THE OF THE

PERIPLUS ERYTHR^AN SEA

TRAVEL
BY A

AND

TRADE OF

IN

THE

INDIAN FIRST

OCEAN

MERCHANT

THE

CENTURY

TRANSLATED

FROM

THE
BY

GREEK

AND

ANNOTATED

WILFRED

H.

SCHOFF,
Museum,

a.

m.

Secretary of the Commercial

Philadelphia

LONGMANS,
FOURTH AVENUE "

GREEN,
30TH

AND
NEW YORK

CO,

STREET,
AND

LONDON,

BOMBAY

CALCUTTA

1912

'My

COPYRIGHT

1912

BY

THE

COMMERCIAL
PHILADELPHIA

MUSEUM

"' t

V"

TABLE

OF

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

DATE

AND

AUTHORSHIP

OF

THE

PERIPLUS

BIBLIOGRAPHY

OF

THE

PERIPLUS

17

THE

PERIPLUS

OF

THE

ERYTHR^^N

SEA

22

NOTES

50

ARTICLES

OF

TRADE

MENTIONED

IN

THE

PERIPLUS.

284

ARTICLES

SUBJECT

TO

DUTY

AT

ALEXANDRIA

289

DATE

OF

THE

PERIPLUS

AS

DETERMINED

BY

VARIOUS

COMMENTATORS.

.290

RULERS

MENTIONED

IN

THE

PERIPLUS
.

294

INDEX

295

MAP

TO

ILLUbTRATE

THE

PERIPLUS

AT

END

OF

BOOK

FOREWORD
The

PhiladelphiaMuseums
ago

came

into of

existence

some

fifteen years in

with

the avowed

purpose

aidingthe
commerce.

facturer manu-

share taking a larger have lost

no

in the world's

They
More
work dawn of of

opportunity in presentingto
of all parts of the world. ago

the inquirer

the trade conditions than

a

four

years

the Museums
commerce

undertook
from

the

making
trade

of graphichistory

the earliest time. The

and

and

barter

down
was

to

the

present
with the

author

of

this translation the

entrusted

study

of preparation
was

which exhibit,
at

in its early stages of

ment developin the

to

shown

the

Jamestown exposition. It
that attention
in
was

was

preparationof
and Periplus,

this exhibit
its interest

directed

the

the the

earlyhistoryof Erythrjean Sea

nations

commerce

appreciated. The
record of

Periplusof

is the first

organized trading with

commanded

the

of the

East, in
world.

vessels built and

The
notes

of by subjects

the Western
an

add

givingas great interest,

trade between

they do
the

exhaustive

survey

of the international

great
a

empires of

Rome,
facts

Parthia,India
the

and

China, togetherwith
of
a

collection of

touching

early trade

number

of

other countries

of much

interest. whole under

commerce

The and
more

trade
exact

of the world

is every and

day coming
When

more

laws of demand
from

supply.
to

the
mendous tre-

of history

its earliest dawn be

its present

international the

proportionsshall
a

written, carefully
of such
to

Peripluswill

furnish

most

interesting part
will
not

early

and history,
for

the Commercial
work

Museum

have

apologize
the

rescuingthis

from

and obscurity

presentingit to
Sc.D.,

generalpublic.
W.

P.

WILSON,

Director. The

PhiladelphiaMuseums September,
1911

INTRODUCTION
The

Periplus of
like the

the

Erythraean Sea is
Marco Polo
and

one

of

those

human and

ments, docu-

journals of
not

Columbus
the

Vespucci,
of
a

which

express
race

only individual
new

enterprise, but

awakening
and
cial commer-

whole

toward

fields of geographical
first record built the and of

discovery

achievement. nations the which of of the

It is the

organized trading with

commanded
a

the

East,

in

vessels It marks

by subjects of
tide of
commerce

Western had

World.
set

turning of

in

one

direction, without
of before
years

interruption, from
the
emergence

the

dawn of the in had

history.
from

For

thousands
or

before

Greeks
the

savagery,

the

exploits of
culture the of

the and

Phoenicians
commerce

Mediterranean
in the

and countries and

Atlantic, human
bordering
whole is
on

centered

Persian

Gulf;
where

in Elam there and is the

and

Babylonia,
and stone."
the nations
was

in the

land

Havilah,

gold:
onyx

the

gold of that land

With of the

good;
culture

there

is bdellium

spread of
India the of
came

in both

directions, Egypt
a

and
system

Ancient
for

into

being, and
of

commercial within those

developed
its
center

interchange
exchanges
near

products
the

limits, having
Gulf. The

head
Arab

of

the

Persian
more

peoples of
ancestors

that

region, the various Phoenicians, the

The

tribes and

especially those
were

of the
or

mysterious Red
growth
to

Men,

the

active created

carriers
an

intermediaries.

of

civilization
and

in India

active
we

merchant know
presence

marine, trading
not

the

Euphrates

Africa, and

eastward

whither. of Indian

The traders
the

Arab in Red

merchants,

apparently, tolerated
reserved
lucrative incense
was

the

Africa,
Sea;
spices

but that

for
commerce

themselves
which

the

commerce

within

supplied precious
service of the

stones

and

and This

to

the

ever-increasing

gods of
upon

Egypt.

their

prerogative, jealously guarded, according

to

and

this

they lived and

The muslins Indian

prospered
and

the

prosperity of the
themselves
or

Pharaohs.
received of
or

spices of India they fetched

in their ports
over on

from

the

traders in
turn

either
to

side of the
the
upper
or

Gulf

Aden;
through
In

carrying them
the
rare

the the the

highlands
desert
eyes
to

Nile,

Red

Sea
vals interof

and

across

Thebes

Memphis.
turned
to

the

when
commerce

of

Egypt
were

were

eastward, and
the

voyages

and

conquest

despatched

Eastern

Ocean,

the

officers of in the
sources.

the Pharaohs ports, and

found

the

treasures
no

of
to

all its shores

trace

gathered
to

nearest

sought

further

them

their

As

the
to

current

of

trade graduallyflowed
of the

beyond

the Nile and

to

Euphrates
trace
were was

the

peoples

north, and
source

their in

began curiosity
for

the better

things

toward The

their

India,new
many

trade-routes centuries

graduallyopened.
that of the win

story of the world the nations

upon

of struggles

the Nile
new

and

Euphrates
so

to to

all the territory through which

the northern

the

routes

passed, and
of the and

prevent

barbarians from
this

tradingwith others
one

than themselves.

It
known
on as

was

earlyin

struggle that
on

branch

people
settled

Phoenicians left their home

to

the Persian

Gulf

the

Mediterranean,there
competition
in the
at

win
was

in the West

commercial
to

glories
The

which

East

beginning
of

deny

them.

Greek

colonies,planted
a measure

the terminus of

every

trade-route, gained
but
never

for themselves

commercial

independence;
was a

until the overthrow

of the great overland

of the East

by

the great Alexander threatened than

a

the control

caravan-routes

by

western

people,

and
as

his

early death
the

led

to

no

more

readjustment of conditions
and their kinsfolk in

they had always

Meantime continued

existed. brethren of the Phoenicians of the

Arabia
to

in control

carrying trade
the merchants the great

of the

East,subject
One
of

their agreements

and alliances with

retained

of India.
coast

Arab with

kingdom
its trade

after another in

eastern

Africa,

gold and ivory,ostrich feathers and produced

the
an

oil;
in the

the shores

of the Arabian and

Gulf

ever-risingvalue precious
from stones,

frankincense timbers
and

myrrh;
"

while

cloths and
"

cinnamon spices particularly

brought
Socotra
or

India

largely by Indian
carried
to

vessels, were
the Nile and

redistributed

at

Guardafui, and
and

the Mediterranean.

Gerrha
were

OboUah, Palmyra and

in this commercial
no

Petra,Sabbatha
system.
oppose
or

and

Mariaba
nation

all partners

The

Egyptian
it. of

in itslater struggles made

came

effort

to

control

The
energy
once

trade

and the price was

paid.
the

And

the infusion had

Greek

after Alexander's
more

day, when
of the

mies Ptoleto

made
more

Egypt
than the of the

mistress
of
a

led nations,
on

nothing
and
at

conquest

few

outposts the
accounts
came

the Red of
to

Sea

the head
are

Gulf

of Aden the

; while

AgatharSouthern

chides
Arabia

sufficientproof of
the
was

opulence which
than for

with

increase
more

of

prosperityin Egypt.
ever;

Here, indeed, the

in the topography the shoaling delta,

trade control
of of

complete
in the Cutch

changes

the India,

westward

shifting of

the

Indus

the

harbors

region, and

the disorder incident to

great invasions of Asiatic sea-trade.

peoples, had sapped

the

vigor of

the Indian

But in Arabia
wealth
rose

itselfthere and
in the into
to

were

for struggles of the

the control of all this

and

power,

days
its own

later Ptolemies

kingdoms
of

and

fell and
coast

passed
was

oblivion

with

bewildering frequency.
and
to

The
the

African

left
one

people

the

remnants

Indian

trade, and

Arab

tribe maintained

itselfat the Straits,

in the old

while

its defeated
was

itself adversary,establishing the the

"land of
ambitions
'

Cush,"
were

building up opposed to bitterly

at

kingdom
state

of

Abyssinia,whose

which

possessed its former

home

in the

"Frankincense Country"
was

of Arabia.
an

It
end

under of

Empire

to juncturethat the rule of the Ptolemies came ruler of the Western Cleopatra,and the new World, into possession of Egypt, and thus added Rome, came caravan-routes sea-route to

this

the
to

its control of the

previouslywon
the

in Asia
way

Minor

and

Syria,that
outposts
on

of

direct

East, by
the

of the

Ptolemies'

the Red

Sea.
within reach of Roman

The
one.

prize

thus

people

was

rich

Successive

conquests
to

and

of spoliation
as

all the Mediterranean

a

peoples had brought

for the

Rome

treasures
was

yet

unexampled, and
Minor
and

taste

precious things of

the East

developed almost over-night.

of Asia the

The

publictriumphs
with
new

of the conquerors

Syria glittered Money

Within
was

treasures, for which merchants

center to
once

people clamored.
all quarters.

was a

and plentiful

flocked thither from

generationthe
Alexandria

of Rome.

exchanges
But
from of the
a

of the Mediterranean wise decision of

moved

from

the

Emperor
the

Augustus, only
Roman dominion

departed
to

and that

limited disastrously,
so

the bank Rome

Euphrates;
could

that all this rich of and Parthia and

a

trade that flowed

to

to

paid
unless

its tolls to the Rome

Empire develop
and

the

Arab

kingdoms,
to

control

sea-borne

trade

India.
an

Against
was

such

all the enterprise

energy
was

of subtlety
to

the Arab the

called into
in

action.

No

information device

allowed

reach

merchants
was

Egypt, and

every

the

imagination

could

create

directed toward trade that had

ocean,

discouragingthe least disturbance

existed since
human vaguest
routes

of the channels

of

memory

began.
the
sources

And

in of

an

unknown

with

only

the the

ideas of
that led
to

the

products they sought, and

been
many

them,

it might have

years

before the

Roman

vessel, coasting along

Roman

hostile
tion. ambiof

shores, could reach

The
new

goal. But accidents favored

at

kingdom

Axum,
was

smarting

under the

the

treatment

its former

neighbors in Arabia,

courting

Roman

alliance.

The
now were

old trading-posts at

Guardafui,formerly under
their seek. And driven then
to
sea a

Arab

were control,

free,through
open
to

the

quarrelsof

overlords,and
a

their markets

who

might
he

Roman
and

subject,perhaps
in
a an

in the boat wind

to

Abyssinian service,was India,whence

much
name

carried with

open

returned
Then
as

in

few

months

favorable gator navias

and

information.

Hippalus,a
honor the
to
a

venturesome

whose of

deserved

much

in Roman

annals

that

Columbus
monsoon

in modern

observed history,
known made

periodicchange
Arab and

of the

Indian

(doubtless long
the proper
a

Hindu), and
which

boldly settingsail at
and
was

season

successful trading voyage

returned
so

with

cargo gems

of and

all those

things for
and old
was

Rome

paying
and

generously:

ebony pearls,
The
so

sandalwood,
of trade
derstanding un-

balms
were

spices,but especially pepper.

not

channels
the

but paralleled between

conquered;
and
to

strong that

age-long
which

Arab

Hindu, Egypt
of and

cinnamon,

had

made

the fortune Romans

of traders

in earlier
was

times, was
it

still found
from

by

the

only

at

Guardafui

scrupulouslykept
was

their

knowledge

in the markets the

India,where
same

gathered and
that

distributed;while
bark
was

leaf of the
to

tree

producing
basis of

precious
the of their

freely offered
coast, and
as

the

Roman
formed

merchants the

throughout
one

Malabar
most

malabathrum

valued

ointments. of shiftings the national

power

Great

followed

this entry of Roman Petra and

shipping into Palmyra

in South of and

Ocean. Indian.
their itself, Roman hard

One
revenues

by

one

Gerrha,
of

Parthia

sapped by
The

the diversion

accustomed

trade,fell into
fell upon

hands.

Homei-ite

Kingdom
some

Arabia
men

times, its capitalinto ruin, and

and
as

its best
to

migrated

northward

the Ghassanids
as

bowed

the

neck

Rome.

Abyssinia flourished
state

in proportion

its old enemy

whole
course

declined.

If this

of

things had continued,the

never

of

later events
and from
strong.
a

might have been changed. Islam might

Rome

have appeared,
government
too
pended ex-

greater

might
to

have

left itssystem

of law and

the

Thames

the

Ganges.

But the logic of historywas

arms was

Graduallythe
in
at

treasure

that fell to the Roman

suppressing insurrections in the home,

and in
a

conquered provinces,in
of

civil wars settlement

constant

drain
a

specie

to
was

the

east

in real

of

adverse
to a

trade

balances;
made
new

drain which

very

and menacing
or

nation
means

which

no

notable advance wealth

in production As

industryby

of which

could be created.
of that

the
to

resources

of the West

diminished trade-routes
where

the

center

exchange shifted
center
were

Constantinople. The
routes

leadingto
a

the the

old

through Mesopotamia,

revivified

power

under

Sassanids
even

was

able
Arab

to

conquer

every

passage
not

to

the

East, including
to

the
or

proud

states

which

had

yielded submission
or

murabi Ham-

Esarhaddon, Nebuchadrezzar

Darius became

the Great.
a mere

Egypt,
for

no

longer in the highway of commerce, and driven Constantinople, Abyssinia,

of the Red

granary

from

its hard-won
emperors
no

footholds effective
of

east

Sea, could

offer the

Byzantine
power.

aid in

checking

the revival of Eastern

And

the whirlwind
as no

let loose by Mohammed activity

welded
the

the Eastern World for another

vast

force
to

had yet done, and

feet.

brought
marked

West
of those

millennium in

its

Not

until the

coming

changes
century

industryand
and

which transportation nations them

the nineteenth

did the Western

find commodities
down in

of which markets

the East stood in

on

need,
turn

laying
the

Eastern
from of the

their

own

terms,

back

channels The

of trade records

their ancient

direction.
strove

pioneers,who
are

during the

ages

to

stem

this irresistible current,

of

enduring

interest in the story of the

most

of human

endeavor;
Greek
waters

and

among

them
"

all,one
this

is this fascinating of
a

Periplm of the Erythraan Sea

in

plain

and

painstaking log

Egypt,

Roman
ocean

subject,who
and

steered his vessel into the

the firstdetailed record of the conditions and for centuries the that of ances alli-

of the great

brought back

the

imports and
authority on

exports

of its markets, and

of its peoples. with

It is the only record

in its

speaks
it

this trade
not custom

and entirety,

gloom

which

briefly lighted was

the time-honored

lifted until the wider of Arab

secrecy

activities of

Islam

broke

in

trading,and

by grafting
ography. ge-

Arab

discovery
Not

on

Greek
or

theory, laid Pliny or

the

foundations

of modern great the

store

Strabo

Ptolemy, however
equal
of the
our

of

knowledge
unknown the
so

they gathered together,can

merchant
met
"

in human

interest this
dealt in and

who those

wrote

merely much;

things he brought

peopleshe
littleand
the
to

peoples of whom
so

civilization still knows

to

whom

it owes the of the

who

the restless in
so

West

surplus from
the
waters

ordered

and

industrious East, and

doing ruled
THE The do
not

Sea." "Erythraean OF THE PERIPLUS London

DATE

AND

AUTHORSHIP
the

manuscript copiesof
us

Periplusat Heidelbergand
or

enable

to

fix either

date

authorship. The

Heidelberg

manuscript attributes the work to Arrian,apparentlybecause in that manuscript this Periplusfollowsa report of a voyage around the Black
Sea made about 131

by
A.

the

historian This

Arrian, who

was

governor

of

Cappadocia
the

D.
not

is manifestly a

mistake, and

London

manuscriptdoes

contain that reference.

The

only guidance

to

date

or

authorship must

be

found

in the

Periplusitself. Hippalus' discovery of

is fixed by Vincent
Vincent
reasons a

the

sea-route

to

India, described

in

" 57,

at

about from

47 A.

D.

Pliny'saccount
Plocamus
from arising

(VI, 24)
who

of the accidental farmed from

journey
the
was

of

freedman the
revenues

of Annius

had

Treasury
carried
was

the Red

Sea.
to

This

freedman where

away

by a gale and
the

in fifteen after
a

days drifted
stay of
sent
an

Ceylon,
to

he

received and hospitably

after which

six months

returned Rome.

home;
which
come

Ceylonese kings during

The
the 41.

embassy Emperor

Pliny says

that this occurred in the year after.

was

reign

of

Claudius,
must

began
very
soon

discovery of Hippalus
the Straits of the
revenues.

have

(The firstquestion suggested by

doing outside
Plocamus
been the farmed

this story

is,
this
the

what and

the from

freedman whom

Bab-el-Mandeb As
were

Annius Can

to

Pliny is silent.
Greek
colonies The
not

it have

friendly Abyssinians,or
in

in Arabia

in existence.?) still

discovery of Hippalus, described long

from
ocean

" 57, seems

to

have

curred oc-

before

the

author

of the for the

' '

Periplus made
and discoverer, could

his voyage.
goes
on

He

evidentlyfeels a deep
' '

respect

to

say that
across

that time

until now

voyages

be made

directly

the

by
but

the
a

monsoon.

Pliny has
between 73

passing
D.
somewhat

reference he from
was

to

Hippalus, suggesting that

writing,the
which
a

and

77 A.

when

memory

of the

discoverer had

faded

view. earlier than this

on

Assuming
can

50

A.

D.

as

date
must

Periplus
the other

not

have

been

written,we

look

next

for

limit

side. In mouth
was

"

38

is mentioned

the

sea-coast

of

Scythia"

around

the

of the

Indus, and

the

metropoHs
war

of

Scythia, Minnagara,
themselves."
as

which

subjectto Parthian princes at

In

among

"

41 is mentioned is

another Hindu the

cityMinnagara, which,
name

indicated

in the

notes,

simply the

for

of 'city

the invaders." nation of the

In

"
'

47
'

is mentioned

"very war-like
the from

inland

Bactrians. As

explained
had

in the notes, been driven

Scythians of the Periplusare

Eastern Turkestan Indus

the

who Saka tribe,

by

the Yueh-

chi, and
parts of

overran

the lower Beluchistan, of

and valley,
to

adjacent
ern south-

the of

coast

India

itself. They
an

submitted
part.

the Parthian

Kingdom,

which

they
from

formed

important kingdom

Their

extension
a

under

Sandares,the ruler mentioned

the Kushan
on

in
the

" 52, indicates

growing

pressure

north, but prior

to
soon

the conquest

of this whole

country

by the Kushans, which

nation

occurred
is the after of
"

after 95 A.

D.
or

The

"war-hke

of the Bactrians"

tribe of Yueh-chi

Kushans, formerly subject to China, who,

by the Huns,
a overran

being driven
Bactria
century

westward
set

the Greek

kingdom
conditions

and A.

up
,

there

powerful kingdom which, earlyin the second

most

D.

conquered
a

of northern had and

India.

The

in

the

text

indicate

time before this nation

commenced

its conquests

in the

valleysof the Indus and

its

Ganges,
A.

defeat of

king Kadphises by the

occurred
in 90

probably before the great Chinese general Panchao near

A

Khotan, which
must

D.

defeat of this magnitude

not

have been reportedthroughout India and would certainly

our

have
we

led

author
at two

to

refer

to

the nation

as

very

warlike." which

Thus
this

arrive
can

dates,90 and
been written. 4 and

95

A.

D.,

later than

Periplus

not

have

In
the

""

our

author

mentions
over

the

cityof the Axumites, and Henry

in the

coast territory,

and the

inland,ruled
name

by Zoscales; whom
found

Salt identified with

Tarik of

Za of the

Hakale"

by him

Negus/!or Chronicles
Hakale'
s

kings of Abyssinia. The

to

duration
thirteen
note

this Za and

reign, according
at

the

Chronicle,was
D.
,

years,

his dates Salt fixes

76

to

89 A.

following a
The

in of

the Chronicle
one

that the birth of Christ took

s

place in the eighth year

Bazen.

of

Za

Hakale'

predecessors,Zabaesi
Bazen
was

date of the kale. Ha-

accession of this Zabaesi

84 years
name

prior to that of Za
written
as

Salt's identification of the dates

as

is probably correct, but the

were some

they stand in the

events, of other

Chronicles

centuries

after the absence

and

can

hardly be accepted
The
fact that of years,
or

safe

in the authority

evidence.
even

nearly all the reigns are

else
as so

given
six

as

lasting an

number

many

years

and

months, shows
was

that the chroniclers

were

only estimatingthe time.

Salt himself it to known

obligedto
it is

rearrange

their

chronology in order
Hakale.

to

fit has

and facts,
a

quite possiblethat his rearrangement

his dates. South Arabian
from

slipped in
names are

whole

reign before that of Za

more

Obviously Salt's
covered disinscriptions
its mother-land,

worth

than

of Axum by Glaser indicate the separation the Habash the

or

Ethiopia of South Arabia,

the

not

long before the date of

of Axum

Periplus; and the fact that there is no

earlier than conclusion
any
rate

mention
even

in any
the

work
same

and Periplus,
the

not

in

Pliny, suggests
are

namely, that

Abyssinian Chronicles They

count
as

unrelia-

able,at

in their earlier portions. of rulers who

must

independent
the Arabian

kings a number
mother-land dates
are

have

been

subject to

the

order

of

events

and their they relate is uncertain,

merely approximations.

10

Even

if the

dates in the
Hakale
were

Chronicle,and
strictly correct,
B.

Salt' s identificationof
the date
accepted generally

Zoscales with Za
for the

birth of
to

5 Christ, D.

C, would
to

bring

Za

Hakale'

accession down

71 A.

and his death

84.

Nearly all the Pliny' s

the Natural

commentators

think that the is known

to

Periplusis earlier than

been
tween published be-

which History, The

have

73 and 77 A. D.
of description Arabia

in indication is their similarity principal

Felix,where

Pliny seems
are

to

condense
in

the

Periplus;but,on
sixth book earlier and the which

the other

hand, there
course

many

statements

Pliny's

describe facts in disagreement with, and

was Pliny a

probably
ist, copy-

than, the Periplus. Of

not usually

compiler and
to

very

and he may discriminating,

it did
not

have chosen the

follow
of

Periplusonly where
of

contradict

earlieraccounts
he

King Juba II
appears

Mauretania,for
Plinyhas
at

whose
more

knowledge
mention

repeatedly pressed exthan He

says

respect.

much he

information about Meroe

not

in the
coast

but Periplus,
the

does

Axum.

ends

the African

Promontory
to

of

Mosyllum

and

that the he far

Atlantic Sea begins there.

known
as

In this he follows King Juba; but had

have of included the African
coast
as

the

he ought Periplus He the

,

Zanzibar.

has

an

account not.

