eq.3.72, then leads to a complete SA model: d dt = 1 cb1 [1 ft2 ]S + (( + ) ) + cb2 ( )2 2 cb1 + ft1 U 2 . cw1 fw 2 ft2 d
(3.73)
The constants value in Eq.3.73 suggested by Spalart and Allmaras are listed in Table 3.2. k model k model adds two equations to the governing equation set, one k equation and one equation. The turbulent dissipation rate is dened as: = u i xk 53 u i xk (3.74)

Table 3.2: Constants of Spalart-Allmaras model
Constant cb1 cb2 cw 1 cw 2
Value 0.1355 0.622 2/3 0.41 3.239 0.3
Constant cw 3 cv 1 ct1 ct2 ct3 ct4
Value 2.0 7.1 1.0 2.0 1.2 0.5
The turbulent viscosity t can be presented in the function of k and : t = Ct k2 (3.75)
where, Ct is a constant. For the standard k model, Ct = 0.09. Two additional transport equations are needed to calculate k and . For standard k model, these two equations are: k kui + t xi ui + t xi = = xj xj + + t k t k + Gk + Gb YM + Sk xj (3.76)
2 + G1 (Gk + G3 Gb ) G2 + S xj k k (3.77)
In these two equations, k and are the Prandtl number related to k and , respectively. Gk is the generated item by k due to the mean velocity gradient, which can be calculated by: Gk = t ui uj + xj xi ui xj
Gb is the generated item by k due to the otage, which is zero for incompressible uid. For compressible uid, it can be calculated by: Gb = gi t T xi
where, is the turbulent Prandtl number, which is 0.85. gi denotes the component of gravitational acceleration in i direction. denotes the thermal expansion coefcient. 54

YM suggests the effect of uctuation, for incompressible uid, which is zero. For compressible uid, it can be calculated by: YM = 2 k a2
where, a is the sound speed. The normal value of constants in Eqs.3.76 and 3.77 are as below: C1 = 1.44, C2 = 1.92, k = 1.0, = 1.3
The constant C3 is between [0, 1]. If the direction of mean ow is same to that of the gravity, G3 = 1; if the direction of mean ow is perpendicular to the gravity, G3 = 0. Some modied k model were proposed based on the standard one, such as Realizable k model and RNG k model. The detail description about these models can be found in Wilcox [92].
3.4.3 Large Eddy Simulation

As mentioned above, in large eddy simulation, only the large turbulent eddies are simulated, while the small turbulent scales are ltered using a so-called subgrid scale (SGS) model. Let (x, t) denotes the physical quantity, while the ltered quantity is denoted by (x, t). Then (x, t) =
D
G(x z)(z, t)dz,
(3.78)
where, D is the computational domain. G is the lter which satises G(x z)dz = 1. (3.79)
Many lter functions can be considered for LES. For FVM mehtod, the top-hat lter is often used which is dened as: G(x z) G(x z) = 1, = 0, if x z < otherwise
2
(3.80)
where, denotes the lter width which is proportional to the size of the smallest scales not removed by the lter, = (xy z )1/3 . The physical quantity can be decomposed into a ltered part and a sub-grid part: = + s , 55 (3.81)

where the superscript s stands for the sub-grid part. Note that, the overline denotes the lter operation in contrary to the time-averaging in case of RANS. Implementing the lter operation on the incompressible N-S equations, one obtains: u u + u (u) t = 0, 1 = (u) p + s . (3.82) (3.83)
Here, the s denotes the sub-grid scale stresses which is given by

s ij = ui uj ui uj ,
(i, j = x, y, z )
(3.84)
Introducing the Eq.3.81 into Eq.3.84 and rearranging the terms, one obtains
s s s s ij = us i uj (ui uj + uj ui ) + ui uj ui uj .
(3.85)
The rst term in Eq.3.85 is similar to the Reynolds stresses. The second term, namely cross-term or Clark term [100], are dispersive in nature and largely account for the backscatter effects. The last two terms are called Loenard stresses together. According to Loenard [101], they are of the same order of magnitude as the the truncation error. In most applications, the Clark and Loenard stresses can be neglected and only the Reynolds-likestresses remain to be modeled. The simplest and mostly used SGS model is the Smagorinsky model, where the subgrid-scale stresses are modeled by employing the Boussinesq assumption: 1 (3.86) ij kk ij = t u. 3 The eddy viscosity t is modeled by t = L2 s 2S ij S ij . (3.87)
Here, Ls is the length scale for the subgrid scale, which can be given by Ls = Cs V 1/3 . (3.88)
where, V is the cell volume and the constant Cs has a value of 0.17. The detailed description of LES methods can be found in Lesieur [102] and Jiang [103]. 56
3.5. DUAL-TIME STEPPING METHOD
3.4.4 Detached Eddy Simulation

The basic model employed in the majority of DES applications is the S-A model. As mentioned above, the destruction term in S-A model is proportional to ( /d)2 , where d is the distance to the wall. While, if replacing d with a length scale = min(d, CDES ), d (3.89) a DES method is obtained. Here, is the cell size based on the largest size of cell in x, y and z directions, = max(x, y, z ). The empirical constant CDES has a value of 0.65. Eq.3.89 indicates that near the solid wall , d and the model acts as the standard SA model, while away from walls where d, a one-equation subgrid model is obtained which is quite similar to the Smagorinsky model.
3.5 Dual-time Stepping Method

For unsteady simulations, a natural way is directly using the Physical Time Subiteration (PTS) method. However, both the explicit and implicit PTS methods have some limitations. Due to the stability limitation, the time step in the explicit method has to be quite small and the common convergence accelerating technologies are difcult to be implemented. That leads to the computation take unbearable long time. In implicit method, although without the stability problem, the computational powers needed are too large for most cases. The Dual-Time Stepping (DTS) method, proposed by Jameson [104] is an great improvement over the classical global time stepping approach, which has be proved to be an effective approach through extensive applications. It consists in adding a pseudo-time derivative terms to the time dependent N-S equations. At each physical time step, a steady state problem is solved in a pseudo time and all available acceleration techniques can be applied. The revised N-S equations over a control volume can be expressed in: U dV + t U dV + FC dV = FV dV + SdV,
V
(3.90)
where t is the physical time and is pseudo time. The second order upwind scheme are used for the physical time discretization: U t
n+1
1.5Un+1 V n+1 2Un V n + 0.5Un1 V n1 . t 57
(3.91)

While all other terms in Eq. 3.90 are computed at the same physical time step n + 1, then Eq. 3.90 can be treated as a steady problem in the pseudo time : U n+1 V + Runs (U) = 0. (3.92) Noted that, Runs is the residual of unsteady problem which is calculated by: Runs (U) = R(U) + 1.5Un+1 V n+1 2Un V n + 0.5Un1 V n1 , t
where R denotes the residual of steady problem determined by Eq. 3.31. However, when integrating Eq. 3.92, it should be modied in an implicit scheme: Un+1 Un 1.5 + V n+1 + Runs (U ) = 0, (3.93) t where, is the pseudo time step for the steady problem. Then a modied pseudo time step can be obtained: mod = t . t + 1.5
The modication is adding a term relate to the physical time step. This term will become dominant if the physical time step is signicantly smaller than the pseudo time step which has a stabilizing effect there.
3.6 Rotor/Stator Interaction Treatment

In order to use the same solver, the ows in stator and rotor should be calculated in the stationary frame of reference and the rotating frame of reference, respectively. However, a critical problem is how to transfer the information downstream and upstream at the interface of stator and rotor. The quality of the ow predictions for multistage turbomachinery strongly depends on the treatment of rotor/stator interaction. Five different approaches are available in FineTM /Turbo to simulate the interaction between rotating and non-rotating blocks. Tow approaches, the Mixing Plane Method and Frozen Rotor Method are for steady simulations; the rest three approaches, Domain Scaling method, Phase Lagged Method and Non-linear Harmonic Method are for unsteady simulations. 58
3.6. ROTOR/STATOR INTERACTION TREATMENT
3.6.1 Steady Simulation Treatment

The simplest treatment of R/S interface is the mixing plane method proposed by Denton [105]. This method assumes the exiting ows of stator become uniform ows before entering the inlet of domain of rotor. Then, a pitchwise averaging of the ow solution is needed at the R/S interface before transferring the information of both sides. Firstly, the solutions are extrapolated from the inner cells onto the R/S interface from both sides. For the information transferred from stator to rotor, the value is interpolated onto the mesh points on the patch belong to rotor domain, and averaged pitchwisely on these points. The the averaged value can be interpolated back onto the inner cells of rotor domain. For the information transferred from rotor to stator, the procedure is same, while with the contrary interpolation direction. The transferred values can be the unknowns or the uxes of the unknowns. The exchange of information at the interface depends on the direction of the ow which can be local value which leading to a local conservative coupling method, or can be the averaged value of per pitchwise row which leading to a conservative coupling by pitchwise rows method. Note that the meshes on both sides of the interface should cover the same range in spanwise, the averaging is performed along the same azimuthal mesh lines. However, a Full Non Matching Mixing Plane [89] can be used to overcome this limitation. Better than the isolated simulation on single stator or rotor, the interaction of potential ows in considered in this method. However, the impact of secondary ows and separation ow are erased. This physical approximation tends to become more acceptable as rotational speed is increased. The mixing plane method is by far the most often used R/S modeling in industry design and optimization. If the exchange of information at the interface is by interpolation directly without averaging, one has the frozen rotor method. As the name indicates, the relative position of rotor and stator is xed. Hence, the result of the frozen rotor method is equivalent to a certain point of the unsteady simulation which means the ow solutions will dependent on the relative position between rotor and stator. Since the information exchange on R/S interface is through interpolation, the mesh on both sides of the R/S interface should cover the same pitch range. That means the periodic of the rotor domain and stator domain should be kept the same, Ks Ps = Kr Pr , where, Ks and Kr are relative prime which stand for the number of passages in the stator domain and rotor domain, respectively. Ps and Pr denote the pitch of stator and rotor separately. An approximation of the blade 59

number can be made if Ks and Kr are large in order to reduce the computational cost, which is called Domain Scaling. For instance a turbine with 29 blades of stator and 31 blades of rotor can be approximated by a turbine with 30 blades of both stator and rotor, then only one passage is needed to mesh for both stator and rotor. However, the simulation results are only the approximated result to the real model. The frozen rotor method is used rstly by Brost et al. [106] in simulations of an axial turbine where the simulated results have a good accordance with the transient results of the measurement. While, the ow eld in a passage usually changes a lot during the per period. Therefore, this method is only used in some specic simulations. The information exchange processes of mixing plane method and frozen rotor method depend on the boundary type of the R/S interface. The detail settings for different boundary types and the corresponding exchange strategies can be found in [89].
3.6.2
Unsteady Simulation Treatment
As mentioned in last subsection, the frozen rotor method just simulates a specic status of turbomachinery. For unsteady simulation, a natural idea is to simulate several different transient positions of rotor related to stator which leading to the traditional unsteady treatment of R/S interface is the Sliding Mesh Method proposed by Rai [107]. In this method, the computational domain is divided into two parts: rotor domain and stator domain. The mesh for rotor domain rotates with rotor. The R/S interface becomes a sliding face and the exchanges of solution information are through the interpolation to the dummy cells on both side without any averaging. In the Phase lagged method, only one blade passage for each blade row is needed. At each time step, the rotor is set at its correct position and equations are solved for that particular time step for the whole computation domain. The nal solution is therefore a succession of instantaneous solutions for each increment of the rotor position. These two methods will not be described in detail here, the main effort is focused on the Non-linear Harmonic Method introduced below.
3.6.3
Harmonic Method
The sliding mesh method simulates the full unsteady ow, which is still quite computational expensive for industrial requirements. In 1985, a novel method is proposed by Adamczyk [108] in which the local effects 60
3.6. ROTOR/STATOR INTERACTION TREATMENT

of the unsteadiness on the time-averaged ow are considered via the socalled deterministic stress. The conventional nonlinear time-domain integration, for instance the local time-stepping approach, can be used to calculate these nonlinear stress terms [109, 110]. However, a multiplepassage domain, even the whole annulus domain, is needed to be meshed which leading to expensive computational cost again. In the past decade, a harmonic frequency-domain methods are developed, e.g., using potential ow model [111, 112] and Euler equations [113, 114]. However, all of the previous harmonic methods adopt the linear assumption, so that the nonlinear interaction between unsteady disturbances and the time-averaged ow is completely neglected. A nonlinear harmonic method is developed by He [115, 116] following the framework of Giles[117] which is based on an asymptotic theory. This method solves the the steady transport equations for the time-averaged ow and the time harmonics. For turbomachinery, the blade passing frequencies (BPF) are the fundamentals in time domain of the periodic disturbances from the adjacent bladerows. The solving of the generated perturbation amplitudes in a row is performed in the frequency domain by a steady transport equation associated with BPFs and subharmonics. The deterministic stresses are calculated directly from the in-phase and out-of-phase components of the solved harmonics. Using this method, only one passage is needed that saves the computational cost greatly. He et. al. [116, 118], Vilmin et al. [119] validated this method with simulations on a 3D radial turbine and a multistage axial compressor. Therefore, this method is adopted in the unsteady simulation of a low speed axial turbine which is included in Chapter 5. A detail description of this method is given below. The physical quantity can be decomposed into a time-averaged value and a sum of perturbations, which in turn can be decomposed into N harmonics [119]: U(r, t) = U = U+
N k=1
U , k eIk t + U k eIk t U
(3.94)
k and U k are complex conjugates. Inwhere, the harmonic amplitudes U troducing Eq. 3.94 into the discretization Eq. 3.32 and implementing a time-averaging operator, which leading to a Reynolds averaging-like equation: U V + t (FC n)S = 61 (FV n)S + QV. (3.95)
f aces
f aces

The averaged convection and diffusion terms can be written in u ux u + px uy u + py uz u + pz (E + p)u
FC = and FV =
+ DetC ,
(3.96)
0 x y z u + k T
While the non-linearity of the perturbation terms introduced two additional terms DetC and DetV , called deterministic stress, which are represented in: 0 u x (u) uy (u) u z (u) (E + p)(u) 0 0 0 0 u
+ DetV .
(3.97)
DetC =
and
DetV =
(3.98)
In order to close the equation system, some additional equations are needed to calculate the deterministic stresses. For each perturbation, a transport equation can be obtained by subtracting Eq. 3.95 from Eq. 3.32. If only retains the rst order terms, the transport equation can be expressed in U V + t C n)S = (F V n)S + Q V. (F (3.99)
f aces
f aces
C and the diffusion term F V are The convection term F u u uu x + p x u + x u y u + uu y + p y u z u + uu z + p z (E + p)u + u(E + p) 62
FC =
(3.100)
3.7. UNCERTAINTY QUANTIFICATION IN CFD

and
Since only the rs order item is involved, Eq. 3.99 is a linearized equation for all perturbations. For instance, two perturbations f and g exist, whose Fourier expansions are
N
FV =
0 x y z T u + k
(3.101)
f =
k=1
fk
(3.102)
and
N
g =
k=1
gk
(3.103)
Due to the orthogonality of Fourier expansion, the deterministic stress generated by f and g can be calculated by
N
f g
=
k=1 N
g fk k
=
k=1
1 |f ||g | cos f g , 2
(3.104)
where |f | and |g | are the amplitudes of the perturbations. f g denotes the difference of phase angle between f and g , which is related to the blade pass frequency. By casting the linearized equation into the frequency domain, the harmonic perturbation equation is made space dependent only, which can be solved using the normal nite volume method.
3.7 Uncertainty Quantication in CFD

In this section, the methodologies used in stochastic ow analysis are discussed, including the uncertainty quantication methods and the coupling process with differential equations. Several methods exist to quantify the uncertainties, which can be classied into two types. One is statistical method, such as Monte Carlo (MC) method, sampling method, etc.; the other is non-statistical method, such as 63

perturbation method, Neumann series expansion method, sensitive analysis, etc. The former is simple and can be easily used for many elds. But, usually, they are only used as the last resort since they are inefcient and normally need lots of samples which consume great computational resources. Perturbation and Neumann series expansion methods are limited to small perturbations and some simple cases. In recent years, some efcient analysis methods based on spectral expansion were developed, such as Polynomial Chaos (PC) method and Probabilistic Collocation (PRC) method. Both these two methods are investigated in project of NODESIMCFD, while only the latter is employed in robust optimization due to the limitation of time.
3.7.1
Intrusive Polynomial Chaos Method
The basic theory of the Intrusive Polynomial Chaos Method (INPC) was proposed by Wiener [120] where it is named homogenous chaos. The pioneering development work of this method is done by Ghanem and Spanos [121] in solid mechanics eld. In recent years, the applications of this method in uid mechanics are expanded. Le Maitre et al. [122] simulated the 2D incompressible channel ow and convection ow in a cavity with uniform distributed viscosity coefcient. Xiu and Karniadakis [123] proposed the generalized polynomial chaos (GPC) method for different kinds of probability distribution function. They found that there exists an optimal polynomial corresponding to the specic probability distribution function, which ensure the exponential convergence. An application of GPC was performed in the simulation of a stochastic incompressible channel ow and ow around cylinder [124]. Lacor and Smirnov [125] investigated the inuence of stochastic boundary on 1D supersonic nozzle ow and the inuence of stochastic of viscosity coefcient on 2D cavity ow through coupling PC method with compressible Navier-Stokes equation. Wu [126] also simulated the cavity ow and back facing step ow with stochastic velocity boundary, but the ap-plication was limited to Stokes equation. Wang and Kang [127] solved the stochastic Burgers equation using PC method, and validated the results with analytical solution and results of Monte Carlo simulation. The comparison results showed the efcient of PC method is much higher than that of the MC method at the same accuracy level. For a conventional deterministic problem, the ow parameters are real-valued functions of time t and space x. The support domain of these functions is denoted by D(x, t). If the ow problem has a stochastic process with some parameters being random variables, then the ow parameters will be functions of stochastic variables. Hence, these ow parameters are 64

also stochastic variables. To avoid confusion, the variables introducing uncertainty into the ow elds are named random variables, which are usually regarded as input parameters of the stochastic ow model. Other ow parameters, regarded as output variables of the ow model, are named response variables. The stochastic property of random variables and response variables can be represented by introducing an extra probability dimension into the ow model. Consider a probability space denoted by (, F, P ), where denotes the sample space composed of basic outcomes, called the sample space. F is the algebra of , and P is the probability measure dened on the measurable space (, F ). The basic event in is denoted by which doesnt depend on the specic physical property. The random variables and response variables are the events in , which are the set of basic events. A stochastic ow process is a square-integrable function dened on the product space D since any random physical problem should be the process with nite-energy. The function space mapping D to R is denoted by , each map R is a random variable. Then, is a Hilbert space with respect to L2 norm. Let = {1 (), 2 (), . . . , n ()} be a set of orthogonal and uncorrelated random variables in , and k ( ) be a p denotes the linear space composed of all polynomials polynomial in . H p in , and p k ( ) with order less than p. Let H p denote the closure of H be the set of all polynomials in H p and be orthogonal to H p1 . Then, the space spanned by p , written in Hp , is named homogenous chaos of order p , which is a completed subspace of . p is a orthogonal basis of Hp , called polynomial chaos of order p. Then, any stochastic variable (x, t, ) in can be approximated with the following representation:
n n k
(x, t, )
= 0 +
k=1 n k
k (x, t)1 (k ) +
k=1 j =1 j
kj (x, t)2 (k , j )
+
k=1 j =1 l=1
kjl (x, t)3 (k , j , l ) + .
(3.105)
Rewrite it compactly as:

NP C
=
k=1
k (x, t)k ( ).
(3.106)
Then the stochastic variable is divided into two parts, the deterministic coefcient k and the stochastic polynomials k ( ). NP C is the total number of polynomials in the expansions, which can be calculated by the following 65

formula:
(p + n)! 1, (3.107) p!n! where, p is the highest order of polynomials, n is the number of random variables. The cumulative distribution function or the probability density function of random variables is settled by the physical problem, therefore the coefcients of polynomials are known. For response variables, these coefcients are unknowns to be solved. The orthogonal property of polynomial in Eq. 3.106 is dened by inner product with respect to a weighting function (1 , . . . , n ): NP C = i , j = i (1 , . . . , n )j (1 , . . . , n )w(1 , . . . , n )d1 . . . dn ij .
(3.108) Selection of the polynomials in Eq. 3.106 depends on the probability density function of random variable. According to the Askey principle, an optimal polynomial chaos exists which is corresponding to the distribution function of random variable. Here, optimal means that the polynomial chaos will keep the exponential convergence rate to the uncertain variables to be approximated if the weighting function is same as the probability density function [123]. For random variable of Gaussian distribution, the probability density function is given by
2 1 f ( ) = e 2 . 2
(3.109)
Thus, the optimal polynomial is Hermite polynomials with a weighting function of 2 +...+ 2 1 1 n 2 (1 , . . . , n ) = e (3.110) 2 The one dimensional Hermite polynomials are given as follows: 0 1 p+1 = 1, = , = 2 p ( ) 2pp1 ( ), p = 1, 2, . . . . (3.111)
To simplify the description, the principle of IPCM is emphasized for a general stochastic differential equation: L(a())(x, t, ) = S (x, t), (3.112)
where, L(a()) is a differential operator which contains space and time differentiation and can be nonlinear and depends on a random parameter a(), S (x, t) is a space and time dependent source term. 66

Substituting the polynomial chaos Expansion 3.106 into the differential Equation 3.112 results in
NP C
L(a())
k=1
k (x, t)k ( ) S (x, t).
(3.113)
A Galerkin projection on each basis k ( ) is applied which leads to

NP C
L(a())
k=1
k (x, t)k ( ), j = S, j ,
j = 0 , 1 , . . . , NP C ,
(3.114)
where, , denotes inner product of Eq. 3.108. Eq. 3.114 gives a system of (NP C + 1) coupled deterministic differential equations with unknowns k (x, t). Solving this set of equations by FVM or other method can obtain the deterministic coefcients in Expansion 3.106. Then the statistical properties of the stochastic variable , such as the mean value, deviation and other high order moments, can be easily obtained using the following formula: 2 = 0 ,
NP C
(3.115)
2 2 k k .
=
k=1
(3.116)
The details about the derivation of Eq. 3.116 can be found in [128] or [129]. The coupling process of IPCM and N-S equations also can be found in these two references, which are omitted here. Note that, the existing deterministic solver has to be modied since the governing equations are replaced by the PC expansion equations.
3.7.2 Non-intrusive Polynomial Chaos Method

To avoiding the modication of the existing deterministic solver which may introduce the potential risk of errors, the polynomial chaos method can be coupled in a non-intrusive way which results in the Non-Intrusive Polynomial Chaos Method, (NIPOCM). The idea of the non-intrusive approaches is to estimate the coefcients in Expansion 3.106 based on few deterministic solutions. Then, a pre-process has to be implemented for distribution of deterministic solutions. While, it can be regarded as the coupling of polynomial chaos method and traditional sampling methods. Walter [130] and Hosder et al. [131] choose (NP C + 1) vectors of i = (1 (), 2 (), . . . , n ()i ) , (i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , NP C ) in random space as samples 67

for a PC of order NP C , while Reagan et al. [132] use Latin Hypercube Sampling to generate the samples. For each sample, a deterministic calculation is performed. The the polynomial coefcients of Expansion 3.106 are obtained by solving the following linear system: 0 (0 ) 0 (1 ) . . . 1 (0 ) 1 (1 ) . . . ... ... .. . NP C (0 ) NP C (1 ) . . . 0 (x, t) 1 (x, t) . . . NP C (x, t) (x, t, 0 ) (x, t, 1 ) . . .
(x, t, n ) (3.117) However, the coefcients obtained yields approximation of the coefcients in Expansion 3.106 which is different to that of intrusive polynomial chaos method where the coefcients are exact. Onorato et al. [133] simulated the uncertainty bypass ow around the RAE2822 airfoil using the IPCM and NIPCM. The compared results shows that the mean values obtained by these two methods are the same, while large difference exists in the deviation. However, since a structured mesh and an unstructured mesh are employed in the IPCM and NIPCM, respectively, the results still need to be veried in following work.
0 (n ) 1 (n ) . . . NP C (n )
3.7.3
Non-intrusive Probabilistic Collocation Method
The Non-intrusive Probabilistic Collocation Method (NIPRCM) is similar to the NIPOCM in basis of few deterministic solutions. However, the sampling method is replaced by points collocation method. The NIPRCM developed by Loeven et al. [134] is followed in the preset paper, where the Lagrange Interpolating Polynomials are employed to construct the polynomials chaos of stochastic variable. The NIPRCM expansion of variable (x, t, ) is represented in:
NP
=
k=1
k (x, t)hk ( ),
(3.118)
where k (x, t) is the value of variable (x, t, ) at the k th collocation point and NP is the number of collocation points. Note that, the collocation operator is implemented on the stochastic space of . One has the relationship between and as below: f ( )d = f (()) = d, 68 (3.119)

where, f and f denote the Probability Density Function (PDF), and f = 1 since is distributed uniformly in [0, 1]. After integration, one has F ( ()) = , (3.120)
where, F is the Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF). The collocation points i , (i = 1, 2, . . . , NP ) are chosen corresponding to the Guassian quadrature points used to integrate the variable (x, t, ) in stochastic space of . Many algorithms exist to compute the Gaussian quadrature points, while a powerful algorithm of Golub-Welsch algorithm is employed in NIPRCM with details can be found in [134]. Then, in Expansion 3.118, k (x, t) is the value of (x, t, ) at the collocation point k , and hk denotes the Lagrange interpolation polynomial chaos corresponding to the same point. The Lagrange interpolating polynomial chaos is the polynomial chaos hk ( ()) of order NP 1 that passes through the NP collocation points, which is given by
Np
hk (( ()) =
i=1,i=k
() (i ) , (k ) (i )
(3.121)
with hk ( (i )) = ki . Submitting the NIPRCM Expansion 3.118 into into the differential Equation 3.112 and applying a Galerkin projection on each collocation point result in
NP
L(a())
k=1
k (x, t)hk , hi = S, hi ,
i = 1 , . . . , NP .
(3.122)
Then, a system of NP uncoupled deterministic equations is built, which can be solved with existing deterministic solver. After getting the coefcients of the NIPRCM expansion, the mean value and variance of random variable can be calculated by:
NP
=
k=1 NP
wk k (x, t) wk 2 k (x, t) .
2
(3.123)
=
k=1
(3.124)
Dinescu et al. [135] compared the NIPRCM and the IPCM by testing case of rotor 37. The comparison shows a good agreement between the results of these two methods. 69
70
Chapter 4
Numerical Simulations on Film Cooling

