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Page 2 of 6 Interestingly, the risk of complications after coronary artery stenting [5] may not be increased in diabetes. In another study of complications after renal transplantation there was no difference between diabetics and non-diabetic recipients [6] and it seems that there are other greater risk factors for poor outcome (including age of donor and recipient, time awaiting transplantation, etc.). [7] This perhaps illustrates that it is important in assessing risk of complications in diabetic patients undergoing surgery to consider the specific type of surgery and anaesthetic technique. There is evidence for higher risk in diabetics undergoing surgery and, when such evidence is lacking, it may in part be testament to the relative safety of modern surgery and anaesthesia.
However, the following risks and observations are worth considering in diabetic patients undergoing surgery: Myocardial infarction postoperatively (may be silent, has a greater mortality). However, again it is not straightforward. In one study of cardiovascular complications in diabetics undergoing major vascular surgery, after controlling for specific comorbid conditions, the only independent association was between patients with insulin treatment and the risk of cardiovascular complications. [8] Similarly, despite worse demographic and clinical characteristics, diabetic patients having coronary artery surgery had a low mortality and morbidity (comparable with control patients). [9] Although diabetes may not be a risk factor for adverse outcome following coronary artery surgery, the long-term survival in diabetics remains significantly inferior compared with nondiabetics. [10] [11] However, other studies show a clear increase in risk of perioperative cardiac events in diabetics - for example, after renal transplant [12] carotid endarterectomy [13] [14] and vascular surgery. [15] Patients with diabetes mellitus undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) are at increased risk for adverse outcomes. [16] It is not clear how this compares with surgery. Cardiac arrest as a consequence of autonomic neuropathy. Chronic renal failure patients (diabetic nephropathy) have a worse outcome (complications and mortality) even accounting for the increased risk of associated conditions (hypertension, peripheral vascular disease). [17] [18] Stroke.This is consistent with the generally increased risk in diabetes mellitus, although again the surgical procedure and other risk factors for stroke (for example, smoking, anaesthetic technique) are important. [19] Problems with lower limb ischaemia. This is consistent with high incidence of peripheral vascular disease. [4] Heel pressure sores, particularly with peripheral neuropathy. Postoperative wound infection. [20] Other infections such as chest and urinary infections are more common in diabetics. Tuberculosis can occur particularly in elderly diabetics. [2] Disruption and worsening of diabetic control (for example, from the stress of surgery, lack of oral intake, postoperative vomiting, etc.). Poor perioperative diabetic control is associated with unfavourable outcomes in, for example, infra-inguinal bypass surgery. [21] Poor intraoperative blood glucose control is associated with worse outcome after cardiac surgery in diabetic patients. [22] [23] Diabetes mellitus is a risk factor for prolonged intensive care after cardiac surgery [24] and prolonged length of hospital stay after surgery. [8]
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Preoperative investigation
Should include: Blood glucose (serial readings) and HbA1c (more relevant for long-term control). Blood glucose should be maintained at 4-10 mmol/L and it is very important to avoid hypoglycaemia. If blood sugar cannot be maintained below 13 mmol/L, surgery should be deferred (risk of ketoacidosis or hyperosmolar state. FBC. ECG (with Valsalva manoeuvre) to assess for ischaemic and other cardiovascular disease. U&Es (assess for renal complications) and estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), if available. Urine analysis. Ketones (poor control), protein (possible renal complications) and bacteriology (for infection). CXR. This may be indicated to screen for pulmonary infection, including tuberculosis.
Choice of anaesthetic
Local or general anaesthesia can be used. Local anaesthesia: Reduces the stress response Hypoglycaemia readily detectable with the patient awake. Postoperative nausea reduced. Easy postoperative diabetic control. There are disadvantages of regional blocks with cardiovascular disease and some neurological conditions. General anaesthesia. Consideration should be given to: The presence of cardiovascular and renal disease. Prevention of intra-operative hypoglycaemia. Autonomic neuropathy (It can mask hypoglycaemia and may exacerbate respiratory depression with opioids). Avoidance of hypotension (increased risk of spinal cord infarction). Protection of pressure areas. [27]
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Perioperative management
Type 1 diabetes mellitus
It is usually best to admit patients 2-3 days before elective surgery, particularly if outpatient adjustments are difficult. There are different recommended routines but it is important that ward staff and those responsible for postoperative care have clear instructions. Complicated regimens can cause confusion amongst staff. Ensure good preoperative control usually with short-acting insulin (or a mixture of short- and intermediate-acting insulin) twice daily. Extra short-acting insulin can be added if necessary. Monitor blood glucose throughout the day. On the day of surgery starve from midnight and do not give the first dose of insulin. Operation should be as early as possible (ie put the diabetic patient first on the list). Check glucose and electrolytes early on the day of surgery (defer if glucose >13 mmol/L or if there is significant electrolyte disturbance). Start intravenous (IV) infusions of dextrose (500 mls 10% dextrose plus 10 units soluble insulin plus 10 mol KCl at 125 mls per hour). Check blood glucose and electrolytes at the end of the operation or at 1- to 2-hourly intervals. Monitor blood glucose during surgery at least every 30 minutes. Continue this as long as blood glucose is between 5-10 mmol/L. Reduce insulin to 5 units if less than 5 mmol/L and increase to 15 units if blood glucose is 10-20 mmol/L (new infusion needed of course). After surgery, check glucose every 2 hours and electrolytes every 6-12 hours, adjusting infusions as necessary. Continue infusions but, when eating normally, restart subcutaneous insulin (as before surgery).
Emergency situations
In general, emergency or non-elective cases must have blood glucose controlled with insulin, glucose and potassium infusions as above with special attention being given to rehydration before surgery.
Pitfalls
Diabetic ketoacidosis. This can present as abdominal pain and vomiting, with the vomiting usually preceding the pain (unlike in the acute abdomen when pain usually precedes vomiting). If diabetic ketoacidosis does not respond to treatment, it should be remembered that the acute abdomen may have triggered diabetic ketoacidosis. Anaesthesia and surgery in diabetic ketoacidosis is hazardous but is occasionally required (eg for perforated diverticular abscess). For example, there is a risk of cerebral oedema (resulting from swings in serum osmolarity) and the effects of acidosis on ventilation can cause problems.
Page 5 of 6 Hyperosmolar non-ketotic diabetic coma. These patients rarely require surgery but, if required, it is high-risk. Heparinisation is usually required. Lactic acidosis should be suspected when there is acidosis but no ketosis. It can be caused by the effects of biguanides but occurs also in septicaemia, pancreatitis, and hepatic and renal failure.
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