Felix,which
in 24

has Periplus

Mariaba,the royalcityof Arabia He quotes Aelius Gallus, writing

are

B. C.

as

that stating

the Sabaeans

the richest tribe in southern

Arabia. who ites,

The

Periplus, however,
only passingmention
to

has them from

subjectto

the Homer-

receive is

Aelius Gallus.

One India
may

tempted

(VI, 26)
then

in which

of the voyage imagine that Pliny' s account to he refers to "information on which reliance the

be

here publishedfor placed,

firsttime,

'

'

refers to the Periplus,

has based that passage;

existing merely as
as on

merchant's

diary; and Glaser

the

much

of his argument but

to to

the

of authorship
a

Periplus on

Pliny goes
India. for
any

describe

voyage

from
coast

that of the of

and Periplus,

At the time

giving quitea Pliny wrote, the

and he he indeed
to

different in many ways different account of the

sea-route to

India had

been

opened
from

nearlythirty years,
as sea-captain, seem

might

have

had this information had the facts

might have

concerning Arabia Felix which

with the

be in such

close agreement

Periplus. The

argument

that

even

D., borrowed from the but by no means conclusive. plausible, Returning to " 41, the reference to the anarchy
or

in 77 A.

whose work was cated dediPliny, and Periplus then, suggestive is,

in the Indo-Parof that

era era.

thian

Saka

region does
and

not

suggest the consolidated power who

King

of

Kathiawar D.
;

Ujjain
the

founded

the so-called Saka that

of 78 A.

for indicating

Periplus a date earlier than

11

Mention
to evidently

of the be the
most

land of This'
state

'

in

of Ts'in

in

the

the Periplus in

powerful

of the

" 64, ishelpful. This seems northwest China, at the date of states of China, and actively engaged
and
to

pushing Chinese
The
says

boundaries

influence westward
be the modern from

across

Turkestan.
The
text

capital cityis supposed

'

Singanfu.
to
' '

that
'

"silk is brought overland

but that when few
men come

that country

Bactria and This

India,
a

from
across

there and seldom.

suggests

time before

the trade-routes

Turkestan

were

still

in turmoil

and

the conquests

of the Chinese
was

generalPanchao.
him

The

route

north

of the desert of Turkestan the

route

finally opened by
was

in 94 A.
as

D.,
,

while

south

of the desert

opened

as

early
As

73 A. D. In

that the indicating

must Periplus

be fixed before that date. of the Nabataeans.

most

"

19 has

is mentioned

Malichas,king
one

Fabricius of

pointed

out, this is in the

of the

tions important indicain his Wars which

name

date contained
a

text.

Josephus Arabia,
as

of the
he in

Jews
his A.

mentions refers
to

Malchus, king
the Nabataean

of

under

always

kingdom,

having assistedTitus destroyedin

in his
a

expeditionagainstJerusalem, which D. {^Bell. Jud., Ill, 4, " 2) ; and Inscriptions, p.

had

he

the year

70

Vogiie
that

SyrieCentrale, king
ligula, Cato

Semitic
Aretas

107, confirms
with the

Nabataean
and 40

(Hareth), contemporary
a son a

Emperors Tiberius reigned about

married

Malik,

or

Malchus

III,who
who

70

A.

D.

It

was

sister of this Malchus

was

Herod

Antipas,
s Philip'

tetrarch of

and Galilee,

abandoned

by Herod

for his brother

wife, Herodias, mother

This action of Herod

of Salome.

brought

him
some

Ant. Jud. XVIII, 8). (Josephus, with his father-in-law, to war

extent must

Aretas, and
in the Malichas

doubtless explainsto

the

policyof Malichas
been the
must
same as

Rome assisting

againstJudea.
of his

This

have

of the text, and his action

against Jerusalem

have

been

near

the end written

reign. It is fair to infer that

if the

Periplus
been

had been

after that

Malichas also would expedition,

have

'friend of the Emperor," and therefore like Charibael in " 23, a called, written before Titus' campaign of the year 70. that the Periplus was
In
two

""

23

and

27

we

have

the

the

and the the Homerites tribes, Frankincense Country. It was

king of the Charibael, and of Eleazus, Sabaites, king of the opinion of Glaser,based on
names

of

discovered by him inscriptions

were

in South

Arabia,that both these

and that they were D. His incription No.

names
eral sev-

titles rather than

personal names,
A.
was

borne by

rulers during the firstcentury mentions

a

1619

king Eleazus who

ruler in 29 A.
to

D., and
The
answer

ribael king Chamention for

a

whose Charibael
as

reignwas

from

-bout 40

70 A. D.

of
date

"a friend of the Emperors"

might

12

under

Vespasian

after the

succession

of

short

reigns that followed

for
eral sev-

Nero;

but the years

of turmoil of

years

after the death

throughout the Roman Empire, of prosperous not Nero, were years

This
memory

trade

such

as

the

describes. Periplus
before time
to

reference

indicates

date

early

in the had

reign of Nero,

the

of his 54 and

predecessorClaudius
D. of Arabia
not

faded; roughly,any
In

between the
recent

60 A.

"

23 is a reference
present

destruction

Ludae-

mon.

Our

knowledge
war

of Arabian

historydoes
commented

give us

any

date positive the

a

for the

leading to

the destruction

of this Sabaean
on

port, but

discovered inscriptions after the middle author

and

by Glaser capitalof
soon

point to
In

time 2
our

of the first century. the of city A-Ieroe.

"

mentions
was

This

the Nubian

kingdom

treated by severely The

out

the Romans

after

their occupation of

Egypt.

Nubian

queen

Candace
under

had

attacked lated annihiof of

Egj'pt; and Napata.

Nubia
A.

an

expeditionsent
and
was

her against of That her

Petronius

her army

destroyed many
in B. C. 22.

that cities, including

queen

This

another

Candace

retained considerable is shown

tribes of
was

power

in the firsthalf of the firstcentury After

came

D.

in Acts the

VIII, 27. Kingdom,

Nero in the

the this,Pliny relates, down

an

savage

neighboring deserts
so

and

plundered
quiry inwas

what

left of the Nubian

sent

by

the

emperor

expedition of he (Pliny,VI, 35) when

ventured
as

that

contemplating a campaign
and reportedthat they had
that the
met

South,

far

as

Meroe

with nothing but deserts on

their routes; and

were

buildingsin Meroe
over

itself were
named

but few

in number
name

ruled still
from
queen
at

by
to

queen

Candace, that
years.

having passed
of

queen

for many

This

state

things can
account

be

fixed

about

67 A.

D.

It is obviously later than the

in the

Periplus. Very
as soon

after
not

s Pliny'

time

Meroe

must

have

been

destroyed,

the A

name

does

appear

again for several centuries.

tells Periplus only of
mention of
a

fact suggestive

is that the has

no

the great increase

or

in trade with

India,and
upon

cessation

decline of
in the year

that trade consequent

the

burning of Rome, July 19-25

districts of the city were
not

64.
The

Ten loss was

out
not

of the

fourteen

destroyed.
It is
true

equalized; fire insurance did

mention

exist.

that this great refers

to

calamityhardly receives
the destruction of reticence. mentions

in

work. Pliny's and fire,

He in

the baseless story of Nero's

to

having

started the

several passages

always with some words, he many

later years

In many

buildings, temples and the like, in so however, once places,

Rome and

the crisisthrough which his short-lived

successors,

passed in the
of the

of Nero

and

"rest

14

ascribed

to

the fashion of extravagance of his favorite

ascendancy
from

by Nero's Sabina Poppasa, whose

set

court,

duringthe
lasted
mous enor-

influence
to

58 until her death in 65 A.

D.

Pliny'sreference

the

quantityof spicesused
such
an

at

Poppaea's funeral (XII, 41) indicates

he further confirms

increased

trade;which
to

(VI, 26) by
vi'as

ing stat-

that specie
to
one

amounting
their
a

about

balance

the

trade,and
times estimates

that these Indian

cost.

000,000 per year i"22, imports sold

^$4, 000,000
with is the

required
at

in Rome

hundred

Pliny'sfigures are
over

untrustworthy,as
as

in

XII, 41, he
sudden

little

balance and

of

specie required for the entire trade

but
a

India, Arabia
none

China;

increase
any

in

commerce

the

less evident.

The
coasts
was

absence of
the
at

of trade with the descriptionin the Periplus

of

Persian
a

Gulf, then
when Rome of and

subjectto
and the southern

Parthia, suggests
were

that it

written

time

Parthia

at

war.

Our
stop

author's
at

the he

even descriptions, Frankincense Country

coast

of

Arabia,
Muria
to

its dependency, the island of the islands of

to

Masira;
was

and

that explains

the

coast

beyond
thus

Kuria

"subjectto
account
as

Persia"

and

closed

him.

According

the

claims XVI,) conflicting Monarchy-, givenby Rawlinson, i^Sixth

the Armenian

to

succession led Rome

year

to

make The

war

on

Parthia in

55 time

A.

D.,

the second with

of Nero's

occupied

civil war
Arabian

newly-acquiredSouth
their Armenian

at the Parthians, in the South (possibly in their even oned possessions), gave hostagesand aband-

reign.

pretensions; which, however, they reasserted

out
anew.

in

58,
way

when until

war

broke

Hostilities continued

in

desultory
of

62, when
and
a

the

two

powers

agreed upon
a

mutual

evacuation

Armenia
was

settlement of the disputeby This

truce

Parthian embassy which

summer

to

visit Rome. made

was

occurred and winter the

in the

of 62. without
a

The
treaty. of

embassy
The

its visit in the broken

was

autumn
same

returned

truce

the

by
truce

Roman renewed.

invasion

Armenia,

which

repulsed and
Rome in the

second

Parthian embassy

to

spring of 63 settled the

throne

matter

by

placinga Parthian prince on

to

the Armenian the Roman

and

him requiring
ceremony

receive

investiture from

Emperor.

This

occurred in 65 A. D. Hostilities between

the
two

countries
as

ceased certainly interestswere

in

the
cerned, con-

winter of 62 and probably,as

in the
summer

far

commercial

at any rate or Periplus, be fixed at can probably

that year. Therefore,the date of the the date of the voyage which it was on based,
not

of

laterthan the

summer

of 62 and

not

earlier

than the The

summer

of 58. in favor of the second

or

rather are possibilities

third year of

15

the renewed

Roman-Parthian

war,

when

the

Parthian

power

had

fully

recovered
The

from

the disorders in the South.

nearest

single year
A.

that suggests

itself as

the

date

of tiie

60 Periplusis, therefore,

D.

As

to

the

it authorship,

is best

to

admit

that nothing is known. it to

an

Fabricius

in his firstedition of the merchant named

Periplusattributed
other

andrian Alex-

Arrian, but
the
name

editions,and

Fabricius'

own

second

edition, remove
an

altogether. Aiisland, 1891, pp. 45-46, presents

to

Glaser,in
an

article publishedin that of

seems

argument

too

tempting
from
the

be

true.

He

assumes

that the sixth book

Plinyquotes
could that have

that the Periplus;

tofore hereour

unpublished account," which

Pliny mentions, was quoted

in
no

that of book

author; that his work Pliny,and therefore

which

been

other

of

by comparison
of each the
name

of the indices of authorities

name

Pliny puts
arrives

at

the end be
name

book, any
of
our

appearingin By
to

the

sixth book

only would
at

author.

such

means to

Glaser

the

and Basilis, he article,

in all his references is careful But the cite

"

the

Periplusafter
author
same

the date of that 56 Periplus, refers

to to

Basilis,
in that
of

of the book and

67 A. D." Basilis as

Pliny himself
of
an

(VI, 35)
the
upper

author

account

Meroe

earlier Nile, apparentlyconsiderably Nubia against in 24

to

than
a

the

expeditionof
on

Petronius

22 B. C.

and

work
p.

is quoted by Agatharchides {Jp. India, alsb by Basilis, b.

Phot.
was

454

34,
to

ed. 113

Bekker), whose
B. C.
,

work and

on
a

the

ErythraeanSea
the

ten writ-

about
seems

century

half before
a

Periplus. It

be this is

same

rather Basilis,

than

later writer of like name,

whose
wrote

Indica about

quoted by
D.

Athenaeus

(^Deipnos. IX, 390, b), who

assumes

230 A.

Glaser Unless,therefore,
man

that the

Basilis of Pliny's text

his argument

is a different

from

the Basilis of his

index,

falls.
too,
a man

Then,
refrain from

of

Pliny'sstanding would
name a

have

been

apt

to

mentioning by

writer with omit

to
an

no

reputation literary
which
very

in

Roman
as

society. His
text

index

would

obscure
information

sea-captain, just
on

his

omits him, referring merely

be

ance reli-

can

placed."
the

For

the

of letterswas aristocracy of the

real in
"

imperialRome, and
The
^he of his

writer

Periplus did
account

not

"belo^^.
not

that Pliny may possibility

use name.

have

used his

does is more

imply
ous ingeni-

Altogether,Glaser' s

argument

than

probable.
was an

That the author

Egyptian Greek,

and

merchant

in active

16

trade

who that

personally
he of from that the from

made in

the

voyage

to

India,

is

e\ident is Nile

by

the

text

itself;
the the

lived

Berenice
of v\hich the

rather the

than

Alexandria the

indicated
and

by
across

absence
desert

any

account

journey
and
from uncertain indeed The

up

Coptos,
he made

Strabo

Pliny Cape
that much of

describe Guardafui
he of Arabia the have

at

length.
to

It

is possible
but

voyage

zibar, Zan-

text

is

so

vague

and unless

seems

rather of of of been

to

be work

quoting
has

someone

else,
in

this

part
east

the the

been

lost

copying.
the entire the

coast

Frankincense
and

Country,
as

Persian

Gulf

and
to

coasts

Persia
known of

Beluchistan
him

far

as

Indus

river,

seem

to

only

by

hearsay.

They

were

subject

to

Parthia,

an

enemy

Rome. That
he

was

not

highly
and

educated

man

is and value

evident his of

from and

his

quent fre-

confusion

of

Greek

Latin

words The

clumsy
his work of

times some-

ungrammatical
not

constructions.

consists,
the trade of

in

its

literary
Ocean until

merits,
and his of

but the

in

its trustworthy settlements

around

account

the

Indian

its

shores;
of

ing concern-

which,
and

time,

we

possess

almost

nothing

an

ligent intel-

comprehensive

nature.

17

BIBLIOGRAPHY
CoDKX the Rome Pal.

OF
398. A

THE

PERIPLUS
of the Tenth It

Gr-"c.
,

parchment

Century,in
was

Library of
and

the

of Heidelberg. Uni\'ersity

taken

to

during the Thirty Years

was

War,

and

to

Paris under

poleon; Na-

restored

to

Heidelberg in
twenty

1816. of titles, which the

This

manuscript contains
are as

different

six first I.

follows;
a

Argumentum
and

Leone

AUatio.

who packed (Allazi,

shipped the Heidelberg Libraryto Rome.)

dc Palude Maeotide
et

II.

Fragmentum
Euxino.

de

Ponto

III. Arrianus IV

de ver.atione. ad Trajanum epistola

qua

Ejusdem
Euxini

periplusPonti

continetu.".

V. VI.

Ejusdem
Hannonis A

Maris Periplus

Rubri.

periplus. parchment, supposed to be Century, in the British Museum.

have
as
come

Manuscript
or

19,391.
Fifteenth

of

the A

teenth Four-

portion

of

it is

supposed
Such

to

from

the
common

monastery

of Mount

Athos.

matter seems

it contains
to

in

with the Heidelberg from

a

manuscript
common

have

been

copied therefrom,or

original.
is anonymous. In this the Periplus Periplus;
epitome.

Arriani

et

Hannonis

Plutarchus Froben.

de

fluminibus

et

MONTiBUs:

Strabonis

Basilea

Anno

AIDXXXIII.
This of

Geknius Amelmo Sigismundus

firstprintedtext, corrupt of the served subject,

EphorinoMedico S.
errors

and fullof
.

due

to

lack
turies cen-

knowledge
as

nevertheless for three

the basis of later

because of the editions,

disappearance
Ramusio.

of the

Heidelberg manuscript.
et

Oelle

Navigationi

Viagci

raccolta

da

Gio. Batt.

nella In J "nctia,

dc Giunti, MDLXXXFIII. Stamperia

Vol.

1,

pp.

281-283a

has Alar

Discorso di

Gio. Battista Ramusio.,

sopra scritta per

la

del navigatione and

p.

Rosio, jino all' India Orientalt

del mar begins Navigatione "5' Rosso JinoA lieIndie Orientaliscrittaper Arriano in Lingua Greca, Arriano 283a

di

poi Trade tta quclla

There
were

nella Italiana.
s

editions of Ramusio'

Collection

at

Venice

in

1550, 1554, 1563 and 1588.

18

ArRIANI

HISTORICI

ET

PHILOSOPHI

PoNTI

EUXINI

"

MaRIS

ErYTHRjII
e

Periplus, ad
sermone

Adrianum
versus,

C^SARE.m.

Nunc

primum

Graco

in Latinum

mendis plurimusque

rcpurgatus.

Jo. Gvi-

lielmo Stvckio Tigvrino avthore.

apvd Evstathivm I'lgnon, Genevce,

with Gelenius, few material

1577.
This
text

is based

on

that of

emendations. Arriam
Ars

Tactica,
Periplus Cum

Acies

contra

Alanos,
Kotis.

Peripu
de

Ponti

EixiM,
etc.
,

Maris

Erythr^ei, Liber

Venatione,
Recensions tif

etc.

is Interpretihus Latinis,

Ex

illiiserj. Janssonio-Jl acsbcrirn, Kicolai Blancardi, 1683. Amstelodami, This

text

is professedly based Scriptores

on

that of Stuck. AIixores. Cu7n InterE

Geographic
pretatione

Veteris

GRiECi
,

Latina,Dissertationibus
Dissertationes Henrici

ac

Annotationibus.

Oxonia:.

Theatro Sheldoniano, MDCXCVIll.

sonus.

( Praestitit Joannes

Hud-

Dodwelli. )

This

contains

as

its fifth title, Alaris Periplus

.

Erythnei eidcni
Stuckio

{A
The

mono

) vulgo adscriptus is based

ex on

Jo. Gutlielmo Interpi-ete

Ttgunno.

text
ion

Gelenius and Stuck.

tois palai

Syiloges

Epitomei

Geographethenton loannmbn

typois

ckdothenton

dapanei philotimoi
charin
tes

ton

ex

adelphilogenestaion

ph'on ZosiMlADON
Hcilenon. En

ton

t'esHelUnikh
tes

paideiascphiemcnon

Btennet

Austrias ek

Schraimblikes Typographias,

1807.
It

contains,pp.
notes

295-333

Arrianou
Hudson.

tes Periplous Erythras

with Thalassh, Flavii Arriam

translated from

Nicomediensis

Opera

Greece

ad

optimas cditiones

collata. Studio This

August! Christiani Borheck. Lcmgovicc, Ahycr, 1809. t'esErythras contains,pp. 91-121, Arrianou Periplous
text

Thalasscs. The The

Periplus An
to OF THE

is from

Hudson.

Erythrean

Sea.
the

Part the

first, containing:
the Sea of Suez

Account of the the Coast of London:

Navigation of
With

Ancients, from
1800-

Zanguebar.

Dissertations.

By

AX'illiam Vincent.

Cadell, Jun., Is Davies,

Navigation
of the

The

Commerce Ocean.
two

and

Axcjen'is Dean of

in

the

Indian In

By

William

I incent, D.D., Cadell

o

IVestminster.
NoX.

volumes.

London:

Davies, 1807.

I, The
ihe

I oyage Part

of Nearchus.
the

Vol. II, The Periplus rjfthe Ery threat}Sea.

first containing, A/i Account of the

Navigation of

Ancients from Dissertations.

the Sea of Suez

Part the

to

the

coast

oj

With '/.angucbar.
the

second

containing,,/;; Account oJ

19

Navigation of the Ancients from to the Island of Ceylon. Sea,

These
two

the

Gulph of Elana, in the Red

and

beautiful

the Greek volumes,presenting

text

translation in English
that denote exhaustive of

parallel columns, preceded by dissertations

and geographical historical research, are

still

deep
The

interest and
text

importance to
:

the student of the His other

to

Periplus.
was
"

is that of Blancard could obtain

no

edition I
use as

to

adopt,because I

copy.

obliged (Vol.
are

II, part II,preface,p. xi).

Vincent's

textual emendations

and commercial less useful than his geographical generally notes, and trustworthy, in large part, illuminating and which are still,
were,

when

the firstintelligent presentationof written,

the subject.

The

Voyage Sea

of

Nearchus

and

the

Periplus W.

of

the

Erythrean

translated by (ascribedto Arrian),

Vincent, Oxford,

1809. Untersuchungex
schichte,
ueber einzeln'e und

Gegenstaende Chronologie.

der

alten

Ge-

Geographie,
1S02. includes

G.

G.

Bredow, German,

Altona,Hammerkh,
This
pp.

Vincent's

translated Periplus,

into

715-797.
KLEINER und

SaMMLUNG
tischen

SCHRIFTEN
altex

AUS

IJEM

GeBIETE C. G.

DER

MATHEMA-

Geographie.

Reichard.

Giins,

Reichard,1836.
This includes \'incent's work, pp.
da \ari.

.374-425 and 438-496.

Arriano

Opuscoli,

tradotti

Milano, Sonxogm, 1826-7,

S. Blandi. Des
Pseudo-Arrians die Ersten
set%t
von neun

Umschiffung

des

Erythraeischen

Meeres

"

die iibrigen im Auszugc. KapitelvollstHndig,

Vcbcr-

Streubelin Jahres-Bericht iiber die Stralauer hohere BiirgcrMichaelis 1860 bis Michaelis
von

Schule fiir das Schuljahrvon womit 1861.

This
"

1861,

einladet C.

Hartung.

Berlin,Druck

Hickethier,

translation is based partial

on

the

texts

of

son Stuck, Hud-

and Borheck, and Arriani

Alexandrini

value. is of little

Periplus

Maris

Erythr^ei.

Recensuit

et

B. Fabricius. brevi annotationeinstruxit MDCCCXLIX. schalcki,

in commissts GottDresda:,

20

Geographi

GR-ffiClMiNORES.

E codicihus recognovit, annoprolegomenis,

incisis illustravit Carolus

tabulis ari tatione,mdicibusque instruxit,

Mullerus.
Vol.

Parisiis, Didot, MDCCCLV. I, pp.

pp.
xcv" CXI

has

Mark Prolegomena Anonymi Periplus

and Erythnci^

257"305
the

ut fertur) Periplus Anonymi (Arriani,

Maris

being Erythrcci,
four

eighth title included

xi-xiv,
vi"

in that volume.
to

Vol. Ill contains four maps,

the and Periplus,
more,

drawn especially
viii

illustrate
for other

and

xv,

drawn

but presenting details that further elucidate this work. titles This edition is
text
a

vast

improvement
Greek

over

all its

predecessors,
cation modifi-

a presenting

which

is stillthe

standard, admittingof
text,

only in
from the

minor

details. The

corrected carefully and proved, im-

Heidelbergmanuscript,and
by side
been with
are

revised critically
a

is presentedside notes, which

to

Latin translation. 7'he

in

of importance Latin,reflectalmost everything had written up

of the

the

which subject
and

to

that time. Sea.

The

Commerce J. IF.