As mentioned in Chapter 2, the localized cooling ow nearby a cooling hole is a typical jets-in-crossow (JICF) problem. The ow structure nearby the cooling hole has great impact on the cooling effect. Within this chapter, a simplied model of a at plate with a single cooling hole is employed for the investigation of the ow structure nearby the cooling hole. Based on the validation with experimental results, the discussion mainly focus on the effect of blowing ratio on the ow structure. Different from the local view of at plate case, the interactions between the cooling ow and the main ow are investigated in a practical planar cascade with different cooling hole geometry at the leading edge. The effect of conguration of cooling hole and the additional losses to the main ow will be discussed in detail.
4.1 Jets in Crossow on A Flat Plate

4.1.1 Review of Experiment
The numerical simulations performed in this section are based on the experiment implemented by Ajersch et al. [64] in a low speed wind tunnel. A row of six rectangular jets injected at 90 was placed on a at plate with width of 406 mm. The square cooling holes with diameter D of 12.7 mm are distributed with 3D interval between the hole centers. To ensure a fully 71
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS ON FILM COOLING

turbulent boundary layer be present in the test section, a 2.4 mm rob was afxed to the tunnel oor at the test section entry. A plenum is located under the at plate to supply the cooling air, whose inlet has a distance of 500 mm to the at plate. The dimensions of the test section conguration are shown in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1: Test section geometry of JICF (Ajersch, 1997 [64]).
The ow structure nearby the cooling hole is mainly affected by the blowing ratio, Reynolds number of jets, the conguration of the cooling hole, the curvature of the plate etc. Whereas, for the specic geometry of square cooling hole on the at plate and the inlet condition of jets, the ow eld mainly characterized by the blowing ratio which is usually dened as the momentum ratio J : J=
2 jet Vjet 2 , cf Vcf
(4.1)
where and V denote the density and velocity, respectively. The subscript jet and cf stand for the cooling jets and the crossow, respectively. In the experiment, the same uid with the same inlet temperature is used for both the main ow and the cooling jets, then J can be simplied into the velocity ratio Vjet /Vcf , denoted by M . Three cases with different M of 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 were measured in this experiment. The velocity of the cooling jets was remained as 5.5 m/s, while the velocity of the cross ow were 11 m/s, 5.5 m/s and 3.67 m/s corresponding to three blowing ratios, respectively. The Reynolds number Re based on the hole diameter and the velocity of cooling jets is approximately 4700. The ow eld for this experiment was measured by Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV). 72
4.1. JETS IN CROSSFLOW ON A FLAT PLATE
4.1.2 Numerical Model

In numerical simulations, a simplied model with a single hole is used. Therefore, the width of computational domain is set to 3D in Y direction with periodic boundaries on both sides. The X direction is consistent with the streamwise of the main ow. The inlet of the main ow is imposed at 10D upstream the cooling hole, where a velocity prole with the boundary layer thickness of 2D is predicted using an approximating exponential law: Vz z = Vcf
1/7
(4.2)
The outlet of computation domain is located at 20D downstream to the exit of the cooling hole, where a uniform static pressure of 101325Pa is settled. The inlet of jets is set to 5D beneath the at plate, where a uniform velocity of 5.5m/s is imposed. An external condition is settled to the upper boundary which is 15D above the at plate, where the velocity is the same as the main ow velocity. Figure 4.2 illustrates the whole computational domain.
Figure 4.2: Computational domain of JICF.
A H type structured mesh with 2.23 million cells is built by IGGa mesh generator of the software package FineTM /Turbo, as shown in Figure 4.3. The distribution of nodes above the at plate is 257 65 121 (X, Y, Z), and the distribution of nodes in the cooling hole is 45 45 49. The mesh close to solid walls and the exit of the cooling hole is rened to ensure the Y+ near the solid wall is lower than 1. The blowing ratio in 73

simulations is from 0.5 to 1.0 with an interval of 0.1. RANS simulation is the main analytical method, in which the one equation SA turbulence model is employed. URANS and DES simulations are also performed to represent the unsteady properties of the mixing process only for M=0.5 and M=1.0, in which the physical time step is set to 0.0001 s and 0.0002 for two blowing ratios, respectively. During each physical time step, 100 pseudo time steps are implemented to ensure the global residual reduce by at least 4 orders.
Figure 4.3: Mesh for simulations on JICF.
For steady simulations, the converged results can be obtained usually after 1000 steps. Using 5 parallel AMD Opteron 8387 processors (2.9GHz 512kB cache/core), around 2.2 hours CPU time is needed. Figure 4.4 shows the convergence history of steady simulations for different blowing ratios. As can be seen, the convergence is quite good with residuals below -6. The convergence history of the DES simulation is shown in Figure 4.5. The left gure shows the residual curve for the rst 1600 physical steps. Note that, the rst 1200 steps belongs to the steady computation whose result is taken as the initial solution for the unsteady simulation which starts from the 1200th step. The right gure shows the residual curve from physical step of 1600 to 2000. Note that, this computation is the continued computation based on the rst 1600 steps. So the value of residual starts with the residual of the previous computation. As can be seen, the residual uctuates with a high frequency below -4. However, the amplitude of the uctuation is small, and the mean value is kept around -4.2 in the left gure. In the right gure, the mean value is around -1.45. Using 5 AMD Opteron 8387 processors (2.9GHz 512kB cache/core), around 116 hours CPU time is needed. The convergence of URANS simulation is similar to that of the DES simulation, which will not be presented here. Noth that, using the same time step setting and computational power, the CPU time costed by 74

the URANS simulation is about 10% less than that of the DES simulation, which is about 101 hours for 2000 physical steps.
(a) M=0.5
(b) M=1.0
Figure 4.4: Residual convergence curves of steady simulations.
(a) Iterations of 01600 (The computation starts from
(b) Iterations of 16002000
Figure 4.5: Residual convergence curves of DES simulations.
4.1.3 Results of Steady Simulations

In this subsection, the calculated results of steady simulations are presented. To explain in convenience, some items are noted rstly and which will be followed afterward. The inlet boundary layer and cooling boundary layer denote the boundary layer of the main ow and the boundary layer developed in the cooling hole, respectively; the cooling jets denotes the ows issue from the cooling hole, including the cooling ow and the cooling boundary layer. 75

In Figure 4.6, proles of the velocity component in X direction, Vx , on the central plane (Y=0) are illustrated. The simulated results labeled with CFD are depicted by lines, while the experimental data labeled with EXP are denoted by discrete dots. Figures 4.6(a)4.6(c) show the comparisons between the simulated results and the experimental data at three downstream sections with distances of 1D, 3D and 5D to the exit of the cooling hole. The simulated results from Ajersch et al. [64] (RANS, k model), Tyagi and Acharya [66] (LES ) are also presented here. The velocity and coordinate Y are non-dimensionalized by the inlet velocity of jets and the hole diameter D. As can be seen, at the section of X = 1D, the simulated result has an excellent agreement with the experimental data, which shows a triple peaked prole. The rst peak is close to the at plate, which is corresponding to the part of the main ow enters into the region beneath the jets. However, due to the measurement limitation, the velocity information adjacent to the at plate is missed. The second peak is located in the main ow region where Vx almost is constant. A third small peak is observed in the mixing region, and the position is close to the main ow region where the jests have deected totally streamwisely under the press of the main ow. Between the rst peak and the third peak, there exists a sharp velocity gradient. A large recirculation region is found under 0.5D, which is due to the blocking effect of the cooling jets on the main ow. Tyagis results show a double peaked prole with the third peak missed. While, the rst and the third peaks are absent in Acharyas results. The recirculation regions are much smaller for all blowing ratios. Moreover, both Tyagi and Acharyas results are a little overpredicted in the upper mixing region. Note that, Acharya only used about 20 thousands cells for a larger computational domain of 51D3D30D (X, Y, Z). So the mesh density is much coarser than that in present thesis, which could be a large inuence factor. In Tyagis simulations, they also used about 20 thousands cells for a smaller computational domain of 12D3D5D. However, the mesh is still quite coarse for LES simulations, even for RANS simulations. And in his simulation, the channel of cooling hole is not included in the computational domain. At the exit of the cooling hole, a specied velocity is settled. While, this boundary is not fully correctly settled since the velocity prole is not always the same to the specied one which will be presented in following sections. So, it also could be a error source of Tyagis simulations. At sections at further downstream, X = 3D and 5D, good agreements between the simulated results and the experimental data are presented in the main ow region. In the shear ow region, the simulated results are also satisfactory. In Figure 4.6(b), a double peaked prole is shown at the section of X = 3D, while the third peak in Figure 4.6(a) is absent here 76

and the velocity gradient in the mixing region is smaller. The position of the rs peak is higher than that at the section of X = 1D, which indicates the blocking effect of cooling jets becomes weak with the increase of the distance to the cooling hole. The recirculation region close to the at plate is also vanished. The prole at the section of X = 5D shown in Figure 4.6(c) is similar. Tyagis results also capture the double peaked proles, while the overpredicted problems at about Y = 1D are still obvious. The Ajerschs results failed to predict the peak in the mixing region again and have big differences to the experimental data. The possible reasons have been discussed above.
(a) X=1D (M=0.5)
(b) X=3D (M=0.5)
(c) X=5D (M=0.5)
(d) M=0.5, 0.7, 0.8 and 1.0 (X=1D)
Figure 4.6: Prole of Vx at the central plane (Y=0).
Figure 4.6(d) shows the prole of Vx at the section X = 1D with blow ratio for 0.5 to 1.0. The third peak for M=0.7, 0.8 and 1.0 are found locating in the range from Z = 1.0D to Z = 1.5D. For M=1.0, a fourth inconspicu77

ous peak appears at about Z = 0.5D, which indicates the ow structure becomes more complicated when the blowing ratio is large. The recirculation region increases with the increase of the blowing ratio. While, when the blowing ratio is over 0.8, the recirculation region starts to decrease again. The reason can be found in Figure 4.7, in which the contour patterns of Vx at the central plane for M=0.5 and 1.0 are shown. As can be seen, a recirculation region exits behind the jets ow. With the increase of the blowing ratio, the impact of the jets to the main ow increases, then the recirculation region is stretched spanwisely and shranked streamwisely. The curved line of jets ow for M=1.0 is obvious higher than that for M=0.5. In particular, for M=1.0, there is a high Vx region just locating above the curved line, which is corresponding to the third peak on the Vx prole in Figure 4.6(d).
(a) M=0.5
(b) M=1.0
Figure 4.7: Contour pattern of Vx at the central plane.
Figure 4.8 shows the contour patterns of the normalized vertical velocity Vz at the outlet of the cooling hole. Symmetric patterns respecting to the central plane are shown with steep velocity gradients for all blowing ratios. A small recirculation region is found close to the hole upstream edge for all blowing ratios, where a part of crossow enters into the cooling hole because of the deection of jets. With the increase of the blowing ratio, the jet strength also increases which leads to the increase of the gradient of Vz . Thus, the recirculation region is decreased. It is easy to understand, when the jets are getting strong, for instance M=1.0, the jets in the cooling hole are less affected by the main ow. On the contrary, for M=0.5, the jets in cooling hole are weak, which will be easily to be affected. Figure 4.9 shows the limiting streamline patterns on the at plate under different blowing ratios. The ow patterns of M=0.6 and M=0.9 are omitted here since they are between the patterns of M=0.5, 0.7 and the patterns of M=0.8, 1.0, respectively. As can be seen, the ow patterns can 78
Figure 4.8: Contour pattern of Vz at the outlet of the cooling hole (a M=0.5; b M=0.7; c M=0.8; d M=1.0).
be separated into two distinct regions: the region before the downstream exiting edge of cooling hole and the region after this edge. In the rst region, the ow patterns with different blowing ratios are quite the same. All of them show a typical bypass ow pattern which is symmetric to the central plane. The crossow denoted by the blue lines is blocked by the cooling jets denoted by the red lines resulting in a stagnation region and the horseshoe vortex. With the increase of the blowing ratio, the stagnation point and horseshoe vortex is shifted upstream. However, the ow patterns in second region of M=0.5 and 0.7 are completely different to that of M=0.8 and 1.0. The patterns of M=0.5 and 0.7 are still symmetric to the central plane, while the patterns of last two blowing ratios are oblique to one side of the central plane. There exists a critical blowing ratio. For the current specic conguration of cooling hole, it is 0.7. When the blowing ratio is equal to or below 0.7, the ow structure after the cooling hole is symmetric to the central plane. For instance when M=0.5, as shown in Figure 4.9(a), the cooling jets are bent streamwisely in a short distance after issuing out of the cooling hole, and attach to the surface of the at plate at far downstream. Due to the friction between the main ow and the cooling jets, a dominant vortex system, CVP, is developed at downstream of the cooling hole, which pushes the legs of the horseshoe vortex to the sides of the domain. With the increase of the blowing ratio, the penetrability of the 79

jets increases. The CVP is lifted from the at plate, which results in a low pressure region below the jets. The legs of the horseshoe vortex enter this region and ow towards to the center plane. While the stability of the ow structure decrease due to the crash of the horseshoe vortex legs. When the blowing ratio rises to 0.8, a asymmetric ow structure is presented with the CVP deviating to one side of the central plane. And it is seen that the deviation of M=1.0 is larger than that of M=0.8. Figure 4.10 shows a local view of the limiting streamline pattern close to the cooling hole and the corresponding topological structure of M=0.5 and 1.0. For M=0.5, there exist three saddle nodes, S1, S2 and S3; one degeneration nodes, N1; two spiral nodes, N2 and N3; four separation lines Ls1Ls4 and one attachment line, Lr1, which are shown in Figure 4.10(a). The saddle node S1 is related to the horseshoe vortex which locates just at front of the cooling hole. Two separation lines Ls1 and Ls2 which indicate the traces of two legs of the horseshoe vortex separated from two sides of the saddle node S1. The saddle node S2 locates at downstream of the exit of the cooling hole. Between these two saddle nodes, there is a attachment node N1 which is connected with two spiral nodes N2 and N3 located at the downstream of S2. The generation of these nodes can be explained by analogizing the rigid bypass ow around a cylinder. The pair of spiral nodes, N2 and N3, is generated by shear actions between the crossow and the cooling jets, which are the early origin of the CVP. On the other side of the spiral nodes pair, there is the third saddle node S3. Two separation lines Ls3 and Ls4 are derived from this saddle node. Between these two separation lines, a reattachment line Lr1 is observed exactly locating at the central plane. These three lines indicate the traces of the CVP and second pair of counter rotating vortices, called secondary CVP, with an opposite rotation sense to that of the main CVP. This limiting streamlines pattern is quite similar to the pattern presented in Kang [63] where the JICF nearby a circular hole on a at plate was simulated. The upstream half part of the limiting streamlines pattern of M=1.0, shown in Figure 4.10(b), is consistent with that of M=0.5. The positions of S1 and N1 are moved upstream due to the increase of the blocking effect of jets. However, the downstream half part of the patter of M=1.0 is quite different to that of M=0.5, where the pair of spiral nodes N2 and N3 in Figure 4.10(a) degenerates into a single node N2 which deviates obviously apart the central plane. The same deviation also happens to the saddle node S3 and the attachment line Lr1. Different to the case of M=0.5, two legs of the horseshoe vortex are related to the node N2 and two separation lines Ls3 and Ls4 which indicates the legs of horseshoe vortex are warped into the CVP when M=1.0. 80
(a) M=0.5
(b) M=0.7
(c) M=0.8
(d) M=1.0
Figure 4.9: Limiting streamline pattern on the at plate. The limiting streamlines in blue show the trace of the horseshoe vortex. The red lines show the trace of the CVP.
81
(a) M=0.5
(b) M=1.0
Figure 4.10: Detailed view of Limiting streamline pattern on at plate. N and S denote the node and the saddle node, respectively. Ls and Lr denote the separation line and reattached line, respectively. The description of lines is same to that in Figure 4.9.
Figure 4.11 shows the position differences of the horseshoe vortex legs clearly through a top view and a lateral view of 3D spatial streamlines under different blowing ratios, where the horseshoe vortex and the CVP are denoted by the blue lines and the pink lines separately. As can be seen, when M is small (M=0.5) the blue lines bypass the cooling hole and ow to downstream straightly from two sides of the dimain. They always afx to the at plate. However, when M is increased to 1.0, the blue lines are wrapped up by the pink lines at about 1D downstream the cooling hole. This difference can be explained by analogizing the ow over a slender body with high attack angles. When the attack angle is small, a pair of symmetric stable vortices exists behind the slender body. With the increase of the attack angle, the stability of the vortex pair is weakened and become quite sensitive to small disturbances, however, which always exist in practical problems. When the attack angle is larger than a critical value, the vortices will generate an unstable shedding which changes the topology of the ow structure, then a new stable asymmetric vortex structure is formed [136]. The ow property of JICF is similar to the bypass ow around a slender body. The most inuential factor is the blowing ratio, whose effect can be analogized to the attack angle. With the increase of the blowing ratio, the blocking effect of cooling jets is strong, which leads to a large curve angles of the jets. When the blowing ratio reaches 0.8, the vortex system becomes unstable, which results in a signicant change under a small disturbance. That is called bifurcation of a dynamical sys82

tem. Note that, the bias of the CVP is not necessary to the certain side of the central plane, which depends on the property and the value of the small disturbance. The disturbance can be the tolerance of geometry or the nonuniform of the inlet ow. However, in numerical simulations, the disturbance usually comes from the numerical errors of the mesh or algorithms. Such kinds of small tiny error would little impact on the stable dynamical system, for instance the JICF with low blowing ratios. While, for the dynamical system in a critical state, a tiny error could lead to signicant changes, for instance the JICF with high blowing ratios. It has to be mentioned that the analysis of stability of dynamical system is beyond the scope of the present thesis, which will be investigated in future work.
(a) M=0.5
(b) M=1.0
Figure 4.11: Spatial streamline pattern of Horseshoe vortex. The blue lines depict the horseshoe vortex and the pink lines issued from the cooling hole depict the CVP.
Figure 4.12 shows the 3D view of the spatial streamline pattern nearby the cooling hole for M=0.5 and 1.0. A symmetric vortex system of JICF at a small blowing ratio (M=0.5), including the horseshoe vortex and the CVP, is displayed in the left Figure 4.12(a). The horseshoe vortex denoted by the blue streamlines locates at just front of the cooling hole, which is generated by the inlet boundary layer. It is separated into two legs by the cooling jets, and ows to downstream straightly along two sides of the domain. Adjacent to the exit of cooling hole, there are two stagnation regions generated by a pair of vortices, denoted by the red spatial lines, which are related to nodes N2 and N3 in Figure 4.10(a) and considered as the early origin of the CVP. This pair of vertex is mainly composed of the cooling boundary layer which is rolled up vertically rstly under the shear action 83

of the inlet main ow, and then deected under the press of the main ow. Finally, they are wrapped into the CVP. Another reason for the generation of the CVP comes from the interaction between the main ow boundary layer and the cooling ow. The jets ow is inclined by the press of the main ow, which results in a low speed region within the cooling hole. Note that, this region is outside of the cooling boundary layer, which also can be seen in Figure 4.8. Therefore, a part of inlet boundary layer enters in this region. Under the impaction of the undisturbed cooling ow, this part of ow are pushed out from two sides of the cooling hole, generating the pair of vortices denoted by the pink lines. This pair of vortices and the red vortex pair warp with each other, nally they develop into the dominated CVP. Different to the symmetric ow pattern of M=0.5, the ow structure of M=1.0, shown in Figure 4.12(b), present two distinct parts again, a symmetric 3D streamline pattern before the cooling hole and an asymmetric 3D streamline pattern after the cooling hole. The horseshoe vortex before the cooling hole is still symmetric. However, its legs are wrapped into the CVP rather than owing downstream straightly as in Figure 4.12(a). The pink vortex pair is generated by the inlet boundary layer, and forms one part of the CVP. The cooling boundary layer only forms a single vortex denoted by the red lines behind the exit of cooling hole, and it warps the two legs of the horseshoe vortex denoted by the blue lines and forms into another part of the CVP.
(a) M=0.5
(b) M=1.0
Figure 4.12: Spatial streamline pattern of vortices system nearby the cooling hole. The red spatial lines issue from nodes N2 and N3, while one part of the pink spatial lines issue from the cooling hole, another part of that come from the inlet boundary layer. The blue limiting streamlines depict the traces of the horseshoe vortex, while the red limiting streamlines issue from the cooling hole.
A detailed view and a top view of the 3D spatial streamline patterns are shown in Figure 4.13 and Figure 4.14 respectively. It also can be ob84

served that the contribution of the inlet boundary layer to the CVP will increase with the increase of the blowing ratio. The reason can be easily get from Figure 4.15, in which the streamlines on the central plane of the horseshoe vortex are presented. It is seen that the horseshoe vortex of M=1.0 is much stronger than that of M=0.5.
(a) M=0.5
(b) M=1.0
Figure 4.13: Detailed view of vortices system. The description of the lines is the same as that in Figure 4.12.
Figure 4.16 shows the surface streamline patterns and isoline contours of Vx at three sections of X = 1D, 3D and 5D. As can be seen, for M=0.5, a symmetric streamline pattern is presented at each section. At the section close to the exit of cooling hole, X = 1D, two pairs of counter rotating vortices locate symmetrically in respect to the central plane. The inner vortex pair are corresponding to the red stagnation vortex pair shown in Figure 4.12(a). The outer vortex pair has the same scale of the inner vortex pair, which is corresponding to the pink vortex pair in Figure 4.12(a). These two vortex pairs merge together at far downstream to develop into the dominant CVP which is displayed in the streamline pattern at the section of X = 3D where the legs of the horseshoe vortex are observed at the corners of the domain. A third pair of small vortices is observed locating beneath the CVP, whose existence has been inferred from the previous topological analysis. This pair of vortices is called the secondary CVP to being distinguished from the primary (dominant) CVP. The secondary CVP is rstly observed by Andreopoulos and Rodi [137] in their experiments. Then it is often reported and identied in later literatures, while its origin is still under arguments. Morton and Ibbeston [138] speculated them to be the legs of the horseshoe vortex. Yuan et al. [62] claried this pair of vortex is not the horseshoe vortex with LES simulation where it is named wall wake vortex. However, no clear explains for the origin are presented 85
(a) M=0.5
(b) M=1.0
Figure 4.14: Top view of Spatial streamline pattern of CVP. The description of the lines is the same as that in Figure 4.12.
(a) M=0.5
(b) M=1.0
Figure 4.15: Velocity vectors and streamline patterns of the horseshoe vortex at the central plane.
86

yet. Hale et al. [61] argued that the secondary CVP is generated by the crossow uid sweeping around and under jet in their experiment. In the present thesis, it is revealed further that the secondary CVP is certainly generated by sweeping of the inlet boundary layer, as shown in Figure 4.17 which will be explained later. The streamline patterns at X = 5D is quite similar to that at X = 3D, while the scale of the CVP increases. Being consistent with the previous results, the streamline patterns of M=1.0 shown in Figure 4.12(b) are also asymmetric. Since the legs of the horseshoe vortex are warped into the CVP, which has been shown in Figure 4.12, no vortex is observed in the corner. At the section of X = 1D, the scale of the outer pair of counter rotating vortex is larger than that of M=0.5. While the left vortex of the inner vortex pair is stretched to close to the at plate. At the downstream sections, X = 3D and 5D, the inner pair of vortex has been merged with the outer pair of vortex to develop to the primary CVP. A asymmetric secondary CVP is induced by the primary CVP and located in a small region beneath the primary one. The scale of the secondary CVP is much larger than that of M=0.5.
(a) M=0.5 (X=1D, 3D, 5D, from left to right)
(b) M=1.0 (X=1D, 3D, 5D, from left to right)
Figure 4.16: Streamline patterns (black lines) of vortices system and isolines (colored lines) of Vx at streamwise sections of 1D, 3D and 5D.
Figure 4.17 illustrates the spatial streamlines of the vortex system which reveals the development of the secondary CVP clearly. In Figure 4.17(a), the secondary CVP is depicted by the green streamlines, which 87

is developed from the upstream inlet boundary layer locating above the horseshoe vortex. A part of inlet boundary layer bypasses the cooling hole and sweeps to the central plane. Under the shear action of the primary CVP denoted by the pink lines, this part of inlet boundary layer curls up and develops into the secondary CVP. It is clearly shown that the secondary CVP is different to the horseshoe vortex which is denoted by the blue streamlines. While, in Figure 4.17(b) which shows the related streamlines of M=1.0, the secondary CVP is mainly composed of the inlet boundary layer comes only from one side.
(a) M=0.5
(b) M=1.0
Figure 4.17: Spatial streamline pattern of the secondary CVP. The blue lines show the horseshoe vortex. The pink lines and green lines show the primary CVP and the secondary CVP, respectively. The black streamline lines are located at the streamwise section of X=3D.
4.1.4
Results of Unsteady Simulations
In the previous subsection, the calculated results of steady simulations have been presented and discussed in detail. In this subsection, the unsteady simulations results are presented. The comparisons of the prole of Vx among the experimental data, the steady simulated results and the time averaged results of the unsteady simulations are shown in Figure 4.18. The averaging is performed over 100 physical time steps. In these gures, the RANS results and that of time averaged URANS results are almost exactly the same. The time averaged DES results gives a better prediction in the shear layer region than other simulations at X = 3D section. Figure 4.19 show the time averaged contour pattern and isolines of the velocity adjacent to the at plate (1.27mm, 1/10 of the hole diameter). The steady simulated results are omitted here since they are exactly 88
(a) X=1D
(b) X=3D
(c) X=5D
Figure 4.18: Prole of the time averaged Vx at the central plane.
the same as the time averaged results of URANS simulations. From the comparison of DES simulated results and URANS simulated results, it is seen that the former provides much more details of the turbulent property than the latter. For M=0.5, the time averaged velocity of the DES simulation is approximately symmetric to the central plane. Note that, the small asymmetric error is caused by the limitation of the averaging time range. Increasing the total number of physical time steps averaged, the result is getting more symmetric, as shown in Figure 4.20(a). Two low speed regions are located behinds the exit of cooling hole, which are associated to the two stagnation vorticists in Figure 4.12(a). These two regions joint together at about 1D distance downstream to the hole exit. A low speed region at the central plane spreads to the outlet without mixing with the high speed ow at two sides. At the two sides of the outer bounds of the at plate, two low speed regions are generated by the two legs of the horseshoe vortex. The time averaged result of URANS simulations shows a symmetric ow pattern, where the velocity shows a uniform distribution of velocity due to the absence of turbulence information. A low speed region is present at the central plane with a high velocity region locating at each side and continued to the outlet. For M=1.0, both the time averaged velocity of both the DES simulation and the URANS simulation show asymmetric patterns again, although the former is more nonuniform distributed. The middle low speed region mixed with the high speed regions at two sides resulting in a interval distributed contour pattern. The mixing ow region diffuses toward two edges of the at plate along with owing downstream. However, close to the two edges, no low speed regions exist due to the absence of the horseshoe vortex legs. Moreover, the velocity gradient of M=1.0 nearby the cooling hole is visibly larger than that of M=0.5. Figure 4.20 shows the time averaged contour pattern and isolines of the velocity in 400 physical time steps range. It is found the difference between Figure 4.20 and Figure 89

4.19 is quite small, which means the time range used for averaging is long enough. Since there is no changes between the URANS results averaged in 100 physical time steps and in 400 physical time steps, the patterns for the latter will not be presented here. The instantaneous velocity contour patterns of DES and URANS simulations at the same position of Z=1.27mm are presented in Figures 4.214.24. For both M=0.5 and M=1.0, ve patterns are presented with an interval of 0.004 s (20 physical time steps for M=0.5, 10 physical time steps for M=1.0), where the time of the rst pattern is set to 0. In Figures 4.22 and 4.24, the results of URANS show little difference in different time indices, which indicates the vortex systems for both M=0.5 and M=1.0 are stable and the unsteady property of the ow mainly comes from the turbulence. However, in Figure 4.21 and Figure 4.23, the DES results show the processes of vortex shedding under different blowing ratios clearly. For M=0.5, two rows of vortex on two sides of the central plane shed almost instantaneously, generating two rows of neatly arranged vortex street. While, for M=1.0, two rows of vortex shed alternatively from the exit of the cooling hole, and break into many small scales vorticities in a short distance. Figures 4.254.28 show the spatial views of the instantaneous vorticity isosurface patterns of M=0.5 and 1.0, the color on the surface denotes the amplitude of the velocity. From the results of the DES, it is seen that the intact vortex surface generated at the exit of the cooling hole can ow downstream to about 7D distance under M=0.5. When M is 1.0, the vortex surface raptures in a quite short distance. The differences of the RANS simulation results at different time indices are quite small, which indicates that the RANS simulation fails to capture the generation and rapture of the vortices.
4.2 Cooling Flow in Turbine Cascades

The simulations of the ows nearby the cooling hole presented in the last section reveal the vortices system in JICF clearly. However, due to the impact of the blade geometry, the streamwise pressure gradient and the secondary ows in the blade passage, the ow structure of lm cooling jets in a turbine blade may not the same as that on a at plate. The 3D ow structures at different cooling congurations and the effect of them on the loss production are still remained unclear. Steady RANS simulations are performed on the experimental model of Fotter et al. [78] to get the answers of these questions. The simulated results and validations with experimental data are present below. Part of the simulated results has 90
4.2. COOLING FLOW IN TURBINE CASCADES
(a) M=0.5 DES
(b) M=0.5 URANS
(c) M=1.0 DES
(d) M=1.0 URANS
Figure 4.19: Time averaged contour pattern of velocity on the plane with 0.1D distance from the at plate. The total number of physical steps used in averaging is 100.
91
(a) M=0.5 DES
(b) M=1.0 DES
Figure 4.20: Time averaged contour pattern of velocity on the plane with 0.1D distance to the at plate. The total number of physical steps used in averaging is 400.
been published in [82, 83].
4.2.1
Review of the Experiment
The experiments are performed in a high speed cascade wind tunnel. A high pressure planar turbine cascade, named as AGTB, is used which consists of three large scale blades (300 mm in span and 250 mm of chord) to keep the periodicity (178.5 mm in pitch). Coordinates of the blade prole can be found in reference [78]. The angle between the chord and the pitch line is 73 degree. The inlet ow angle and outlet ow angle are 133 and 28.3 degrees, respectively. Three kinds of cooling hole models located at the blade leading edge were tested. The rst one is named as AGTB-B1, with two rows of 20 straight cylindrical holes with 3 mm in diameter, distributed uniformly along the span. The second one is named as AGTB-B2, with two rows of 19 cylindrical holes inclined spanwisely downwards with 45 . The hole diameter is same to that of AGTB-B1. To keep the same interval distance between holes in spanwise direction as AGTB-B1, each row has only 19 holes. The last one is named AGTB-S, with two rows of discrete slots. The slot width is 2.545 mm, and the interval distance between 92
(a) t=0.000 s
(a) t=0.000 s
(b) t=0.004 s
(b) t=0.004 s
(c) t=0.008 s
(c) t=0.008 s
(d) t=0.012 s
(d) t=0.012 s
(e) t=0.016 s
(e) t=0.016 s
Figure 4.21: Instantaneous velocity of DES (M=0.5) on the plane with 0.1D distance from the at plate. The time interval between two gures is 20 physical time steps.
Figure 4.22: Instantaneous velocity of URANS (M=0.5) on the plane with 0.1D distance from the at plate. The time interval between two gures is 20 physical time steps.
93
(a) t=0.000 s
(a) t=0.000 s
(b) t=0.004 s
(b) t=0.004 s
(c) t=0.008 s
(c) t=0.008 s
(d) t=0.012 s
(d) t=0.012 s
(e) t=0.016 s
(e) t=0.016 s
Figure 4.23: Instantaneous velocity of DES (M=1.0) on the plane with 0.1D distance from the at plate. The time interval between two gures is 10 physical time steps.
Figure 4.24: Instantaneous velocity of URANS (M=1.0) on the plane with 0.1D distance from the at plate. The time interval between two gures is 10 physical time steps.
94
(a) t=0.000 s
(a) t=0.000 s
(b) t=0.004 s
(b) t=0.004 s
(c) t=0.008 s
(c) t=0.008 s
(d) t=0.012 s
(d) t=0.012 s
(e) t=0.016 s
(e) t=0.016 s
Figure 4.25: Instantaneous vorticity Figure 4.26: Instantaneous vorticity isosurface of DES (M=0.5). The colored isosurface of URANS (M=0.5). The colcontours show the value of the velocity. ored contours show the value of the veThe time interval between two gures 95 locity. The time interval between two is 20 physical time steps. gures is 20 physical time steps.
(a) t=0.000 s
(a) t=0.000 s
(b) t=0.004 s
(b) t=0.004 s
(c) t=0.008 s
(c) t=0.008 s
(d) t=0.012 s
(d) t=0.012 s
(e) t=0.016 s
(e) t=0.016 s
Figure 4.27: Instantaneous vorticity Figure 4.28: Instantaneous vorticity isosurface of DES (M=1.0). The colored isosurface of URANS (M=1.0). The colcontours show the value of the velocity. ored contours show the value of the veThe time interval between two gures 96 locity. The time interval between two is 10 physical time steps. gures is 10 physical time steps.

slots is 20 mm. Figure 4.29 shows the blade geometry and the proles of cooling congurations at the leading edge.
(a) Geometry of the blade
(b) Cooling congurations
Figure 4.29: Geometry of AGTB cascade and the cooling congurations [78].
Five ow conditions with different blowing ratios were studied, as listed in Table 4.1, where the blowing ratio is equal to the velocity ratio as dened in Section 4.1.1.
4.2.2 Computational Model and Mesh

RANS simulations using SA turbulence model are performed. A structured multiblock body-tted mesh is built in IGG. Since the geometries of AGTB, AGTB-S and AGTB-B1 are symmetric to the middle span, only half of the blade is meshed. The cells number in a ow passage for AGTB, AGTBB1 and AGTB-S is about 1.8 millions in total, with about 4,000 cells for each hole and 30,000 cells for each slot. For AGTB-B2, however, the whole blade is meshed leading to about 3.6 million cells in total. Buttery gird is designed within the cooling holes and connected in a full non-matching manner to the blade boundaries of the blade passage block which is meshed with H-Grid topology. Y+ of the rst grid away from the solid boundaries is controlled to be less than 5 from the leading to trailing edges. As an example, Figure 4.30 shows the mesh of AGTB-B1 and the detailed view of the buttery mesh in a cooling hole. Total pressure and temperature with ow directions are imposed at 97

Table 4.1: boundary conditions of AGTB experiments
Models AGTB AGTB-S
Blowing ratio (M) 0 0.5 0.7 1.1 0 0.7 1.1 1.5 0 0.7 1.1 1.5
Pt1 (Pa) 19880 20490 20170 20140 20170 19720 19620 19650 19620 19590 19730 19670 19630
Pt2 (Pa) 19700 20280 19830 19670 19450 19560 19440 19450 19400 19450 19570 19490 19420
P2 (Pa) 14070 14630 14740 14540 14100 14920 14710 14640 14560 15140 15190 15050 14930
V1 (m/s) 130.1 142.1 133.1 132.2 132.3 128.2 128.1 128.4 128.5 128.2 127.8 128.3 128.1
AGTB-B1
AGTB-B2
both the cooling plenum (Pt2) and main ow inlets (Pt1). The latter is set to 95 mm upstream of the blade leading edge with a velocity prole of 1/7 power law. Then a boundary layer with thickness of 16.5 mm at 30 mm upstream of the cascade is obtained as the experimental data suggested. The temperatures of inlet ow and cooling jets are set to 303K. Adiabatic wall is imposed for all the solid boundaries. At outlet, the static pressure P2 is given. Full non-matching periodic connection is applied to the periodic boundaries. Mirror boundary condition is set on the middle span surface in AGTB, AGTB-B1 and AGTB-S models. The detail information of boundary conditions under different blowing ratios is listed in Table 4.1. The simulations is performed on a PC with single Pentium4 HT530 (3.0GHz) processor. The converged results usually can be got in less than 1000 iterations. The CPU time is around 15 hours for simulations on AGTB-S and AGTB-B1, 30 hours for simulations on AGTB-B2. Figure 4.31 shows the convergence history of the simulation on AGTB-B1 with the blowing ratio is 0.7. The convergence history of other simulations are similar. 98
Figure 4.30: Mesh for AGTB-B1 and detailed view of the buttery mesh in holes. A: perspective of the conguration close to the leading edge. B: top view of the buttery mesh.
Figure 4.31: Convergence history of steady simulation on AGTB-B1 (M=0.7).
4.2.3 Simulation Results and Analysis

The simulated results are presented and discussed in this subsection. Different to the JICF in the last section, the main interests of this subsection is in the inuence of the different cooling congurations on the 3D passage ow. As the ow elds in blade passage at different blowing ratios remain essentially the same, the results to be shown is focused on a blowing ratio of 0.7. Static Pressure at Midspan Firstly, the simulated results are validated by comparison with the experimental data. Figure 4.32(a) shows the distribution of the static pressure on the blade surface at midspan for all models (for AGTB, M=0). As can be seen, an excellent agreement between the numerical results and the experimental data is obtained over a wide chord range for all models, excepting a small range on the pressure side of AGTB-S. At the leading edge, a static pressure peak locates at the stagnation point. A sharp drop away from this point is observed due to the high curvature of the blade surface close to the leading edge. On the pressure side, the static pressure increases rapidly in a short distance away from the stagnation point resulting in a so-called suction peak, which is a well-known feature of the AGTB blade prole [80]. On the suction side, the ow is smoothly accelerated away from the leading edge up to the throat section which locates at about 3/5 chord. It is also observed, by comparing the results of AGTB to that of AGTB-B1 and AGTB-B2, the blade surface pressure in a wide range of the suction side is greatly different. However, it should be noted that these differences are not only attributed to the difference of hole congurations, but also to the 99

difference of inlet ow conditions which are shown in Table 4.1
(a) Full range view
(b) Detailed view at the leading edge
Figure 4.32: Static pressure distributions on the blade surface at midspan of different models (M=0.7).
Figure 4.33 presents the computed static pressure for the four models with the same inlet boundary condition, which shows that except for AGTB-S model the static pressure distribution of other model are quite the same. For case of AGTB-S, the distribution of static pressure is greatly different to that of others, especially on the pressure surface. Figure 4.34 shows the comparison between the computed static pressure distribution at the midspan plane for AGTB-B1 under different blowing ratios and that of experimental data. It is seen again that the numerical results agree very well with the experimental data for all blowing ratios. With the increase of the blowing ratio, the static pressure at both the pressure and suction surfaces are decreased, while the blade loading remains nearly unchanged. For other two cases, the variation of static pressure under different blowing ratio is quite the same. Figure 4.35 shows a close observation of the static pressure at the leading edge range. Figure 4.36 shows the streamline pattern at midspan for AGTB-S at M=0.7. In both these gures, ve typical positions are marked as a, b, c, d and e. Point b is related to the stagnant point. Points a and c locate at the upstream edges of the slots, while points d and e locate at the downstream edges. Away from the stagnation point b, ow is accelerated under a positive pressure gradient which is slightly larger on the pressure side than that on the suction side. Due to the blockage of the jet ow, the local main ow is decelerated under a local negative pressure gradient opposite the upstream of the slot. In the slot exit range, from point a to point 100
Figure 4.33: Static pressure distributions at midspan under the same inlet condition.
Figure 4.34: Static pressure distributions at midspan of AGTB-B1 with different blowing ratios.
d and from point c to point e, the static pressure reduce rapidly at rst and recover again gradually which resulting in a local maximum at points d and e. At the further downstream, the ow separates from the blade surface due to the negative pressure gradient and forms a separation bubble at each side, as illustrated in Figure 4.36. However, the separation bubble on the pressure side is much larger than that on the suction side, which results in a local pressure plateau in a very short distance downstream to the point e. For models of AGTB-B1 and AGTB-B2, the static pressure distributions at the leading edge are quite the same to that of AGTB, as shown in Figure 4.32(b), with a very small separation bubble locating immediate downstream of the cooling hole exits. It is clear that the visible difference of the static pressure downstream of point e in model of AGTB-S from other models is associated with the large scale separation bubble. Figures 4.374.39 show streamline patterns at three critical sections of 50%H, 47.5%H and 45% in spanwise for three cooling models, where H stands for the blade height. Then, the sections of 50%H and 47.5%H are located at midspan and holes exit, respectively, while the section of 45%H is located between two holes. As can be seen in Figure 4.37, for AGTB-S model, large recirculation regions are present at downstream of the cooling slot on both the pressure side and suction side. The scale of the recirculation region on the pressure side decreases from midspan to endwall, while the recirculation region on the suction side is much smaller than that on the pressure side, which changes little along spanwise. For AGTB-B1, as shown in Figure 4.38, a small recirculation is observed at downstream of the cooling hole on the pressure side at the section of 47.5% 101
Figure 4.35: Static pressure distributions at the leading edge. PS: pressure surface. SS: suction surface.
Figure 4.36: Streamline pattern at midspan of AGTB-S (M=0.7).
where is exact the exit of the cooling hole. At other two sections, there is no recirculation region present. However, for AGTB-B2, at all three critical sections, no recirculation region is observed. It can be concluded that the cooling model of AGTB-B2 with inclined cooling holes provided the best cooling effect, where the cooling ows attached to the blade surface more closely and distributed uniformly. While the cooling effect of the slots cooling model is the worst, in which the hot gas will be wrapped into the large recirculation region to damage the blade surface.
(a) 50%H (midspan)
(b) 47.5%H
(c) 45%H
Figure 4.37: Streamline patterns of AGTB-S at different spanwise sections close to the midspan.
Figure 4.40 shows the streamline patterns of AGTB-S at midspan under different blowing ratios. Here, M=0 means there is no cooling, therefore a part of main ow issues into the plenum forming a cavity ow. For M=0.5, a large recirculation region is generated at the pressure side, downstream the cooling hole exit. The reattached point is located about 1/3 chord. When M is increased to 0.7, this recirculation region is enlarged 102
(a) 50%H (midspan)
(b) 47.5%H (hole exit)
(c) 45%H
Figure 4.38: Streamline patterns of AGTB-B1 at different spanwise sections close to the midspan.
(a) 50%H (midspan)
(b) 47.5%H (hole exit)
(c) 45%H
Figure 4.39: Streamline patterns of AGTB-B2 at different spanwise sections close to the midspan.
to about 2/5 chord, and another recirculation region with smaller scale is present at the suction side. When M is increased to 1.1, these two recirculation regions are enlarged signicantly. Surface Flow Visualization and 3D Flow Structures To reveal the 3D ow structure within the cascade with cooling injections, the blade surface ow visualizations (limiting streamline patterns of simulated results and oil lm pictures of the experiments), 3D streamline patterns and isolines of total pressure coefcient in cross-sections are presented below. Figure 4.41 shows the computational limiting streamline pattern on the blade surface of AGTB, while the computation limiting streamline pattern for other models and the comparison with oil lm pictures are shown in Figures 4.424.45. Figure 4.46 presents the 3D streamline pattern of the jets, and Figures 4.48 and Figure 4.49 show the isolines of total pressure coefcient in several cross-sections for all models. All of these gures are for blowing ratio of 0.7 since the ow elds remain basically the same under other blowing ratios. Since the oil lm visualization for model of AGTB is absent in experi103
Figure 4.40: Streamline patterns of AGTB-S at midspan under different blowing ratios.
ment, only the computed limiting streamline patterns on blade surface are shown in Figure 4.41. As can be seen, the ow eld on pressure surface is uniform in a wide range except a small region at the leading edge corner between the blade and endwall. A separation line is observed there, which is associated with the pressure side leg of the horseshoe vortex. On the suction side, a separation line of the passage vortex merged together with the pressure side leg of the horseshoe vortex can be observed near the endwall. Close to the trailing edge, a small low pressure region is present at the 2/5 position in spanwise, including a locally reversed ow and a saddle point. This shows the existence of wall vortex which is located above the passage vortex. Adjacent to the endwall, another separation line which is related to the corner vortex is observed, and is well consistent with the secondary ow model from Want et al. which has been presented in Section 2.1.3. It is seen from Figure 4.49(a) that the isolines of the total pressure coefcient on the pressure side show a uniform boundary layer in the spanwise direction, except for those lines near the endwall. On the suction side, a high loss region is visible at the end of passage, which is associated with the passage vortex. Figure 4.42 shows the computed limiting streamline pattern of the blade surface for AGTB-S, compared to the Oil ow visualization picture, over half span range. In this gure, characters N, S, Ls and Lr represent node, saddle point, separation line and reattachment line, respectively. It 104
(a) Pressure side
(b) Suction side
Figure 4.41: Limiting streamline patterns on the blade surface of AGTB. LE: leading edge. TE: trailing edge.
is seen that the computation results well reproduce the experimental observations, such as the locations of the saddle points S1 and S2, nodes N1, N2 and N3, lines Ls1, Ls2, Lr1 and Lr2 on the pressure surface and Ls6, Ls7 and Ls8 on the suction surface. From Figure 4.42(a), it can be seen that the ow structure near the pressure surface is very complicated and far different from that without the cooling jets shown in Figure 4.41(a). Downstream of the slot exit, three spiral nodes, N1, N2 and N3, are formed by the interaction between the jets and the main ow boundary layer. Figure 4.43 shows the 3D streamline pattern near the blade surface over the half span which illustrated the interaction process clearly. In this gure, the inlet boundary layer is denoted by red lines, while the yellow lines and blue lines stand for the ow issues from the end of the slots and other region of slots, respectively. The latter shows the traces of the cooling jets. It can be observed that due to the injection from two slots, the inlet boundary layer on the pressure surface is divided into two distinct branches. One wrapped upwards in spanwise and the other downwards at the downstream of the leading edge, which results in three vortices. The circulation of the yellow lines near the mid span is associated with the separation bubble which has been shown in Figure 4.36, leading to one vortex motion with one end at the midspan and the other end at the spiral node N1. While the yellow lines close the endwall form a half vortex ring which motion with its two ends at the spiral nodes N2 and N3 respectively. All these three vortices will engulf the coolant away from the blade surface resulting in a reduction of cooling efciency and a increase of aerodynamic losses. As one can see from Figure 4.49(b), two high losses regions close to suction side 105