Navigation

Erythr^an

By

1879. This volume McCrindle,M.A., LL.D., Calcutta, contains a translation (with commentary) Erythof the Periplus
R/Ei

Maris, by
The

an

unknoivn

writer of the

firstChristian

century,

and

of the second part of the Indika translation of the

\o\.

of Arrian.
the Indian

Antiquary of Bombay,
This excellent

also printedin Periplus was VIII, pp. 108-15L

while translation, reminiscent which

based professedly on
of and X^incent's, had corrected.

Miilthus

ler's text, is often

repeats

rather

various
notes

errors are

Miiller's

notes

The

valuable for the

names,

material they original

contain show

concerning
lack of

Hindu

places and

commodities,

but

acquaintancewith German
des

writers.

Der

Periplus
'I'EN.

Eryi

hraeischen

Meeres

von

Einem

Unbekann-

Griechischund

deutsch mit kritischen und

erktdrenden Anntn--

1Forterver%eichnisse von kungen nebst vollstdndigem Feit ^ Comp., J8Sj. Leipzig, I'erlag von A
most
on

B.

Fabricius.

presentation of Greek scholarly

text

and

German
notes.

translation The

opposite pages,
has

with been

clear and
revised

exhaustive
extreme

Cjreek text, which

many

with

care,

contains

verbal corrections be

of Mullet's historical and conclusions far

as

standard

text, and
notes

leaves little to

desired.

The omit
so

commercial

call for revision where

they
in

reached previously
are

by English
research.

writers,and

they

affected

by later

22

The

Voyage

around

the

Erythraean

Sea

1. Of and

the

designated ports
around
Harbor. the

on

the ErythraeanSea,

the market-towns port of

Mussel

it,the firstis the Egyptian

To

those saiHng down

after

from

that

place,on
of

righthand,
The
are

dred huneighteen
are

there is Berenice. stadia,

at

harbors of both

the

boundary
the

Egypt,

and

bays opening
below

from

the

Sea. Erythrzean

2. On

right-handcoast

next

Berenice
are

is the country

of the Berbers.

Along
caves

the shore
narrow

the
leys. val-

in scattered Fish-Eaters,living

in the

Further inland the Wild-flesh-Eaters

are

the Berbers, and beyond them each tribe Calf-Eaters,

erned gov-

and

by
Meroe.

its chief; and toward

behind
the west,

them, further inland,

there lies a city called

in the country

3. Below
to^^'n
on

the

Calf- Eaters there after

is

littlemarketfour

the

shore

about sailing

thousand

stadia from
from

Berenice, called Ptolemais

of the

Hunts,
under

which

the hunters started for the interior

the dynasty of the Ptolemies. the

true

This

market-town
it is white
a

has
and little

land-tortoise in small in the shells. And

quantity ;

smaller

here
But

also is found
no

ivory,like that of Adulis.

and
is reached

the place has

harbor

b\' small boats. tjnl}'

4. Below about

Ptolemais

of the

Hunts,

at

distance of
tablished es-

three thousand

there is Adulis, a port stadia,

inner Before end of
a

by law, lyingat the

runs

bay that
lies the

in toward

the south.

the harbor

23

so-called Mountain

about Island, head

to

two

hundred

stadia

ward sea-

from the mainland this port

land. of the
now

the very
close

of the

bay, with the shores

of

it on

both sides.

Shipsbound
at

for the head

anchor used
an

here because of attacks from the very

to

They

formerly to anchor
island called
on

bay, by

Diodorus, close
foot from

the
;

shore, which
which
means

could be reached

the land

by

the barbarous

natives attacked the island.

Opposite Mountain
from

the mainland Island, on

twenty stadia which

town

from shore, lies Adulis, a fair-sized village,

an

there is a three-days' journey to Coloe,

and

inland

the firstmarket

for

ivory.

From

that place to the

cityof the people called journey

from called
more;
to

Auxumites

there is a five days'

that place all the ivory is

brought
district

the country beyond the Nile

through the
rhinoceros
rare

Cyeneum,
number

and of

thence

to

Adulis.

the Practically
that
are

whole

elephantsand
the
seacoast

killed live in the

placesinland, although at
on even

vals interAdulis.

they are
the

hunted

near

Before the harbor

of that

market-town,

out

at

sea

on

hand, right

there lie a great many

littlesandy islands is

which called Alalaei, yieldingtortoise-shell,

to

brought
is

market 5. And

there by the Fish-Eaters. about

eighthundred
a

stadia

beyond there

another

very
at

deep bay, with

the

great mound
at

of sand

piled up
of which

rightof

the entrance;
is

the bottom

the opsianstone
it is
to

found, and this is the only

These from the places,
are

place where
Calf-Eaters

produced.
is

the other Berber

country,
ways

governed always

by Zoscales; who
for striving
more,

miserly in his

and

but otherwise

and acquainted upright,

with

Greek

literature.

24

6. There cloth made

in

are

imported

into these

undressed places,
Ar-

Egypt
poor

for the Berbers; robes from

sinoe; cloaks of

dyed quality
many

in

colors; double-

linen mantles; fringed

and articles of flintglass,

others of murrhine, made

is used for
ornament

in in

Diospolis ;
cut

and

which brass,

and

piecesinstead of coin;
and cooking-utensils
women

sheets of soft copper,

used for

cut

up for bracelets and anklets for the

iron,which
other
axes

is made wild
are

into spears

the used against

and elephants

and in their wars. beasts,

Besides

these,small
copper

imported, and
round
and

adzes and

swords;

drinkingcoming

cups,
to

large; a
wine
;

littlecoin and

for those

the market;

of Laodicea for the

not much; Italy,

olive made

oil,not

much

king,gold and
of

silver plate

after the fashion of the country, thin

coats

and for
no

clothing,

cloaks,and military
Likewise
are

skin, of
across

great \alue.

from

the districtof Ariaca

Indian

this sea, there

cotton

imported

iron, and

and Indian steel, and

cloth; the broad

sagmatogene,
and

cloth called monache

and girdles,
a

that called

coats

of skin and

low-colored mallac.

cloth,and
There
are

few

muslins, and colored

and exported from these places ivory,

tortoise-

shell and

rhinoceros-horn. this market

from

The the
to

most

from of
;

Egypt

is
to

brought to

month Thoth
of Gulf

January
but
ably season-

September, that is,from they put

7. From the
east to
sea

Tybi

about the month

September.
trends toward Gulf of

this placethe Arabian becomes

about
narrowest

and

justbefore the
thousand
coast,
as

Avalites.

After

four
same

for those stadia, there

are

eastward along the sailing Berber

other
ports;

market-towns, known
intervals
one

the

"far-side"

lying at

after the

other, without

harbors

25

but
in

having good
the

roadsteads

where

shipscan
to

anchor

and he

\veather.
voyage

The from
Here

is called first

Avalites;to this
far-side small
coast

place the
is
town

Arabia there
must

the
a

shortest.

is

market-

which called Avalites,

rafts.

be reached

by

boats

and

There

are sour

flintglass, imported into this place,

grapes

assorted; juiceof
There

from

Diospolis; dressed
the

made cloth,assorted,
a

for the
are

Berbers; wheat, wine, and

same

littletin.

exported from
Berbers
on

place,

and sometimes

by

the Muza

themselves

crossingon

rafts to Ocelis and littleivory,

the opposite a shore, spices,

a

and tortoise-shell,
rest.

very

little myrrh, but who live in the

better than the

And

the Berbers

placeare

very

unruly.
Avalites there is another
a

8. After better than

market-town,
sail of about
open

this,called Malao, distant

stadia.
a

eighthundred
Here

The

anchorage is an
out

stead, roadeast.

sheltered by the natives

are

spit running
more

from

the

into this placethe

many

peaceable. There are alreadymentioned, things

in

ported imand

tunics, cloaks from

Arsinoe, dressed and dyed;

small

sheets drinking-cups,

of soft copper

quantity,
There
are

iron, and gold and

silver

coin, not

much.

from these places myrrh, a littlefrankincense, exported the harder cinnamon, duaca, known as far-side), (that and macir,which are imported into Arabia; Indian copal

and slaves,but rarely. 9. Two market-town

more
or days'sail,

three, beyond Malao

where the

is the

of Mundus,
a

shipslie at

anchor

behind safely
are

There
set

island close to the shore. projecting previously imported into this placethe things

forth,and

from

it likewise

are

exported the

mer-

26

chandise
And

and stated, already

the incense
are more

called

mocrotu.

the traders
10.

here li\'ing

quarrelsome.
the east, after reach Mosyllum,

Beyond Mundus,
two
or days'sail, a

toward sailing

another
on
a

three, you

beach, with
the
same

here

anchorage. There are imported things already mentioned, also silver

bad

a plate,

very

littleiron, and

glass. There

are

shipped
(so that

from

the place a great quantityof cinnamon,

this mtirket-town

requires ships of larger size),and

and mocrotu, tortoise shell, a little spices, fragrant gums, (poorer than that of Mundus), frankincense, (the

far-side), ivory and myrrh

11.
a

in small
coast to
a

quantities.
after

two

Sailing alongthe come days'course you

a

bej^ondMosyllum,
small

the so-called Little Nile

and laurel-grove,
a

River, and

fine

spring,and

Cape Elephant. Then

and
grove

the shore

recedes into
a

bay,

has

river,called Elephant, and

;

called Acanna;

where

alone

largelaurelis produced the far-

side

in great quantity and of the best grade. frankincense,

12. Beyond

this place, the

coast

the south, there is the Market

and

trending toward Cape of Spices, an

coast

abrupt promontory,
toward from

at

the very

end of the Berber

the

east.

The

anchorage is dangerousat
an

times
to

the ground-swell, because the place is exposed

A

the north.

sign of

storm approaching water

which becomes

is

is that the deep to the place, peculiar

more

turbid and
to
a

they all run

town

itscolor. changes largepromontory

When

this happens

called Tabas, which

ofTers safe shelter. the

There

are

imported into this market;

things alreadymentioned
and

and

there

are

duced pro-

in it cinnamon

its different

varieties, gizir,

arebo,mag/a, and moto) and asypha,

frankincense.

27

13. Beyond is the of village

stadia

Tabae, after four hundred

Pano. And

there stadia,

four then, after sailing toward

hundred the
town current

alonga

promontory,
you,

which

place
ported im-

also draws

there the

is another
same

market-

called Opone, into which

as

are things

those alreadymentioned, and in it the greatest

cinnamon is produced, (the arebo and
are

of quantity and in

moto),

slaves of the better sort, which

;

numbers increasing better than that shell, 14. The

is made
voyage

and

great

broughtto Egypt quantityof tortoise-

found

elsewhere.

to

all these far-side market-towns

from And

Epiphi.

of July, that is Egypt about the month also customarily fitted out from are ships

the placesacross

this

sea,

from

Ariaca

and

bringingto
their
own

these far-side market-towns

the

Barygaza, productsof

clarified butter,sesame places ; wheat, rice,

oil,cotton
and Some

cloth, (the monache

from

and

the sagmatogene)
,

and honey girdles, make the voyage

the reed

called sacchari.

to these market-towns, especially

and others the

coast.

exchange their
This country
is ruled

cargoes

while

sailing along
a

is not

subjectto

King,

but

each market-town 15.

by

its separate chief.

Beyond Opone,
this coast

the shore
are

trending more

ward to-

the south, firstthere

of Azania
are

the small and

great bluffs

is destitute of lie at

harbors, but there

placeswhere

shipscan

anchor, the shore being

abrupt; and this course

south-west. another
Courses six

the direction is of six days, the small and and

being
for

Then

come course

great beach

days'

after that in

order, the

of Azania, the firstbeing called

Sarapion and
other and
a

the

next

Nicon; and after that several rivers and

after the other, separately a rest

one anchorages,

28

run

for each

day, seven

in

until the Pyralaae islands all,

;

and what
to

is called the channel

beyond which,
two
courses

a a

little

the south of south-west,after

of

day

and

night along
low and and

the

Ausanitic

coast,

is the

island

Menuthias, about three hundred

stadia from

the mainland,
are

wooded, in which
of birds
and

there

rivers

and

many
are no

kinds

the mountain-tortoise.
;

There

wild beasts except the crocodiles

but there
are

they do they
island

not

attack
canoes

men.

In this place there from

sewed

boats, and
use

hollowed

singlelogs, which
In

for

fishingand
catch them

catchingtortoise.
in
a

this

theyalso

peculiar way,
the

in wicker

baskets,'which they fasten

between the breakers. 16. Two
last market-town

across

channel-opening
lies the

days' sail beyond, there

of the continent of

very

Azania, which
from

is

called boats there

Rhapta;

which

has its

name

the

sewed

ploiarion) alreadymentioned; in which {rhaptbn is ivory in great quantity, and tortoise-shell.

live under
men

Along this coast

in stature, and

of

habits,ver\^ piratical
chiefs for each
it under
some

great

separate
governs

place.
ancient

The

Mapharitic chief

it to that subjects right is become

now

the sovereignty of the

And

state

that

firstin Arabia.

the

people

of Muza

hold it under

his

and authority,

send thither many

largeships; usingArab
famiHar who
know

captainsand

agents, who

are

with the natives and the whole

are

with them, intermarry the

and

coast

and understand

language.
hatchets

17. There
made and
at

imported into these markets the lances

various and

Muza

for this trade,and especially

daggersand awls, and

a little wine, places

kinds
not

of

glass;and
trade,but

at some

wheat,

for

30

by

the chiefs and

Carnaites.
coast

kingsof Arabia; and they are called Navigation is dangerous along this whole
is without

of

Arabia, which

harbors, with bad

of breakers
we

chorages, an-

foul, inaccessible because rocks, and

our

and

terrible in every down the middle the country

way.

Therefore

hold
on come
are

course

of the

gulfand
until

pass
we

as

fast as
to

by possible
Burnt

of Arabia

the

below Island; directly

which

there
of

people,nomadic, pasturers regionsof peaceful sheep and

21. camels.
a

cattle,

in Beyond these places,

bay

at

the foot of the

called

left side of this

there gulf,

is a

placeby the shore

Muza,

market-town Berenice

established by law, distant altogether

for those And

from

tA^elve thousand

stadia.

southward, about sailing the whole place iscrowded

and
on

with

Arab

shipowners and

seafaring men,
for

is busy
a

of commerce; with the affairs with the far-side coast

own

they carry

trade

and with

Bar'gaza, sendingtheir
this port
of the

shipsthere.
22. Three

days

inland

from

there

is

city called Sana, in the midst

lives in that

region called
Chols-

Mapharitis; and
bus who

there is a vassal-chief named

city. days more

and

23. And

after nine

there is Saphar,the

metropolis,in which
two

lives

Charibael, lawful
those

king

of
to

tribes,the Homerites

livingnext

them, called the Sabaites; through continual embassies

and

he gifts, 24. The

but

is a friend of the

Emperors.
is without
a

market-town
a

of Muza and

bor, har-

has

good
bottom

roadstead

anchoragebecause
the anchors
consists

of the

sandy

thereabouts,where

hold safely. The

merchandise

imported there

31

of

both purplecloths, with style,

or

Arabian

interwoven

in the clothing dered, embroisleeves; plain,ordinary, with gold; saffron,sweet rush,

coarse

fine and

blankets (not many), muslins, cloaks, others made

in the

some

plain and

local fashion; sashes of different

in moderate wine quantity,

ointments colors,fragrant

and wheat, not in moderate

to

much.

For the country produces grain

and
a

amount,

great deal of wine.

And
sump-

the

King

and the Chief

are

given horses
There

and

ter-mules, vessels of gold and

woven

polishedsilver,finely
are

and clothing

copper

vessels.

exported
try coun-

from
:

the

same

placethe thingsproduced

in the

selected

myrrh,
all the

and

the Gebanite-Minaean

stacte, from
to

alabaster and Avalites and

thingsalready mentioned
coast.

the

far-side

The
of

voyage

this

placeis made
is Thoth
;

best about the month

September, that
earlier.

but there is nothingto prevent it even

25. After
hundred country

beyond sailing
coast

this place about

and

three Berber
gether, to-

stadia,the
about

of Arabia

the

the Avalitic
a

gulf no\v
not

coming close

there is forces the

sea

channel,

long

in extent, which

and shuts it into a narrow strait, together stadia in length, the the passage through which, sixty divides. Therefore the course island Diodorus through and with strong winds it is beset with rushingcurrents from the adjacent ridgeof mountains. blowing down this strait by the shore there is a village of on Directly chief,called Ocelis; which to the same Arabs, subject is not so much as it is an a market-town anchorage and and the first landing for those sailing watering-place into the

gulf.
sea

26. Beyond Ocelis,the

widening again to\\

ard

32

the

east

and

soon

givinga

view

of the open

ocean,

after

about
a

twelve

hundred

stadia there is Eudasmon

Arabia,
of Chari-

by village

the shore, also of the

Kingdom
at

bael,and having convenient

sweeter places,

and wateringanchorages,

and of
a

better than those

Ocelis; it lies at
recedes from
it.

the
It

entrance
was

bay, and

the land

called Eudaemon, the vo3rage when

across

because
was

in the yet made

not

earlydays of
from
to

the citywhen
to

not

India

Egypt,
to at

and

they

did

dare but

sail from
came

Egypt

the ports

this

ocean,

all

gether to-

it received the cargoes this place, Alexandria

now

from the

both

countries, just as

receives

things

broughtboth
long before place.
27. After

from
our

abroad
own

and

time

Eg3^pt. But not Charibae' destro3xd the

there is
continuous stadia

from

Eudaemon
a

Arabia

lengthof
or

coast, and

bay extending two

there
are

thousand

more,

along which

Nomads
cape

and Fish-Eaters from projecting by the shore,

in villages; justbeyond the living

this bay there

is another

market-town

Cana, of the Kingdom

called Island of and

of Eleazus, the Frankincense

are

Ccnmtry; and facingit there

one

two

desert

islands,

Birds,the other Dome

stadia from Cana.

Island,one
Inland
in

hundred
this

twenty

from the tlie

place

lies the All

metropolis Sabbatha,
the frankincense
to

which
in

King
and
manner

lives.

produced

country
to

is brought by camels Cana

on

that place to be stored,

rafts held up and

by inflated skins after the

in boats. And

of the country,
a

this place

has and

trade also with

the far-side ports, with

and the

Barygaza

Scythiaand

Ommana

neighboringcoast

of Persia.

33

28. There
a

are

imported
wine,
as

into this placefrom

at

httle wheat

and

Muza;
and

Egypt in the clothing

of it spurious; and

Arabian
and

style, plainand
copper
as

common

most storax

and tin and

go
to

coral and and

other

thingssuch
thin
from and

Muza;

for the

King usually
exported
and

wrought gold and

of clothing

silver

also horses,images, and plate,

fine quality. And

there

are

native produce, frankincense this place,

aloes,

the

rest

of the

thingsthat
voyage
to

enter

into the trade of

the other ports.

at

The
as

to

this placeis best made

or

the

same

time

that

Muza,

rather earlier.

29. Beyond Cana, the land

follows
a

there greatly, receding

way across,

very

a deep bay stretching great

which

is called Sachalites ; and the Frankincense mountainous and

try, Counin

forbidding,wrapped

thick the great

clouds
trees.

and
These

fog, and yieldingfrankincense incense-bearingtrees are not

from of

ing heightor thickness; they bear the frankincense stickin in drops on the bark, justas the trees among us is gathered The frankincense Egypt weep their gum.

by the King's slaves and those who

for

are

sent

to

this
very

vice serhealthy, un-

punishment.
and

For

these places are those those

coast;

but

to even pestilential almost always fatal to

sailing along the working there,

who

also 30.

perishoften from On this bay there

east, called

want

of food.
very
on a

is

great promontory which

is
a

the facing

Syagrus ;

fort for

the defence

of the country, and

harbor and storehouse

for the frankincense

cape,

that is collected ; and opposite this there is an

well

out

at

sea,

between island,lying
: Syagrus

it and the Cape of it is called

but nearer opposite, Spices Dioscorida, and is very largebut

desert and

34

marshy, having rivers

in it and

crocodiles

and

many

snakes and great lizards, of which

the flesh is eaten The

and
island

the fat melted and used instead of olive oil.

no yields are

neither vine fruit, and

nor

grain. The inhabitants

coast

few

they live

on

the

toward

the north,

which

from

this side faces the continent.

and Indians

They
and

are

of Arabs a mixture foreigners, who have emigrated to carry on

Greeks,
island

trade there.

The

producesthe
the white

true

and the land-tortoise, and sea-tortoise,

is very
numerous

tortoise which

and

red preferthe

and the for itslargeshells;

which mountain-tortoise,
of which
on

of all and is largest

has the thickest shell ;

cannot
even

worthless specimens

be
too

cut

apart

the under

side,because
are

they are

hard; but those of \'alue

\\'hole into caskets that
sort

cut

apart and

the shells made

and

and cake-dishes and small plates

is also

of

\^'are.

There

produced

in

this island
in

cinnabar, that
from

called Indian, which

trees.

is collected

drops
is

the

."^l. It Charibael

happens
the

that just as
of

Azania

to subject

and

the Chief

Mapharitis,this island
Frankincense
some

is

subjectto
Trade Muza
voyage

King

of
on

the

is also carried

there by chance
and
to

Country. people from

on

and

by those who
Damirica and

call there

the

from

Barygaza; they bring in

cloth, and
a

rice and

wheat

Indian

few

female
a

slaves; and
great farmed 32.
cuts

they
under

take for their

exchange
Now the

cargoes, island

quantity of tortoise-shell.
out

is

Kings and is garrisoned. the bay of Omana Immediately beyond Syagrus

into the

the

deep

the width of it being six coast-line,

are

hundred

stadia;and beyond this there

mountains.

35

high

and

rocky and steep, inhabited

stadia
more

by

cave-dwellers

for five hundred

and

beyond

this is a port

established for receiving the the harbor there

and trade and in is called

Sachalitic frankincense;
Cana

from Moscha, and ships

call

regularly;and
Barygaza, if the
^^'iththe
and all
as

shipsreturningfrom
season

Damirica

is

winter late,

there, and
cloth
lies
guarded, un-

exchanging their King's officers,

sesame

wheat

oil for

frankincense,which
open

heaps

over

the Sachalitic country,

and

if the

place were

under

the protectionof

the

gods;
on

for neither

openly nor

by stealth

can

it be

loaded
if a
not

board

ship without

the King's permission;

the shipcould this,

single grainwere
clear from

loaded without

the harbor. for about fifteen

range
a

33. Beyond the harbor of Moscha hundred

stadia
as

far
at

as

Asich,

mountain

runs

along the shore;

seven
a

the end

of

which, in

row,

lie is

called Zenobian. islands,

Beyond these there

no

barbarous

region which
but
now

is
to

longer
Persia.

of the

same

Kingdom,
this
coast

belongs
at
sea

Sailing along
stadia from island called

well

out

for

two meets

thousand
you
an

the Zenobian about Sarapis, mainland. hundred

there Islands,
one

hundred
two

and

twenty

stadia from and

the
six

It is about

hundred

stadia wide settlements

long, inhabited by three

use

of Fish-

Eaters, a villainous lot,who

and
wear

the Arabian

of palm-leaves. The island girdles and small considerable tortoise-shellof fine quality,

language produces
boats sail-

and
Cana.

are cargo-ships

sent

there

from regularly

34. Sailingalong the coast, which toward the

entrance

ward trends north-

of the Persian

Sea, there

are

36

many

islands

known

as

the

Calsi, after about

The

two

thousand

stadia, extending along the shore.

are a

habitants in-

treacherous lot,very
end

littlecivilized.