are generated by these vortices in blade passage. In addition, traces of the jets on both the pressure (blue lines) and suction (red lines) side slots can be viewed in Figure 4.46(a). The red lines near the endwall are curled due to the passage vortex motion.
(a) Pressure side
(b) Suction side
Figure 4.42: Limiting streamline patterns on the blade surface of AGTB-S compared with the Oil visualization [78] (M=0.7).
Figure 4.44 and Figure 4.45 show the limiting streamline patterns on the blade surfaces of AGTB-B1 and AGTB-B2 respectively, and the comparison with the Oil lm visualization. Due to the hole inclination, the conguration of AGTB-B2 model is asymmetric with respect to the midspan, therefore the ow pattern over the whole span is presented. The simulated results have again reproduced the experimental observations, such as the position of the separation line on the suction surfaces. When comparing these two gures with Figure 4.42, it is observed that the ow structures are nearly the same on the suction surface, while greatly different on the pressure surface. A wave shaped separation line extending along the spanwise direction downstream of the cooling holes is observed. This is caused 106
Figure 4.43: Streamline pattern near the cooling slot (M=0.7), front view.
by the CVP which has been analyzed a lot in the last section. Figure 4.47 shows a detailed view of the 3D ow nearby a cooling hole on the pressure side near 1/4 span of AGTB-B1 model. The pink lines denote the jets issue from the cooling hole. The blue lines on cross-sections 1 and 2 (section 2 is located slightly downstream to the section 1) show the CVP clearly viewed, though the localized mesh is coarser than that in simulations of JICF. The limiting streamline (red lines) show two spiral nodes which are related to the origin of the CVP. Although the horseshoe vortex is not visible due to the curvature of the leading edge, this ow structure is still qualitatively the same as that shown in Section 4.1.3 and Kang [63]. Due to the CVP, isolines of total pressure in the pressure side of the cross-sections in Figures 4.49(c) and 4.49(d) show a wave shape along the spanwise direction except for those near the endwall. In addition, traces of the hole injections from both the pressure (blue lines) and suction (red lines) side holes near the endwall can be viewed from Figures 4.46(b) and 4.46(c). The red lines near the endwall are curled due to the passage vortex motion, while the blues lines are along the main ow except for the one closest to the endwall where secondary ow from the pressure side to the suction side is dominated.
Additional Losses The additional losses caused by the cooling injections can be quantied by variations of the total pressure. The denition of the total pressure 107
(a) Pressure side
(b) Suction side
Figure 4.44: Streamline patterns on the blade surface of AGTB-B1 compared with the Oil visualization [78] (M=0.7).
108
(a) Pressure side
(b) Suction side
Figure 4.45: Streamline patterns on the blade surface of AGTB-B2 (M=0.7) compared with the Oil visualization [78] (M=0.7).
109
(a) AGTB-S
(c) AGTB-B2 (b) AGTB-B1
Figure 4.46: Spatial streamline patterns of cooling ow for different models (M=0.7).
(a) Section1
(b) Section2
Figure 4.47: Flow pattern in two cross-sections (blue) with streamlines issued from cooling holes (pink) and limiting streamlines (red) on the pressure surface of AGTB-B1.
110

coefcient (TPC) is as follows: CP t = P t1 P t 2 1 2 V 1 (4.3)
where, Pt1 is the inlet total pressure, Pt is the local total pressure, is the density and V1 is the inlet velocity. Since only two blowing ratio M (0.7 and 1.1) are available for all three cooling models, two groups of the total pressure coefcient are compared here. Table 4.2 and Table 4.3 show the surface averaged inlet boundary conditions obtained by numerical simulations under the blowing ratios of 0.7 and 1.1, respectively.
Table 4.2: Boundary conditions for M=0.7
Model AGTB AGTB-B1 AGTB-B2 AGTB-S
Pt1 (Pa) 19844.0 19586.2 19714.6 20131.1
(kg/m3 ) 0.20517 0.21063 0.21273 0.21027
V1 (m/s) 133.9 125.3 122.1 123.7
Table 4.3: Boundary conditions for M=1.1
Model AGTB AGTB-B1 AGTB-B2 AGTB-S
Pt1 (Pa) 198434.0 19623.7 19633.6 20227.3
(kg/m3 ) 0.20517 0.21098 0.21210 0.21159
V1 (m/s) 133.9 125.4 122.4 123.9
Eight YZ sections numbered 1-8 are settled from the leading edge to the trailing edge, as shown in Figure 4.48(a). The section 1 is located at 10% axial chord length before leading edge and the section 2 is located just at the leading edge. However, the section 3 is located at 10% axial chord length behind leading edge. Sections 4, 5, 6 and 7 are located behind the section 3 with an interval of 20% axial chord length. The section 8 is located at 10% axial chord length behind the section 7. Figure 4.48(b) shows the TPC for all models under the blowing ratios of 0.7 and 1.1. The black line denotes the basic pressure losses of AGTB without cooling injections, 111

which has the smallest value in the gure. Being consistent with the ow analysis in the last section, the additional losses caused by the slots cooling model are the biggest, which are much higher than that of other cooling models. The additional losses of AGTB-B2 are a little bit higher than that of AGTB-B1 since the incline of the cooling jets increases the endwall loss. Increasing the blowing ratio, the additional losses of AGTB-B1 and AGTB-B2 increase a little, while a large increase of that is observed for AGTB-S. The main additional losses are located on sections of 2, 3, 4 and 5 downstream to the cooling hole, where the large separation ow occurs. It is obvious that the ow separation is the main reason to the additional losses.
(a) Positions of cutting sections
(b) Losses curves
Figure 4.48: Losses evolution through the blade passage of different models under M=0.7 and 1.1
4.3 Summary
The blowing ratio has large effect on the ow structure nearby a cooling hole. For a square hole on a at plate, there exists a critical blowing ratio. Lower than this blowing ratio, the ow structure presents a symmetric pattern, where the legs of the horseshoe vortex are not involved with the CVP; higher than this blowing ratio, the ow structure presents an asymmetric pattern, where the legs of the horseshoe vortex are wrapped into the CVP. The time averaged results of DES simulations show a better agreement with the experimental data and provide the much more details of the turbulent ow than that of RANS simulations. 112
4.3. SUMMARY
(a) AGTB
(b) AGTB-S
(c) AGTB-B1
(d) AGTB-B2
Figure 4.49: Isolines patterns of total pressure losses of different models (M=0.7)
113

The slots cooling at the leading edge of the blade in cascades results in a large separation ow downstream of the slot exit, which causes large additional losses to the main ow. The inclined cooling can provide more uniform cooling effect than the straight cooling. However, the former causes a little bit higher losses than the latter.
114
Chapter 5
Numerical Simulations on Three Dimensional Flows in Axial Turbine

In the present chapter, the ow eld in a low speed axial turbine is investigated using full 3D unsteady simulations which are based on the experiments implemented by Matsunuma [56]. The simulations are performed on the platform of FineTM /Turbo and the Non-linear Harmonic Method (NLH) is employed for the R/S treatment. Based on the validation with the experimental data, the discussions mainly focus on the effectiveness of NLH method and the effect of harmonic parameters. Parts of the related results has been published in [139].
5.1 Review of Experiment

The turbine simulated in this chapter is composed of a single stage with 28 stator blades and 31 rotor blades which are designed using a free vortex method to attain radial equilibrium. The measurements are performed in a low speed suction-typed wind tunnel of National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST, Japan). The detailed specications of the turbine are listed in Table 5.1. The geometries of the blade at three key sections are shown in Figure5.1. As can be seen, a negative inlet ow angle is found at tip of the 115
CHAPTER 5. NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS ON THREE DIMENSIONAL FLOWS IN AXIAL TURBINE
Table 5.1: Specications of turbine cascades Unit tip number of blades, N chord, C axial chord, Cax blade span, H blade pitch, S aspect ratio, H/C solidity, C/S inlet ow angle, 1 exit ow angle, 2 turning angle, 1 2 stagger angle, inside diameter, D1 outside diameter, D2 hubtip ratio, D1 /D2 tip clearance, k upstream axial gap, g ow coefcient, loading coefcient, reaction, stator mid 28 67.6 42.8 75.0 47.7 1.11 1.42 0.0 67.4 67.4 51.0 350 500 0.7 0.0 rotor mid 31 57.5 41.0 74.0 43.1 1.29 1.33 22.1 63.4 85.5 44.8 350 500 0.7 1.0 27.7 0.5 1.20 0.40
hub
tip
hub
mm mm mm mm
69.2 45.3 56.1 1.08 1.23 0.0 63.9 63.9 49.3
66.2 40.2 39.3 1.13 1.68 0.0 71.1 71.1 52.8
58.6 33.1 50.5 1.26 1.16 -16.2 66.9 50.7 55.9
58.7 49.4 35.5 1.26 1.65 51.9 58.7 110.6 33.4
mm mm mm mm
31.0 0.43 0.88 0.56
24.2 0.61 1.77 0.11
116
5.1. REVIEW OF EXPERIMENT

rotor. At hub of the rotor, the inlet ow angle has a large positive value. While the outow angles at both tip and hub of the rotor are near 60 degree, which leads to large turning angles in the rotor, especially at hub.
(a) Stator
(b) Rotor
Figure 5.1: Proles of blades of the AIST turbine [56].
The turbulence intensity of the free stream at the inlet of the test section is 0.5%. The Reynolds number used during the experiment is 20000 based on the chord length and inlet velocity of the stator. The axial inlet velocity V0 at the test section is 4.47m/s and the rotation speed is set at 402 rpm. The stator inlet ow condition is measured using a threehole pressure probe at the axial position of ZST /Cax,ST = 0.706, 30mm upstream from the stator leading edge at midspan, where the potential inuence of the stator is negligible. The wake traverse of the stator is carried out at a distance of 6.6 mm axially from the stator trailing edge, i.e., ZST /Cax,ST = 1.154. The distribution of total pressure, velocity, ow angle, etc, are obtained using a ve-hole pressure probe. The internal ow eld within the rotor is measured by a LDV system. Comprehensive experimental data and ow patterns are provided, which gives a good CFD validation case. The Mach numbers based on the mass-averaged velocities at the stator inlet, stator outlet, rotor inlet and rotor outlet are 0.013, 0.031, 0.014 and 0.027, respectively. The ow in this experiment was considered to be 117

incompressible since the Mach number is very low.
5.2 Numerical Model

5.2.1 Geometry Model and Mesh
Figure 5.2 shows the domain of the computational model. The inlet is set to about 30 mm (axial position Z/Cax = 0.706) upstream to the leading edge of the stator, where a prole of absolute velocity is imposed. The outlet is set to 3 axial chords downstream of the trailing edge of the rotor. A multiblock body tted mesh with the total grid number of 2.13 million is built for a single blade passage with 133 nodes in pitchwise, 65 nodes in spanwise and 9 nodes in the tip clearance. The number of nodes for stator and rotor are around 0.93 million and 1.2 million respectively. The grid close to the solid wall is clustered to ensure the Y+ is lower than 5. The mesh is in high quality with minimum skewness of 37.85 degree, maximum aspect ratio of 434.3 and maximum expansion ratio of 3.41. Figure 5.3 illustrates the generated mesh.
Figure 5.2: Domain of the computational model.
Figure 5.3: Mesh used simulations on the AIST turbine.
5.2.2
Boundary Conditions
A uniform distribution of the static temperature of 300K is imposed at the inlet of the stator. A spanwisely distributed prole of the absolute velocity as shown in Figure 5.4 is also imposed there. The displacement thicknesses of the inlet boundary layer at tip and hub are 1.85mm and 1.68mm, while the momentum thicknesses are 0.832mm and 0.730 mm, respectively. An averaged static pressure of 101100 Pa is imposed at the outlet of the 118
5.2. NUMERICAL MODEL

domain. Periodic boundaries are set to the both sides of the domain with a non-matching connection manner. The values at the periodic boundaries are related via the inter-blade phase angle [116], i.e., the spatial phase shift between adjacent blade passages. The R/S interface is set to 1D local non-reective boundary type with a full non-matching connection. The endwall and the blade surfaces are set to no sliding adiabatic walls.
Figure 5.4: Spanwise distribution of velocity at stator inlet.
5.2.3 Numerical Method

According to Matsunuma [56],the maximum velocity of the ow in this low speed turbine is around 10.7 m/s, the ow is considered to be incompressible as suggested by the author. However, only the compressible uid model can be used in NLH method at the moment. In order to show the inuence of compressibility of the uid model on the simulated results, steady simulations using the incompressible uid are also performed. Also suggested by the author that most of the ow in the passage of the stator is laminar ow, therefore different simulations solving the laminar N-S equation and turbulence N-S equations are implemented separately. The One-equation turbulence SA model is employed in turbulence simulations. Since the number of harmonic used in the non-linear harmonic method is nite, the continuity of the unsteady ow across the R/S interface cannot be rigorously reproduced. It is expected that the observed discontinuity in the numerical results would decrease with a higher number of harmonics [119]. In order to reveal this effect more clearly, the number of frequencies per perturbation, i.e. the number of harmonics, is set from 1 to 3 for different simulations. Since only one R/S interface exists, the max number of perturbations per blade row is set to 1. 119

The steady simulation is performed on a PC with single Pentium4 HT530 (3.0GHz) processor. The total number of iterations is 1600 which needs 32 CPU hours. Figure 5.5(a) shows the convergence history of steady laminar simulation. It is seen the residual is decreased to -3.4 after about 700 iterations, then keep high frequency oscillation at around -3.0. Note that, the solver employed in the present thesis is based on the density. Then, a preconditioning method is employed to handle incompressible ows. The detailed information about the preconditioning method can be found in reference [89], which will not be extended here. Due to the very low speed in the whole ow range, even using the preconditioning method, it is still difculty to get the well converged results. However, the amplitude of the oscillation is quite small, and the mass ow rate at the inlet and the outlet are kept the same after about 700 iterations. So the convergece criteria is acceptable, which is also supported by comparsions between the simulated results using incompressible uid and the experimental data presented in following sections. The NLH simulation is performed on a PC with four Core2 Q6600 (2.4GHz) processors. The total number of iterations is 1500 which needs 96 CPU hours for 3 harmonics computation. Figure 5.5(b) shows the convergence history of the NLH simulation on the laminar ow where the compressible uid is used. Getting benets from the Fourier transform, the convergence history of the NLH simulation is quite the same as that of the steady simulation.
5.3 Simulation Results and Analysis

The simulated results and the validation with the experimental data are presented in this section. Figure 5.6Figure 5.8 show the time-averaged results, and the time-resolved results are shown in Figure 5.9Figure 5.14. All velocity presented below are nondimensional. The time-averaged, pitchwise-averaged, and spanwise-averaged absolute velocity V1 at the stator exit is used to make the absolute velocity dimensionless. Similarly, the time-averaged, pitchwise-averaged, and spanwise-averaged relative velocity W2 at the rotor exit is used to make the relative velocity dimensionless.
5.3.1
Time-averaged Simulation Results
In this subsection, the time-averaged results of unsteady simulations using the NLN method and the results of steady simulations are compared with the experimental data in detail. Note that, the steady simulated re120
5.3. SIMULATION RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
(a) Convergence history of steady simulation on laminar ow
(b) Convergence history of harmonic simulation on laminar ow
Figure 5.5: Convergence history of simulations on ows in AIST turbine (Incompressible uid).
Figure 5.6: Steady simulated spanwise distribution of the velocity at the stator outlet (Axial position: ZST /Cax,ST = 1.154. Pitchwise position: 0.1SST distance to the suction side surface) The Blue dashed line denotes the time-averaged results of the NLH simulation.
121

sults using the compressible uid will not be presented here since they are the same as the time-averaged results using the NLH method. So, hereafter, all the results using the compressible laminar ow are the timeaveraged results of NLH simulations with harmonic number is 3. Figure 5.6 shows the comparison of the spanwise prole of the absolute velocity at the outlet of the stator (axial position ZST /Cax,ST = 1.154) between the experimental data and simulated results. Note that the distribution is located at the 10% pitchwise distance to the axial extension of the trailing edge of the stator. In this gure, the black circles denote the experimental data. The red dashed line and the blue dashed line denote the steady turbulent simulation and the time-averaged laminar simulation results which use the incompressible uid. The black solid line denotes the steady simulations which use the compressible uid. As can be seen, a good agreement is obtained between the results of the incompressible laminar ow simulation denoted by the black line and the experimental data denoted by the black circles in most of the region, except in a small lowvelocity region close to the tip. This low-velocity region is related to the tip passage vortex, where a low peak exists and the simulated results are smaller than that of the experimental data. The simulated result of the compressible laminar ow denoted by the blue dot line are more oblique than the experimental data, which gives thicker boundary layers at both tip and hub. The velocity gradient from tip to hub of the compressible turbulent laminar ow denoted by the red dash line is obviously smaller than any other results. This comparison veries the conclusion that the ows in most region on blade surface of the stator are laminar ows. Therefore, the following discussions mainly focus on the results of the laminar ow simulations. In addition, it is seen that the compressibility of the uid has great inuence to the simulated results for the low speed ow. Figure 5.7 shows the comparison between the oil lm visualization and the limiting streamline patterns of the suction surface ow of the stator. In the Figure 5.7(a) of the oil visualization, the suction surface ow can be separated into four regions. The region close the leading edge, marked A in the gure, indicates a laminar boundary layer on the stator surface because of the very low Reynolds number ow [56], where a radially inward-directed surface ow is apparent. A laminar separation, marked B, is formed behind the laminar ow region A. Within this region, a strong radial ow is observed. A reverse ow region, marked C, is observed to pass near the blade trailing edge from the edge of region B to the hub endwall. The traces of the passage vortices of the stator are observed near the tip and the hub endwalls. The strong coniction between the passage vortex at the hub and the separated inward ow results in 122

a mixing ow region, marked D. Figure 5.7(b) shows the suction surface ow of the incompressible laminar ow simulation. This pattern is quite the same as that of the experimental data, which presents the laminar ow region, separation region, reverse ow region and the mixing region on the hub clearly. The trace of the passage vortex at the hub is observed clearly, while at the tip no obvious trace of the passage vortex is presented which is different to the experiment. The suction surface ow of the compressible laminar ow simulation, presented in Figure 5.7(c), shows a separation region with the separation line being closer to the trailing edge. The scale of the passage vortex at the hub is much smaller. Due to the absence of the reverse ow region, there is no mixing region observed. Figure 5.8 shows the velocity contour pattern at the stator exit (axial position ZST /Cax,ST = 1.154). The simulated results of the incompressible laminar ow in Figure 5.8(b) obtains again a good agreement with the experimental data in Figure 5.8(a). The wake and secondary vortices generate several low-velocity regions which form an inclined high turbulent zone from tip to hub. The two low-velocity regions at tip and hub are related to the passage vortices. The top region is extended spanwisely, while the bottom region is extended pitchwisely. Between these two regions, there exists a narrow low-velocity region which is caused by the reversed ow in the separation region. However, the simulated scales of the passage vortices are smaller than that of the experimental data. In Figure 5.8(c) where the simulated results of the compressible laminar ow shown, a strong passage vortex at tip is presented. While, there is no obvious low-velocity region shown at hub.
5.3.2 Time-resolved Simulation Results

In this subsection, the time-resolved results of unsteady simulations are presented and validated with the experimental data. Figure 5.9 shows the spanwise velocity prole of the NLH simulation at the axial position of ZST /Cax,ST = 1.154, where the time-averaged experimental data are denoted by black circles. As can be seen, the simulated results at different time indices uctuate with a small amplitude around the time-averaged results. The velocity gradient from tip to hub is a little bit larger than the experimental data, which is due to the inuence of the uid compressibility. Figure 5.10 shows the time-resolved absolute velocity contour pattern at the stator exit (axial position, ZST /Cax,ST = 1.435). The unsteady contour patterns at four different time-indexes (t=0.2T, t=0.4T, t=0.6T and t=0.8T) are shown in these gures. The red lines at hub indicate the blades 123
(a) Oil lm visualization [56]
(b) Incompressible laminar ow
(c) Compressible laminar ow (Timeaveraged results of the NLH simulation)
Figure 5.7: Comparison of the ow patterns on the stator suction surface.
124
(a) Experimental results (time-averaged, [56])
(b) Incompressible uid
(c) Compressible uid
Figure 5.8: Steady simulated velocity contour pattern at the stator exit (ZST /Cax,ST = 1.154), computed with incompressible and compressible laminar ows. 125
Figure 5.9: Time-resolved spanwise distribution of velocity at stator outlet (axial position ZST /Cax,ST = 1.154) at different time indices. Pitchwise position: 0.1SST distance to the suction side surface.
of the rotor. From the downstream observation of the leading edge of the rotor, the absolute velocity at the right side (rotor suction side) is higher than that at the left side (rotor pressure side). Between these two highvelocity regions, a low-velocity region generated by the wake of the stator is observed. Due to the R/S interaction, the high-velocity region and the wake region uctuate periodically. Figure 5.11 shows the time-resolved entropy increase isoline patterns at the midspan for four different time indices. It is seen that within the blade passage of the stator the ow is quite uniform. After the exit of the stator, a high losses region is generated by the wake ow, which is distorted by the leading edge of the rotor blade to generate many small distortion regions within the blade passage of the rotor. The entropy contour patterns at three spanwise sections of 0.22H (hub), 0.5H (midspan) and 0.87H (tip) are presented in Figure 5.12. In each gure, behind the stator the high losses regions generated by the stator wake and secondary vortices are distorted by the rotor. At the hub section shown in Figure 5.12(a), the high losses region generated by the stator blade N1 enters the passage between rotor blades R1 and R2. However, at the tip section shown in Figure 5.12(c), the same high losses region of N1 enters the passage between rotor R2 and R3. At the midspan section shown in Figure 5.12(b), the high losses region of N1 is chopped by the leading edge of the rotor blade R2. It is easily to understand the distortion of the stator wake in the rotor passage that the ow near the rotor suction surface side moves faster than that near the rotor pressure surface side. The stator wake ow passes through the blade passage of the rotor and is merged 126
(a) t = 0.2 T
(b) t = 0.4 T
(c) t = 0.6 T
(d) t = 0.8 T
Figure 5.10: Time-resolved absolute velocity at the stator exit (axial position: ZST /Cax,ST = 1.435).
127
(a) t =0.2 T
(b) t =0.4 T
(c) t =0.6 T
(d) t =0.8 T
Figure 5.11: Time-resolved entropy increase isolines pattern at midspan.
128

with the rotor wake ow and secondary ows (passage vortex and tip leakage vortex).
(a) Y/H = 0.22
(b) Y/H = 0.5
(c) Y/H = 0.87
Figure 5.12: Time-resolved entropy contour patterns at three spanwise sections (t= 0 T).
Figure 5.13 shows the time-resolved relative velocity contour pattern at the upstream of the rotor exit (axial position ZRT /Cax,RT = 0.853). Note that, Figure 5.13(a) and Figure 5.13(c) show the results at t=0T of the experiment and NLH method, respectively, while the result of the steady simulation is shown in Figure 5.13(b) just for comparison. It is seen again that the simulated results using the incompressible uid is closer to the experimental data than that of the simulated results using compressible uid. A spanwise low-velocity region is adjacent to the suction surface of the blade. Close to the tip and hub endwall, two low-velocity regions are generated by the tip leakage vortex and the passage vortex, respectively. Between these two regions, a low-velocity region is generated by the boundary layer which developed at the suction surface. Although a low-velocity region is also observed in the same position in Figure 5.13(c), the traces of secondary ows at hub and tip are not shown clearly. Figure 5.14 shows the time-resolved relative velocity contour patterns at upstream the outlet of the rotor (axial position, ZRT /Cax,RT = 0.853) in different time indices. The difference between these patterns are not as large as the patterns shown in Figure 5.10 where the absolute velocity contour behind the stator are shown. A high-velocity region close to the tip and suction surface is observed and enlarged pitchwisely in different time indices. With the rotor moving, the spanwise velocity gradient increases rstly from t=0.2T to t=0.6T and then decreases again from t=0.6T to t=0.2T. 129
(a) Experiment [56]
(b) Steady (Incompressible (c) Harmonic=3 ow simulation) ow simulation)
(Compressible
Figure 5.13: Time-resolved relative velocity contour pattern at t = 0 T (axial position ZRT /Cax,RT = 0.853). The middle gure presents the steady simulation result using incompressible uid for comparison.
(a) t =0.2 T
(b) t =0.4 T
(c) t =0.6 T
(d) t =0.8 T
Figure 5.14: Time-resolved relative velocity contour patterns (axial position ZRT /Cax,RT = 0.853).
130
5.3.3 Effect of the Harmonic Number

According to the asymptotic theory, increasing the number of harmonics can improve the continuity of the unsteady ow cross the R/S interface. However, the computational cost will also increase rapidly. Actually, for the turbomachinery with multi stage, the inuence on the ow in a blade row mainly comes from the adjacent blade rows upstream and downstream. Normally, they have difference frequencies. Therefore, using two harmonics can present the basic property of the R/S interaction for most of cases. Figure 5.15 shows the amplitudes of the 1, 2 and 3 order components of the static pressure on the blade surface at midspan. It can be seen from Figure 5.15(a) that the rst order component dominates the uctuation, whose amplitude is much larger than that of the second and the third order components. Figure 5.15(b) and Figure 5.15(c) show the detailed view of the distribution curves of the second and third order components. Comparison of the amplitudes shows the rst order harmonic is about 30 times larger than that of the rst order harmonic, about 300 times larger than that of the third order harmonic. There is no doubt that the third order harmonic can be ignored totally during the simulation, which indicates that using two harmonics is ne enough for one R/S interaction treatment. It is also seen that the distribution curve of the rst order harmonic is relatively smooth to the curves of the second and the third order harmonics, which shows the frequency property.
(a) 1,2,3 order harmonics
(b) Detailed view of the second (c) Detailed view of the third order harmonic order harmonic
Figure 5.15: Harmonic pressure amplitude on the blade surface of rotor at midspan.
Figure 5.16 shows the isoline patterns of the entropy increase at the midspan using different numbers of harmonics. All the patterns show the propagation of the wake ows of the stator in blade passages of the rotor. With the increase of the number of harmonics, more details are presented which indicates more small scale perturbations are simulated which usu131

ally to the high order harmonics. However, the differences between Figure 5.16(b) and Figure 5.16(c) are quite small, which suggests again the same conclusion that using two harmonics can present the general property of the R/S interaction in a single stage.
(a) 1 harmonic
(b) 2 harmonics
(c) 3 harmonics
Figure 5.16: Isolines of Entropy increase at midspan.
5.4 Summary
The unsteady effect of R/S interactions in a low speed axial turbine is simulated by the NLH method. The comparisons between the simulated results and the experimental data show that the compressibility of the uid has great inuence on the simulated results for low speed ows. Under a very low Reynolds number, the surface ow on the stator blade is mainly in laminar. The steady simulation using the incompressible uid represents exactly the laminar separation on the suction blade surface of the stator. The secondary ow and the wake ow behind the stator are also shown clearly. The simulated results using the NLH method represent the periodic uctuation of the wake ow of the stator, and the passage process of the wake ow in the passage of the rotor. The amplitude analysis indicates that using 2 harmonics in the NLH method can obtain good prediction of the interactive effect for one R/S interface.
132
Chapter 6
Development of Multi-objective Aerodynamic Optimization Framework

The second part of the present thesis, including the present chapter and Chapter 7, focuses on the numerical methodologies of aerodynamic optimization of turbomachinery. In this chapter, the most widely used numerical optimization method Genetic Algorithm (GA) is investigated. Most research efforts are contributed to the development of the coupled method combining multi-objective genetic algorithm (MOGA) and articial neural network. The effect of the coupled method is validated by standard mathematical model problems.
6.1 General Introduction

Optimization is the process of adjusting the inputs or characteristics of a device, mathematical process, or experiment to nd the minimum or maximum output or result [140]. In a simple word, optimization is the process making something better. That is the most common natural feature, which 133
CHAPTER 6. DEVELOPMENT OF MULTI-OBJECTIVE AERODYNAMIC OPTIMIZATION FRAMEWORK

can be easily found in manifold elds: the physical systems tent to be the state with minimal energy; Engineers aim for the best performance of their designs, and so on. All these problems can be represented into optimization problems. A general optimization problem could be expressed in following equations: min subject to fi (x), gj (x) 0, hk (x) = 0, x = [x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ]T , x X i = 1, 2, . . . , I j = 1, 2, . . . , J k = 1, 2, . . . , K
where x = [x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ]T is the vector of design variables with total number of n, X denotes the Design Space. Functions of fi (x), gj (x) and hk (x) stand for objective functions, inequality and equality constrain functions with total numbers of I , J and K , respectively. The set of all possible values of objectives is called Objective Space, denoted by Y. Note that, I should be larger than or at least equal to 1, which suggests the multi-objective or single objective optimal problem. Most of the complex problems are multi-objective problems which can be solved using multi-objective genetic algorithm, or sometimes can be transformed to single objective problems and solved using the single objective genetic algorithm. Constrains should be handled carefully since the optimization often fails due to rigid and unpractical constrains. Hence, J and K are not necessary to be larger than 0. Sometimes, constrains can be treated as objectives using penalty function for analysis or programming convenience. In this sense, let M denote the total number of objectives, then M = I + J + K. The functions fi (x), gj (x) and hk (x) are usually presented as explicit equations for mathematical problems. However, for practical engineering problems, they could be expressed in an implicit manner, like black-box models. In these cases, the mathematical optimization, for instance the steepest descent method cannot be used. Therefore, using numerical algorithm is the only way available for general optimization problems. Genetic algorithm (GA) is an efciency numerical optimization methodology which mimics the natural behavior in terms of biological evolution to reach the best possible solution to a given problem. GA allows a population composed of many individuals to evolve under specied selection rules. Weak individuals tent to die before reproducing, while stronger ones live longer and bear many new offspring which often inherit the good qualities that enabled their parents to survive. 134
6.2. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF GA

The method was developed by Holland over the course of the 1960s and 1970s. The name of Genetic Algorithm is proposed by Bagley [141] in 1967. In 1975, the basic principles of GAs were described rigorously by Holland in his book [142], which was widely considered as the symbol of establishment of GA. In this book, Holland proposed the Schemata Theory and Intrinsic Parallelism which reveals that the number of elite individuals in population will increase with exponential ratio during evolution. De Jong [143] performed lots of functional optimizations using GA and proposed a set of mathematical model problems, which contributes the development of GA greatly. A comprehensive exposition on the theory and applications of GA was given by Goldberg [144] in his well known book Genetic Algorithms in Search, Optimization, and Machine Learning in 1989. This work could be considered a sign of the maturity of GA. Some of the advantages of a GA to other optimization methods are summarized by Haupt [140]: Optimizes with continuous or discrete variables; Doesnt require derivative information; Simultaneously searches from a wide sampling of the design space; Deals with a large number of variables; Is well suited for Parallel computers; Optimizes variables with extremely complex design space; Provides a list of optimum variables, not just a single solution; May encode the variables so that the optimization is done with the encode variables; Works with numerically generated data, experimental data, or analytical functions.
6.2 General Principles of GA

The optimization process of GA starts from a set of initial samples of the design vector. Each sample is called an Individual which is corresponding to a solution of design, while the set of individuals is called Population. The number of the individuals, n, is called population size. Usually, the initial population, or called the rst generation individuals, is generated randomly. Then, several genetic operators, such as Selection Operator, Crossover Operator and Mutation Operator, are implemented on the initial population (Parent Population) to generate a new population (Child Population), in which the individuals might have better tness. Then, the second run starts with this new population and repeats the above processes. The process of iterations is named Evolution, while the index of 135

each iteration is named Generation. With the evolution, the individuals in each generation are approaching the optimal range in objective space. A general GA is composed of the following procedures: encoding and decoding, initial population generation, tness evaluation, selection, crossover and mutation.
6.2.1
Encoding and Decoding
Encoding is the process transforming the variable to the string structure which mimics the structure of chromosomes, and then the genetic operators can be easily implemented. The opposite process is decoding which transforms the string back to real value. Many encoding ways have been developed since the basic GA was proposed, including binary encoding, denary encoding, real encoding and hybrid encoding. Binary encoding is the primitive encoding way which is still widely used today since it is simple and easy for programming. Each individual is represented in a string of binary values which is named chromosome. A chromosome is divided to several genes. Each gene is corresponding to a design variable, which is composed of a number of bits, 0 or 1. The length of bits has a great effect on the precision of the encoding value. Eq.6.1 presents an example of a 8-bit binary encoded chromosome:
chromosome = 11110000 11001100 . . . 00011101

gene1 gene2 geneN
(6.1)
Increasing the number of bits will reduce the encoding error to the real value. However, the memory and computational cost also increase to handle the encoding and decoding processes. When the length of bits is chosen, the maximum and minimum individuals can be related to the bounds of binary chromosomes. Then, a single mapping between individual value and encoded chromosome can be built using interpolation. The encoding principle of the denary encoding and the real encoding are similar to that of the binary encoding with replacing the binary genes with denary and real genes. The denary encoding and real encoding have been found superior to the binary encoding in some applications, especially for engineering problems. The real encoding can build the mapping directly using the maximum and minimum individual value, which saves lots of memory and computational cost. 136
6.2.2 Fitness Function

The survival ability of an individual is measured by the tness function which usually is a function of the objectives. The tness function has great inuence on the nial optimization results and the evolution speed.
6.2.3 Genetic Operators

Selection Selection is the key operation of genetic algorithm, in which stronger individuals are selected to generate the new individuals in next generation through genetic operations, such as crossover, mutation, and weaker individuals are eliminated. Three selection schemes are widely used: Roulette wheel selection, Elitist selection and Ranking selection. The roulette wheel selection is the basic selection scheme in which the selected probability of an individual equals to the proportion of this individuals tness function in the summation of all individuals tness function. In elitist selection, the individual or a couple of individuals with highest tness function values are copied to the next generation directly, which prevents the optimal solution from being wrecked. However, in some cases, the elitist individuals might dominate the whole population leading to a local optimum which is usually called Precocious. In ranking selection, all individuals are ranked according to the tness function value and imposed a selected probability specied in advance. In recent years, some new selection schemes are proposed for multiobject genetic algorithms, for instance, the most widely used crowding selection which is used in the present thesis and will be introduced in the following section. Crossover Operator Crossover is an operator to create one or more offsprings from the parents selected through exchange some bits on specication positions. For binary encoding method, three basic crossover operators are often used:Onepoint crossover, Two-point crossover and Uniform crossover. For One-point crossover operator, one random number related to a specic point of the chromosome is generated randomly. All bits beyond that point in either chromosome are swapped between the two parents organisms. Eq. 6.2 shows a simple example of the One-point crossover of 8-bits chromosomes. [00 | 001111] + [11 | 110000] [00 | 110000] + [11 | 001111] 137 (6.2)

The Two-point crossover is similar to the One-point crossover excepting the swapping points is two. The same example using Two-point crossover is shown in Eq. 6.3: [00 | 0011 | 11] + [11 | 1100 | 00] [00 | 1100 | 11] + [11 | 0011 | 00] (6.3)
In the uniform crossover, the swapping of bits in parent chromosomes depends on the possibility. A pseudo chromosome with same length is generated randomly. If the bit in pseudo chromosome is 1, then the corresponding position bit in parents chromosomes is swapped. If the bit in pseudo chromosome is 0, then is not swapped. Eq. 6.4 shows the same example using a uniform crossover. [00001111] + [11110000] [10011100] [10010011] + [01111100] (6.4)
The crossover operator of real encoding is a little complicated than that of binary encoding. In the present thesis, the simulated binary crossover (SBX) is used which will be introduced in detail in section 6.3.2. Mutation Operator Mutation operator is used to keep the diversity of individuals in population and enhance the local searching ability of genetic algorithm. For binary encoding, the basic mutation operator is to take the inverse value in random generated position of the chromosome. Only one parent individual is used generating one new child individual. For example: [00001111] [00101101] (6.5)
For real encoding, a similar mutation operator can performed as follows. For individual {xi }, i = 1, . . . , n, the component xk [ak , bk ] is mutated. Then the mutated component yk for the new individual can be calculated by (xk ak )ak + (bk xk )bk yk = (6.6) b k ak
6.2.4
Control Parameters
The control parameters usually includes the population size, crossover rate, mutation rate and the maximum generation number, which have great effect on the optimization results and the evolution speed. 138

Population Size Population size is the number of individuals in one generation. Large population size provides high diversity which gives more opportunities to converge to the global optimal. However, the number of evaluations and genetic operations needed are also large resulting in large computational cost. Thus, in practical application, a moderate population size is necessary. For the optimal problem which needs large computational cost, like aerodynamic optimization, the suitable population size could be around 100. Crossover Rate The crossover rate controls the probability of the crossover operation. On the one hand, a large crossover rate can enhance the searching ability of genetic algorithm; on the other hand, it also decrease the possibility of good qualities inherits from parent generation. However, the evolution process will become very slow with a small crossover rate. In general, the crossover rate could be in range of [0.8, 1.0]. Mutation Rate The mutation rate controls the probability of the mutation operation. Large mutation rate can benet the diversity of population, but might also decrease the evolution efciency. While, if the mutation rate is too small, the local search ability of genetic algorithm is weaken. Usually, the mutation rate is set to [0.001, 0.01]. Maximum Generation Number The maximum generation number is an important evolution controlling parameter. For practical applications, it is quite difcult to determine the rigid convergence in a traditional way since the information of the optimal solution cannot be known beforehand. Then, imposing a maximum generation number is the most widely used stop criteria of evolution. This number heavily depends on the genetic algorithm and the property of the optimization problem, which is usually set to a large number if there is no any experience. In order to save computational cost for some fast converged cases, an additional stop criterion can be used, in which the evolution is stopped if the solution has no change in several successive generations. Note that, this additional criterion only can be launched after a certain number generations. 139
6.3 Multi-objective Genetic Algorithm

6.3.1 Pareto Optimal Concept
In most cases, the objectives are conicting with each other, thus there is no best solution for which all objectives are optimal simultaneously. The increase of one objective will lead to the decrease of other objectives. Then, there should exist by nature a set of solutions, the so-called Pareto-optimal set or Pareto front, in which one solution can not be dominated by any other member of this set. The domination is dened as follows [145]: Denition 1: For minimal problem, a solution a X dominates a solution b X , (a b) if and only if it is superior or equal in all objectives and at least superior in one objective. This can be expressed as: a b, if i 1, 2, . . . , m : fi (a) fi (b) j 1, 2, . . . , m : fj (a) < fj (b)
Denition 2: The solution a is indifferent to a solution c, if and only if neither solution is dominating the other. Each solution of the Pareto optimal set is called a feasible solution or a non-inferior solution, which is corresponding to one point on the Pareto front. A general example of the Pareto front with two objectives is illustrated in Figure 6.1. In this example, the Pareto front is composed of ve points from A to E which are indifferent to each other. While, points F and G do not belong to the Pareto front since they are dominated by point B and points C and D, respectively. Note that, theoretically the Pareto
Figure 6.1: Pareto front with two objectives.
front should be a continuous curve (two objectives) or several segments of 140
6.3. MULTI-OBJECTIVE GENETIC ALGORITHM

a curve. However, in practice, only a nite number of discrete points on the Pareto front can be obtained by numerical optimizations in one run. The Pareto optimal origins in economics, proposed by Vilfredo Pareto for the rst time in 1896 for the problem of income distribution. After that, this concept is developed to engineering application gradually. In 1985, Vector-evaluated Genetic Algorithm (VEGA, [146]) was proposed by Schaffer is the pioneering research on multi-objective genetic algorithms (MOGAs). After that, many multi-objectives optimization genetic algorithms have been developed, such as Multi-objective Genetic Algorithm(MOGA, [147]) by Fonseca and Fleming in 1993, Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm (NSGA, [148]) by Srinivas and Deb in 1994, Niched Pareto Genetic Algorithm (NPGA, [149]) by Horn and Naphiotis in 1994, etc. Gong et al. [150] classied these MOGAs listed above into the rst generation MOGAs which use tness sharing scheme to keep the diversity of population. The second generation MOGAs include Strength Pareto Evolutionary Algorithm (SPEA, [145]) by Zitzler and Thiele in 1999 and SPEA2 [151] by Zitzler et al. in 2001; Pareto Archived Evolution Strategy (PAES, [152]) by Knowles and Corne in 2000, Pareto Envelope-based Selection Algorithm (PESA, [153]) and PESA2 [154] by Corne et al. in 2000 and 2001 respectively; NSGA-II [155] by Deb et al. in 2002. Coello et al.[156] summarized all these MOGAs in their book Evolutionary Algorithms for Solving MultiObjective Problems, more details about these MOGAs can found there. Most of these MOGAs are applied successfully in a number of mathematical and engineering applications. However, NSGA-II and SPEA2 gained much more attentions than any other MOGAs due to the outstanding performance in lots of mathematical model problems tested [157160]. In following subsections, these two algorithms are introduced and compared in detail.
6.3.2 NSGA-II
Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm-II (NSGA-II) is proposed by Deb et al. [155] in 2002, which is the improved version of NSGA proposed by Srinivas and Deb in 1994 [148]. In this improved version, three shortcomings of NSGA are overcome: 1 The computational complexity is reduced from O M N 3 to O M N 2 , N is the population size, M is the number of objectives; 2 Introducing Elite keeping strategy; 3 No need for specifying a sharing parameter; 141

The evolutionary procedure starts from an initial parent population P0 of size N which is generated randomly in the design space. The population P0 is sorted using Fast Non-dominated Sorting Scheme rstly. Each individual is assigned a value of tness, or called rank, which equals the non-domination level of this individual. Level 1 stands for the best level, which will be the Pareto front when the evolutionary procedure is nished; level 2 is the secondary level win which individuals are dominated and only dominated by some individuals in level 1, and so on. Then binary tournament selection operator, crossover operator and mutation operator are implemented on P0 to generate the rst generation of the child population Q0 of size N . Afterwards, P0 and Q0 are combined to a whole set C0 of size 2N and C0 is sorted. A new generation of parent population P1 of size N is generated by lling with the rst N individuals of set C0 . The same procedure can be repeated with P1 till the maximum number of generations is reached. In genetic operations, the selection operation is based on two criteria: rank and crowding distance. The rst one indicates the non-dominated level which is obtained by sorting process. The second one suggests the distributed uniformity of individuals in the same level. Large crowding distance ensures the population diversity to prevent the individuals from being stuck into a local optimum. Fast Non-dominated Sorting Scheme In NSGA, in order to identify if an individual belongs to the rst nondominated front in a population, each individual has to be compared in pairs with all other individuals of the same population. This requires O(M N ) comparisons for each individual. When this process is continued to nd all members of the rst non-dominated front in the population, the total computational complexity is O(M N 2 ). In order to nd the individuals in the next level front, the same procedure is repeated without discounting the individuals of the rst front temporarily. In the worst case, the task of nding the second front also requires O(M N 2 ) computations. If this argument is also true for nding third and higher levels of non-domination, then the worst case requires overall O(M N 3 ) computations when there are fronts and there exists only one individual in each front. Note that, O(N ) storage is required for this procedure. In order to reduce the computational complexity, a fast non-dominated sorting approach is suggested by Deb et al. [155] in NSGA-II. Firstly, for each individual p, two entities are calculated. One is the domination count np , the number of individuals which dominate the individual p. Another is 142

Sp , the set of individuals dominated by individual p. This requires O(M N 2 ) comparisons. The domination count of all individuals in the rst nondominated front will be zero. For each individual with nq = 0, visiting each member q of Sp and reduce its domination count nq by one. During the process, if for any member whose domination count becomes zero, it is put in a separate list Q. After this process, all individuals in Q constitute the secondary non-dominated front. For each individual in second front, repeating the above procedures, then the third front can be identied. All the rest fronts can also be identied by continuing the same procedures. For each individual p in the second or higher level of non-dominated front, the domination count np can be at most N 1. Thus, each individual p will be visited at most N 1 times before its domination count becomes zero. Since at most N 1 times such procedure are needed, then the total complexity is O(M N 2 ) which is lower in one order than that of NSGA. However, the storage requirement is increased to O(N 2 ), one order higher than before. The pseudo code of the fast non-dominated sorting operator can be expressed in Algorithm 1 [155]. Crowding Distance In difference to the NSGA using a sharing function to preserve the diversity of individuals, a new criterion named Crowding Distance is employed in NSGA-II, which estimates the density of individuals surrounding a particular individual in the population. The denition also can be expressed in Nobj Fij +1 Fij 1 (6.7) Cj = j j i=1 (Fi )max (Fi )min
For two objectives problem, the crowding distance of the j th solution is the averaged length of the cuboid u + v as illustrated in Fig.6.1. For boundary points, the crowding distance is set to the maximum value of the system in order to ensure these points can survive to the next generation. In the same rank level, the individuals which have larger crowding distances also have more opportunities to be selected. A pseudo code of the crowding distance selection operator is presented in Algorithm 2, which is also can be found in [155]. Simulated Binary Crossover In NSGA-II, a simulated binary crossover (SBX) operator is used, which simulates the working principle of the single point crossover operator on 143
Algorithm 1 Fast non-dominated sorting approach for p P do Sp = np = 0 for q P do if p q then Sp = Sp { q } end if if p q then np = np + 1 end if end for if Np = 0 then prank = 1 F1 = F1 {p} end if end for i=1 while Fi = 0 do Q= for p Fi do for q Sp do nq = nq 1 if nq = 0 then qrank = i + 1 Q = Q {q } end if end for end for i=i+1 Fi = Q end while
144

Algorithm 2 Crowding distance assignment l = |I | for i I do I [i]distance = 0 end for for m M do I = sort(I, m) I [1]distance = I [l]distance = for i = 2 to (l 1) do max min I [i]distance = I [i]distance + (I [i + 1].m I [i 1].m) / fm fm end for end for
,t ,t binary strings [161, 162]. Let x1 and x2 i i denote two parent individuals for ith selection in generation t. The procedure of computing the children ,t+1 ,t+1 ,t ,t individuals x1 and x2 from parent individuals x1 and x2 is dei i i i scribed below. A spread factor i is dened as the ratio of the absolute difference in children values to that of parent values: ,t+1 ,t+1 x2 x1 i i ,t 1,t x2 i xi
i =
(6.8)
where, is the distribution index which can be any nonnegative real number. A lager value of gives a higher probability for creating near parent individuals and a small value of allows distant individuals to be selected as children individuals. Usually, the value of is set to 15. Using Eq.6.9, 145
Firstly, a random number ui [0, 1) is generated, whereafter, from a specied probability distribution function, the ordinate qi is found so that the area under the probability curve from 0 to qi is equal to the chosen random number ui . The probability distribution used to create a child individual is derived to have a similar search power as that in a single-point crossover in binary-coded GAs and is given as follows: 0.5( + 1) , if i 1 i P (i ) = (6.9) 0.5( + 1)/ +2 , otherwise
i

the qi can be calculated as follows: 1 (2ui ) +1 ,
1 2(1ui )
qi =
1 +1
if ui 0.5 , otherwise
(6.10)
Thereafter, two children individuals can be obtained by:

,t+1 x1 i ,t+1 x2 i
= =
,t 2,t 0.5 (1 + qi )x1 i + (1 qi )xi ,t 2,t 0.5 (1 qi )x1 i + (1 + qi )xi
(6.11)
Note that, these two children individuals are symmetric about the parent individuals. This is deliberately used to avoid any bias towards any particular parent individual in a single crossover operation. Mutation Operator Let xk be the component of a individual {xi }, which is going to be mutated. l And xu k and xk stand for the maximum and minimum value of this component in all individuals, respectively. The mutated individual yk can be calculated as follows: l yk = xk + q xu (6.12) k xk Here q is a mutation parameter, which stands for: 2r + (1 2r)(1 )m +1 1/(m +1) 1, 1 q = 1 2r(1 r) + 2(r 0.5)(1 )m +1 1/(m +1)
2
if r 0.5
otherwise (6.13) where m is the mutation index which is set to 20 in general, and r is a random number. The intermediate variables 1 and 2 stand for: 1 2 = = xk xl k l xu k xk u xk xk l xu k xk (6.14) (6.15)
6.3.3
SPEA2
The Strength Pareto Evolutionary Algorithm 2 (SPEA2) is proposed by Zitzler et al. [151] in 2001 based on the previous version SPEA [145] in 146