35. At
range

the upper

of these Calsi

islands is a
not

of mountains

called Calon, and

there follows

far

beyond, the mouth

of the Persian Gulf, where the

there

is much the the

diving for

pearl-mussel.To
another between

the left of
to

straits are

great mountains

called Asabon, and

round

right there
mountain
across

rises in full view called

and

high

Semiramis;

them

the

passage

the straitis about six hundred that very great and broad
At
sea,

stadia ; beyond

which

the Persian
end

Gulf, reaches far into the interior.

of this Gulf called River

the upper

there is a market-town
near

designatedby law, Spasiniand

the

Apologus, situated Euphrates.

Charax

36. Sailingthrough the mouth

a course six-days'

of the Gulf, after

of Persia

there is another market-town

To

called Ommana.
vessels are and

both of these market-towns from loaded Barygaza, of teakwood

large
logs
is

sent regularly

with copper
and

sandalwood
and

and

timbers To

of blackwood also

ebony.

Ommana
from

frankincense
to

brought from
sewed
are

Cana, and

Ommana

Arabia

boats

togetherafter
as

the fashion From

of the

place;
also
;
a

these

known

madarata.
are

each

of these

market-towns, there
to

exported to Barygaza and

to

Arabia,

many

but inferior pearls,

those of India

after the fashion purple,clothing

of the slaves.

place,wine,
is a

great quantityof dates,gold and 37. Beyond the Ommanitic

also of the

regionthere

try coun-

of another Parsidae, the middle

Kingdom,
of which
a

and
cape

the

bay of Gedrosia, from

juts

38

of the

silver and gold plate, and glass, other hand there

are

wine. little

On

exportedcostus, bdellium, Seric skins,cotton lycium, nard, turquoise, lazuli, lapis cloth,silk yarn, and indigo. And sailors set out thither
with the Indian
is

Etesian winds, about

it is
more

the

month

of but

July,that through
sooner

Epiphi:

dangerous then,
is
more

these winds

the voyage

and direct,

completed. 40. Beyond the

its parts

river Sinthus there is another in toward

gulf, gulf
great
is

not

navigable, running
are

the north

itis called

Eirinon;
and

called separately the small

water

the great; in both parts the

is

shallow, with
a

sandbanks shifting
way
not

and occurring continually

so

from
even

shore
in

that very

often when

the shore
if A

sight, shipsrun
course

to ontor\

hold their
out

aground, and theyare wrecked.

curving gulf,

tempt they at-

prom-

stands

from the

this

around

from

Eirinon

toward

East, then South, then West, and

contains
seven

enclosingthe gulf called Baraca, \\ hich

islands.
..

Those

who

come

to
a

the

entrance

of this

bay
the

escape
out to

it
sea;

by putting about
but those who
are

and little drawn

waves

further standing
inside
are

are

into

gulfof

Baraca

lost; for the

sea

high and
foul,and
is in

very

violent, and
eddies and

the

is tumultuous

and

has
some

rushingwhirlpools. The
in others
are

bottom and

places abrupt,and
the anchors
cut

rocky

sharp,so
As the
at
sea

that

lyingthere
those

some parted,

being quickly
a

off,and others chafing on

to places

the bottom.

sign
there

of these
are

serpents, very this

coast

from approaching large and black; for and around

the other

placeson

Barygaza, tlieyare running into gold.

smaller, and

in color

bright green,

39

41.
and

Beyond
coast

the

gulfof

Baraca is that of
of

Barygaza
is the beginning

the

of the country

Ariaca, which
and

of the Kingdom That

of Nambanus and is

of all India.

part of it lying inland

the
coast

called Abiria, but

a

is adjoiningScythia called Syrastrene. It is and and rice and

sesame

fertile country,

yielding wheat

oil and
made

clarified butter, cotton

the Indian
sorts.

cloths
many
ure stat-

therefrom, of the

coarser
men

Very

cattle are

pasturedthere,and the
The x^'hich much
In these

are

of great

and black in color. is Minnagara, from down

to to

of this country metropolis

cotton

cloth is brought
remain
e\'en

Barygaza.
ancient

placesthere

of the expedition of Alexander, the present time signs

as

such The
to

shrines,walls of forts and great wells.

course sailing

along this
called

coast, from

Barbaricum

the promontory

Papica,opposite Barygaza,
stadia.

and

before Astacampra, is of three thousand 42. Beyond this there is another

gulf exposed to
north, at the Bseones;
at

the

sea-waves,

running

up
an

toward

the

mouth

of which

there is

island called
a

its innermost

part there is

great river called Mais.

across

Those

to Barygaza pass sailing

this

which gulf,
to

is three hundred

stadia in

behind width, leaving

their the

left the island just visible from

to the very east, straight

their tops toward

mouth

of the river of

Barygaza;

and this river is called Nammadus. 43. This hard

to

gulfis very
both

narrow

to

Barygaza and
the
ocean

very
;

navigatefor those coming

case
a

from

this

is the

with

the

there is

better passage mouth and

rightat the very long and narrow,

and left passages, but right through the left. For on the of the gulf there lies a shoal,

full of rocks, called Herone,

40

of Cammoni; facing the village

and

oppositethis

on

the left projectsthe promontory

campra,

that lies before Astais a bad

\vhich is called Papica,and

of the strong
are

anchorage
it and

because

current cut

in setting

around

because the anchors

and made

the bottom of?,

entrance at to

beingrough
the

rocky.

And

even

if the

gulfis
cannot

the mouth safely,

of the river

Barygazais found
low and it. And

because with difficulty, be made

you
out

the shore is \er\

are

until you

close upon

when
of the

have found
at

it the passage

is difficult because

shoals

the mouth
Because of
at

of the rixer. native fishermen this, in the

44.

King's

stationed service,

the very

entrance

in well-manned

large boats
coast
to
as

called
as

trappaga

and

far

from Syrastrene,

cotymha, go up the ^\'hich they pilot vessels

from straight

Barygaza. And
of the

they steer

them

the
;

mouth
and

bay between
them
to

the shoals with their

cre\\"s

they tow

fixed stations, going up

with the
ebb
at

beginning places
bv mouth.
in

of the

flood,and
in basins.
as

lying through the

These
as

anchorages and
the

basins

are

deeper
lies the from

river

far

Bar}'gaza;which
stadia up

the river, about

three hundred

45. Now

the whole
\'ery

country and and

of India has very many

rivers,and
at

great ebb
new

flow
at

of the the full

creasing tides; inmoon

the

moon,

for

three days,and
of the
so
moon.

off during the intervening falling days But about Barygaza it is much greater, is

that the bottom

are

suddenly seen,
now

and

now

parts of
were ships

the dr} land

sea,

and and

it is dry where

sailingjust before;
of the

the rivers,under the whole

the inrush
sea

flood tide,when

force of the

is

41

directed

them, against

are

driven upwards
for many and
are

more

strongly

their against
46. For

natural current,

stadia.

this

reason

entrance

departureof

sels ves-

is very

dangerous to those who

to

inexperiencedor
For

who

come

this market-town
at cannot

for the first time. tide is

so

the rush of
and

waters

the

incoming

irresistible,
that

the anchors

hold

againstit;

large

shipsare caught up by the force of it,turned on through the speed of the current, and so
the shoals and
;

broadside
driven
are on

wrecked;

and

smaller

boats

turned over-

and

those that have been

turned
at
even

aside among
are

the channels
on

by the receding waters

if not

the ebb,

left

and their sides, tide

comes

held

on

an

keel by props, under

water. at

the flood

upon
current

them

suddenly and
filledwith
sea

the firstliead of the For

new

they are

there is so
moon,

great force in the rush of the

tide

the

during the flood especially begin the

still, on
entrance at

at

night,
the
at

that if you
waters
are

the

moment

when
to
an

the instant there is borne

you

the mouth

of the river,a noise like the cries of

soon

army

heard from afar; and very

in
over

the

sea

itself comes
roar.

ing rush-

the shoals with

country

hoarse

47. The

inland from
as

by
the

numerous

tribes,such
and

the

Barygazais inhabited the Arachosii, Arattii,

is

Gandarjei

the people of Poclais,in which

Above

Bucephalus Alexandria.
nation of the

these is the very

are

like warown

Bactrians, who

under from

their

king.

And

Alexander, settingout

these parts,
and
cient an-

to penetrated

the Ganges, leaving aside Damirica part of India; and

are

the southern

to

the present day

drachmae this country,

current

in

Barygaza, coming

from

in Greek bearing inscriptions

and letters,

42

the

devices

of

those

\\ho

reigned after Alexander,

to

Apollodotus and

Menander.

48. Inland from

this place and

the east, is the this

from citycalled Ozene, formerly a royal capital;

place are
for

broughtdown
about
:

all

thingsneeded

for the welfare

many

of the country
our

Barygaza,and

things
and

trade

Indian agate and carnelian, much

from

muslins

mallow this
same

cloth, and

ordinary cloth.
the upper country

region and

Through is brought

the

that comes through Poclais; that is,the spikenard Caspapyrene and Paropanisene and Cabolitic and that

brought through
also
costus

the

adjoiningcountry
into

of

Scythia;

and

bdellium.
are

49.

There

imported

this market-town,
and

also Laodicean wine, Italian preferred,

copper,

Arabian;

clothing and inferior sorts of all kinds ; bright-colored a girdles cubit wide; storax, sweet clover,flintglass, timony, anrealgar, gold and silver coin, on which there is a profit of the country; when and exchanged for the money
ointment, but
not
are

tin,and

lead; coral and topaz;

thin

very

and costly

not

much.

And

for

the King there

vessels of

broughtinto

those places very

costly
for the

silver, singingboys, beautiful maidens

thin clothing of the finest weaves, harem, fine A\'ines,

and

the choicest ointments.

There

are

exported from

these
and

placesspikenard,costus, bdelUum, ivory, agate cloth of all kinds, silk carnelian, lycium, cotton cloth,yarn,

cloth, mallow

long
from

pepper

and such other

thingsas
towns.

are

brought here
bound

the various marketfrom of

Those

for this market-town

Egypt July,

make

the voyage

about favorably

the month

that is Epiphi.

43

50. Beyond in
a

hne straight is called Dachinabades, of the

natives
means

Barygazathe adjoiningcoast from north to south; and so

"south."
toward

extends this
gion re-

guage for dachanos in the lan-

The
east

inland

country
many

back

from

the

coast

the

comprises

desert

and regions
"

great mountains

and all kinds

enormous elephants, leopards, tigers, sorts ; and many serpents, hyenas,and baboons of many

of wild

beasts

populous nations,as far as the Ganges. of the market-towns 51. Among

there
about
are

Dachinabades

two

of

special importance; Psethana,distant

from

twenty

days'journey south
ten

Barygaza;
east, there
are

yond beis

which, about
another
down
to

days' journey

very

great city,Tagara. There

brought
and
carmon com-

Barygaza from
tracts

these placesby wagons

through great

without

roads, from

Paethana much

and from nelian in great quantity,

Tagara
mallow

cloth,all kinds of muslins

other merchandise

and

cloth,and
the
gions re-

brought
sea-coast.

from there locally

along the

And

the whole

course

to

the end of Damirica

distance is greater
to

is seven

thousand

stadia ;

but the

the Coast

Country.
order,

52. The

market-towns

of this region are, in

which of Calliena, after Barygaza : Suppara,and the city

in

the

time

of the elder

market-town;
Sandares

but since

Saraganusbecame a lawful into the possession of it came

obstructed,and Greek
to

the port is much

may

ships

landing there
under

chance

be

taken

to

Barygaza

guard. 53. Beyond Calliena there are other market-towns Meliof this region ; Semylla,Mandagora, Palaepatms, Then Togarum and Aurannoboas. zigara,Byzantium,

44

there

are

the islands called Sesecrienae and that of the

that of the

and Aegidii,

Caenitas,opposite the place

are

called Chersonesus
and and

there (and in these places Island.

of
are

pirates)
,

after this the White

Then

come

Naura

Tyndis, the firstmarkets

and

Damirica, and
no\\'

then

Muziris

Nelcynda, which

of

portance. leadingim-

54. Tyndis is of the

is
same a

in village

Kingdom by the sea. plainsight

abounds in

of Cerobothra

it

Muziris, of the
there with
it is located and
sea
goes car-

Kingdom,
from

shipssent

Arabia, and by the Greeks;

on

river, distant from

and stadia,
up

Tyndis by

river

five

hundred
stadia.
sea

the river from

the shore twenty

Nelcynda

is distant from

Muziris

by

river and

about

five hundred

and is of another Kingstadia, dom,

the Pandian.

This hundred

place also
and

is situated stadia from

on

river,about
sea.

one

twenty

the

55. There

is another

place at
to

the

mouth

of this down in

of Bacare; the village river,

on

which

shipsdrop
and

the outward roadstead

to

voyage

from
on

Nelcynda,

anchor

the

take

their cargoes; the channels

are

because
not

the

river is full of shoals and

clear.

The

kings of
And
as

both
a

these market-towns
those

live in the interior.

sign to
are

approachingthese places
forth
to meet

from
you,

the

sea

there in

serpents coming

black

color, but shorter, like snakes in the

eyes.

head, and \vith blood-red

56.
on

They

send

largeshipsto

these market-towns
and

account

and bulk of pepper of the great quantity

malabathrum.
a place,

There

are

imported here, in the first

;

of coin great quantity

topaz, thin

not clothing,

46

with
so

favorable wind, quite away

from

the land, and

sail outside past the aforesaid

gulfs.
Red Mountain,
coast

58.
and

Beyond

Bacare there isthe Dark

another

district

stretching along the

toward

the south, called Paralia. The

it has
a

first is called Balita ; place

fine harbor and

by the shore. village

called
a

Beyond
at

this there is another

are

place

Comari,

which
come

the Cape of Comari

men

and

harbor; hither
themselves

those
rest
women once

Vv'ho wish

to

consecrate

for the

of their

and bathe and dwell in celibacy lives, ; and

same

also do the d\\'elthere and

for it is told that

goddess

bathed.
toward

59. From extends

are

Comari

the south

this region

to

Colchi, where the pearl-fisheries are;

(they

worked

by

condemned

criminals) ;

and

it belongs

to

the Pandian another

Kingdom.
has

Beyond

Colchi

there follows

district called the Coast

a

Country, w^hich
called

lies

on

bay, and
the

region inland
else, are

Argaru.
there

At this

place,and nowhere
coast

bought
from

the pearls
are

gatheredon

thereabouts; and

exportedmuslins, those called Argaritic. the market-towns 60. Among of these countries, and the harbors where the ships put in from Damirica
and from
as

the north, the

most

important
the country and

are,

in order

firstCamara, they lie, there

as

then Poduca, then Sopatma;

in which

are
as

of ships

coasting along
sels largeves-

the shore
made

far

Damirica;

other very

of

single logsbound
make
and colandia,

called together,
to
are

sangara;
to

but those which

the voyage

Chryse and large.

the

Ganges
are

are

called

\'ery

There
in Damirica,
any

imported into
and

these placeseverything made

the greatest part of what

is brought at

47

time

from

Egypt

comes are

with here, together

most

kinds and

of all the

thingsthat
are

brought through

from

Damirica

of those that
61. About

carried

Paralia. ing trendwest

toward

the

region,the course following the east, lying out at sea toward

part is

the

is

the island Palassimundu, called by the ancients Taprobane.

and and

The

northern

day's journey distant,

the west,
It
toise-shell. tor-

the southern
almost

toward part trends gradually

touches

the oppositeshore of Azania.

stones,

produces pearls, transparent

62. About

muslins, and

these places is the region of Masalia

way

a great stretching

along the

coast

before

the inland there.

country;

great quantity of muslins the

is made
east

toward Beyond this region,sailing

and

crossing

the

bay, there adjacent

the

is the
as

region of Dosarene, yielding Beyond this,the

are

ivory known

Dosarenic.

course

trending toward
tribes, among

the north, there whom

are

many

barous barrace

the

Cirrhada;,a

of

men

with flattened noses,

ver}^ savage;

another tribe,
the

the who

Bargysi; and
are

the Horse-faces

and

Long-faces,
the

said

to

be cannibals.
course
ocean

63. After these, the

turns to

toward

east

with the again, and sailing shore remaining beyond

to

the

rightand
comes

the
into

the left, Ganges

last land
near same

view, and

near

it the very is
a

toward

the east,

Chryse.
and its bank

There

river

it called the
way
as

Ganges,
On
as

it rises and fallsin the is a market-town

the Nile.
same name

which

has the

the

river, Ganges.
and

malabathrum muslins

Through this place are brought and Gangetic spikenardand pearls,

are

of the finest sorts, which

called

Gangetic,

48

It is said that there and

are

gold-minesnear
which

these places, And

there is a

gold

coin

is called caltis. island in the

justopposite this
the last part of the under the

river there is an

ocean,

inhabited

world

toward

the

east,

sun rising

itself;it is called Chryse; and it

the Ery-

has the best tortoise-shellof all the placeson thragan Sea.

64. After this

region under
a

the very

north, the
a

sea

outside

ending

in

land

called This, there is

from

\'ery

great inland
and

citycalled Thins,
and silkcloth
are
are

which
foot

raw

silk

silk yarn
to

brought on
also

through
Damiland of

Bactria rica This and and

Barygaza,and
of
easy

exported to
But
come

by

way

the river
of access; country
on

Ganges.
few
men

the
from

is not seldom. is said

there, Bear,
and
;

The
to

lies under

the Lesser

border

the farthest parts of Pontus

to

the Caspian Sea, next

of which empt}"

which
ocean.

lies Lake

Maeotis

all

into the
on

65. Every year there

and
are comes

the borders
tribe of
men

of the land

of This

a together

with short bodies

broad, flat faces,and

and called Besataa,
come

by

nature

peaceable; thej^ children,carrying

green
own

are

almost and

uncivilized. entirely

They
great

with

their wives

baskets of what looks like packs and plaited

meet

They grape-leaves.
countrj^ and for several
as

in

placebetween
There

their
a

the land of This.

they hold

feast

out days,spreading

the baskets under

to

selves them-

mats,

and And

then

return

their

own

places in
and

the
come

interior. into that

then

the

natives

watching them
mats;

place and

gather up

their

they pick out

from

the braids the fibers which

leaves

they call

petri. They lay the

closely togetherin several

49

layers
with

and the those

make fibers
made

them
from

into

balls,
mats.

which
And there

they
are

pierce
three the

the
of

sorts;

the

largest
those the
of of

leaves

are

called

large-ball

malabathrum
and

the

smaller,
the

the
small-ball.

dium-ball; me-

those three

of

smallest, malabathrum,

Thus

there
into

exist

sorts

and

it

is

brought
66.

India

by

those

who

prepare

it.

The
of

regions
access

beyond
because
else of

these

places
excessive

are

either
winters

difficult

their be

and

great

cold,
divine

or

cannot

sought

out

because

of

some

influence

of

the

gods.

50

NOTES
(Numerals
Title. in writings
refer to numbered paragraphssimilarly in the

text.)
class of

Periplus
Roman

was

the

name

applied to

numerous

hand-book. the

and traveler's times,which answered for sailing-chart rendered The be titlemight Guide-Book to as

Sea." Erj'thrasan Title.

Erythraean Sea
the Indian Persian the Red

was

the

term

applied by Greek Red, so

assured

and Roman

geographersto
Sea and
name

the Red Ocean, includingits adjuncts,

the

Gulf.

Erythra means
are

that the modern

perpetuates
not

that it means,

ancient; but we Sea, but Sea

account

of

by Agatharchides King Erythras,followinga

Persian legend.
The of the
name:

followingis the
iDe Marl
Persian
account

gi\en by Agatharchidesof the origin

There

Erythrao,S 5.)
is after this
manner. was a
man

The famous
son birth,

for of

his valor and

wealth, by
His home

name

Erythras,a by
so

Persian by

Myozaeus.
are not now

was

the
at

sea,

facing toward
of the
pire em-

islands which of the

to

iMedes, when changes

own

but were desert, Erythraslived. the

scene

the time

In the winter-time his

own

he used he indulged
some

go

to

Pasargadae, making
in these of life. and
at
same

journey at
now
a

cost;
now

and for into

a

for

and profit,

pleasure of his
but

On
were

time

the lions

charged
the

large

flock of his mares,

terror-stricken
was

slain; while
seen,
as

rest, unharmed
sea.

what the

they had land, and

fled to the

strong
waves

wind

blowing

from
were

they plunged into the

their

in their terror, they

carried

beyond
sea

footing;
out
on

and

their fear of

they continuing,
of marked

swam

through the
With
them thus Now

and
one

came

the shore

the island opposite.

went

of

the

who braver^',
a mare.

reached

the

shore

herdsmen, a youth the by clinging to

and
not

shoulders of

Erythras looked

for his mares,

but secure in seeingthem, first put togethera raft of small size, strength of its building; and happening on a favorable wind, which he was carried by across pushed off into the strait, swiftly
waves,

the he the

and

so

found

his

mares

and

found

their
a

keeper also.
a

And

then, being pleasedwith

well chosen
such

the

he built island,

stronghold at

place
posite op-

by
as

the
v\ere

shore,and

brought hither from

the main-land

dissatisfied v\'ith their life there,and

subsequently

51

settled all the other uninhabited

and such
was

islands with
to

numerous

population;
because called here

the

gloryascribed
even

him
to

by
our

the
own

popular voice
time

of these his deeds, that

down

they have
reason

that sea, infinite in extent,

set

Erythraan.

And
to

so, for the

say

itis to forth, is a Erythras,

one

be well
very

( for distinguished

Sea Er'ythra thdlatta, Red erythra,

of

different thing from the

most

Thalatta

Sea)

for the

commemorates

illustrious ?rian
water.

of that sea, while

the other refers of the name, the

as as

to

the color of the

to

Now

the ohe
sea

explanation
not

due

the

color,is false
man

(forthe

is

red),but
true

it to other,ascribing the Persian Here is

the

who

ruled

there,is

the

one,

story testifies."

manifestly a
than the suggests

kernel

of

truth,referring, however,
of the Medes
a

to

much

earlier time

Empire

and

their capital

Pasargadae. It
around

the

theory of

Cushite-Elamite

migration
a

Arabia, as set forth by Glaser and Hommel: people from Elam, who settledin the Bahrein Islands along South Arabia,leaving their epithetof
many the places,including
sea

the story of and

or

then

spread
in

Red"

"ruddy"
and

that washed

their shores
or,

floated

their vessels:

Sea of the Red

People,"
See under Trade

according to Agathar23 and

to

chides, "of the Red

1.

King."
"

"" 4,

27.
ports

Designated ports.
as

was

limited

of entry
vised supermany

established, or, by
such
ports
on

the

text

has

it,

designated" by law,
levied duties. the There There

and
were were

government the

officialswho Red Sea under

Ptolemies.

also

ports of entry

maintained

by

the Nabataean

Kingdom, by the

Homerite
of

Kingdom Axumites;

in

Yemen, and by the newly-established Kingdom farmed to Egyptian Greeks, now the latter, possibly,
to objects

the man Ro-

subjects.
Fabricius and 'designated," of the word

translates "frequented,"
and

the meaning thereby straining of historicalfacts.

losingits obvious
Alexander
and the the

scription de-

Under

the

who earlyPtolemies,

succeeded

Great,
Under

Egypt

went

her former far toward recovering

wealth

glory.
canal

Ptolemy II, called Philadelphus(B. C. 285-246) the Nile and the Red Sea (originally dug by one
about the 20th century B. C.
century,
,

between

of the

Sesostrises,
in the 15th

reopened
to

under

the

Empire

and partly reopened by the Persians under Darius in the 5th

open commerce;

more century), was once carefully provided with

various caravan-routes,
tween opened beports of entry the Red

wells and

stopping-places, were
they terminated
opened
with

the river and

were was

the sea, and where colonized.

established and

Egyptian shipping on
was

Sea

encouraged, and regulartrade

the Sabaeans of

52

South
these
terms on

Arabia, and
ports, and of romantic
a

the tribes of the Somali

coast.

The

names

of all in

description of this newly-created commerce,

enthusiasm,are
At be the
to

given by Agatharchides in
time of this the Periplus,

his work ing remain-

the

ErythraeanSea.
seem

settlements
and

Arsinoe,IVIyos-hormus, Berenice,Ptolemais places

mentioned

Adulis.

The

other

by Agatharchides had
ventured that farther

probablylost their importance as the Egyptian ships beyond the straits and frequentedthe richer markets
Gulf
of Aden.

fringedthe

1. Mussel
within

Harbor
now

Myos-hormus),
as

is identified with the

bay

the headland It
was as

known

Ras

Abu

Somer, 27
with
was

12

N.,

,^5"55' E.
He

founded the

by Ptolemy
of modern
access

Philadelphus B.

C. 274.
in India, closer
to

selected it
to

principal port

trade Eirjptian

preference
the

Arsinoe

(nearthe

Suez), which

but Egyptian capital,

upper
waters

difficultof of the Red

through the
six
or

because of the bad passage Sea. Alyos-hormus was distant

seven

days

from

Coptos
and

on

the

Nile, along

road

opened

through
says
are

the

desert

by Ptolemy Philadelphus. Strabo (XVII, I, 45) Alyos-hormus

stars,
now are

at

present

Coptos

in repute, and

they

frequented. Formerly
course a

the camel-merchants

traxeled in the night,

like

their directing with them

water

the by obser\'ing
water.

supply of although

But

ried mariners,carwatering-places are vided; pro-

and,

is also obtained rain

by digging to Koft,
Southern

great

depth, and

water rain-

is found

which rarely falls,

is also collected in of the Nile.

reservoirs."

Coptos

is the modern and

in the bend Arabia W.

Vessels bound
about the

for Africa

left

Alyos-hormus

autumnal

carried them

the N. equinox, when quicklydown the gulf. Those if

wind

then

prevailing
or

bound

for India the

lon Ceyof first the

left in

July,and
had

they cleared
monsoon

the
to

Red

Sea before

September they
ocean.

the

assist their passage

across

1.
did

Sailing.
"

The

ship used by
from materially

the author

of the

Periplus ably probEgypt long

A. D.
the

not

differ \ery

the types created in

before, as depictedin the reliefsof the Punt Expeditionin the Der-elBahri temple
the
at

Thebes,

and

elsewhere.
two

By

the first century much

singlesquare
the

with sail,

yards,each

longer than

heightof
B.

which sail,

the shippingof distinguished

the 15th century

C,
the

had

been

modified the mast;

by omittingthe
while
a

lower

ing yard and by increas-

height of
The
not

use. general

bowsprit,was
the 2d century.

had come into topsail triangular artlmon or sloping foremast,later developed into a in the Mediterranean, until generally used,even

The

accompanying

illustrationof

modern

Burmah

54

The

lateen sail, as
on,
came

exemplified in
into
use

the

Arab

dhow,
B.

the

Bombay
but
was

and so Jiotia, used by Arab

See

about

the 4th century

C,

and

Hindu,

rather than

Egyptian or Greek.

Shipsand their Story: Torr: Ancient Ships; Holmes: Sailing Ancient and Modern Ships; Pritchett: Sketches of Shippingand Craft; Lindsay: rine Historyoj MaHistoryof Merchant Shipping and Ancient Commerce; Chamock: N anjale. Jal:Archeologie Architecture;
Chat'terton:

1.

Stadia.
"

"

Three

stadia

were

in the

use

in the Roman

world of

at

this and

time,
that of
make

the Phileterian of 525 of 700. P^ratosthenes, the Phileterian stadium 600

to

degree,the Olympic
to

600,
this

Reduced

English measure
about 650 about 520

would

to equivalent

the feet, feet.

Olympic
The

about

feet,and

that of
to

Eratosthenes

stadium

of the Periplus seems stadia of the

be that of Eratosthenes. the

not

erally Genmile all

speaking,ten
would be
a

Periplusto
it
must

English
be

statute

fair calculation. in this time

text
are

But

forgottenthat

distances named
the of lent^th

consumed

based principally approximations, on in going from which place to place, direction

as

\ aried according to naturally

of the The

wind

and

current,

of

and sailing-course,

other factors

well.

distance is generally
of
at arriving an

given
exact

numbers; and without any the figuresin the text can calculation,
in round
to

means

be

considered

only as

approximations. According
the 500 circumference stadia The The the
to true

the system of the earth

of

measurement

laid down
at

was

estimated

by Ptolemy, with 180,000 stadia,

the

degree.
the

length of
or at was

degree is 600
600

stadia.

Olympic

standard Greek
was

stadium

(being
8

the

lengthof

race-course

Olympia),
a

Greek

mile.
mile

There

later stadium

of which
.

or feet, 7/2 went

to

the Roman the Roman

to

(1000 paces,

4854

Englishfeet)

This, the Phileterian stadium,

in the calculations of mediaeval

sur\'ived in Arabic science,and thence

Jsurope; being very

nearlythe Englishfurlong.
s

According to Col. Leake' 1 Olympic stadium

10
" "

calculations,
606. 75 English feet.
" "

=6067.50 =6075.50 =6086.50 6087.11

1 Nautical mile 1
or,

Admiralty knot
measurement,

"

by Clarke's

Therefore, 10 Olympic
"

stadia
"

1 minute

of the equator.
"

m)

=1

degree

ss

1 Roman 1 Old
1 Modem

mile

1000

passus=
paces
=

4854
5090 5280 1

English feet.

English
miles

mile
"

1000

Statute

75 Roman

degree.
1 marine

(or 75.09
4 Roman The

to
=

be exact).

miles

19,416 ft.,English
=

league.
miles.

earth's circumference

21,600 24,874
69.1
to

nautical
to

miles,or 25,020 statute

statute

degree on

the equator

69.5

miles.

The the
who

Tordesillas geographers,in
were

1494, gave
but it

equatorial degree. They

made
the

wrong,

leaguesto followed Eratosthenes,

21.625

than globe l-16th larger

is. really

or

6000 leagues, Vespucci, followingPtolemy and Alfragan,figured of the earth's circumference; as the measure miles, 24,000 Roman that

so

by 360, 16/'" leaguesmade dividing Columbus, following various Arabian

back
to
some

degree.
geographers, made
based the

degree 56^3 miles,or 14}i leagues.

All this confusion
goes

deduction

on

Ptolemy.

By 1517, accordingto
to

Navarrete,the valuation of general.

on

17;^ leagues
Zaragoza, in

the

degree
that ratio
correct

had
was

become admitted

At

the treaty of

1529,

both

sides.
to

The

is very figure

close
were

17/^ leagues.
on

All ancient calculations did log-line

See Vivien
come

based

dead

reckoning.

The

into

use

until 1521.
Nord
de

de

Le Saint-Martin,
p. 197.
:

fAfrigue dans

rAntiguite grecgue

et

romaine. Samuel
and that

Paris,1863:
Edward
.

Dawson

The Line

of Demarcation
of

of

the Treaty Vol.

Canada,

1899;

in Transactions of Tordesillas, V. " 2, pp. 467 flf.

of Pope Alexander VI the Royal Society of

,

1.

Berenice

(named

for the mother

of

Ptolemy Philadelphus)
,

is identified with

Umm-el-Ketef It is 258

and about 35" 34' E.

Bay, below Ras Benas, 23" 55' N. Roman miles, or 11 days, from
There
are

Coptos, by
the

road

across

the desert.
streets

ruins still even visible,

center

arrangement

of

being clear;

in the

is

small

of Greek and bas-reliefs Egyptiantemple with hieroglyphics

ship. workman-

There
at

is

low

water;

harbor,but the bar and Strabo (XVI, IV, 6) mentions

a

fine natural

is now

impassable

dangerous rocks
have been the

and violent winds from

At the time of of

the this

sea.

Berenice Perlplus,

seems

to
was

leading port
home

Egypt

for the

Eastern trade,and

probablythe

of the author.

56

2. Berber
of the refer North

Country.
as

"

This like

word
our

means

more

than the "land

and barbarians," the Berber race, Africa.

seems,

modern

to Barbary States,"

to

the representing

ancient Hamitic

stock of

The

name

itselfseems
the Arabic

to

be

foreignto
and

the its

people, and
the Gulf the of

is

ably prob-

related Africa when

to

bar, a desert;

to North application

recalls that ancient the Red

'

about race-opposition

Aden,
of the with

Aim,

or

ruddy people, overcame

all North
to

children
name

desert'

who

spread over

Africa

and

carried the

them, submittingtime
The

after time

similar Semitic conquests,

nician, Phoe-

Saracen. or Carthaginian
occurrence

of have the

the

name

throughout North
Somali
its
port of

Africa

is

markable. re-

We
town

modern

Berbera, the Nile inscriptions as

or

and
or

district of Berber
appear

(and

the Barbara, Barbeinhabitants, ancient Theban modern

rins

who Barbarins, the

in the

Beraberata) ;
and
at

the Barbary States,

on extremity,

Berbers
coast

Kabyles;
still

the

western

the Atlantic

of

Morocco,

another

tribe

themselves Berabra. calling

The
of savage

ancient and

Egyptiansextended
the word

the word in

to

include the and

meanings
them
ings. mean-

or outlander,

publicenemies
into their
own

general;

from like

the Greeks

took

language,with
the

The
the

Berbers

of the the Nile

Periplusprobably included
and the Red

ancestors

of the and

Bejas between

Sea, the Danakils between

of

Upper Nile, Abyssinia and

Gallas.
2. Cave

Gulf

Aden,

and

the

Somals

-Dwelling
"

Fish

-Eaters, Wild

-Flesh

-Eaters,
,

Calf-Eaters.

) (Troglodytas Ichthyophagi add nothing to our ethnic knowledge, being Moichophagi, Agriophagi, merely appellations given by the Greeks; and they are therefore

The

original names,

translated.

These
seems

tribes
to

are

represented by the modern

eaters

Bisharins.
of

Calf-Eaters"
green

mean

after the

of calves, i. e. style,
commentators

rather things,

than

eaters

of calves.

Some

would

locust-eaters. replaceAgriophagi by Acridophagi,

2. Meroe became few
years
was

the final capital of about

the

Kingdom
continued
worn

of Nubia.
as

It

the

royal seat by

560 B. C. and
the

such
out

until a

after this

when Periplus,

kingdom,

by

tinued con-

attacks fell to

the tribes of the desert and the negroes

was

of the 6th

Sudan,
of

pieces. It
and

located

on

the

Nile, below
modern

the the

cataract,

but just within the fertile region that the

begins above
the

confluence

Atbara;

is identified with

Begerawiyeh,about

16" 55' N.

57

earlyKingdom fertile valley of the river

Here
formed
a a narrow

The

of
as

Egypt comprised
as

the Nile

delta and

the

far

the ] st cataract, the modern

stream

Assuan.

gorge

made

the

impassable for boats,and

the

natural

barrier. the

Above

Assuan

desert hugs the

open

river fertile

close until above

country.

5th cataract, when

island of

it gives place to

Between

the

Elephantine and
480 miles in
of strip Nile
some at a

Assuan,
direct

and

the

site of

Meroe,
The

the distance is about

line,and by
was

the river about

proper.

1000

miles.

This

narrow

river-bed 40

Nubia
below

Atbara, flowinginto
Abyssinia
or

the

miles

Meroe,
down White less

rises in northern

Tigre; again;
These

Khartum,
Blue

about

150

miles above
from

Meroe,
the

the river branches of Central

the

Nile

flowing
and
more

mountains the

Abyssiniaor Amhara, regions were

their

the
or

Nile from

Nyanza lakes.
at

subjectto Nubia
The
to

different

but periods,

populationvaried
a

greatly.

Abyssinianhighlandswere
the

peopled by
as to

Hamitic

stock

related originally tribes of the

Egyptians
western

as

well

the
a

stilluncivilized
of negro

eastern

and

but desert,

with

mixture
upper

blood

and

strong

strain of Arabian various the

origin.
of the

The

reaches

of

the Nile

were

peopled by
Berber. From

negro

distinct tribes, entirely Red Sea there

from
was a

Egyptian or

mouth

the Tigre highlandsto regulartrade-route across reached Meroe to the Nile; and other routes so

the Atbara from

River and and

the Sudan

Uganda.
to was

Thence

the

productsof

trade found
negro
was

their way

down-stream
go.

Elephantine,beyond which no for all Egypt, and the market

the
very
name

permitted to
town,
'

Here repeats

the

modern market.

Assuan,
From the

its history,as
came

'

means

Sudan

gold,ebony

the Nubian the

ivory,panther skins and ostrich feathers;from desert east of the Nile, gold; from the Red Sea across
various in
constant

and

and Tigre, myrrh, frankincense,

were

all of which

demand

woods and resins : fragrant for the Egyptian treasury and

constant
reason

the service of the

temples, and provided a

avenue

for

tian Egyp-

control of this important

of

commerce.

centered in In the earlyperiod of the Egyptian nation the power between but a loose control seems to have been maintained the Delta, the 1st and

2d

cataracts

over

tribes

appearing in

the

as inscriptions

"Wa-wat," probably negroes.

Old
routes

During

the prosperous

period of
,

the

Kingdom,
were

between

the 30th and

25th centuries B. C.

the river-

far

as

the

kept in order,and Egyptian ships sailed the Red Sea as disorder and the a period of myrrh-country. Then came
followed dynasties,
in the 22d century

fall of the Delta the Theban

or

by

the rise of

Middle

of Kingdom, the dynasties

the Amenemhets
to

and Sesostrises. These

conquered the river tribes kings fully

the

58

2d cataract,
where wealth

as

well

as

the "Nubian

of troglodytes"

the
so

eastern

desert,
to

they developed the gold-mines that added

and
power.

much
to

their
turies cen-

In this period, from

name

the

22d

the 18th

B. C,
as

the

"Cash"

firstappears

cating, indiin the inscriptions,

to

Glaser thought,a migrationo\erland

tribes who had

the Nile
at

by

the

dering wan-

Cushite-Elamite
the Persian in the whence the
seems same

left their home

the head

of

Gulf

some

300

years

and previously,

who,

after

settling

incense-producing regionsof Southern Arabia and Somaliland, traced they had opened trade with .Mesopotamia,had now
trade
to
to

itsother great market

not

in

Egypt.

The

name

Cush'

'

have

included

only the
of the

and 6th cataracts, but much

a

the 3d and between valley ently highlands. These people, apparNile

mongrel
of the

race,

were numerous

held in great contempt

references

by
as

the the

Egyptians, following:
and

whose

annals contain

such
negro

"Impost

wretched

Cush:

gold,

slaves, male

female; oxen, and calves; bulls; vessels laden with ivory,ebony, all the good products of this country, together with the harvests of
this country." After of feudal the fall of the Xllth

dynasty,1788 B. C,
an

came

period foreign
ended

followed disorder,

by

invasion

from

Arabia

and
was

This dynasty,the Hyksos, probably Minaean Beduins. by the expulsionof the Arabs and the establishment of

the

Empire

under

the

XVIIIth

dynasty (1580-1350 B. C).

to

These

raohs great Pha-

carried the
to

Egyptian arms
and

their widest extent, from farther south. The

Asia Minor
of collapse

the 4th

cataract at

even possibly

the

Empire

the death

of Rameses the
west

III (1167 B. C. ) left Nubia

resulted
or

still

Egyptian. Invasions
which dynasties,
over sovereignty

from

in

series of

Libyan
and the

began, under
the

Sheshonk

Shishak

I, by reasserting
of Solomon

Syriaand by plundering the temple newly-established Kingdom

was so

the

treasures

of

of

Israel;but
a new

latter part of this administration

inefHcient that Theban

princes dom, kingGebel

power

established in Nubia
now

separatedfrom
the

Egypt
4th

and

formed Arabian

called

Ethiopia (indicating a growing

cataract

settlement),
modern

with

capitalat Napata, below

the whole from valley,

(the
Then

Barkal), subsequentlyinvading Egypt

over

and

their establishing
came

722

to

663

B. C.

the Assyrian of

first by Esarhaddon invasions,

and then the definite conquest

The ruin of Thebes

Egypt

proper

by Assurbanipalin 661 B. C. by
the prophet Nahum There

is

described vividly

(III,8-10). The
attacked about

Nubians
restored
ferred transto

withdrew
power

to

Napata.
under

they

were

by
560

the

of

Egypt

Psammetichus
a

II, and

B.

C,

their

to capital Meroe;

much

better

less location,

open

59

attack from the and

the north,in

fertile region instead of

narrow

gorge

in

and desert, trade from

in the direct path of the the south and

east.
a

immigration rapidly-growing they checked

the country the the army of The dued. sub-

Here

Cambyses, which
The left them maintained

made

Egypt
of

Persian province in 525 B. C.

a

capital fell into his hands

conquest

for

time, but
Alexander

was

not

Egypt by
with

undisturbed; and
an

his successors,

Great, 332 B. C, the Ptolemies, they

active

increasing commerce,
to assert
:

the notwithstanding in the Red

policy

then pursued

Egyptian supremacy
J Roman

Sea.

(See Breasted
In 30 B. C.
met
a

History of Egypt. N. Y., 1905.)

a

Egypt became
Their

province and

the Nubians

different foe.

queen,

Candace,

attacked the

Egyptians,

and

their power. punitiveexpedition by Petronius destroyed

(Strabo,
Historywas
towns

XVII, 1, 54. )
the tribes of

Graduallythe
the

enfeebled

kingdom long listof

was

engulfed by

desert;

and

Pliny, whose
a

Natural

completed
above

in 77 A.

D.,
a

notes

that of

cities and

described Philae,

century

could find hardlya trace, and

collection of and the the few
new a

before,Nero's embassy in that the capital Meroe, itself,

National decay had done

67 A.
was

D.
a

but

few wretched

huts.

itswork;

remnants

left from

the attacks of the Berbers had in the

joined

Kingdom

of the Axumites"

highlandsto

the southeast.

In later times,under
a

center

of culture and
a

Byzantine Empire, Nubia again became the modern tum, Kharprosperity. Its new capital,
the in Christian had

became
even

leader

after the

Saracens

ence thought,and maintained its influto overrun Egypt; only finally

a
new

repeat

by being utterly destroyed by history

the
spur

irruption from

the

under desert, the highlands

of

Islam,and
remained

to

leave again to the Abyssinian

defence

of what

of itsMonophysite Christianity.
has
an

II, 9) Josephus {Antiquities of the Je-ws,

of the The which

account

of

war

under the command the Ethiopians, of Moses. Egyptiansagainst driven back into their capital, finally Ethiopians were Saba, "to

cityCambyses
to

afterwards

gave

the

name

of

Meroe,

in

ment compli-

his sister

it being situated
' '

at

the conflux of the rivers

was city

Astaphus
up
to

and Astabora with the Nile.

The

delivered finally
with the him.

the

Egyptians
from

as

the

condition of

Moses'
had

marriage

Ethiopian King's daughterTharbis, who

Aside
interest: the obvious anachronisms of the

fallen in love with

one

in this story,

fact is of

the

ruled,if not
Glaser

capital, Saba, indicates that Nubia was mainly peopled, by Arabs, who had followed the ancient
name

trade-routes from

the mouth

of the Red

Sea.
that

42-3) notes Reiche, {Punt und die siidarabischen

Napata

60

also is a Semitic name,

to inscriptions,

probably Nabat, allied

Nebaioth

to

Nabatu

of the
to

rian Assylater

(son
the

of

Ishmael), and
of Arabia"
to west

the

Nabataeans

of

"

19.

Herodotus
from north
to

(II,8)
south

refers

to

mountain

extending Erythraean
a

along
that
an

the

Nile,stretching up
from
east
to

the

Sea,and
months'
"

says that at its greatest width

it is

two-

journey;
Here

and

eastward

its confines

produce

cense. frankinwith

also is

indication of the connection the pompous

of Nubia

Somaliland,confirmed by
in Meroe

titlesof the later Cushite

kings

(Ed. Meyer:

GeschichteAegyptens, 359):

Kings
' '

of the

four quarters of the world 3. Ptolemais.

"

and of the nine distant peoples.

18" 9' N., This is identifiedwith Er-rih island,

38" 27' E., the southern

the

portionof

the Tokar

delta.

It

was

fortified
center

(B. C. 285-246),and became by Ptolemy Philadelphus

the

of

elephant-trade. Being situated abounded,

itslocation their
was

near

the Nubian favorable.

very

where elephants forest, The Egyptianshad

cost
was

formerlyimported

elephants from

Asia;
his
a

but the
own

high

and iPtolemysent and the supply uncertain, the will of the against
to obtain inhabitants,

hunters

to

Nubia,
Sea

nearer

supply.
from and
on

From
to

very
at

earlytimes

there

was

trade-route

the Red

the Nile

this point,terminating near

Meroe,

corresponding
the Nile and

to closely

the
on

railwayrecently built
the Red
"

between

Berber

Port Sudan

Sea.
present port

3. Adulis.

The

is
near

Massowa,
the mouth the

center

of

the of

which Italian colony of Eritrea,

lies

of the

bay

Adulis. Zula.
cred the

The The

ancient location the

name

is

preserved in

modern

has been

described by J. Theodore
pp.

villageof Bent, ("It is

on are

City of
west

Ethiopians, London, 1896: Annesley Bay, and

Adulis
was one numerous

228-230).
of

side of

black basalt ruins

visible there. still and natural port

was

of the colonies

delphus, Ptolemy Philait was have the been

always of commercial Abyssinia and

Here
was

importance because
Sudan. It
seems

for

the

to

builtby Syrian Greeks.

conquests of

the famous

the inscription reciting with 330

an

Ptolemy Euergetes (B. C. 247-223)

of

addition

by Aizanas, or El Abreha, King

copy

Abyssiniaabout

A.

D.,

for

of which

we

are

indebted

to

the Christian Topography of Cosmas

Indicopleustes.
4.

Coloe.

"

The

ruins of Coloe

were

found by Bent It is
a

at

Kohaito,

{SacredCityof the Ethiopians, Chap. XII).

many

large flat plateau (7000 feet)

tlement, setmore

miles in extent,

high above the surroundingcountry

It
seems

and thus cool and comfortable.

and

to

have
was

been the main inhabited

no

which Adulis the trading-post,

62

hunters; and
settlement
and has who
as

their

stronghold, Oppidum
of "city

Saca, probably
from

the

same

Axum.
locates
a

Bion speaks of Asachae five days

the Sacae''in the

the sea,

Ptolemy
no

but Tigre highlands,

knowledge

of Axum.