1999. In contrast to its predecessor, SPEA2 incorporates a ne-grained tness assignment strategy, a density estimation technique and an enhanced archive truncation method. The procedures of SPEA2 are composed of following steps [151]: 1 Initialization: Generate an initial population P0 and create the empty archive (external set) P0 with size of N . Set P0 = and the generation index t = 0. 2 Fitness assignment: Calculate tness values of individuals in Pt and the archive Pt . 3 Environmental selection: Copy all non-dominated individuals in Pt and Pt to Pt+1 . If size of Pt+1 exceeds N then reduce Pt+1 by means of the truncation operator, otherwise if size of Pt+1 is less than N then ll Pt+1 with dominated individuals in Pt and Pt . 4 Termination: If t T or another stopping criterion is satised then set A to the set of decision vectors represented by the non-dominated individuals in Pt . Stop. 5 Mating selection: Perform binary tournament selection with replacement on Pt in order to ll the mating pool. 6 Variation: Apply recombination and mutation operators to the mating pool and set Pt to the resulting population. Increment generation counter (t = t + 1) and go to step 2. Fitness Assignment In step 2 of the main loop, each individual i in the archive Pt and the population Pt is assigned a strength value S (i), representing the number of individuals it dominates. S (i) = |{j |j Pt + Pt , i j }|
where, | | denotes the cardinality of a set. Based on the value of strength, the raw tness R(i) of an individual i is calculated: R(i) = S (j ), j Pt + Pt and ji
Note that the tness is to be minimized here. Density Estimation The density estimation technique used in SPEA2 is an adaptation of the k th nearest neighbor method. The inverse of the distance to the k -th neighk bor, denoted as i is taken as the density estimated. As suggested in [151], 147

k is set to the square root of the summation of the population size and the archive size, k = N + N . Then the density D(i) of the individual i can be dened by 1 D(i) = k i + 2 In the denominator, 2 is added to ensure that its value is greater than zero and that D(i) < 1. Finally, the tness of individual i is composed of the sum of R(i) and D(i). From the description above, the procedures of SPEA2 are quite similar to that of NSGA-II, while two differences exist in: 1 In SPEA2, an external archive is used to keep the elite individuals of all generations, while in NSGA-II the elite individuals only in current generation are stored. That makes SPEA2 has more opportunities to get better diversity of population. However, the computational complexity is O(M N 3 ) which is higher than that of NSGA-II. And more storage is also needed for external archive. 2 In SPEA2, the k -th nearest neighbor method is used to estimate the density information. While in NSGA-II only the basic nearest neighbors is used. Certainly, the same k -th nearest neighbor method is also can be adopted in NSGA-II. Whereas, there is no obvious superiority of the former over the latter be found. In addition, the former needs more computational effort on sorting procedures. The ow charts of NSGA-II and SPEA2 are illustrated in Figure 6.2, which also illustrate the difference between these two algorithms.
6.3.4
Performance Evaluation Criteria
The Convergence Metric proposed by Deb et al. [158] and the spacing criterion by Schott [163] are widely accepted as the performance evaluation criteria for MOGAs. The former is for the convergence towards a reference set, while the latter is for the diversity of solutions. Let P = p1 , p2 , , p|P | denote a reference set and A = a1 , a2 , , a|A| denote the non-dominated set of the t-th population P t during the evolution. The convergence metric can be calculated in the following manner: 1 For each point ai in A, calculate the smallest normalized Euclidean distance to P as follows:
|P | M
di = min
j =1 k=1
fk (ai ) fk (pj ) max f min fk k
(6.16)
148
(a) NSGA-II
(b) SPEA2
Figure 6.2: Procedures of NSGA-II and SPEA2.
max min where, fk and fk are the maximum and the minimum function values of k -th objective function in P .
2 Calculate the convergence metric by averaging the normalized distance for all points in A: C (P t ) =
| A| i=1
di
|A|
(6.17)
The value of C (P t ) is smaller, the optimized results are closer to the reference set. The convergence metric represents the distance between the current non-dominated set and the reference set; therefore the convergence is better when this value is smaller. The spacing metric S (P t ), or called diversity metric, can be calculated as: S (P t ) = 1 |A| 1 149
| A|
i=1
d di
(6.18)

where
| A| k m=1
di = min
j =1
|fm (ai ) fm (aj )| ,
ai , aj A, i, j = 1, 2, . . . , |A|
Here, d denotes the averaging value of di which stands for the distance between point pi and the nearest adjacent point. In this sense, the spacing metric indicates the normalized variation of this distance. If the spacing metric equals to 0, which means the points on the Pareto front are uniformly distributed. Normally, the distribution is acceptable when the value of d is lower than 0.05.
6.3.5
Comparison between NSGA-II and SPEA2
Mathematical Model Problems In order to test the performance of different multi-objective genetic algorithms, various mathematic optimization problems were proposed, such as SCH problem [146], KUR problem [164], POL problem [165], ZDT problems [157], etc. Among them, the ZDT problems proposed by Zitzler (the proposer of SPEA2) and Deb (the proposer of NSGA-II) in 2000 are the most widely accepted test problems, which includes 5 well-designed highly nonlinear problems. Since the last one is designed especially for the effect of binary encoding, it will not be adopted in the present thesis where real encoding is used. The denition of the functions are listed in Table 6.1. In this table, the dimension n stands for the number of input variables, i.e. the number of design variables. The dimension of 30 for the rst three problems and 10 for the last problem indicate these problems are all high dimensional and complicated. All these problems are dened as minimization problems with 2 objectives. According to the denitions of F2 (x) in both ZDT1 and ZDT2 problems, F2 (x) is an increasing function of the intermediate functiong (x), which has the minimum value when g (x) = 1. Therefore, the real Pareto front can be obtained by setting g (x) = 1.. Test Results The evolution starts with a randomly generated initial population with size of 100. The generation number of evolution is set to 200 which can ensure the results fully converged according to the experiences. The crossover rate and the mutation rate are set to 0.9 and 0.033, respectively. At the moment, open source codes form Deb and Zitzler are used in this comparison. 150
Table 6.1: Mathematic test problems for MOGA Name Dimension (n) Variable range Objective Function (minimized) F1 (x) = x1 ZDT1 30 [0,1] F2 (x) = g (x) 1
n
F1 /g (x) xi /(n 1)
g (x ) = 1 + 9
i=2
F1 (x) = x1 ZDT2 30 [0,1] F2 (x) = g (x) 1 (F1 /g (x))2

n
g (x ) = 1 + 9
i=2
xi
/(n 1)
F1 (x) = x1 ZDT3 30 [0,1] F2 (x) = g (x) 1

n
F1 /g (x) xi /(n 1)
x1 sin(10F1 ) g (x )
g (x ) = 1 + 9
i=2
x1 [0, 1] ZDT4 10 xi [5, 5] i = 2, . . . , n
F1 (x) = x1 F2 (x) = g (x) 1 (F1 /g (x))2

n
g (x) = 1 + 10(n 1) +
i=2
xi x2 i 10 cos(4xi )
151

The test results are illustrated in Figure 6.3, where the red circles and blue squires denote the results of NSGA-II and SPEA2, respectively. As can be seen, both the NSGA-II results and SPEA2 results can converge to the real Pareto Front for all test problems. However, the computation of NSGA-II is about 3 times faster than that of SPEA2 in our practical implementations. The same conclusion is also indicated by Hiroyasu et al. [166] in their application. Bui et al. [167] tested the performance of NSGAII and SPEA using ZDT1-ZDT3 problems with small noises, and concluded that NSGA-II usually got better results during the evolution. Moreover, it is found that NSGA-II algorithm gains more attentions in public released documents and is also employed in some commercial robust optimization software, such as iSIGHT and modeFRONTIER. Based on summarizing the comparison results and information above, NSGA-II is chosen as the optimization method in the present thesis.
(a) Pareto front of ZDT1
(b) Pareto front of ZDT2
(c) Pareto front of ZDT3
(d) Pareto front of ZDT4
Figure 6.3: The real Pareto fronts of ZDTs problems.
152
6.4. COUPLED METHOD WITH APPROXIMATION MODEL
6.4 Coupled Method with Approximation Model

During the optimization process, the computational cost is determined mainly by the evaluations of fi (x), gj (x) and hk (x). For mathematical problems, these values can be easily obtained from a formula. However, for practical engineering problems, they are usually evaluated by numerical simulations which are computationally quite expensive. A typical way to reduce the cost is using some approximation models to replace numerical simulations to evaluate the objectives. The mostly often used approximation methods in engineering includes the Response Surface Method, the Kriging Method, Articial Neural Network, etc. [168]. The approximation quality of response surface and Kriging model heavily depend on the property of the function being approximated. They often fail for strong non-linear problems. On the other hand, articial neural networks show an excellent capability of non-linear mapping in numerous applications, which leads to their use in various engineering elds.
6.4.1 Articial Neural Network

An articial neural network is a system based on the operation of biological neural networks. In other words, it is an emulation of biological neural system. One of the most widely used articial neural networks, namely Back Propagation Neural Network (BPNN), is employed in the present research. The basic structure of BPNN, schematically depicted in Figure 6.4, usually consists of a series of neural layers which simulate the inner connections between variables. Each layer is composed of several elementary processing units, called nodes. The rst layer connects all the inputs, whereas the last layer connects the outputs. Between these two layers, one or several hidden layers are generated. Before an ANN can be used for prediction, it has to be feeded rstly with some information about the real physical model. This feeding process is called training. For BPNN, the training process basically involves two phases: forward phase and backward phase [169]. In the forward phase, all the inputs of a layer are connected to each node of this layer through a weighting factor. The summation of all the contributions with in addition a bias value is introduced in a sigmoidal transfer function. The output of this function will be treated as the inputs for the nodes in the next layer. Then the signal is propagated in the same way through hidden layers up to the output layer. The output of the k th node in the (t + 1)th layer can be 153

calculated as follows: yk (t + 1) = fk (xk (t + 1)) = fk
Nt j =1
where, yk (t) is the output of the k th node in the tth layer, xk (t) is the input of the same node. Nt is the number of nodes in layer t, j = 1, . . . , Nt . k (t) denotes the bias function of the k th node in the tth layer. fk is the transfer function. The choice of transfer function may strongly inuence complexity
wjk (t)yj (t) + k (t + 1)
(6.19)
Figure 6.4: Example of the conguration of BPNN.
and performance of neural networks. Duch and Jankowski [170] gave an excellent survey of more than 40 exiting neural transfer functions, for instance, the most widely used linear function (Figure 6.5(a)), piecewise linear function (Figure 6.5(b)), threshold function (Figure 6.5(c)), sigmoidal function (Figure 6.5(d)), etc. Although, in various applications, some welldesigned transfer functions can benet the performance of ANN, the sigmoidal transfer functions is still the most common one which is found suitable for most applications. The standard sigmoidal transfer function, dened as Eq. 6.21, is adopted in the present research. fk (x)
fk (x)
= =
1 1 + e x fk (x) (1 fk (x))
(6.20) (6.21)
In the backward phase, the error between the output of the neural i network yk and the real output di k is propagated through the output layer backward up to the input layer. The connecting weights and the value of 154
(a) Linear function
(b) Piecewise linear function
(c) Threshold function
(d) Sigmoid function
Figure 6.5: Transfer functions of ANN.
155

bias functions of each layer are adjusted according to the error signals. wjk (t) = k (t + 1) = yk (t + 1)ei k, ei k i = 1 , . . . , Ns (6.22) (6.23)
where, (0, 1) denotes the learning ratio, Ns denotes the number of samples. ei k is the adjusted error, which stands for:
i i ei k = yk (t) (1 yk (t)) (dk yk )
(6.24)
i where di k is the real value of the k th output of the ith sample, yk is the corresponding approximated value of the same output. As can be seen, the adjust value wjk (t) of connecting weights depend on three values: j , ej k and yk (t). wjk (t) is proportional to the error ek and output value yk (t), which means the adjustment is larger where the error is bigger and the node is more active. Learning ratio is used to adjust the training speed, which is usually set to 0.250.75. A large can accelerate the learning process, while a small is benecial to the convergence stability. Therefore, can be put a large initial value at the early training process, then it is decreased gradually along with the training. The learning process of the neural network consists of iterations between these two phases to nd the components of the weight matrices and bias vectors that lead to an output vector that coincides with the prescribed output vector. Least mean-square error of the output is used to evaluate the convergence: Ns No
E=
i=1 k=1
i 2 (di k yk )
(6.25)
where Ns is the number of samples, No is the number of outputs. The approximation accuracy of BPNN not only depends on the number and quality of the training samples, but also depends on the topology of the neural network. The present thesis will not extent to the details of the accuracy investigation of BPNN since it has been discussed extensively. For instance, the related discussion can be found in Rojas [169]. In theory, a back propagation neural network with only one hidden layer can approximated to any continuous functions. However, a full convergence of the learning process does not guarantee that the network correctly mimics the true function. In reference [27], it has been shown the neural network with a topology of 2 hidden layers can give a much better approximation to a certain non-linear function than that with 1 hidden layer. In the present work, a topology with 2 hidden layers is therefore chosen. The number 156

1 2 of nodes in the hidden layers Nh , Nh are set to equilibrate the number of unk unknowns N and the number of available equations N eq :
N eq N unk
= No Ns 1 1 1 2 2 2 = Nh Ni + Nh + Nh Nh + Nh + Nh No + No
(6.26) (6.27)
where, Ni , No denote the number of nodes in input layer and output layer, respectively.
6.4.2 Integration of NSGA-II into Design3D

In the present thesis, NSGA-II is implemented through programming in C++ language and coupled with the articial neural network. The main body of NSGA-II is dened as a class. All genetic operations are dened as subclasses subjected to the class of NSGA-II. In order to use to existing parametric modeler, all the development is based on the Design3D, the optimization module of Fine software package. The code of Design3D is modied to link the developed optimization framework with the CFD solver and the parametric modeler. Hereafter, all optimal calculations is implemented in Design3D environment. Following the framework of Design3D by Pierret [171] and Hirsch et al. [27], a general sequence of optimizations is given below. 1 A parametric model based on the 3D geometry of turbomachinery is built in a versatile geometry modeler, named Autoblade, where the design variables are settled. 2 A database containing the results of all N-S computations performed during the previous and present design processes is generated using Design of Experiments (DoE) method. This database contains the parameters dening the geometry, uid eld properties and total performance of turbomachinery. 3 An ANN is trained using the samples stored in the database, which connects the aerodynamic performance of turbomachinery with design variables. 4 Finding a new design using an optimization procedure where the aerodynamic performance being evaluated by means of the trained neural network. 5 The new geometry provided by the optimization is evaluated by means of the 3D N-S ow solver (EURANUS) and this new sample is added 157

to the database. Then, go to step 3 to start next iteration till the performance of new design evaluated by CFD is consistent with that predicted by ANN. The 3D parametric model of the blade of turbomachinery usually is stacked by several 2D sections. There are two design modes for blade sections are integrated in Autoblade. One mode constructs the blade by independent suction and pressure side surfaces, which is typically adapted to the treatment of turbine blades. The other one uses a camber line and thickness distribution to obtain the suction and the pressure side surfaces. However, for mathematical model problems, there is no geometry exist and CFD simulations performed. Then, all the default geometry parameter are xed and some pseudo variables (x1, x2 . . .) are generated. Two pseudo derived quantities (F1 and F2) as the objectives are evaluated using the formula in Table 6.1 to replace CFD solver during generation of database. Latin hypercube sampling method is employed to generate the initial samples in the database, whose introduction can be found in reference [172].
6.4.3
Test Results of the Coupled Method
In this subsection, the coupled optimization method of NSGA-II and BPNN is veried using ZDT problems. For simplication, only ZDT1 and ZDT2 problems are tested. The same setting for NSGA-II in section 6.3.5 is adopted. A BPNN with 2 hidden layers is used. The input and output nodes are 30 and 2, which equal the numbers of input and output variables, respectively. The numbers of nodes in hidden layers are dened by equation 6.27. Latin hypercube sampling is used to arrange the initial training samples. The number of training iterations is set to 1 105 to ensure the global training error be lower than 0.0001. The denition of the global training error Eg is as follows: Eg =
No k=1
Ek
No
(6.28)
where Ek is the training error for the k th output, which is dened by: Ek =
Ns i=1 i 2 (di k yk ) Ns
(6.29)
As mentioned in last section, the prediction accuracy of the approximation model depends largely the number of training samples. In order to show this inuence clearly, several computations with different number of 158

initial training samples are implemented. The results of ZDT1 and ZDT2 are illustrated in Figure 6.6 and Figure 6.7, respectively. As can be seen, for ZDT1 problem, the results cannot convergence to the real Pareto front, even using 480 initial training samples. Increasing the number of samples, the result is getting closer to a local optimum which is still far away from the real Pareto front in the whole range. The results of the ZDT2 problem are worse compared to that of ZDT1. Figure 6.6(b) and Figure 6.8(b) show the detailed views of the results in the range [-0.15, 0.05]. It is clearly seen that many points cluster in a small range close to the boundary of F 1 = 0, and most of them are out of the correct lower bound F 1 = 0.
(a) Full view
(b) Detailed view of the local zone
Figure 6.6: Pareto front of ZDT1 problem using coupled optimization method. Pareto front: the real Pareto front calculated using formula. NSGA2: the results are calculated using coupled optimization method. DoE: the DoE method used to generate the initial samples.
Figure 6.8 shows the convergence and spacing metrics of ZDT problems. The convergence curve shows the effect of the samples number on the convergence. Increasing samples number, the convergence is improved. However, when the samples number is over 120, the decrease of residual is small with the increase of the samples number. There are two reasons for this problem. The rst one is the prediction error of the neural network, which is due to insufcient information feeded to the neural network. This prediction error, also called generalization error, exits in any approximation models. Note that, it should be distinguished from the training error which only indicates the approximation level to the training samples. Each training sample covers only a part of the real physical problem. If the predicted points are outside 159
(a) Full view
Figure 6.7: Pareto front of ZDT2 problem using ANN.
(a) Zdt1
(b) Zdt2
Figure 6.8: Convergence and spacing metrics.
160

of that part covered by the set of training samples, the generalization error may be very large. That is the reason why many points in Figure 6.6 and Figure 6.7 have negatives values of F 1. According to the famous no free lunch theory [173], the more information training samples can provide about the real problem, the more accurate will approximation model become. However, for practical engineering optimization based on CFD simulations, it is impossible to use a huge number of training samples. Moreover, if these samples are far away of the Pareto front, then little information about the Pareto front can be fed to the neural network. Hence, the key issues are how to take the fully advantage of useful information from a reasonable number of samples and how to improve the distribution of samples in the design space. The second reason is the defect of the selection principle of crowding distance which is based on the cubic distance to the adjacent points. However, this cubic distance is quite sensitive to the prediction error for strong non-linear problems. Taking ZDT problems for instance, the value of F 2 increases quite fast when F 1 is close to 0. Then, the points close to the boundary, which have a larger crowding distance, will get more opportunity to survive to the next generation. Along with the evolution, more and more points will cluster in a small range. The diversity of individuals is lost which leading to a local optimum. In order to expose these two factors more clearly, two modied ZDT problems with lower dimensions of 3 in design space, named ZDT problems, are introduced. The denitions of the objectives are still kept the same as that in the original ZDT problems. Figure 6.9 shows the real Pareto front of ZDT problems where the red circles denote the results using exact evaluations by formula. It can be seen that the Pareto fronts of the ZDT problems are same to that of ZDT problems. It is no doubt that using the exact evaluation, NSGA-II can obtain the real Pareto front. Since the number of input variables of ZDT problems are small, the full factorial factor method can be used to generate the initial training samples. Four discrete levels of 2, 3, 4 and 5 are used for each variables leading to 8, 27, 64, and 125 samples, respectively. Figure 6.10 and Figure 6.11 show the results of ZDT using the coupled method under different number of training samples. As can be seen, the results of ZDT problems are much closer to their Pareto fronts than that of ZDT problems even with a small number training samples for ANN. If using only 8 samples, the difference between the optimized results and the real Pareto front are quite large. It can be easily explain that two discrete levels only can represent a linear function of the variable. The non-linear information of ZDT problems is not included in the training samples. Increasing the samples number to 27, the real Pareto front can be reached, which indicates that 161
(a) Pareto front of ZDT1
(b) Pareto front of ZDT2
Figure 6.9: Pareto front of ZDT problems.
a certain number of samples is the basis of the convergence of optimization. Hence, the rst reason discussed above is conrmed. However, it still can be found that many points still locate at a small range of F 1, which suggests the inuence of the second reason.
(a) Full view
Figure 6.10: Pareto front of ZDT1 .
Figure 6.12 and Figure 6.17 show the effect of DoE methods on the optimized results with same samples number of 125, which actually present the inuence of the distribution of initial training samples on the optimization results. Five DoE methods are compared, including Random waking, Latin Hypercube, Full factorial factor, D-optimal and Continuous method. The detail description of these methods can be found in [172] and [89]. As 162
(a) Full view
Figure 6.11: Pareto front of ZDT2 .
can be seen, the difference between the optimization results using different DoE methods are quite small, excepting in the small range close to the boundary. The full factorial factor method and D-optimal give the best results, while the performance of Latin hypercube method and continuous method are not satised. It should be noted that this conclusion is only for the problems with few input variables. And the computational cost of D-optimal method is much higher than that of other methods. Therefore, it is suggested to use full factorial factor method when the number of design variables is small. For the problem with moderate number of design variables (510), D-optimal method can be considered as an alternative method. While, for the problem with larger number of design variables, only Latin hypercube method or the basic random walk method can be used. Figure 6.14 shows the effects of DoE methods on the convergence and spacing metrics. It is seen from this gure that the results using Full Factorial method, Latin Hypercube method and D-optimal method didnt show any advantage to the result using Random method. However, it should be noted that few extreme points have great inuence on the convergence and spacing metrics due to the domination of F 2 value in metrics measurement. Therefore, when the noise of prediction error is large, the convergence and spacing metrics cannot represent the real performance of optimizations. To summarize the test results shown above, the number of samples has great inuence on the prediction accuracy of ANN, which must be large enough to insure the accuracy of ANN prediction. The distribution of the initial training samples also has inuence on the results. If there is no 163
(a) Full view
Figure 6.12: Effect of DoE on optimized results of ZDT1 .
(a) Full view
Figure 6.13: Effect of DoE on optimized results of ZDT2 .
164
6.5. IMPROVING STRATEGIES
(a) ZDT1
(b) ZDT2
Figure 6.14: Effect of DoE on convergence and spacing metrics of ZDT .
any prior knowledge about the location of the optimal set, usually the uniform distribution generated by some DoE methods is preferred. When the samples number and the distribution have been determined, the robustness of NSGA-II to the prediction error is the key inuential factor to the optimization results. Therefore, it is must be improved to eliminate the inuence of ANN prediction error. The last but not the least, the predication of approximation model still needs to be improved. Some new approximation models based on statistical theory have been developed and applied successfully in some applications in recent years. For instance, the Support Vector Machines (SVM) has been found superior to ANN in some cases with small number of samples [174, 175]. However, the effect of SVM on the approximation of aerodynamic design still need lots of investigations to verify than will be the future work in following projects.
6.5 Improving Strategies

In this section, several improving strategies are proposed and implemented on the optimization code developed. The effects of these strategies on the optimization results are presented below.
6.5.1 Improved Crowding Distance

In NSGA-II, as illustrated in Figure 6.1 and equation 6.7, the crowding distance of individual j is the cuboid length between objective values of the two adjacent individuals. In order to show the drawback of this selection principle clearly, a simplied example of the ZDT1 problem is presented 165

below. Figure 6.15 shows fteen points extracted from the current Pareto front after several generations. Each point corresponds to a individual in the population. As can be seen, several points cluster in a small range close to F1 = 0. Supposing the population size is 11, then 5 individuals will be removed and the remaining 11 individuals will survive to the next generation.
Figure 6.15: Example of ith generation of population. The points are indexed as 1:16 from left to right.
In Figure 6.16(a), the crowding distance of each point is calculated according to the original denition. The selection operator is implemented, then the next generation of the Pareto front is illustrated in Figure 6.16(b) where the points removed are denoted by red squires. While, for minimization problem, the aim of optimization is to nd the value of all objectives as small as possible. It can be seen that for points in the red dashed box F 2 increases greatly whereas F 1 is almost constant, while F 1 of these points almost keep constant with respect to the variation of F 2. For the points in the blue dashed box, the variations of F 1 and F 2 are of comparable size. For a minimization problem, if an objective is constant with respect to the other in a part of the Pareto front, points in these areas are less interesting. However, due to the rapid increase of F 2, the crowding distances of the points in red dashed box are larger than that of points in blue dashed box. As a result, the less interesting points are kept, while the interesting points are abandoned. The fundamental reason to this drawback is the original crowding distance ignores the existing internal relationship among objectives. In order to eliminate this drawback, a prole factor is imposed to the crowding distance to balance the contribution of each objective to the crowding distance, 166
(a) Histogram of original crowding distances
(b) Selected resutls using original crowding distance
Figure 6.16: Selection process using the original crowding distance. The points in Figure b is indexed of 1:16 from left to right. The red squares denote the points are removed. The crowding distances of the boundary points are set to innity.
which is dened as below:

Cj = j Cj M
(6.30) (6.31)
j =
i=1
(Fij )max (Fij )min
Fij +1 Fij 1
where, Cj is the improved crowding distance of the j th individual, j and Cj denote the corresponding prole factor and the original crowding distance respectively. (Fij )max and (Fij )min are the maximum and minimum values of objective i of all individuals in the same front level with individual j . The value of improved crowding distance and the updated selected results are illustrated in Figure 6.17(a) and Figure 6.17(b). As can be seen, the results using improved crowding distance are more reasonable. The related spacing metric is decreased from 0.34 to 0.33. This improving strategy is applied to the ZDT and ZDT problems with results shown in Figures 6.186.21. For the low dimensional problems, great improvements has been found when comparing to Figure 6.10 and 6.11. Only few points are out of the correct bounds. Figure 6.20 shows the comparison of convergence and spacing metrics of ZDT problems between the improved method and the original method. It is clearly seen that the residual is decreased greatly by using the improved method. However, due to the inuence of few extreme points close to the boundary of F 1 = 0, the spacing metric using the improved method
167
(a) Histogram of improved crowding distances
(b) Improved selected results
Figure 6.17: Improved selection process using improved crowding distance. The points in Figure b is indexed of 1:16 from left to right. The crowding distances of the boundary points are set to innity.
(a) Full view
Figure 6.18: Optimized resutls of ZDT1 problems using the improved crowding distance.
168
(a) Full view
Figure 6.19: Optimized results of ZDT2 problems using the improved crowding distance.
is increased greatly.
(a) ZDT1
(b) ZDT2
Figure 6.20: Convergence and spacing metrics of ZDT problems.
For the high dimensional problems, the effect is weak so that the optimized results still cannot converge to the Pareto front. The reason can be understood from Figure 6.21. As can be seen, most of the points are far beyond the correct range, which indicates that the prediction of ANN is quite poor for a high dimensional problem. It also indicates that the improved crowding distance has effect only when the prediction error is not quite large. So the prediction accuracy of ANN must be improved. However, there are several points do escape from the local optimum, which gives the potential possibility of further improvements. 169
(a) ZDT1
(b) ZDT2
Figure 6.21: Optimized results of ZDT problems using the improved crowding distance. Latin hypercube method is used to generated 120 initial training samples.
6.5.2
Coarse-to-ne Iteration
As mentioned in the last section, the second reason is that the insufcient quantity and the quality of training samples for ANN. Actually, the quality has more improving potentials than the quantity since the computational labor is the shackles of the latter. Nain and Deb [176] proposed a coarse-to-ne approaching model based on NSGA-II and articial neural network. According to their strategies, the evolution process is separated into several segments which are composed of a certain number of generations. In each segment, the individuals of the rst few generations are evaluated by CFD simulations to provide an initial approximation of the Pareto front. Then an articial neural network trained by the existing points is employed to predict objectives in the following generations of each segment. The same sequence will be implemented for the following segments. Then, with the proceeding of the segments the locations of the training samples are approaching the Pareto front and the approximation accuracy of the neural network is improved. Following this coarse-to-ne strategy, the Pareto-optimal front can be reached. A practical application of B-spline curve tting problem with 40 input variables and 2 output objectives was presented and more than 10000 exact simulated runs are needed. Whereas, this strategy is not so efcient since only about 32% computation labor is saved. Cunha et al [177, 178] improved Nain and Debs method with a local approximation strategy reducing further computation time with about 10% for ZDT problems [157]. However, these methods are still computationally expensive for those engineering applications which 170

are based on CFD simulations. In fact, there exists a noticeable problem that the model going to be approximated is not the real physical model in the whole objective space, but the projection of the physical model on the Pareto front surface (or curve). From this point of view, the information from any points not belonging to the Pareto front is redundant information. However, as the Pareto front of real practical problems cannot be known beforehand, it has to start from the certain number of samples with random or specic distribution. In most cases, these samples will not be close the optimal solutions by coincidence. And the situation is the same for the individuals of the rst few generations which take much local information rather than that of the Pareto front. Hence, it would be inefcient if too much computational efforts are spent on evaluations of these individuals. This is the reason why the Debs strategy [176] still needs a large number of samples in their engineering applications. In fact, they just approximated the real physical model in the whole objective space indeed. In order to accelerate the convergence to the Pareto front, an improving strategy is proposed, which is similar to that used by Pierret [26] in single optimizations. Firstly, a coarse approximation model is trained by some training samples with an uniform distribution or other specic distributions. Then all evolutions during the optimization will be performed based on the prediction of this model. Taking advantage of the evolution process of genetic algorithms, the individuals will approach quickly to the probable region where Pareto front maybe located. Then these new points which take more information about Pareto front could be used to rene the approximation model. Avoiding confusion with the inner iteration of evolution, the renement iteration of the approximation model is called global design iteration. After renement, a new optimization evolution is launched and all evolutions are performed based on the rened model. With the proceeding of iterations between renements and optimizations, the evolution results will converge to the real Pareto front gradually. While, different to the single optimization, some methods have to be used to chose some specic results to launch CFD simulations. A Multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) strategy is proposed in the present thesis to handle this problem, which is described below in detail. Multi-criteria Decision Making According to the iteration strategy described above, after each optimization run, some specic solutions are chosen to be evaluated by CFD simulations and the related results will be added into the training database 171

to feed more information to BPNN. For single objective optimizations, the iteration is easy to implement since only one solution is available after optimization. However, different to single objective optimization, the results of multi-objective is a set of alternative solutions. How many solutions should be chosen and which solutions should be chosen still are not clear. It is obviously that the more points are chosen, the more information can be obtained, but also the more computational cost is needed. There must exist a balanced value of the number of samples chosen. Since this question is a big issue which needs many more investigations, it will not be discussed in the present thesis. For the present research, only one solution is chosen in optimization results which leads to a multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) problem. Theoretically, this point could be any point of the current Pareto front and different MCDM strategies have different effects. However, the aim of improving strategy is to make the points approach the Pareto front as quickly as possible. A natural idea is to choose the point in the current Pareto front with the largest distance to the most inferior solution. It should be noted that the most inferior solution is the one with maximum values for all objectives in the whole population, which usually is located far away from the Pareto front. Figure 6.22 illustrates an example of the most inferior solution and the result of MCDM. In this gure, the maximum values of F 1 and F 2 are 1 and 1.2, and the most inferior solution is thus (1, 1.2). In reference to the membership function concept in fuzzy set theory [179], a partial order sorting can be implemented by the value of membership: j i = Fi,max Fij , Fi,max Fi,min
M
Fi,min Fij Fi,max j i
j =
i=1 N M
j i
j =1 i=1
where, is the membership value of individual j , N and M denote the population size and the number of objectives respectively, Fi is the value of ith objectives, j is the normalized membership value. This strategy is also found being used in references [180] and [181]. The ow chart of the coupled optimization framework including global design iterations is illustrated in Figure 6.23, and this framework is veried by ZDT problems again. The optimization results of ZDT2 problem with 2 iterations are presented in Figure 6.24, with the convergence and 172

spacing metrics shown in Table 6.2. It is seen that from the gure and the table, great improvements have been obtained for the results of both the coupled methods using the original NSGA-II and the improved NSGA-II after only two iterations. The advantage of the improved NSGA-II is obvious over the original NSGA-II. However, there are still several points out of correct left boundary. An extra control strategy for boundary points will be discussed in the next subsection.
Figure 6.22: Example of Fuzzy MCDM.
Table 6.2: Convergence and Spacing metrics
Methods coupled method coupled method (2 global iterations) improved coupled method improved coupled method (2 global iterations)
Convergence metric 2.23675 0.53206 2.42919 0.21028
Spacing metric 0.04056 0.05711 0.05813 0.07652
Boundary Control According to the selection principle of NSGA-II, the boundary points of each generation will be imposed the largest value of crowding distance to ensure them to survive to the next generation, so the prediction of the 173
Figure 6.23: Global ow chart of the optimization framework.
174
Figure 6.24: Improved results of ZDT2 using coarse-to-ne iterations.
boundary is quite important. In order to improve the prediction accuracy of the boundary, all the extreme points of each global design iteration will also be evaluated by CFD simulations and added into the training database. Then, for the problem with n objectives, n + 1 CFD computations should be launched in one global design iteration. Figure 6.25 shows the boundary points of the optimized results of ZDT1 problem in six global iterations, where the old boundary points and new boundary points are denoted by black dots and hollow star respectively. This gure shows the convergence history of boundaries clearly. After 6 iterations, new boundary points are quite close to the bounds of the real Pareto front. The difference between the old boundary point and new boundary point for each boundary can be used as the stop criterion. If this difference is lower than a small value, for instance 0.5%, this boundary can be considered as converged. Then the boundary point at this boundary will not be evaluated by CFD simulations in following global iterations. All the points exceeding this boundary during the evolution are unrealistic and abandoned, and the same number of new points are generated randomly to keep the population size. It should be noted that, the aim of boundary control is to restrict all solutions into the correct range, which can accelerate the convergence of global iterations. However, this strategy has little effect on the approximation on the prole of Pareto front. Usually, if the real Pareto front is a smooth curve (for two objectives), for instance a quadratic curve, it is easy to get the converged solutions. However, if the real Pareto is far away from a quadratic curve, for instance a multi-segment curve, it will need a large number of global iterations to capture exactly the inner boundary of each 175
(a) Iteration 1
(b) Iteration 2
(c) Iteration 3
(d) Iteration 4
(e) Iteration 5
(f) Iteration 6
Figure 6.25: Convergence history of boundary points. Black dots denote the boundary points obtained in last global iterations. Red stars denote the boundary points obtained in the current global iterations.
176
6.6. SUMMARY
segment. A further improved boundary control strategy can be as follows. When all boundary points have converged, the points located at the middle positions between boundary points and the MCDM solution are evaluated in following iterations, instead of the boundary points themselves. Then the prediction accuracy at the middle range between boundary points and the MCDM solution are enhanced. For the ZDT1 problem, 10 global iterations are needed with 150 exact evaluations performed in total including 120 evaluations are for initial training database. For ZDT2, 20 global iterations are needed with 180 exact evaluation performed. Figure 6.26 and Figure 6.27 show the results of different number of iterations, where BC in the legend denotes boundary control. As can be seen, the frame using improved NSGA-II and coarse-tone iteration can get the well converged Pareto front. Figure 6.28 shows the convergence and spacing metrics using coarse-to-ne iterations and boundary control strategy. The convergence residuals reach to 0.013 and 0.007 for ZDT1 and ZDT2 problems respectively. Although, the spacing metrics of ZDT1 and ZDT2 decreased to 0.03 and 0.048 respectively, they are still lower than the acceptable value of 0.05.
(a) Full view
(b) Detailed view in the local zone
Figure 6.26: Pareto front of ZDT1 problems using the improved crowding distance, coarse-to-ne iterations and boundary control. BC: boundary control.
6.6 Summary
A coupled optimization method using NSGA-II and ANN is developed in this chapter. The test results of standard mathematical model problems 177
(a) Dull view
(b) Detailed view in the local zone
Figure 6.27: Pareto front of ZDT2 problems using the improved crowding distance, coarse-to-ne iterations and boundary control. BC: boundary control.
(a) ZDT1
(b) ZDT2
Figure 6.28: Convergence and spacing metrics of ZDT problems using the improved coupled method with boundary control
178
6.6. SUMMARY
show the prediction error of ANN and crowding distance selection principle of NSGA-II have great inuences on the optimization results. An improved crowding distance and a coarse-to-ne iteration strategy are proposed to improve the coupled method. From the comparison of the test results, it is seen that great improvements have been obtained. Based on these validations, the improved robust optimization platform can be used in practical design in the following chapter.
179
180
Chapter 7
Application of Robust Optimization on An Axial Compressor

In the previous chapter, a multi-objective optimization framework for the aerodynamic design is developed. Three strategies are proposed to improve the coupled effect of NSGA-II and BPNN. In the present chapter, this optimization framework will be veried through a practical industrial application: aerodynamic optimization on an axial transonic compressor NASA Rotor37. A multi-points optimization with three optimization objectives is performed rstly as the verication. After that, a robust optimization of rotor 37 under an uncertainty boundary condition is performed, where a non-intrusive probabilistic collocation method is adopted to represent the stochastic properties of the uid eld. Several different optimization strategies are adopted, including a single objective optimization using weighting functions, a single objective optimization using a combined objective and a multi-objective optimization based on the Pareto optimal concept. The discussions mainly focus on the difference of the results from different optimization strategies. 181
CHAPTER 7. APPLICATION ON ROTOR37
7.1 Design Background of the NASA Rotro37

Rotor37 is a transonic axial compressor designed by NASA Lewis Research Center and initially tested as a part of a four stages axial ow compressor. It is a well documented test case and widely used for validations of ow solvers. The rotor is composed of 36 Multiple-Circular-Arc blades with the inlet hub-tip diameter ratio of 0.7, the blade aspect ratio of 1.19 and the tip solidity of 1.29. A well known feature of rotor37 is that the midspan region is dominated by a strong shock attached at the blade leading edge. This shock interacts strongly with the suction side boundary layer which may separate either up to the trailing edge after the shock. A strong radial movement is also observed in the separated area from the hub to the tip wall [182]. Strong Interactions occur in blade passages, such as the corner stall, the shock/boundary layer interaction, the tip vortex and the tip leakage secondary interaction. Note that, since the experimental weighting process neglects the high loss regions in the annulus boundary layers, usually the predicted efciencies based on the data from all grid points of CFD simulations should be about 2% below the test data [183]. The main congurations of rotor37 are listed in Table 7.1. More details can be found in reference [182].
Table 7.1: General congurations of rotor37
Parameters Rotation speed Hub radial Shroud radial inlet total pressure inlet total temperature nominal mass ow rate nominal pressure ratio
Value 17188 1752 2566 101800 288 20.7 2.012
Unit rpm cm cm Pa K kg/s -
7.1.1
Application Platform
All optimizations are performed in the FineTM /Design3D environment of NUMECA, in which the developed optimization framework is integrated. A brief description of the Design3D has been presented in the previous section 6.4.2. 182
7.1. DESIGN BACKGROUND OF THE NASA ROTRO37
7.1.2 Parametric Model

A parametric model of the blade geometry is needed for optimization, which is built using the parametric modeling moduleAutoblade. Two cubic Bsplines with 5 control points are used to represent the hub and shroud lines separately, as illustrated in Figure 7.1(a). Night sections stacking at the center of gravity in spanwize are used for blade modeling. Each section is dened by a central camber line with 5 control points to control the turning angle, which is shown in Figure 7.1(b). The positions of the control points on two Bezier lines, 5 for suctions side and 4 for pressure side, are used to build the blade thickness, the leading edge, the trailing edge and the wedge angles, as shown in Figure7.1(c).
(a) Hub and shroud
(b) Central camber line
(c) Thickness control
(d) 3D prole
Figure 7.1: Parametric model of rotor37 blade.
A simple Bezier model based on 2 angles on hub and tip respectively is adopted for the blade sweep. The same Bezier model is used to model the tangential curve of blades. Figure 7.2(a) and Figure 7.2(b) show the congurations of the swept angles and curved angles. In total, there are 204 parameters in the parametric model. 183
(a) Swept angles
(b) Curved angles
Figure 7.2: Swept model and curved model of blades. Z: axial direction. : circumferential direction
7.1.3
Numerical Model and Mesh
In order to save computational time, a coarse mesh with 83907 cells is used in CFD simulations during the optimization. Whereas, the performance of the optimal result will be veried using a ne mesh with 615519 cells. The full 3D RANS simulations are performed in the FineTM /Turbo software package which solves the time dependent Reynolds averaged NavierStokes equations through the nite volume method. The One-equation low Reynolds number model of Spalart-Allmaras is employed. A secondorder centered scheme with second and fourth order articial dissipation is adopted for spatial discretization. The time marching is performed with an explicit four-stage Runge-Kutta scheme, coupled with local time stepping and implicit residual smoothing technologies. The distribution of total pressure and total temperature with ow direction are imposed at the inlet. The outlet static pressure is 110000 Pa. The rotating speed is xed on 17188 rpm. The CFD simulation usually converges to -6 in around 800 iterations. Using single Opteron 8387 (2.9GHz) processor, the CPU time is 8 minutes for the coarse mesh, 64 minutes for the ne mesh. The CPU time spent on the approximation model building and optimizations will be presented in following sections. 184
7.2. MULTIPLE WORKING POINTS OPTIMIZATION
7.2 Multiple Working Points Optimization

7.2.1 Setting Statement
The main aim of this optimization is to increase the efciencies of rotor37 at two working points while keeping the choked ow unchanged, which leads to a three-objective optimization problem. Two swept angles and two curved angles are chosen as design variables. The rst point works with 98% choked mass ow (98%CMF) rate and another one works with 100% choked mass ow (100%CMF) rate. The outlet pressure related to these two working points are 114.2 kPa and 90 kPa, respectively. The population size and the maximum generation number are set to 100 and 200, respectively. The crossover rate and the mutation rate are kept the same values to that in the last chapter, 0.9 and 0.033. An initial training database is built using full factorial factor method [172], including 36 samples of different blade geometries which have been evaluated by CFD simulations in advance. For each sample, 2 CFD simulations are performed since the performance of two working points is needed. The design variables and the corresponding discrete levels are listed in Table 7.2. In order to evaluate the performance of multi-objective optimization, a single objective optimization using weighting functions is also performed for comparison. Equal weights are set to all three objectives. To ensure the optimization convergence, a number of 30 global optimization iterations have been performed for the single objective optimization, which needs 60 extra CFD simulations in total. While, for multi-objective optimization, 4 new samples are evaluated each time, then 8 CFD simulations are needed in one global iteration. Therefore, 20 global optimization iterations have been performed which require 160 extra CFD simulations.
Table 7.2: Discrete levels of design variables (Unit:degree).
Variables 1 2 1 2
Range [5 , +5 ] [5 , +5 ] [3 , +3 ] [3 , +3 ]
Discrete level 3 3 2 2
Property meridional swept at hub meridional swept at tip tangential curved at hub tangential curved at tip
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7.2.2
Optimization Results
Figure 7.3 shows the convergence curves and the spacing metrics. Note that, since the real Pareto front cannot be known beforehand, the convergence metric is modied as the distance between the ith iteration results to the 20th iteration results. It is seen from the convergence curves that the global residual is decreased from 0.17 of the rst iteration to 0.04 of the 18th and 19th iterations. The spacing metric uctuates around 0.025 during the whole iteration process. Hence, it can be considered that the optimization has been converged. The optimization results of the rst iteration, the 18th iteration, the 19th iteration and the 20th iteration are illustrated in Figure 7.4. As can be seen, the results of the rst iteration is still far away from the nal results. While, after about 18 global iterations, the optimization results changed little with more iterations, then the iteration process is considered as being nished.
Figure 7.3: Convergence and spacing metrics
Figure 7.4: Pareto front of multiobjective optimization. CFM: choked mass ow rate. Delta CMF: variation of the choked mass ow rate. Efciency(98%CMF): the efciency at the working point with 98% choked mass ow rate. Efciency(100%CMF): the efciency at the working point with 100% choked mass ow rate.
Five typical solutions of the nal results are extracted from the Pareto front, including three extreme solutions and two trade-off solutions: the solution with maximum isentropic efciency with 98% choked 186

mass ow (CMF) the solution with maximum isentropic efciency with 100% choked mass ow the solution with minimum difference of choked mass ow between optimization and initial geometry trade-off solution 1 and 2 with balanced aerodynamic performance of three objectives. The comparison of the design variables among all designs mentioned above are listed in Table.7.3. Two trade-off solutions are quite the same, excepting that the swept angles at hub are different. All the optimization tent to increase the value of 2 to 5 and decrease the value of 2 to -3 , which can improve the performances of all working points. Both of two angles reached the bounds of the variation range. Note that, the variation range is moderately small due to the limitation of the mesh quality. If 2 is over 5 or 2 is lower than -3 , it is found the quality of the mesh generated automatically during the optimization became so poor that the simulation blows up. The variations of 1 and 1 are not the same for different optimizations. Increasing of 1 and 1 will improve the performance of 98%CMF working point, but decrease the performance of 100% CMF working point.
Table 7.3: Comparisons of design variables of the multi-objective optimization results (Unit:degree).
Designs initial geometry max efciency at 98% CMF max efciency at 100% CMF min CMF trade-off 1 trade-off 2
1 0.753 1.715 -3.397 -2.125 -0.215 0.001
2 0.312 5.0 5.0 5.0 4.998 4.657
1 0.260 0.036 -3.0 -0.426 -2.905 -2.262
2 0.654 -3.0 -3.0 1.368 -2.993 -3.0
The performances of these ve solutions are validated using the ne mesh. And the same validations are also performed for the initial design and the result of the single objective optimization. The aerodynamic performance curves of the multi-objective optimization solutions are shown in Figure 7.5. As can be seen, the performance curves of two trade-off 187

designs are quite close to each other which obtain the best aerodynamic performance at all objectives. The averaged increase of efciency is over 1.1% and that of the total pressure ratio is over 1%, while the choked mass ows only decreased less than 0.04%. Although, the design of max efciency 98%CMF gives the highest efciencies in most of the range, but the choked mass ow is decreased signicantly. The total pressure ratio declined rapidly near the choked working point. On the contrary, the choked mass ow of the max efciency 100%CMF design has increased too much, although it gives a good performance of the total pressure ratio in most of the range. The choked mass ow of the design with minimum CMF has increased 0.25% which is much higher than the expected value. This error is due to the difference of the mesh density in optimizations and validations. The optimizations using the ne mesh need a considerable computation time, which will be performed in future work.
Figure 7.5: Aerodynamic performance of multi-objective optimization results.
From the comparison, it can be concluded that for a transonic axial compressor, the backward swept and positive curve would improve the aerodynamic performance. Based on this conclusion, and also the variables value in Table 7.3, a nal design can be obtained with further improvements. The four angles can be valued by 0, 5, -3, -3 in turn. The performance of the nial design is validated by the CFD computation using ne mesh, and compared with the single objective result. The values of the design variables of the single objective optimization are listed in Table 7.4. From this table, it is seen that the design variables of the nal design and the single objective result is quite the same, except the small difference of 188

swept angles at hub. The performance curves of the nial design and that of the single objective optimization result are shown in Figure 7.6. As can be seen, great improvements of efciency and total pressure ratio are also obtained by the single objective optimization. However, the efciency is a little bit lower than that of the nal design and the choked mass ow increased 0.14% which is much larger than the variation of the nal design. Summarizing the comparison presented above leads to the conclusion that the multi-objective optimization methods not only can nd solutions better than that of the single objective optimization method, but also can provide more alternative solutions and more information to designers.
Figure 7.6: Comparison of the aerodynamic performance between the nal design and the single objective optimization result.
Table 7.4: Comparison of design variables between the nal design and the single objective optimization result (Unit:degree).
Designs initial geometry single objective multi-objective (nal)
1 0.753 -0.855 0
2 0.312 5.0 5.0
1 0.260 -3.0 -3.0
2 0.654 -3.0 -3.0
To compare the changes of the blade geometry, 2D proles at three sections, hub, midspan and tip of the blade, are illustrated in Figure 7.7(a) for the initial design and Figure 7.7(b) for the nal design. As can be seen 189

from the comparison, the blade proles are still kept the same since only the curved angle and swept angle are adopted as design variables. And the position of the hub section is unchanged, while the positions of the midspan section and the tip section moved obviously towards the directions of forward curve and backward sweep.
(a) Initial design
(b) Final design
Figure 7.7: Comparison of the blade proles at different spanwise sections.
Two well known features of Rotro37 are the inlet shock and the stall at hub, which involve the most part of the losses. The contour patterns of relative Mach number of 98% choked mass ow rate at three spanwise sections are shown in Figure 7.8 for the initial design and in Figure 7.9 for the nial design. It is seen from the comparison that the shock at 35% span is moved upstream a little, while at 90% span it is oblique towards downstream. And the intensity of the shock is weakened. Figure 7.10 shows the limiting streamline patterns on the suction side of the blade surface. A large stall is found at about half chord distance for the initial design. Close to the outlet corner at the tip, a small spanwisely recirculation ow region is observed. While, for the nal design, this region is vanished and the separation line is oblique towards the outlet. The components of the CPU time spent on CFD simulations, the approximation and the optimization (A&O) in one global iteration are listed in Table 7.5. In this table, 8 8 means one CFD simulation using the coarse mesh costs 8 minutes and 8 CFD simulations are performed in one global iteration. And that 64 means one CFD simulation using the ne mesh costs 64 minutes. The last column of this table suggests the percent 190
(a) At 35% span
(a) At 35% span
(b) At midspan
(b) At midspan
(c) At 90% span
(c) At 90% span
Figure 7.8: Contour patterns and isolines of the relative Mach number at the working point with 98% choked mass ow rate of the initial design.
Figure 7.9: Contour patterns and isolines of relative the Mach number at the working point with 98% choked mass ow rate the optimized nal design.
191
(a) Initial design
(b) Final design
Figure 7.10: Limiting streamline patterns on the suction surface.
of the CPU time spend on the approximation and the optimization (A&O). For the present work, 28.1% of total computational labor is spent on building the approximation model and optimization. However, if the ne mesh is used, this percent will decrease to 4.7% steeply. If the popular size and evolution generation number are reduced by half, these two percents will be reduced to 9.9% and 1.3%, respectively. That means the computational cost is determined mainly by CFD simulations. In other words, the computational labor only depends on the number of training samples which is related to the number of input variables, the number of output objectives and the global iterations. The population size and the number of evolution generations have small impacts on the computational cost, which is quite different to the methods used by Nain and Deb [176] and Poloni et al. [29] where the computational cost increases rapidly with the increase of the population size and the generation number.
Table 7.5: Distribution of the CPU time in one global iteration.
Approximation and optimization(A&O) population generation CPU time size number [min] 50 100 50 100 100 200 100 200 7 25 7 25
CFD simulation mesh CPU time [min] 83907 83907 615519 615519 88 88 64 8 64 8
percent of A&O 9.9% 28.1% 1.3% 4.7%
Table 7.6 shows the comparison of the CPU time cost in optimizations 192
7.3. ROBUST OPTIMIZATION

with and without the approximation model. It can be seen that the CPU time needed by optimizations with the approximation model is almost two orders of magnitude lower than that of optimizations without the approximation model.
Table 7.6: Comparison of the CPU time cost in optimizations with and without the approximation model
Population size 50 100 50 100
Generation number 100 200 100 200
Mesh 83907 83907 615519 615519
CPU time [hour] With Without 24 1333 30 5333 173 10667 179 42666
7.3 Robust Optimization