Pliny(VI, 34)
frankincense
to
a

also

speaksof
Arabia
on

the Ascitae their rafts

name

brought myrrh and

South

supported on

and inflatedskins,
names

suggests

derivation of the the

from

astos,bladder; but both

coast

reproduce rather
of

mountainous

of South

Arabia, east

"

33 of the

and Periplus),
between

there

Hadramaut, called Hasik (Asich in ethnic and geographic is evidently an

or

connection

Hasik, the Asachae

and Ascitae, the

Axum.
we

Axum,
the Latinized
pyavan,

the ancient stillthe form of

and sacred cityof capital coronation for its

kingdom

call

is Abyssinia,

place of

kings. Abyssiniais

Hellenized
as

Habash, while its people call themselves Itiointo Aethiopians. Habash is translatedby modern
Herodotus

Arabs

"mixture,"while
faces;"
appear

explainedAethiopia as
the
eastern
race

land

of the sunburned The Arabia Habashat

each

incorrect. explanation being,probably,

likewise

along

terraces

of

South
turies cen-

(Mahra)

where

they
era.

were

the dominant

for several

before the Christian

ide Situ Griscice, VI, 26-9), Pau^anias

Abasa ErythraeanSea, having islands, and Socotra) Aluria, .Masira, ; the Roman

speaks of

"deep bay
an

of the

and Sacaea"

Kuria (probably

writers mention
says

Abissa Polis in this region,and

the

beyond

Sabasans
From the

are

the

Stephanus of Byzantium Chatramotitas (Hadramaut)

learn called

and that
one

the Abaseni."

we Egyptian inscriptions

of the

Punt-peoplevisited in

their

trading voyages
but

was

not Hbsti,and dwelt,apparently,

only in Mahra,

also in Socotra

and

Eastern

Somaliland.
derives the
name

Glaser

Habash
with

from

Mahri

word, meaning
or

"gatherers."Synonymous
which he derives from
in the time of the

this

is Aethiopian and

Itiopyavan,
even

atyob, incense;"
As
or

it is significant that
in Mahra
was

their ancient Periplus

home

still the
have

"Frankincense Country."
the mission of the Asachae from and the
a same

of gatherers

incense,"then,we
traded with the and

Axumites.

This people,like their predecessors

who

region,the Cushites
of

Babylon
natives" like the

Thebes,

branch

whom,
found the and the Theban

with intermarrying

" 16), helped (Periplus, Punt or Poen-people of

in

Nubian

Kingdom, (the
an

left inscriptions,
true

their settlements

Mahra, Socotra
for the

Somaliland

frankincense

in country)and migrated westward,settling finally where

the

Tigre highlands,
due

firsttime
was

they established
the

enduring power.
that it was

But their migration

to

different from

others,in

warfare

and

oppression rather than trade.

63

In
supreme

the

3d

century

B.

C.

the

Habashat

or

"gatherers" were
incense trade The

in their the

incense-lands,"and
with them its power the

their allies tives, and, perhaps, rela-

worked Sabaeans,
at

in the

spice and

to

Egypt, then
Socotra

height of

under

the Ptolemies.

prosperityof
held
coast.

the and

trade

by Agatharchides. The Habashat of the East African Cape Guardafui, and much
were to

is attested

But the south

succeeding centuries
coast, from
west

turbulent. east,
were

In order the the

along

the

Arabian
the

Homerites Habashat.

(Himyar),
Beyond
of the Parthians the
were

Hadramaut, Sabaeans,

Kataban,
With
wave

and

tribes under

Persian influence.
came a

the establishment of conquest

Parthian,or Arsacid,empire, throughout

eastern

by

the

Arabia.

Almost

came simultaneously

African
on

campaigns
the Somali hard and
a

of

Ptolemy

Euergetes,said
the

to

have
two

reached incense-

Mosyllum
lands
were

coast

" 10). (Periplus,

came

The
of

hit.

Then

conquest

Kataban

by

Hadramaut

the Sabaeans. policyby Himyar against threatening

an

Glaser has

edited

of telling inscription with three successive and

an

alliance of

Djadarot,
about

King

of the

Habashat,

kings of
This

Saba,for mutual
dates from

protection againstHadramaut
75 B. C. mentions
a

Himyar.
in the

Isidorus of Charax chief of the

Spasini, writingin
the
soon

Omanites

Augustus, Incense-Country, named

was

the time of

Goaisos
of the

the language of {,cf.

race.

who Habashat, Gee'z.)

apparently
demolished
a

same

But the

very

afterward
overthrew

the

Parthians renewed

their attack itsport, and

from

East; Himyar
moved
were
on

Saba and
was

Hadramaut who

Habash.

Egypt

in

bad

way,

and

the
a

Romans

takingover

its government

were

aging encour-

direct sea-trade from

India,receivingIndian embassies,and

breaking up the system which had so long closed the Arabian gulf to Indian shipping. Despoiled of their incense-terraces in Arabia and of activities at Guardafui, the Habashat their commercial sought a new
home;
the

and

in the

Tigre highlands built

soon

their

the stronghold,

Op-

pidum Saca, which

to

became

the
to

cityof Egypt;
north. be

Axum. from

It lay

across port, sea-

natural trade-route from

the Atbara

India
no

Adulis, the
a

River, was
desert lowlands

great the

journey, and through dominated,

in

fertile

country

instead of the
of the hence

to

Here, then, so long as

a

the "Berbers"

could

state

could

and flourish;
in his ways

the

pictureof its King Zoscales

" 5, "miserly
new

for more." and always striving

For six centuries the

and

kingdom

of

Abyssiniakept up its alliance with Rome

the

nople Constanti-

its ancient enemies against Parthians and Persians. southern Arabia; and The
not

Homerites, and
grew apace,

their alliesthe

kingdom

and twice it overran

conquests

until the later Mohammedan

64

was

its power
preserve,

broken

and

itspeople shut
of
years

up

in their mountains, there

to

to

for hundreds

unknown

the

outside

world,

their

Monophysite Christianity.
The

Abyssinian Chronicles
successor

make

Zoscales

at

the time of the

the Periplus, that Habashat

power

of

long line of kings at

country for
a

Axum.
century

It isprobable

had

frequentedthe
as

before,as

the

of

Egypt receded, but

from

colonists rather than

that
most

state-builders, predecessors

until driven
were

Arabia;
not

and

of Zoscales' The

local chiefs and

far from

tribal

kings.
era.

final migration Glaser

placesnot
The Before

the Christian

Abyssinianswere
that time

converted

to

about Christianity

330 have

A. D. been
notes

their strongest

outside

influence

may

Buddhism.

James Fergusson {History I, 142-3 j of Architecture,

Monoliths

at

Axum

that the

great monolith but the

at

Axum

is of An

Indian

"the inspiration;

idea

Egyptian,
notes

details Indian.

Indian

translated in Egyptian in the firstcentury

its likeness
to

nine-storied pagoda, of the Christian era!" He

as

such

Indian temples

Bodh-Gaya,and
Egyptian
two art

says

it

represents
we

that curious
expect
to

marriage of Indian with

the

which in

would

find in the spot where

people came

contact, union." The

and

enlisted architecture
an

to

symbolize

their

commercial traders.
shore

Such

alliance

was

to

the

advantageof
at

the Hindu the Arabian

Homerites

stopped their
their that

vessels
cargoes

Ocelis
thence them
to

on

(Periplus, " 25), taking

here
was
a

to

Egypt by
to
wares

caravan;

new even

power
to

allowed

trade their

Avalites and
to

Adulis, and
themselves.

march and

overland

and

take

Egypt
in

Ujjeni

Bharukacha, Axum
the firstand second

and

Alexandria

were

close connection

during

Christian centuries, and

Temple

of

Bodh-Gaya, India,datingfrom
the 6th century

earlyin

the
may

ODserver

of the this

earlyrelations between frequented route

and the obstructed relatively

Buddhism

and

Christianity
ence influ-

find along
than

greater evidence overland

of mutual
routes

along
Antioch

through
with the the fall

Parthia

to

Ephesus.

By

the

third century,

decline of Rome,
of the Arsacid

the

growth

of Antioch

and Byzantium, and

be the other
way.

dynasty,the tendency would

66

See

Glaser:

Die

Abessinier

in

Arabten

und

masterlymarshaling of
Punt
und die

in support inscriptions

of his

(A Afrika, Munich, 1895. summarized. a bove ) thesis,

Skix-x.e der GeSchichte
und

sudarabischen

Keiche^Berlin, 1899;
Dillmann:

Geograp/iie Arabiens,Qer\m,1890; Reiches, d. Wissenchaften,Berlin, 1880. Preuss. Akad. For the interrelation and earlyChristianity, and the hist"5ricalcauses between Buddhism leading thereto, Christian Edmunds: Buddhist and see firstcompared from the Gospels noiv 1908. (4th edition), originals, Philadelphia
in Kon.

Geschic/ite des Axumitischen

4.

Alalaei

Islands.
lie
at

"

These
entrance

preserve
to

the

name,

being called
with

Dahalak.
5.

They

the

Annesley Bay.
"

Bay

of

the
of Ras

Opsian

stone.

This
,

is identified

HauakilBay, north
is

14" 44' N. Hanfilah,

40" 49' H

"Hanfilah"

Amphila,

Portus of Artemidorus. Antiphili cit. XXXVI, 67) says the obsian Pliny {/jp.
the

stone

(as
It

he

spells
to

itj of

Aethiopia was
for
was

\ery

dark,sometimes
statues

transparent, but dull

the in

and reflected the sight, his

shadow for

rather than the and votive

image.
face

was

used

day
It

and jewelr\'

offerings.
to
a

used by the Emperor

the

Domitian

so portico,

that
one

from

the reflectionson

polishedsurface
olcanic

he might

detect any

approaching from
It
pure
seems to

behind. have been

as a
\

in glass, feldspar

more

or

less

state, and It
was

the

same

our

obsidian.

found
in

also,according to
and
it was

Pliny,in India, at Samnium

in

Italy,and
the

Portugal;

extensivelyimitated in glass.

Henry Salt {A
to

which black that

Bay of the 'was delightedwith he substance, bearing a

\ery

into Jhyssin'ta, J'oyage pp. 190-4 J, describes his visit marked Opsian stone, which was by a hill, near
the

sightof
at

great many

pieces of
the sea;
were
me

much high polish,

resembling glass,
of which

lay scattered about

three,
a

on

the

ground

short distance from

and I collected nearl\'a hundred

two,
or

most specimens of it,

four inches

in diameter.

One
are

of the natives told found of much

my

that

few miles farther in the This found substance

to

pieces interior,
has been obsidian."

larger
to

dimensions.

analyzed
Col.
century

since

return

P2nglandand
Marcrj

be

true

5. Coast

subject
sa\s

to

Zoscales.
the 1 0th
near

"

Henry
at

^"ule

in his whole

Polo,II,434,
of

"To

the least,

coast-country
was man

the Red

Sea, from

Berbera
we

probablyto Suakin,
hear

still to subject

Abyssinia. At

this time

only of 'Alusal-

in Zeila and the other ports and tributary families' residing the to

Christians."

(See also Mas'

"

udi.III,34.)
name

5. Zoscales.

cit. 460-5.) identifies this Salt {op. in the and

with

Za

Hakale,
said
to

which

appears

Abyssinian Chronicles.
Salt fixes the dates
as

The

reign i'^
89 A. D.

ha\e

lasted 13 years,

76

to

67

But he admits
upon

(p. 460)
begins

that "no

great

dependence

can

be

placed"

the Chronicles.

The
years;

list

with

Arwe,

the

serpent," who

reigned 400
she
went

Za

Beesi Angaba, 200; Zagdur,

Za

100; Zazebass Besedo, 50;

in her 4th year Then
comes

Zakawasya b'Axum,l;
to

Makeda, 50;
return

Jerusalem, and Bazen,

15

after her

reigned 25 years."
years

Menilek, 29;
Baesi
was

followed 16 years, Then

by 15 others,91
and in the

2 months;
of his Za

then Za

eighth year
68
years,

reign Christ Hakale, 13;

born."

follow

7 names,

and

227 years 4 months, and Aizanas (el Abreha), more names, and in the 13th year and Saizanas (elAtzbeha), 26 years 6 months,
then
of this
was reign Christianity

introduced," and Queen

B. of there

so

on.

If Za Solomon

Makeda

was

the

Sheba
are

who

visited King
sions omisin 8 their
to

in the Za

10th century
Baesi

C,

evidently great
to

before B.

Bazen,

vvhose
move

reign is said
Aizanas them and

have

begun

C.

And

Salt was

to obliged

Saizanas from

places in the Chronicle,and

make them with tally known
to

to

advance and

130 years,
them

in order the

their Axum have been

Adulis
on

and inscriptions,

respondence cor-

carried

between

and the Roman Za Hakale'

s

Emperors

Constantine and
the absence

Constantius.
of

Therefore

place
fix the

in the date

in list, of the

confirmingevidence,can
JMiiller.

hardly
probable
to

as proposed by Periplus,

More

like Salt's Aizanas,he is it that,

meet

must

be advanced

in the Chronicle the

known

accession The conversion

By moving him up three places in is brought to 59 A. D., a very probable date.

facts.

line his

time after the Abyssinian Chronicle was composed some of the people to Christianity.Its earlier portions are, and tradition;
two
were

therefore,mere

versions of it which found

to

Salt examined

during his
The follows
:

visit to that country

differ
as

materially.
as

reignsin the

first Christian century,

given by Salt, are

Za

Baesi

Bazen,

16 years,

0 months

68

The

Zfl

the Dja recalling prefix,

to
a

of Glaser' s Arabian

inscriptions, El,indicating

givesway

in the 3d century of

long

list beginningwith
stock
to

perhaps a change
6.

dynastyfrom
"

the Habash
was

the Sabaean.

Egyptian cloth.
was

This

linen,made
of the

from

flax.

6. Arsinoe
to to

at

the

head

sponding Heroopolite Gulf,corre-

the modern

Suez, but
It At

now was

some

distance

inland

owing

the recedence

of the Gulf.
one

named it was and

a

for the favorite wife of

Ptolemy Philadelphus.
as an

time

important commercially,
while it soon
lost that

entrepot

for the Eastern for centuries

trade;
to

tion, positicularly par-

it continued

be

leadingindustrialcenter,

in textiles. 6. Glass. in originated the

"

cit. XXXVI, Pliny {op.

65)

says

that

glass-making
was

and Phcenicia,

that the sand of the river Belus

long

only known shore, and

material suitable for the

to

industry.
a

He

attributesthe
nitre
to on as

discoveryfor the process

this the
set

the wreck

of

ship laden with

cook their food.

accidental subjection of nitre and sand

on

heat

the merchants

caldrons

the

beach
to

to

Later

the Phoenicians

appliedthemselves
use

the and

industry; and
other

their experiments
to
an

led
advanced In
was

to

the

of

manganese

and substances,

stage of

perfectionin the product.

a

time Pliny's used fused fusion in

white

sand

at

the mouth It
was

of the river Volturnus with three parts of

;

much

glass-making.
a mass

mixed

nitre and
to

into
a

called hammo-nitrum

which
pure

was

jected sub-

second and

time, and
in

then

became
was

white

glass.

Throughout Gaul
doubtless the The
was

Spain a

similar process

process
was

used added

Egypt, as engraved.

mentioned

used, and this was in the Periplus.

which the

color

in the second
or

after fusion,

glass

either

blown,

turned
"

6. Murrhine. and carnelian from in

See

the

note

to

"

49. but
was

It

was

probably agate
mentioned

the Gulf of

Cambay;

imitated extensively murrhine

glass by
was

the Phoenicians and

Egyptians.

The

here

evidently a cheap trading probably colored product,

glass.
the
was tropolis me-

6.

Diospolis (City of GodJ

of the

was

probably Thebes,
Karnak. There
was was

Egyptian Empire
Ptolemies and

"

the modern

This
another

its

name

under in

the

Romans.

polis Dios-

Egypt, mentioned

by Strabo; it

in the Nile

above delta,

Sebennyticmouth; but it was not as another,known DiospolisParva,was

the

of great
on
"

importance. Still
some
"

the Nile

distance

below
center

Coptos.
of
commerce

The

greater and

Diospolis Diospolis Magna was a above being no great way industry, Coptos,

from which

the

caravans

started for Berenice.

70

6. Sheets That
other the

of soft copper.

"

The

text
a

is

"honey-copper."
honey
or

of Roman metallurgy

days
as

included

fusion with

such organic substances, been but asserted, this

' '

cow's
proven.

blood, to produce
Miiller makes
in thin
were a

greater
more

has ductility,

not

that plausible suggestion,

was

was

ductile copper
the sheets times

and sheets,

called

honey-copper
to

because

shaped like
an

honey-cakes. Ductile alloywith 5

10 per
"

copper
cent

in Roman

generallymeant

of lead.

6. Iron.
most

c'lt. Pliny {op. XXXIV,

most

39-46) speaks of
of man."

iron

as

"the
ore,

useful and

fatalinstrument

in the hand
even

The

he says, is found

almost everywhere;

in the Isle of Elba."

on

It

is worked
into which

like copper,
the in

and its quality depends somewhat metal

are Italy,

the

water

red-hot

is plunged.

Bilbilis and the the

to

Turiasso in
use

Spain, and Comum

waters

for distinguished

of

their who

in it
to

smelting. The
us

best iron is that made

skins."

by
Next

Seres,
this in

send is the

with

their tissues and

quality is,

Parthian

iron.
ore

In all other kinds the metal is

that alloyed,

the apparently, 6. Coats

were

is impure. The
text

of skin.

is kaunakai.

"

Originallythese

imitated in rough skins with the hair left on; later they were the modern frieze Mesopotamia by a heavy woolen fabric, suggesting
of overcoat,
meant

which

was

largelyexported.

It is

not

known

which

is

here. 6. Ariaca.
"

This of
name

is the

northwest the modern

was

coast

of

India,especially
and of the

around

the

Gulf
As the

Cambay;
the

Cutch, Kathiawar
the time
races,

Gujarat.
one

it indicates,

at

Periplus

of the

of strongholds the

Indo-Aryan
among

and

of incidentally

Buddhism,

then religion

dominant

them. Polo

6. Indian Book

iron

and

steel.
"

Marco

(Yule

ed.

I, 93)
of

I, chap. X\^II, mentions

Yule

iron
as

and ondamque

in the markets

Kerman.

this interprets

the andank

of Persian merchants

fine steel for swords and mirrors,and Venice, an especially visiting derives it from hundwdniy Indian steel.
' '

Kenrick
must

suggests that the the

same.

iron" "bright

of Ezekiel

XXVII,

19,

have

been

Ctesias mentions
he had from the

two

wonderful

swords of such

material which

King
was

of Persia.

Probably this
and Oxydracae
sent

also the ferrum

candidum
as a

of which
to

the Malli

100 talents'weight also appears Commodus.

present

Alexander.

Ferrum indicum Marcus Aurelius and

in the lists of dutiable articles under

71

Salmasius

notes

Greek

chemical

treatise

"On

the

tempering
of iron.

of Indian steel."

Edrisi

says

The

Hindus
wherein

excel
are

in the

manufacture
most

They
in the

have also
world.

workshops

forged the

famous

sabres

It is impossibleto find anything to Indian steel.''

surpass

the

edge

that you

get from

6. Cotton. pasos;

"

Sanscrit, karpasa; Hebrew,

"

carpas;

Greek,
and

kar-

Latin,carbasui

the seed-fibers of native in

arboreum the

(order, Malvacea)
that country been

herbaceum Gossypium and woven into India,

dawn

G.

cloth

by

natives of

before the

of history. The R. of

facts

concerning it have

Cotton Plant, a report of in 1896. Cotton thread laws of

admirably stated by Mr. the U. S. Department

and cloth
are

B. Handy in The
issued Agriculture, in the Hibbert
to

mentioned repeatedly H.

Manu,

800

B. C.

Professor A.

Sayce
B. C.

in his

Lectures shows
head

ground

for the belief that it was in the 4th millennium

exported by
;
a

sea

the

of the Persian
very

Gulf

and

it found better

itsway

earlyto Egypt. sheep, the times,and

of the

Herodotus
trees

describes it as

wool,

than that of

fruit of
cotton

growing
was

wild in India.
at

The
very
recent

manufacture

cloth

its best in India until

were

fine Indian

muslins

in great demand

and

high prices,both The Mediasval Europe. industry was

of ancient

commanded

in the
one

Roman

Empire

and

in

of the main

factors in the

wealth

India,and
the

the transfer of that

to England industry

and and the United States,

cheapening
time.

of the process the greatest

by

cal mechani-

ginning,spinningand weaving, is perhaps

in the economic of history
our own was Pliny and Pollux state that cotton time (1st and 2nd centuries A. D.), how also grown in the island of Tylos It was

factor single

grown

in

Egypt

in their

is extensively in the the Persian

unknown.

Gulf, and
this

according to Theophrastus, in Arabia; by mentioning

Cotton
it as
an

and from
grown

confirms Periplus

article of export
to

Ommana.
in

seems

also

have
to

been

Syria,Cilicia

and

Palestine;and the fiber known

Hebrew, kctonci; Josephus as c^iv/w/,

appears

Arabic,

kttf n,

(the

same

sound

in
states

Syrian and Phoenician,

that the inhabitants of
use

Chaldee), was
the Phoenicians Pausanias
says

perhaps cotton.

Movers

Palestine before the Hebrew

migration made
cloth
to

of cotton, and

that

exported Syriancotton
describes made been
an

Sabaea.

cotton

as

growing by
the
women

in

Elis,in Achaea, and

of

that it
not

was

into cloth extensive

Patra;;but

this

could

have
or

industry. It was days.

Arabic
the

not quitecertainly

produced
Any

woven

in

during Roman Ilaly

on

based generalizations

kufn

or

the

Greek

72

karpasosare
which
was

uncertain, because
in very

those

words

were

appliedalso

to

flax,

generaluse

in all the Mediterranean

countries.

It isnoteworthy that the word

used

in the

is uniformly Periplus

cotton cloth; while the meaning simply cloth,"but usually othonion, cloth in suitable translated as Mmatismos, clothing, was very likely
' '

lengthsto

be

worn

as

tobe

or

toga.

6. Monache for sagmatogene

to

cloth.
would
a

"

read

Vincent says cloth "singularly fine,"and the sort used for stuffing" (from sasso,
from the
tree

stuff;sagma,

saddle)being the down

may

-cotton,

Gossypsome

ium arboreum.

But these words

be

Greek
or

corruptionsof

Indian trade-names
of particulars Fabricius of the
same

for differentgrades
we

dyes of cloth,as

to

the

which

cannot
to

determine.

alters monache
in the

mohchine because
makes

of
a

the

occurrence

word the word

and following line, in the text, but

similar alteration
see

wherever what is

appears

it is difficult to

just

gained.
broad cloth
' '

This
the modern

was

no

doubt

used

for garments

such

as

Somali
cotton

described by 'tobe," sheet

Burton

(First Footsteps, p.
two

29) : bared;
the

It is a

eightcubits long, and

ways; person

breadths the
up,

sewn

together. It

is

worn

in many the whole

sometimes is muffled

right arm
and in
mer sum-

is

in cold weather
to

it is allowed

fallbelow the waist.

the left

itis passed behind Generally carried forward

over

back, rests

upon

shoulder, is

the

surrounds the body, and ends hanging on the left shoulder, breast, it displays where a gaudy silk fringeof red and yellow. This is the
man's Tobe.
worn;
over

The the

woman's

dress is of similar material, but differently

over generally

edges are

knotted it is

the

sometimes right,
which
a

the
a

left

shoulder; Though
in the

girdledround
weather
can

the be and

hangs
over

which lappet, head.

in cold

waist,below brought like

most costume
or

hood the

the

highlybecoming
is

picturesqueas

Roman

toga,

the Somali Tobe

towns

by

no

means

the Arab

decorous of
"

dresses; women
' '

often

preferthe
and
a

short-

sleeved robe extendingto the knee,

Futah

loin-cloth underneath.

McCrindle, Ancient India,p. 26, speciesof

tree-cotton.

notes

that India has

two

tinct dis-

yields a

and Gossypium arboreum or Gossypiumherbaceum, The former only is made into cloth,while the latter is used for padding cushions, soft and silky texture, which cotton,

etc. pillows,

Pliny says (XIX, 1)

nut

that

Upper Egypt also produces

wool is got, white

"a shrub bearinga

and soft."

from the inside of which

73

6.

Molochine,
a

or

mallow
a

cloth,

was

coarse

cotton

cloth

dyed

with

preparation of
must
on

varietyof the hibiscus native in India. corresponded closely to the

coarse

cloth This purplish in demand drillsstill 6. Lac. form form also of

"

have this

blue

coast.

McCrindle

notes

that the
root

Sanscrit

is

laksha,a
The

later

connected raksha, It
was

with the
women

ranj,to dye.

Prakrit

is lakkha.
as a

used by

for

dyeing the nails and feet,

and

dye

for cloth.

The

lac insect {Tachardia Lacca, Kerr) is native in India

to

confined still practically

that country.

According
it yields two
on

^CommercialProducts of India,pp. 1053 ff.), distinct products The : a dye and a resin. dye competed
to

Watt

favorable

terms

with

the

Mexican

cochineal the

until both

were

placed dis-

by
more

manufactured

when aniline,

resin shellacagain became

important.
The resin is formed the lac around
a

the young

swarms

as

they adhere

to

the trees;

being

minute

hemipterous
the

insect

livingon

the

sucked up by a proboscis. plant-juices The dye is taken from the bodies of

a

females,which
For

assume a plete com-

brightred color
account

during

the

process

of

reproduction.
see

of the

product and

its uses
to

Watt. the
'

Of
on

somewhat the

similar nature

lac

was

kermes-berry"
the

duced proas

Mediterranean
or

holm-oak; carmine;
pupa-stage

whence
or,

dye

known

crimson carmesin, cramoisi, to the scarlet;or, referring

by

another

derivation,
or

of the

vermiculum insect,

vermilion.
These
as an

insect

element

used separately, or, associated with murex, in the so-called Tyrian purple."

dyes were

6. Tortoise-shell. the Roman

for

"

This

was

great article of

commerce

in and

world, being
and

used

for small

receptacles, ornaments,
It is
one

inlayingfurniture

woodwork.
in the
seems

of

the

most

quently-men fre-

commodities
the trade is the Land but uncertain, this

Periplus. The

of antiquity

to be the

shell" brought from

the 15th
tury cen-

of Punt

by Queen

in Hatshepsut'sexpedition

B. C. 6. Rhinoceros.
were skin,
"

The the

horns
coast

and

the

teeth,and probably the

Bruce found the
.

exportedfrom

of

where Abyssinia,

Vol. IV) a trade and described it ( Travels, hunting of this animal still

7. Avalites

is identified with

the

modern

Zeila, 11" 20' N.,

The shore of the north

43" 28' E.
ancient
name

It is 79 miles from

the .straits of Bab-el-Mandeb.

on village Abalit,

is preserved by the

74

the

bay.
the

The
Ausan

Somali tribescall the place Ausal,apparently ating perpetuof the of of the the

South
coast

Arabian of

coast;

which

also

at

one

time

possessed much
coast" in

the East Africa (called

"Ausanitic

son

torical Periplus). Avalites is thought by Forster {Hisof Obal, Geographyof Arabia, Vol. I) to perpetuate the name in Arabia; is almost unknown of Joktan (Gen. IV) whose name

" 15

thus

a indicating name seems

very

earlymigrationof
to

this tribe
at

to

the Somali coast.

on

This

also

survive in Obollah
was

the

Euphrates mouth

the Persian and the

Gulf;

which

the Ubulu

of the Assyrian

inscriptions,
"I then

Apologus
Aden

of

"

35. the 14th century, said:

Of
went

Zeila,Ibn Batuta,writingin by
sea, and

from

after four

days came
months' The

to

the cityof Zeila.

This is a settlement of the Berbers,a people of Sudan, of the Shafia

sect.

Their

country

is a desert of last Makdashu.

are

two

extent;

the first part

is termed

Zeila,the however,
flesh and

greatest number

of the inhabitants, is

of the The

Rafizah stench

sect.

Their

food

mostly
as

camel'

fish.

of the country the blood

is extreme,
of the

is

from also its filth, which

are

the stink of

the fish and

camels

in slaughtered

its streets. Burton

"

Zeila is described
'

by

in East Africa, {FirstFootsteps p. 14)

strip of

as

'the normal

African

port

sulphur-yellowsand,with

deep blue dome above, and a foreground of the darkest indigo. The raised by refraction, rise high, and apparentlyfrom the buildings, than a canoe ride near No craft larger bosom of the deep. can
. .

Zeila.

After

bumping

once our

or

twice

considered advisable for

into The make
cannot
a

shipto

it was againstthe coral reefs, anchor. My companions put me it

to

cockboat,and wading through the water, shoved situation is a low and level spit of sand, which
almost
an

shore.

high tides
stead roadfrom
a

island.
a

There

is

no

harbor;
and

vessel of 250 tons

open

approach within is exposed to the

and south

mile of the landing-place;the

terrible north

wind,

when

galesblow Every
the

the

west

it is almost unapproachable.
a

ebb leaves

extending half sandy flat,

mile

seaward

from

the town;

reefy

anchorage
renders

is difficultof

entrance

after sunset, and

the coraline bottom

wading painful."
nearest

Zeila,the
wrote, its rulers; so from the At
account

port

to

Harrar
to

in the

interior, had,
to

when

ton Bur-

lost the

caravan

trade

Berbera, owing

the feuds of
not

that the characteristics of

its people had

changed

given in

"

7 of the Periplus.
from Zeila
were

that time the

exports

slaves, ivory, hides,

The
were

and gums. butter, horns,clarified honey, antelope in sponge,

coast

abounded

and small pearls. In coral,

the harbor

about twenty

75

native

craft,largeand
and India,
were

Western

small; they traded with Berbera, Arabia, and navigatedby "Rajput" or Hindu pilots.
at

Burton
I the far

{op. cit., pp. 330-1) says again;

Zeila and
at

heard repeatedly

Harrar that traders had visited

pagans
ing wear-

for seven months of West, traversing a country till golden bracelets, they reached the Salt Sea upon I
once saw a

which with
as

Franks
a

sail in ships. of nuggets,

travelerdescending the Nile

store

bracelets and

by

the

ancient

gold rings similar to those Egyptians. Mr. Krapf relates a tale

that there is
a

used
current

money

in

sinia, Abyseast

namely
Guineh
and
on

remnant

of

the

slave trade between

the

between
the

(the Guinea
in

coast)and Congo

Shoa.
the time

Connection
of

west

formerly existed; in
Travelers in Western the the

Joao I,

Portuguese
Abyssinian
or

the river Zaire

learned

the existence
assert

of the

church. when

Africa

that Fakihs the And

coast

priests,
country

performing

pilgrimage,pass
coast

from

Fellatah ithas
to

through Abyssiniato proved that

The trade of
a caravan

of the Red from

Sea.

been lately
' '

line is open

the Zanzibar modern

Benguela.

written foregoing,

before
same to

discoveryhad altered the

as

Africa,indicates the
to

condition

that

in existing

ancient

history: a well-established trade

from tribe \^'est and

Egypt

and

South

Arabia,coming
great distances

tribe through the heart of Africa,from

South.

7. The

"Far-side"

coast.

"

According
to

to

Burton

{op.cit. p.
he
means
'

12 ) the Somali tribes called their country translates

as

the Barr
on

el A jam, which

barbarian
not

land,
as

"

but goes
among

\}s\zx. explain Ajam

all nations
meant

Arab, just
all nations
seems to

Egyptians and migrationand gulfat

Aden

Greeks

barian" 'bar-

not

of their country. the the trade from

at
as

The

name

apply to
crossed
to

South

Arabia,the
farther

tribes who

had

various periods
those
2"

of history being referred

by

their countrymen has rendered

"of the peratikos

side," which

our

author

into Greek

beyond). {pera,
7. Juice
says
(

of
:
"

sour

grapes.
is

"

The kind

text

is

omphakion. Pliny
from the

XII, 60)

'Omphacium
the former

of

oil obtained

olive and the vine

is produced

the olive while by pressing when the size of

a

still white; the latterfrom

the Aminasan

grape,

chick-pea,justbefore
put into earthen The is

the

risingof
then

the

Dog-star. The
Also the

verjuice is

and vessels,

stored in vessels of Cyprian copper.

the
taste.

and best is reddish, acrid,

a

dry to

unripe grape
divided into

pounded in
The

mortar,

dried

in the

sun,

and

then

lozenges."
Aminaean
grape

he

describes in

XIV,

also

lanata

or

76

woolly grape
of the Seres
were

"

so

that

we

not

be

at surprised

the

wool-bearingtrees
the former them.

or

the Indians." with

These

latter were bred

cotton;
on

mulberry trees {Georgks, II, 121.) Velleraqueut

silkworm

cocoons

cf.Virgil,

foliisdepectanttenuia Seres. '

says

'

Pliny (XXIII, 4)
the humid The of parts of the action

again:

'

Omphacium
the is modified

heals ulcerations of

body, such
of

as

etc. glands, mouth, tonsillary

powerful honey
And
or

omphacium
It is very

by

the

admixture

raisin wine.

useful, too,

for

spitting dysentery,

of blood, and in

quinsy."

XXIII,
in the

39;

"The

most

useful of all kinds of oil (other

and if kept from
as a

than time

olive)is omphacium.
to

It is good for the gums,

there is

time

mouth,

nothing better

preservative

of the whiteness 7. Wheat.

of the teeth.
"

It checks

profuse perspiration."
Graminece.
The

Tritkum

order vulgare,Villars,

cultivation of wheat, says

than the definite
was

De

Candolle,
The

is

prehistoric.It is older
has

most
names

ancient for the

languages,each grain.
of the

of which

independent and
B. C. It

Chinese

grew

it 2700

grown

by the Swiss lake-dwellers about 1500 B. C, and has been

a

found 3350

in

brick of

one

Egyptian pyramids datingfrom

wild grass which under
vast

about

B. C.
it Originally
was

doubtless

cultivation

assumed
of wheat

varyingforms.
were

In the earlyRoman

Empire

raised in
to

Sicily, Gaul, North

Later
a

Africa,and
area

quantities particularly
was

Egypt,
up

for

shipment
is
now

Rome.

great wheat

opened
fell

in what

Southern

Russia,which

finally supplantedEgypt
and Antioch
in the East described

in the

markets

of

after Constantinople, The trade in wheat that South

Alexandria
as

into Saracen hands.

Periplus
Africa has
not

is interesting.It shows
had wheat
not

Arabia, Socotra
also from

and

only

from

Egypt

but

which India,

wheat that time. usually been considered at as a country cit. p. 1082) thinks wild rice {_Ory%a have (.op. coarctata) may

Watt

been
as

intended,but coming from Egypt

so

the

between Periplusdistinguishes

wheat

and
had

rice

from

India.
and

The

Hindus
but it,

might
Watt

have certainly the

the seed

cultivated

notes

complete absence,

far

as

known,
"

of wild wheat The

in modern

India.

7. Wine.
I itacea. and The

fermented

juiceof J'itis vinifera, Linn., order

seems

culture of the vine

within the

to

have

begun

in Asia Minor is almost versal. unito

but Syria,

period
was

of

written
to

historyit gods: by

It introduction

ascribed

the

the Greeks

to Dionysos,the Romans to Bacchus, the P.gyptians Osiris; or in the case of the Hebrews, to the patriarch vine and the Noah. The

78

copper

was

soon

understood,and
Phoenicians

the trade

was

monopolized

for

turies cen-

by
How

the

and

their the

descendants,the

Carthaginians.
in

carefully they guarded

secret

of its productionappears

Strabo's story
himself
ran

(III, V,
by
a

11) Roman

of the

Phcenician

captain who, finding

coast

followed

vessel on

the Atlantic

of

Spain,
'

his ship ashore

rather than

and divulgehis destination,

on

collected

the

damage
There

from

his government confusion

home. returning

is much

in the

earlyreferences
the mixture

to

this also

metal, applied

because
to

the Hebrew

iedi/ ( meaning

departed")was
"

the metallic residue from

a silver-smelting

of

silver, lead,

and
to

occasionally copper
kassiteros and
stannum.

and

mercury.

The

same

comparison applies
Without definite

Pliny,for example, distinguishes plumbum

stannum.
was

nigrum,lead,anA plumbum candidum,

basis for

any

determiningmetals,appearance
(Fitell. VI, 192 J
says

often the

only guide.

Suetonius
away

that the

all the

gold
rather

and and
an

silver from
stannum.

the

Emperor Vitelliustook subtemples, (69 A. D.) and stituted

stannum

aurichalcum
pure

This

could

not

have

been

tin,but
The

alloyof lead,like
the

pewter. f Cyprus), in the Tell-el-

letters from

King

of Alashia

Amarna

indicate tablets,
centun,'

the

of possibility

the

use

of tin there in the resultant bronze in the

to

15th

B.

C,
a

and

of the shipment

of the

Egypt;
mention

and

tin,as

separate

Harris, under
of

Rameses

metal,is thrice mentioned B. C). III f 1198-1167 This XXXI,

well 22.

Papyrus

confirms the
of Ezekiel with

tin in Numbers itwas, of course,

By

the

time

12) (.X'XVII,

known;

here itappears

silver,
scribes deat

iron,and lead,as coming from Spain. The hall for the god Amon, build by a Xapata (688-663 B. C. ),of stqne ornamented
of cedar incensed with bolts of tin. B\ the Greeks with

stela of Tanutamon the Pharaoh with

Taharka
a

with gold,

tablet

myrrh of Punt, and double

tin understood and

doors of electrum

Ancient Records of Egypt, Vol. IV). (Breasted, the

true
vv-as

extensively used,
due largely the mouth
to

and the establishment of their

colony of Alassilia was

overland
to

the

discovery of the British metal

Rhone. The

Romans

coming ultimately conquered

the

of the

both

Galicia and
from

wall, Corn-

and then
their

controlled

trade;
it was

but

to

judge

Pliny'saccount,
both

understandingof
to

vague.
was

According
Lassen from
teros,

the

tin Periplus,

shipped from
and

Egypt

to

Somaliland and India. ( Indische Alterthuinskundc, 1, 249)

Oppert, arguing
the

between the similarity

v\

the Sanscrit kasthira and

to
was

Greek

kassibut

ould transfer the earliest tin trade

India and
a

Malacca;
to

it

seems

probable that

the' Sanscrit word

late addition

the

79

language,borrowed
stated

from

the Greek

with the metal

which, itself;
the op.

as

by

the also

in Periplus

""

49 and

See

Movers,

Vol. Phinizier,

to 56, came Ill; Beckmann,

India from

west.

II, cit.,

200-230.
8. Malao
now

is the modern of this

caravan

the the

leadingport
center

It is Berbera, 10" 25' N., 45" 5' E. of British Somaliland, coast, the capital
trade
to

and

of the

the

interior.

Glaser

iShzze,

BEHBJEHAH
{ SaunSmgs in ^hihonhs.}

From

Burton:

in East Africa. First Footsteps

80

p.

196)

would

it with Bulbar, about identify the

30 miles

farther west; from the east"

a

but the in S while

of description

sheltering spit running out

at

8, places it beyond
Bulbar Burton is
on

doubt

Berbera, which gives a

of

has justsuch

spit,

the open
pp.

beach.

i^op. at.,
and

407-418)
of the and
stream

detailed
water

of description

the

town

harbor,

sweet

flowing into
Yemen,
as

and it,

of the

interior trade

the great

periodical frequented fair,

the far

by

caravans

from

the interior and

vessels from by sailing

and

South Arabian
as

coast,

Muscat,
trade

Bahrein that

Bombay;

the

same

as

and beyond Bassora, described in " 14.

"

8. "Far-side"

frankincense.

Concerning

frankincense

in

general,see
of

under the
was

"" 29-32.
time of the different

Somali frankincense
Punt and

Egypt

at

in the trade figures and probably much expeditions, often

earlier. It
It
was were

from,
the

superiorto,

the

Arabian.

that is,indeed,possible

true

frankincense

{Boswellia

neglecta)
etc.

native
a

here, and

that the Arabian Yet

\arieties (^Boswellia serrata,

later cultivation.

Fabricius (p. 124) in curious disregard

frankincense
was

of the text, thinks the Malao 8. Duaca

appears

imported

from

Arabia!

is identified by Glaser

which 197) w\th.duakh, (Skizze,

a

in several Arabic
says,

inscriptions as
in modern

variety of frankincense;
Aden for
a

duka, he

is

trade-name

certain

quality

of frankincense. Burton cit. i_op.

,

p.

416)

describes the
some

range

of

mountains from

ning run-

with parallel

this coast,

30
with

miles inland

Berbera,

"4000

to

6000

covered thickly feet,

gum-arabic and frankincense

trees, the wild

figand

the Somali pine."

"

8. Indian

copal.
of
a

The

text

is kankmnon,which with and

is mentioned

by
as

Plinyas
the

dye

in confusion (probably wood like

lac); by Dioscorides
used for incense.
that

exudation
says

myrrh,
the

PHny

(XII, 44)
Glaser

that it came the Nabataean

from

country

mon, produces cinnathe Nabataei."

through
Henry
Yule
the which

Troglodyta:', a colony of
no

196) iSki%%e,

is positive that it is

Arabian

product.
or tallow,

Col.
white

it with identifies
gum

Indian copal,Alalabar

dammar,
carpea;
evergreen
to

exuded

from

Vateria Indica, Linn., order DipteroWatt

is described

by

iop.cit., p. 1105,) as
Ghats from
gum
or
"

"large
Kanara

of the forests at the foot of the Western feet.

Travancore, ascendingto 4000

or turpentine

This

resin dissolves for

in

used dryingoils, and, like copal,is chiefly bark is also very rich astringent,

making
is

varnishes. used
to

The

in tannin, and

control fermentation.
is mentioned
says that it was

8. Macir

by Dioscorides brought from

as

an

aromatic

bark.

Pliny (XII, 16)

India, being a

red bark

81

growing
it. mixed He

upon
was

large root, bearingthe

the
tree

name

of the

tree

that of

produced
this

ignorant of honey,
was

itself. A
as a

decoction

bark,

with

used in medicine

for dysentery. specific

Lassen

(o/). Ill,31) cit..

not

identifies it with of
a

makara,
native
on

remedy for
the

of dysentery, consisting
coast;

the root-bark
the identify

tree

Malabar

but he does macir

or was

tree.

This

doubtless

the root-bark

of Holarrhena Watt

antidysen640)

terica, Wall.,
as a

Aer

described ApocynacecE,
tree,

by

(op.cit. p.
India
a

small

deciduous

found
to

throughout
and feet, Both

and

Burma, plant

ascending the lower

on are

Himalaya
India.

3500

to

similar altitude

the hillsof Southern

among

bark and

seed of this

the

most

important medicines
was

in the Hindu

materia medica.
to

By

the

Portuguese this
in the
coast.
or

called herba

malabarica, owing

its great
on

merit

treatment

Malabar

The of

they having found dysentery, in the form of generally preparation,

of
a

it
a

the
or

solid

liquidextract,
anthelmintic. in

antidysentericand decoction, is astringent,

The The

seeds wood

yield a
is much

fixed

and oil, for

the wood-ash

is used and

dyeing.
' '

used

carving,furniture

turnery.

9. Mundus

is

probablythe
'two
three

modern

Bandar

Hais, 10"
Malao

52'

N., 46" 50' E.

But
the
text

Glaser

{Shzze,197) would
or

it with Berbera. identify

'

gives
Berbera.

days' sail' between

and

too Mundus, altogether

much And

for the 30

miles,more

or

between less,

Bulbar Berbera
as

and
as

Malao,

so

just as the "sheltering spit" identifies does the "island close to shore" Hais identify
de

Mundus.

Vivien

Saint-Martin

{Le

Nord

de

I' Afrique dans

et romairie, I'antiquite p. 285) describes a small grecque this little harbor,and says it was much frequentedby

island Arab

protecting

and Somali

tribes.

Miiller's identification with E. ) is less probablebecause

to small protection

Burnt

Island (11" 15' N., 47" 15'

far from shore
to

that island is too

afford

vessels.
was

9. Mocrotu

probablya high gradeof frankincense.

for the
same

Glaser

199-201) notes that the Arabic name (Skizzc, in Mahri, mghdr; and that the or mghairot,
Somaliland
is
as

best variety is
appears

word
text

in

mokhr.

From

this

to

the Greek

of the

the

change

negligible.
10.

Mosyllum
many

is placed by

most

commentators

at

Ras

Hantara,
the

(11" 28' N., 49" 35' E.)

45" 50' E. )
way

Glaser prefers Ras Khamzir

west.

(10" 55'N.,
help in

miles farther

The

text

givesno

of local

Ocean

description. It is noteworthy that Plinysays the Atlantic begins here; ignoring not only the coast of Azania, as

82

described in

" 15, but

the
a

Cape

of

Spicesitself. Mosyllum
headland
on

was

bly, proba-

rather therefore, such

as

prominent

the coast,

altogether
limit of the 3d

Ras Hantara.
the way, of
was

This, by
the conquests
century

reputed to

have

been

the eastward of

Ptolemy Euergetes, King

Egypt,

in

B. C.
The
text

10. Cinnamon.

"

is kasia,from

Hebrew

kma

fPs. This
tinguished disinto
pi^e^;

XLV,
meant

8; Ezek. XXVII,
in usually,
from

19, XXX, times, the

24),
wood tender

the

modern

cassia.

Roman

split as lengthwise, bark, which

rolled up

the
was

and flower-tips called

small pipes and khinemon

canna,

(Exod. XXX,
cannelle. and

2i kinnamomon,iromWchrcw kheneh, Prov. 23, \\\ 17, Cant. IV, 14);

Latin

French

Cinnamon

cassia

are

the

flower-tips, bark,
Burma

and and

wood

of

several varieties of laurel native in

India,Tibet,

China.
as

Engler

and

Prantl,Die

Naiiirlichen

them Pflanzenfamilien, classify

follows : Lauracae Persoideae : Cinnamomeas: 1. Cinnamomum Sect. 1. Malabathrum

C. javaneum including

C. cassia
C.

zeylanicum

C. culilawan C. tamala C. iners Sect. 2. Camphora

C. camphora including

C. parthenoxylon Cinnamon
is mentioned Hebrew
as one

of the

of ingredients

the sacred

anointing oil of the

of Queen inscriptions B.

priests(Exod. XXX).
the wood of
to

The

Egyptian
of the

in Hatshepsut's expedition,
as one

15th century

C.
,

mention of Punt"

cinnamon which
was were

the

"marvels
and

country

brought back
to

Egypt.

Cinnamon
was

familiar

both the Greeks

Romans,

and

used

and as a flavor in oils and salves. It is menincense, tioned and by Hippocrates, Theophrastus, Pliny. Dioscorides gives
as an

of long description
a

it.

He

says it

"grows in Arabia;
of heat. The

the best

sort

is red, of
it bites
on

fine color,almost like coral; straight, long, and pipy,and

the

palatewith

sensation slight

best

sort

is

that called
many
sort

with %igir, from

scent

like

rose.

The

cinnamon

has

names,

the different is like the well

as casta

placeswhere
of
'

it grows.

But the best

is

is that which

Mosyllum, and
And
a

this cinnamon

called when between

Mosyllitic, as fresh,in
the

the cassia. '

this

cinnamon,
small twig

he says,

its greatest perfection, is of

dark
a

color,something
or

color of wine
very

and
'

a
'

dark

ash, like

spray

full of knots, and

Roman the former latter
at
was

fragrant.

writers

between cinnamon and cassia; true distinguish valued at 1500 denarii (about $325) the pound; the The and

50 denarii.
at

Periplusmakes

no

mentions

Mosyllum
under the

Opone, and
were on

the

distinction; "harder cassia"

the tender
emperors

cassia"
at

it

Malao.
and
tricians, pawas

Cinnamon,
and
the
root.

Empire, probably meant

solemn the

shoots and

of flower-tips

the tree, which

reserved for the

distributed by them
and article, could

occasions.