7.3.1 Uncertainty Statement
The outlet static pressure is supposed to be an uncertainty parameter in a Gaussian distribution with the mean value of 110 kPa and the standard deviation of 4400 Pa, 4% of the mean value. A second order non-intrusive probabilistic collocation method is employed for uncertainty quantication. According to the NIPRCM described in Section 3.7.3, the lower and upper bounds of the outlet static pressure are imposed to 102379 Pa and 117621 Pa, respectively. The corresponding weights and collocation points are listed in Table 7.7. Hence, three CFD simulations with different static pressure at the outlet are needed for the evaluation of each individual in the evolution.
Table 7.7: Collocation points and weights.
Collocation points [Pa] 102379 110000 117621
Weights 0.166667 0.666667 0.166667
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7.3.2
Optimization setting Statement
The aim of optimization is to increase the efciency at design point and minimize the variation of efciency to the outlet static pressure, which leads to a two-objective optimization problem. The settings of the multiobjective genetic algorithm are same to that of the last section. Single objective optimizations using different objective strategies are also performed, which are described as below: 1 Deterministic optimization: the objective is to maximize the efciency of design point with 110000 Pa at outlet. 2 Single objective optimization using weighing functions: the objective is the minimum value of the sum of penalties F : F = P1 + P2 (7.1)
Here, P 1 and P 2 denote the penalties of the mean value of efciencies and the standard deviation . The penalty is dened as follows: P =W Qimp Q Qref
k
(7.2)
where W denotes the weight, Q stands for the values of objective, Qimp and Qref are the imposed values of objectives and reference values for normalization. The idea of this optimization strategy is to transfer two objectives (maximum mean value of the efciency and the minimum standard deviation of the efciency) into one objective through weighting functions. While, the weights is imposed in a soft way by using a penalty function, not by setting a value directly. The parameter k is used to adjust the value of penalty into a reasonable range. The settings of these parameters are listed in Table 7.8
Table 7.8: Settings of the penalty function
For P1 W Qimp Qref k 2 1 0.5 2
For P2 2 1 0.02 2
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3 Single objective optimization using a combined objective:the objective is the maximum value of (/ ); is the mean efciency; is the standard deviation of the efciency. 4 Multi-objective optimization: using multi-objective framework developed in last chapter. Two objectives, one is the mean value , the other is the standard deviation . The design variables are the same as that used in Section 7.2.2, whose ranges and the corresponding discrete levels are listed in Table 7.2. 36 initial training samples are generated by the full factorial factor method.
7.3.3 Optimization Results

The optimization results are listed in Table 7.9, and 2D and 3D geometry proles of the initial design and optimized design are shown in Figure 7.11 Figure 7.14. It can be found that the value of 2 and 2 in different optimizations are almost the same, which are . The main differences are located at 1 and beta1. Three sections of 2D prole of blade at hub, midspan and tip are presented at left side with the corresponding whole 3D congurations of one blade passage presented at right side. Since only curve and sweet of blades are used to control the shock structures and secondary ows, the proles at each section are kept unchanged. The main difference is found only in radial stacking. Consistent changes to 2 and 2 are found in all optimization results, which are backward sweet and positive curve. The changes of 1 and 1 are different for different optimizations. However, their variation amplitudes are small compared with other angles, which indicates the sweep at hub has a small effect on the aerodynamic performance. Due to the positive curve and backward sweet, the positions of the midspan section and the tip section shifted distinctly towards lower right.
Table 7.9: Values of the design variables (Unit: degree).
Designs initial design deterministic optimization single(weighting function) single(combined objective) multi(trade-off)
1 0.753 -1.03 0.635 0.005 -0.542 195
2 0.312 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
1 0.26 -0.64 -2.8 -3.0 -1.291
2 0.654 -3.0 -3.0 -3.0 -2.979
(a) Proles of blade at hub, midspan and tip
(b) 3D model of blade
Figure 7.11: Blade geometry of the initial design.
Figure 7.12: Blade geometry of the trade-off design obtained by the multi-objective optimization.
196
Figure 7.13: Blade geometry of the single objective optimization result using weighting functions.
Figure 7.14: Blade geometry of the single objective optimization result using a combined objective.
197

The comparisons of the aerodynamic performances among the optimized results and the initial design are illustrated in Figure 7.15. As can be seen, all optimization results outperformed the initial design. Two single objective optimizations give the best results, whose standard deviations are smaller than that of the trade-off design and the deterministic optimization result. While, the trade-off design is a little better than the deterministic optimization result. It has to be mentioned that the trade-off design depends on the decision making method. Never the less, different to the situation in the last section, the same total numbers (90) of CFD simulations are performed for all optimizations. That means only 10 global iterations are performed in the multi-objective optimization. Obviously, this is relatively inadequate for the multi-objective optimization. Figure 7.16 shows the convergence and spacing metrics of the multi-objective optimization. From this gure, it is seen that the results of multi-objective optimization are well converged. However, there exits better results which is not reached by the multi-objective optimization. Hence, it still can be concluded that the existing convergence metric should be improved.
Figure 7.15: Comparison of aerodynamic performances of different optimization designs.
Figure 7.16: Convergence and spacing metrics for multi-objective optimization.
The detailed comparisons of the total performances of all optimizations are listed in Table 7.10. The results of two single objective optimizations are quite the same. Although they provide high efciencies and low levels of the standard deviation, the total pressure ratios and the mass ows have decreased compared to the original design. In this sense, the trade-off solution of the multi-objective optimization provides the most feasible result since it increases the efciency 0.98% and the total pressure ratio 0.002 respectively, while the mass ow only increases 0.09 kg/s and the standard deviation decreases by half. 198

Table 7.10: Comparison of the total performances of different optimization designs. MEAN Initial Deterministic Single (weighting) Single (combined) Multi (trade-off) 86.44% 87.37% 87.50% 87.48% 87.42% STD 0.165% 0.126% 0.063% 0.064% 0.108% CMF (kg/s) 20.60 20.71 20.61 20.64 20.69 Pt2/Pt1 2.010 2.016 2.003 2.007 2.012
Getting benet from the Pareto optimal concept, some alternative solutions are also obtained. The Pareto front obtained by the multi-objective optimization is shown in Figure 7.17. Note that, the value in this gure is extracted directly from the optimization process. Since a coarse mesh is used during optimizations, the value of efciency is a little bit lower than that in Table 7.10. From this gure, it can be seen the result of the rst iteration is still far away from the real Pareto front. The standard deviation of some points is out of the reasonable range due to the prediction error. After 8 iterations, the results almost converged to the Pareto front. Never the less, more evolution generations and global iterations are needed for multi-objective which has been emphasized at the beginning of this section.
(a) Full view
Figure 7.17: Pareto front of the multi-objective optimization.
199
7.3.4
Effect of Penalty Setting
For the single objective optimization using weighting functions, the penalty settings of objection functions shown in Eq. 7.2 maybe have inuence on the optimization results. In order to clarify this question, three single objective optimizations using different penalty settings are performed and the optimization results are presented in this section. Penalty setting 1: To keep the maximum value of penalties for all objectives be in the same level (this setting is used in Section 7.3.3). The parameters and the maximum value, the minimum values and the averaged value of the penalty for 36 samples in the initial database are listed in Table 7.11.
Table 7.11: Penalty setting 1. W K Qref min Mean STD 2 2 2 2 0.5 0.02 0.1413899 0.00022 Penalty max 0.1930342 0.1810029
averaged 0.1597975 0.0340682
Penalty setting 2: Using real physical values listed in Table 7.12 as reference values. These values are obtained by Cristian et al. [135] using a 4th order non-intrusive probabilistic collocation method.
Table 7.12: Penalty setting 2. W K Qref min Mean STD 2 2 2 2 1 0.0029 0.035347 0.00022 Penalty max 0.048258 0.1810029
averaged 0.039949 0.0340682
Penalty setting 3: To keep the averaged value of the penalties for all objectives be in the same level. The values of all parameters are listed in Table 7.13. The convergence history curves using different penalty settings are shown in Figure 7.18Figure 7.20. As can be seen, the range of the objective value is inuenced by the penalty setting. However, the convergence behaviors for different settings are almost the same. The optimized solution of the rst iteration is quite close to the nal solution. It is seen from 200

Table 7.13: Penalty setting 3. W K Qref min Mean STD 2 2 2 2 1 0.02 0.035347 0.00022 Penalty max 0.048258 0.1810029
averaged 0.039949 0.0340682
the detailed view in the right side gure that the changes of the objective function are quite small in the following iterations. The nial optimized values of the objectives are listed in Table 7.14. As can be seen, the differences of optimization results using different penalty settings are quite small.
(a) Full view
Figure 7.18: Convergence history using the penalty setting1.
7.3.5 Effect of the Number of Initial Training Samples

According to the discussion in last chapter, the global convergence behavior of optimizations mainly depends on the accuracy of prediction of articial neural network, especially the number and the quality of initial training samples. Using more high-quality training samples, the more information can be feed to ANN, and then the prediction is getting more accuracy. In order to test the inuence of the number of initial training samples on the convergence behavior, three optimization processes using different numbers of initial training samples are performed. The settings of the penalty are the same as that of the penalty setting 1. The convergence curves are 201
(a) Full view
(a) Full view
202
7.4. SUMMARY
illustrated in Figure 7.21. As can be seen, using 6 initial training samples, the residual decreased slowly with global iterations. Increasing the number of initial samples to 10, the best solution will be reached after 4 iterations. While, if the number of initial training samples is increased to 36, the accuracy of prediction of articial neural network increased quickly, hence the optimization result at the rst iteration is already quite close to the best solution. The optimization results using different settings of the
(a) 6 samples
(b) 10 samples
(c) 36 samples
Figure 7.21: Convergence history using different number of initial training samples.
penalty and different numbers of the initial samples are listed in Table 7.14. As can be seen, using a large number of initial training samples can improve the nial optimization result to some extent.
Table 7.14: Comparison of the optimization results using different penalty settings. Penalty setting Number of initial samples 6 10 36 36 36 Polytropic efciency Mean STD 0.8664 0.8663 0.8671 0.8670 0.8670 0.001444 0.000473 0.000033 0.000027 0.000047 Isentropic efciency Mean STD 0.8528 0.8528 0.8536 0.8535 0.8535 0.001609 0.000321 0.000352 0.0003 0.000299
setting 1 setting 2 setting 3
7.4 Summary
Practical applications of the multi-objective optimization framework on the blade design of Rotor 37 are performed. The optimization results of the 203

multiple working point optimization and the robust optimization show the effect of the multi-objective optimization framework. For the multi-point optimization with three objectives, the multi-objective optimization result is found better than that of the single objective optimization using weighting functions. While, for the robust optimization with two objectives, the result of multi-objective optimization shows no superiority than that of the single objective optimization. The penalty setting has small inuence on the nial optimization result. While the number of the initial training samples has large inuence on both the convergence behavior and the optimization result.
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Chapter 8
Conclusions and Perspectives

8.1 Conclusions
The present thesis has been devoted to two research topics which are both related to turbomachinery. In the rst part, the complex internal ows in turbomachinery have been investigated by CFD simulations, including lm cooling jets on a at plate, lm cooling ows in a turbine cascade and 3D unsteady ows in a low speed axial turbine. In the second part, an aerodynamic optimization framework of turbomachinery, based on Multi-objective Genetic Algorithm, Articial Neural Network and CFD simulations, was developed and applied successfully to the aerodynamic optimization of rotro 37.
8.1.1 Numerical Simulations of Complex Flows

The objectives of this part is to give a clear understanding of both the local ow structure nearby the cooling hole and the interaction between cooling jets and the main ow. A simplied model of jets-in-crossow on a at plate and a planar turbine cascade model with cooling holes at the leading edge were employed as simulated models, respectively. Both RANS and DES simulations have been performed on the JICF on a at plate to simulate ows under different blowing ratios. For the lm cooling ow in a turbine cascade, RANS simulations were performed to investigate the inuence 205
CHAPTER 8. CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES

of blowing ratios and cooling hole congurations on the cooling effect and additional losses. All the simulated results obtained in the present thesis have been validated with experimental data. In most cases, the simulated results have good agreements with experimental results. The scientic contributions of this part research mainly are:
1. The 3D ow structure nearby a cooling hole is revealed clearly through numerical simulations on JICF. The existence of a critical ow ratios is found to be related to the stability of the vortex system. The simulated results show the differences of horseshoe vortex legs and the CVP under different blowing ratios. The origin of the secondary CVP is claried through the ow structure analysis. The comparison between simulated results of DES simulations and URANS simulations show the effect of DES on turbulence simulations. It is concluded that the asymmetric structure is stable and the unsteadiness is mainly caused by turbulence.
2. The detailed limiting streamline pattern on the blade surface for slot cooling model is presented. The simulated results reveal the interaction between the cooling jets issued from cooling slots and thy boundary layer on the blade surface, resulting in a large scale separated ow. The interaction has great inuence on the pressure distribution on the blade surface, especially in the leading edge region. The simulated results show the inuence of blowing ratios and cooling hole congurations on the separated ow. The additional losses caused by the cooling jets under different blowing ratios for different cooling models are quantied. These conclusions can be used to guide the engineering design of cooling holes on gas turbines.
3. The NLH method is used to handle the treatment of R/S interactions in a low speed axial turbine. The comparison between the simulated results and experimental data shows the effectiveness of the NLH method, which also indicates that the compressibility of the uid used in simulations has great inuence on simulated results for the low speed ow. The effect of harmonic number used in simulations is presented in the thesis. In general, for a turbine with single R/S interface, 2 harmonics are needed in the simulation. 206
8.1. CONCLUSIONS
8.1.2 Multi-objective Optimization of Aerodynamic Design

The objective of the second part is to develop a coupled optimization framework based on a multi-objective genetic algorithmNSGA-II and the back propagation neural network for the aerodynamic design of turbomachinery. The optimization is based on the Pareto optimal concept to overcome drawbacks of the traditional single objective optimization. The optimization framework developed and several improving strategies are validated by both standard mathematical model problems and practical engineering applications. The scientic contributions of this part research mainly are: 1. The framework is programmed in C++ and integrated into the Desing3D platform. Through the verication of typical mathematical model problems, it is shown that the optimized results using original NSGAII and ANN cannot converge to the real Pareto front. Two reasons for this problem are explained in the thesis. One is the prediction error of BPNN, the other is that the crowding distance selection strategy of NSGA-II is sensitive to small errors. 2. An improved crowding distance is proposed in to adjust the original selection strategy. The simulated results show that the improved selection strategy can obtain more reasonable results. 3. A coarse-to-ne iteration strategy based on a fuzzy multi-criteria decision making method is proposed in the thesis to improve the prediction accuracy of BPNN. In addition, a boundary control method is proposed to improve further the ability to capture the boundary of the Pareto front. The test results of mathematical problems show the effectiveness of improving strategies. 4. The improved aerodynamic optimization framework is applied on the multi working points aerodynamic optimization of rotor37. The Pareto fronts of the multi-objective optimizations are obtained and better results than that of the single objective optimization is found, which indicates the effectiveness of the optimization framework developed. 5. A robust aerodynamic optimization based on non-deterministic CFD simulations and multi-objective optimization is performed. The multiobjective optimization results are compared with that of the original design and single objective optimization in detail. The existing convergence metric of multi-objective optimization is discussed. The convergence analysis suggests that the penalty setting of the single objective optimization using weighting functions has little inuence on 207

optimization results and the convergence behavior, while the number of initial training samples has great inuences on both of that.
8.2 Perspectives
Since the analysis of complex ows in turbomachinery is a large and complex topic, only a small part of this topic can be covered in one thesis. Even for the lm cooling ow and 3D unsteady ow which are simulated in the present thesis, there still are considerable extended analysis should be implemented in future work. The following topics could be good choices: 1. For the JICF on a at plate, a critical blowing ratio of 0.7 exists for the model used in this thesis. An interesting question is that if the critical blowing ratio exists for other hole conguration or not, for instance, a single circular cooling hole on a at plate. How is the inuence of hole congurations on the critical owing ratio? Therefore, a large number of numerical simulations are needed to seek answers to these questions. The stability analysis also should be performed in the following work to provide theoretic supports to the simulated results. 2. Although the NLH method has been proven to be an efcient numerical simulation method for R/S interactions of turbomachinery, it has to be improved to work with some preconditioning methods for low speed ows. Other two unsteady treatments to R/S interactions, the domain scaling method and the phase lagged method, have been used to simulate the ow in the same low speed axial turbine. The simulated results should be compared in detail to evaluate the performances of all these three methods. 3. The prediction accuracy of the approximation model is an important factor which inuences the optimized results of multi-objective optimizations. Efforts could be spent on nding new powerful approximation model. For instance, Support vector machine, which is developed in recent years based on the statistical theory, has been proven to be superior to ANN in considerable applications, especially for cases with a small samples number. Then, the coupled method should be modied to replace ANN with SVM and veried with standard test problems. 4. Robust aerodynamic optimization methodology, based on the uncertainty quantication methods, CFD simulations and multi-objective 208
8.2. PERSPECTIVES
optimization methods, is a state-of-the-art technology. At present, few related documents and little research experiences can be found and refereed to. However, due to the excellent application prospects, considerable efforts should be spent on the exploratory investigation of this methodology. Many interesting problems remain unclear, for instance, the inuence of objective denitions of the robust optimization which is supposed to have great inuences on the optimization results judging from the present applications.
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List of publications
Journal articles
1. X. D. Wang, C. Hirsch, Sh. Kang and C. Lacor. Multi-objective optimization of turbomachinery using improved NSGA-II and approximation model. Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg., revised version submitted, 2010. 2. X. D. Wang, Sh. Kang. Application of polynomial chaos on numerical simulation of stochastic cavity ow. Sci. China Ser. E-Tech. Sci., 53(10):2853-2861, 2010. 3. X. D. Wang, Sh. Kang. Solving stochastic burgers equation using polynomial chaos decomposition . J. Eng. Therm., 31(3):393-398, 2010. (In Chinese) 4. X. D. Wang, Sh. Kang. Nonlinear harmonic method in unsteady numerical simulation on a low speed axial turbine. J. Eng. Therm., 30(6):949-952, 2009. (In Chinese) 5. X. D. Wang, Sh. Kang. Numerical simulation on the slot lm cooling eld at the leading edge of a turbine cascade. J. Eng. Therm., 29(11):1835-1838, 2008. (In Chinese)
Conference proceedings
1. X. D. Wang, Sh. Kang. Numerical Investigation of the Flow Field in a Turbine Cascade with Different Film Cooling Holes at the Leading Edge. In Proceedings of ASME Turbo Expo 2008, Berlin, Germany, June 2008. ASME-GT08-50027. 211
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
2. X. D. Wang, Sh. Kang and K. Yang. Investigation of a Steam Turbine with Leaned Blades by Through Flow Analysis and 3D CFD Simulation. In International Conference on Power Engineering 2007, Hangzhou, China, November 2007. ICOPE Paper 2007-C204.
212
List of projects participated in

Research projects
1. EU project NODESIM-CFD nanced by the European Commissions Sixth Framework Programme, AST-CF-2006-030959, 2008-2010. 2. Foundational research project of Credibility Analysis of the CFD Software on Aerodynamics of Turbomachinery nanced by National Natural Science Foundation of China, No.90718025, 2007-2010. 3. Foundational research project of Investigation on the design of lm cooling holes nanced by National Natural Science Foundation of China, No.50876028, 2008-2010
Engineering projects
1. The engineering project supported by Beijing Full Three Dimension Power Engineering Company. Optimization of the low pressure sections of the 150MW stream turbine. 2006-2007
213
LIST OF PROJECTS
214
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CFD Simulation of Complex Flows in Turbomachinery and Robust Optimization of Blade Design

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FACULTY OF ENGINEERING Department of Mechanical Engineering

Prof. Chris Lacor Prof. Charles Hirsch Prof. Shun Kang

ISBN 978 90 5487 819 3 NUR 173 Legal Deposit D/2010/11.161/142

NSGA-II Coarse-to NASA 37  CFD 37 CFD  

78 79 81 82 83 84 85 86 86 87 88 89 91 92 93 93 94 94 95 95 96 96 97 99 99 100 101 101 102 102 102 103

5.14 5.15 5.16 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4

Superscripts Fluctuation i inner layer of B-L model xxiii

Figure 1.1: Waterwheel (Tiangong Kaiwu, by Yingxing Song, 1637).

Figure 1.2: GP7200 Jet fan engine (Pratt & Whiteney).

Research Progress of Internal Flows in Turbomachinery

1.2. COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS

1.2 Computational Fluid Dynamics

1.2.1 Application of CFD in Turbomachinery

Figure 1.3: Illustration of S1 and S2 surfaces (Novack, 1967 [8]).

1.2. COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS

1.2.2 Verication and Validation of CFD Simulations

Non-deterministic CFD Methodologies

1.3. ROBUST OPTIMIZATION OF TURBOMACHINERY

1.3 Robust optimization of turbomachinery

1.3.1 General Aerodynamic Design of Turbomachinery

1.3. ROBUST OPTIMIZATION OF TURBOMACHINERY

1.3.2 Multi-objective Optimization Methods

Complex Flows in Turbomachinery

2.1 General Review on Secondary Flows

CHAPTER 2. COMPLEX FLOWS IN TURBOMACHINERY

Classical Secondary Flow Models

Modern Secondary Flow Models

2.1. GENERAL REVIEW ON SECONDARY FLOWS

Figure 2.1: Classical secondary ow model (Hawthorne, 1955 [33]).

CHAPTER 2. COMPLEX FLOWS IN TURBOMACHINERY

(a) by Klein, 1966

(b) by Langston, 1977

Figure 2.2: Modern secondary ow model[36].

2.1. GENERAL REVIEW ON SECONDARY FLOWS

CHAPTER 2. COMPLEX FLOWS IN TURBOMACHINERY

Latest Secondary Flow Models

(a) by Sharma and Butler, 1987 [41]

(b) by Goldstein and Spores, 1988 [42]

Figure 2.5: Vortex pattern of secondary ows.

2.2. UNSTEADY FLOW WITHIN TURBOMACHINERY

2.2 Unsteady Flow within turbomachinery

CHAPTER 2. COMPLEX FLOWS IN TURBOMACHINERY

Figure 2.6: Endwall vortex pattern (Wang et al., 1997 [44]).

2.2. UNSTEADY FLOW WITHIN TURBOMACHINERY

2.2.2 Inherent Unsteadiness

CHAPTER 2. COMPLEX FLOWS IN TURBOMACHINERY

Figure 2.7: Periodic wake shedding (Gehrer et al., 2000 [52]).

The wake ow in multi-stage turbomachinery is more complicated 22

2.2. UNSTEADY FLOW WITHIN TURBOMACHINERY

CHAPTER 2. COMPLEX FLOWS IN TURBOMACHINERY

Figure 2.9: Velocity vector of wake ow perturbation (Stieger, 2005[54]).

2.3 Film Cooling

2.3. FILM COOLING

CHAPTER 2. COMPLEX FLOWS IN TURBOMACHINERY

(a) Cooling holes at the leading edge and trailing edge

(b) Perspective of cooling holes

Figure 2.11: Blade with cooling holes.

Figure 2.12: Pattern of lm cooling.

Film Cooling Flow on A Flat Plate

2.3. FILM COOLING

(a) By Margason, 1993 [58]

(b) By Fric and Roshko, 1994 [59]

Figure 2.13: Sketch of vortex systems of JICF.

CHAPTER 2. COMPLEX FLOWS IN TURBOMACHINERY

NSGA-II Coarse-to NASA 37 CFD 37 CFD