Cassia

commercial
The

included
not

bark, the split wood, and

and species,
of the

the their

Romans

between distinguish
the appearance

classification was
to

according to

product as

it came

them. As
to

the
from

country

of

origin, Herodotus
as

(book III) states

Phoenicians
fabulous countries
meant

that it

cassia thence.
recovery

was

Arabia; naturally so,

the
nests

the

brought
in which The

He from
was

distinguishes cinnamon,
of great birds which

and

givesa
in those

story of its

Bacchus

nursed,"
that it was

in Greek in

legend

India.

Periplussays
other Roman there the

produced
as a

to Somaliland,

which the

Strabo and
same

writers refer

the

in cinnamomifera regio
tree

belief. present,

But
where

is

no

sign

of

cinnamon

in that

region at
not

conditions requisite

of soil and

climate do

exist.

Pliny
Strabo
of this

merely trans-shippedthere. (VI, 29) indicates that it was from the "far interior" (XVI, IV, 14) says that it came region,and (XXI, 42)
vast tracts

that
says

nearer

the

coast

only the "false cassia" Aethiopia and

indications the
was

grew.

Pliny
over

that it came
to

from

brought
took

of sea" the round

Ocelis by the Troglodytes, who

five years
mon cinnacoast, in

in

making
was

trip.
bark

Here

are

that the
to

true

brought

from

India and
from thence the
to

Far East

the Somali

and there mixed

with

mentioned laurel-groves and Egypt. The

" 11

and by Strabo,and taken

notes

Arabia

Periplus
for the

also

("10)
trade.

the This the

"larger ships" required at Mosyllum

was

cinnamon

probably the

very

midst

of the

Land

of

Punt"
before.

whence

Egyptian fleet brought

cinnamon

15 centuries

In India various

barks

and twigs are

sold

as

cassia and

cinnamon,

and according to Watt

("/". cit., p. 313)

it is still almost

impossibleto

84

them. distinguish

Cassia bark

iC.

the first to be where

known,

and

torically hisCassia lignea) was or cassia, from China, the best qualities came
B. C. The
to

it is recorded firstabout

2700

Malabar
cinnamon

bark
as

was

less valuable.

Persian records
and

refer invariably between in this

Dar

Chini, "Chinese bark;"

there
was an

the 3d and 6th centuries A. D. in Chinese ships, from article,

acti\e sea-trade

China

to

Persia.
Polo The describes cinnamon

Marco

and Tibet.
came

growing British East India Company's

as

in

Malabar, Ceylon,
show that it

records

from usually

China;

and

Millburn
warns

(Or.

Comm.

1813, II,500)
coarse,

describes both bark and

dark and

buds, and

traders againstthe

badly packed" product of

culti\ated extensively in

Malabar. the C. %eylanicum variety is still quality

Since the later years has been

of the 18th century

Ceylon;

but the best

shipped from Canton, being from It Burma, and Southern China.

true

C. Cassia, native
seems

throughoutAssam,

cinnamon and

of

the

ancient

altogether probable that the and Hebrew Egyptian records,of

Mediterranean nations from
no

Herodotus
nearer

Pliny,reached

the

from which

place than Burma, and perhaps through the China itself. Many, indeed,must have been
it passed on The its long journey to Rome. of the malabathriini
to

Straits of Malacca the hands

through

Romans,
mountains
a

which

they bought in India

the leaves of three C. and %eylanicum, C. iners. that

unable while still

obtain

cinnamon

there,was
from

varieties: that of the Malabar of the

Himalayas
trees

from
are

C.

tamala,with
The
tree

little from

These about in 6000

all of

fairly large growth, evergreen,

sap

risingto
when it is

feet altitude. the and bark forms

are not

flowers in January,the fruit ripens

in

April,and

is full of the best

so

May

and

June,
The

strippedoff
See

grade of
are

cinnamon. less valued.

strippings

of later months

delicate and
pp.

310-313; Lassen,op. cit., I, 279-285, II, 555-561; \'incent,II, 130, 701-16; Fluckiger and Hanbury, 519-527; Marco Polo,Yule Ed., II, 49, 56, 315, Pharmacographia,
Watt,
op. at.,

389;

and

for malabathrum also

comment

or

see folium indicuin,

Garcia

de

Orta,
,

Coll., XXIIl;

by Ball in
E. The Ind.
text

I, 409;

also

Linschoten,Voy.
River.
"

Roy. Acad., 3d ser. (Ed. Hakl. Soc), II, 131.

is

Ir.

11. Little Nile

Neilopotamion perhaps
,

reflection of Egyptian Greek

which ptolemaion,

settlement.
a

Another

reading is Neilowith
one

might
in
east.

also suggest

connection

of

the

Ptolemies.
or

But
sn

Egyptian records

there is no

mention

of settlement

conquest

far

Miiller identifiesthis river with the Tokwina

(11" 30' N.

49"
,

i6

Ka"

Frlnk

}PtS. 4

Imujum

Jiftant.

Cx^eGaxihifai(3}an//Wig^LaaAbnA"SaaSh^JS2ar^/utaa^.

From

Salt:

Voyage into Abyssinia.

of

This

is the

Southern
cape

Horn" toward

Strabo,who south,we

says

(,X\'I, IV,
no

14)
coast

after

doublingthis
or

the

have

more

scriptions desea-

of harbors

because places,

nothing is known
of
of

of the

beyond
earlier

this

point."
account

Plinyprefers the
from
at

of

King Juba
the

Mauretania, compiled
the continent is placed he ignored Periplus,

in information,
so

which

end him
coast.

Mosyllum;
The

that if he had

before

this

completelythe

account

it givesof this

Market

of Spices is identified by Glaser {Skizze, II,20)

with the modern Strabo 's

country

Olok,

on

the N.

W.

side of the Cape.

is the and
a

which with
a

is as follows ( XVI, IV, 14) : "Next description produces frankincense; it has a promontory
grove
a

temple
the

of

poplars. bearing the

In the inland
name

parts

is

tract

along
that of

banks

of

river

of

and Isis,

another

Nilus,both
with filled and

of which from

produce myrrh
the The

and frankincense.
next

Also

lagoon

water

mountains;

the watchpost of the

tract

Lion,
which

the port of
are

Pythangelus.
tracts

next
on

bears the false cassia.

on

There

many

in succession and rivers this

the sides of rivers the cinnamon rushes

frankincense The Then

grows,

extending to produces
port the

country.

river which follows

bounds

tract

in abundance. and and

a

another

and river,

of

Daphnus,

valley
mon. cinna-

which called Apollo's,, The latter is

bears,besides frankincense, myrrh

more

abundant

in

places
the

far in the interior.

sea,

Next

is the mountain

into Elephas projecting of

and

creek;
of the

then the

largeharbor Horn)."
Tabae
is

called that Psygmus, a watering-place

of this coast, Notu

and Cynocephali, Southern

12.

the last promontory

Ceras (the

placed by
)

iVIuUer

at

the Ras from

11" 5' N. Chenarif, Olok

cape.
too

201 Glaser ( Siizze,

thinks the

the
eastern

distance

great,

and

behind placesTabae just

point of the

87

13. Pano
is a modern

is probably Ras the north

on village

Binna, 11" 12' N., 51" 7' E. There of the point, which west side,a little
monsoon.

afFords shelter from

the S. W. is the

1.?. Opone

remarkable

headland

now

known

as

Ras

Hafun, 10" 25' N., 51" 25' E., about 90 miles below
Glaser finds a connection
the Egyptian "Land of Punt" between
or

Cape Guardafui.
Pano and

these names,

Opone,
of the

the Poen-at,

island Pa-anch of

the incense-land Panchaia Egyptians (Socotra),

{Georgics, Virgil II,

and the Puni or 139; "Totaque turiferisPanchaia pinguisarenis,") Phoenicians; who, he thinks,divided as they left their home in the Persian Gulf (the islands of King Erythras in the story quoted by

Agatharchides) ;
13.

one

branch and

going to

the

coasts

of

the Syria,

other

to

those of South Arabia

East Africa.
"

Cinnamon
F. Z.
now

produced.
S.
,

letter from The

Mr.

R. E. Drake-

Brockman, 1910,

F. work

R.
on

G.

S.
,

(author of

Mammals

of So-

maliland,and
says:

at

Somali Flora) dated Berbera,January 7,

"The

Horn

of Africa' of

was

known

to

the Romans

as

the that

regio
were

aromatifera on

account

the

of myrrh large quantities in the various

exported.
which

The

country gums

abounds

produce
"I have

of varying commercial

of the acacias, species value,also certain trees

producing resins.
so

far

not

come

across

any

trees

of the cinnamon

group,

nor

have The

I heard of their existence.

tree

producing myrrh,
but able
to

or

malmal
to

as

it is known

to

the I

Somalis,is called garron;

have
never

owing

the activitiesof the Mullah Dholbanta and

been

penetrate

the southern

Mijer-

tain countries And cinnamon

where

it grows. 3
:

again,March
from
some

"I have

never

heard It is

of the exportation of there south

this part of Africa.

that justpossible country

to

might
of

be

speciesof laurels
to possible venture

in the Dholbanta
so

and

but it,

it is not

far

owing

the

of hostility

the Mullah." If there and

an was

any

aromatic

bark

produced

near

Cape Guardafui
from Hindu

not

there,it seems merely trans-shipped

there
to

almost certain that it was

came

adulterant added

the

true
"

cinnamon, that
The

India.
trade

14.
in East

Ships
Africa

from

Ariaca.

antiquityof
described the
mentioned is the
as

is asserted by

Speke {Discovery of

the Source of the

The Puranas Nik, Chaps. I, V, X). and the Nyanza lakes,and the Moon the Nile the north district of Amara," "country of Victoria

Mountains
the
name source

of of

which A
map

native
on

of the

Nyanza.

based

this

description,

drawn

by Lieut. W'ilford,was

printed in

the Asiatic

Vol. Researches,

Ill, 1801.

'Nothing
Moon,
east coast
as

was we

ever

written

concerning Hindus,

their who

Country
traded its
our

of

the the in

far

as

know,

until the commercial time

name.

with

of Africa,

opened
their of

dealings with
of the

people

slaves and

some ivory,possibly

prior to the birth of

Men

Saviour,
into the Moon

when,

associated the

with

A4oon,
Men
are

sprang

existence
are

Mountains
greatest

the

Moon.

These

of

the hereditarily for love and

go

traders in

Africa,and
with
we can

the only
own

people,
as our

who,
porters

of barter
to

and

change,
far back

will leave their

so as as

country
zest
as

the coast, and

a

they do

much

country-folkgo
The intercourse heard and

to

fair. it as

As

trace

they have
from
must

done

and they still do this, Hindu with

heretofore. had
a

traders the

firm basis
"

to

stand whom

upon,

their have
"

Abyssinians through
of

they
the from

of the country the the

Amara,
Men and

which

they appliedto

Nyanza

with of

If'anyamuezior Tanganyika
and

of the

Moon,
the

whom Two

they
church

heard

Karague

mountains.

Rebmann missionaries,
of the Hindus'
map,

Erhardt, without
a

smallest knowledge
deduced from the

constructed
on

map

of their own,
same

the Zanzibar Victoria triuned

traders, something
the

the

scale,by blending
into one; whilst the
'

Nyanza, Tanganyika,
lake they gave
name

and of

Nyassa Moon,

to

their the

because

Men

of

Moon

happened
This

to

live in front of the central lake.' the first century

respects

of trading-voyage in other
as

by Indian vessels, although

traders

less extended, was

of
a

similar to that of the Arab

:

century

ago
common

described

by Salt (op.cit., p. 103) by

the Arab

The

track pursued the Red

traders is

as

follows:

they depart from

to
\enture

Sea in August (before which

it is and
to

dangerous
thence
to

out

of the Malabar.

gulf),then
In

proceed

to

Muscat,
over

the

coast

of

December

they

cross

the

coast

of the

Africa, visit Alogdishu, Merka, Querimbo

and Islands,
down when and

Barawa, Lamu,
direct their
course

Malindi,
to

and

Islands; they
the northern
as

then
ports

the

Comoro
stretch

of

Madagascar, or

sometimes until after in time

southward

far

as

Sofala ; this occupies them

April,
refit

they
prepare

run a

up

into the Red

Sea, where

they arrive

to

fresh cargo

for the

followingyear."
own

14. of the

The

products of their
of The

places.
"

For

discussion
see

products

India imported into the

Somali
here

ports,

later,
the

under

"

41.

important thing to be noted

is that these from vessels,

at

ricultural ag-

products were
Gulf of Cambay;

regularly shipped, in Indian exchanged

that these vessels

their cargoes

Cape

Guardafui
westward Red
;

and and
was

proceeded along the coast,

their

some

southward,
the
entrance

but

most to

that, according to " 25, Ocelis,at terminus, the

Arabs

the

Sea,

forbidding them
by Arabian
on

to

trade

beyond.
the bulk

Between
of

India and

Cape Guardafui
to
some

enjoyed they apparently

the

trade,shared

extent

shipping and
coast

quiterecentlyby Greek
shared the trade in
cargoes
at
an

ships from
incidental shared

Egypt;
and of had the

the Somali

they
return

way;
none

they received
Red Sea

their

Ocelis

and

trade,which
but in the

in

former

times

the Arabs the

of Yemen

monopolized,
over.

days

of the Ptolemies At the the time

Egyptians had

taken largely
to

of the

Periplus,owing

the conquest

of and

Egypt by
a

Romans,
Rome

the establishment of

of the Axumite

Kingdom,
Arabia and

settled

policy in
commercial

direct cultivating
or

communication

with

India, this
and India much

understanding,
had existed shown
to

between alliance,

(which
strong

certainlyfor
be
at

2000

years

probably

longer),is
product
a

the
to

point of extinction; but stillto be

know the cinnamon-bark

enough

for the Romans

only as
the

of the Arabian

Somaliland,while the tributary,

they knew
of India The

cinnamon-leaf,
name

later article of commerce,

("" 56, 65)

and
text

under

of

malabathrum,
14.

as

product
butter.
the

Tibet. is boutyron. Some and Fabricius be of the

Clarified

"

commentators

objectto
his

word

(Lassen
thinks been

especially)
very
wrong

and
to

in Fabricius,
suppose
to

notes

(p. 130)
have of 41.
to

it would from

that butter could the

eastern coast

brought

India,in
they

this hot
propose

chmate,
The have

Africa."

Therefore

as substitutes,

noted

under

"

voyage

from
to

India

Africa shown

by

the N.

E.

monsoon

may

averaged

30

40

days.

As

under

" 41,

clarified butter
the that

will keep in the tropics not

account

only

for years,

but for

given by
caravans

Burton

(FirstFootsteps, pp. 136

of trips and six weeks
or

centuries;but and 247) shows

under the

modern

take it for

more,

same

hot climate of the

of

Somaliland; Fair,
That

Lieut. Cruttenden, in his description modern

Berbera

tells of

Cambay
had

ships laden
the
same

with

ghee
the

in jars,bought in Somaliland

for trade Somali 19th

elsewhere; probably along

learned
art

Arabian

coast.

is,the
it in the them the

of

clarifying

butter,and exported
that had

century

by

the

class of ships

brought

it to

from
same

India in the 1st century.

A'lungo Park found

of the much
more

product enteringinto
coast

the

commerce

humid
use

Senegal
the milk
cream

of West
an

Africa: article of

"The
not

Foulahs
sour.

chiefly as
which

diet,and

that is

until it is

The

it affords is very
a

thick,and

converted

into butter

it violently in by stirring

large calabash.

This

90

when butter,

melted

over

and gentle fire, pots, and

to

freed
a

from

is impurities,
most

preserved in small earthen

forms

part in

of their
very

dishes;

it

serves

likewise

anoint their

on liberally

their faces and

arms."

heads, and is bestowed {^Travels of Mungo Park,

don: Lon-

1799.
14.

Chap.

IV

Honey
It
was

from

the reed

called sacchari
world
a

is the first tion menas an

in the historyof the European

commerce.

of sugar medicine.

article of

known

to

Pliny as

Sacchari is the

Prakrit form

of the Sanscrit sarkara, Arabic

sukkar, Latin saccharum.

Grinding

sugar

in Western

India

The

modern

languages reflect the Arabic

French
suc?-c,

form

"

Portuguese,assucar,
sugar.

Spanish azucar,
sugar

German

zucker, English
and
to

The

is derived from

Saccharum officinarum, Linn., order

Graminea.

It

was

produced

in

India,Burma,
to

Anam
seems

Southern
have

China, long
cultivated

before and

it found itsway

Rome,

and

been

crushed firstin India.

14.

Exchange
Opone
and

their cargoes. elsewhere, is

so

"

This

trade

of
on

the

Indian
same

ships

at

like that described

the

91

coast

by Lieut. Cruttenden
in full:

in

1848,

that his

account

deserves

to

be

quoted

"From

April

to

earlyOctober," (the quotation is from

No
sooner

Burton,
does the
the coast,

First Footsteps, 408-10), "the place is deserted.

season

change
prepare

than

the

inland

tribes

move

down

toward

and

their huts for their

expected visitors. Small

have
an

craft from

the ports before

or

of

Yemen,

anxious

to

opportunityof purchasing
across,

\essels from

the

hastened gulfcould arrive,

followed

two

three weeks

laterby their larger brethren from

the

Muscat, Sur,and Ras

valuably freighted hagalasfrom Bahrein,Bassora, and Graen. Lastly,the fat and wealthy Banian traders from Porein their clumsy kotias, bandar, Mandavi and Bombay, rolled across
and with
a

el

Khyma,

and

formidable

row

of empty

ghee-jars slung over

a

the quarters the

of their

elbowed vessels,

themselves into

permanent

in position

front tier of craft in the and influence

soon

harbor,and by their superior capital, cunning,

all competitors.

distanced

During
as

in

heightof the fair there is a perfect Babel, in confusion chief is acknowledged,and the customs languages; no
the laws of the
are

the

of

bygone days are

place. Disputes between

spear

the inland

and tribes dailyarise,

settled by the
at
a

and

the dagger, the town, in

are

combatants
order that
"

to retiring

the beach

short distance from

they may
at

not

disturb the trade. and

of camels Long strings

arrivingand alone,until dusty and

from

departingday
a

night, escorted
town; and
an

generally by
occasional

women

distance

from

group

of

travel-worn

children marks

the arrival of the

slave-caravan

the interior.

"Here

the

Somali

or

Galla

slave
or

merchant

meets

his the

spondent corre-

from with Gudabirsi, in lieu of

a

Bassora, Bagdad
his head

Bandar

Abbas;
with

and
a

savage

ornamented tastefully

scarletsheepskin

wig, is
the board

seen

peacefully barteringhis
Banian from

ostrich feathers

and

gums

with

smooth-spoken
his off the

Porebandar,who,
his puggaree, which

on living prudently

ark, and lockingup

instant he
at
a wares

would

be knocked infallibly
a

was

seen

wearing it,
a

exhibits but
mat

small portionof his

the beach.

time, under

miserable

spread on

"By
all

the

end

of March and

the fair is

nearlyat

an

end,

and

craft of three in
or

kinds,deeply laden,
place
is

in partiesof generally sailing

four, commence
the
town

their homeward

journey. By

the first week

April
a

again

and deserted,

nothing is left to mark

the site of of

beyond bones containing 20,000 inhabitants, lately

slaughtered

92

camels and sheep,and the framework

of

few

huts,which

is carefully

piledon
15.

the beach The

in readiness

for the
are

ensuing year."
the

Bluffs
at

of Azania
el

rugged

coast

known

as

El

Hazin, ending
15.

Ras

Kyi, 7" 44' N., 49" 40'

great
than the

E.

The

Small
at

and Ras

beach

is the Sif el Tauil E.

;

or

"low

coast," ending
them both 15. six

Aswad, 4" 30' N., 47" 55'

whereas bluffs, the

but this is

a actually longer as

course

Periplusrates

days'journey.
of Azania
The
are

The below

Courses
the

the strips of desert divide this

coast

coastex-

tending
the

equator.

Arabs

into

two

the sections,

firstcalled Barr

second

modern modern
are

Benadir, or Mogdishu, 2" 5' N., 45" 25'

modern the

the ancient namej, Ajjan (preserving 'coast of harbors." Sarapion may be the E.

Nicon

is, perhaps,
"

the

Barawa, \" 10' N., 44" 5' E.

"/ Z);"a/r or
name

The
coast

"rivers and anchorages"

of islands.

along the

Concerning

Azania,

R.

N. Lyne, in his Zan-zihar in

ContemporaryTimes, and

Col. Henry Yule, in his edition of Marco

modern Zan"

survives in the Polo,have much of interest. The name zibar (the Portuguese form of Zanghibar), which Marco
not

Polo applied
it is

only to
from

the

but island,

to

the

whole black:
to

coast;

and

popularly
But
and

derived the
name

bar, coast, and zang,

to

land of the blacks."

to

seems

be

older,and

refer

the ancient

Arabic and

Persian division of the world

wherefrom
even as

into three

sections. Hind, Sind

mediaeval Polo times located

Zinj,

European geographers in
one
'

classified

East Africa
in Middle A.

of the
'

Indies,and Marco
the whole

Abyssinia
tury cen-

India.

Cosmas

Indicopleustes, writingin Zingi"

the coast,
to

the 6th
a

D., indicates that

below

tainly point cer-

Mogdishu,
that the in the S. W

Yule the

notes

Abyssinian Kingdom. of Japanese Encyclopaediadescribes a 'country

was

subjectto
where It

Tsengu

ocean,
sun.

there
can

is

bird called
a

pheng,
and its

which

in its flight the eclipses used

name

swallow

camel,
the Arabs.

are quills

for and of
to

water

casks."

This

is doubtless

Zanghibar
Asia and

coast,

the

legend reachingJapan through the

the dawn into of letters.
two

The
Africa

lack

distinction in ancient

geography between
Hecataeus
"

goes

back

in the 6th century

B. C. divided the world the

equal continents

Europe,

north
ocean

of

Mediterranean; Asia,south of it. Around them ran The distinction is supposed to have been based stream.
T
oxer

the
on

ature. temper-

( History of Ancient irih

Geography, p. 69)

refers it to ancient

Assyria,a(^u (sunrisej and

there.

(darkness'frequently occurring in

scriptions in-

94

15. The

Pyralaae Islands
of which the whole there
coast.

Lamu,
waterway empty

back
on

is

evidentlyPatta, Manda, and thoroughfare,the only protected

are

This
passage

is the
to

"channel;"several rivers
ocean

into

and it,

there
,

is

the

between

Manda the
to

and

Lamu,
been 15.

2" 18' S.
with

40" 50' E.
on

Vincent's of
a

identification of

"channel"
have

Mombasa,

account

canal

now

known

dug

there much

is impossible. later, Ausan

Ausanitic

Coast. had been

"

was

districtof Kataban

in the of the

South time the

Arabia, which
of the
state

before absorbed by Himyar shortly that natural result,

a

Periplus, ; hence
should Muza.
"

the be

dependency
of

conquered
port,

exploited for

the

advantage

Homerite

15. Menuthias.

This

whole The

passage

is corrupt, and of

there

are

probably
Pemba
truer to

material

omissions.

first island south

Manda

is

(at about Zanzibar

5" S. ).

But the topographicdescription is perhaps

and the
name seems

(about 6" S. j,

perpetuated in
was

the

modern

Monfiyeh (about 8" S. ).

with this coast, and included

Our

author

possibly acquainted unlumped

the

in his work he may

hearsay reports
have visited

from three

some

in which seafaring acquaintance,

one;
or

islands into
is

if he

is

describing places he has

local

(which
the

suggestedby

the mention have

of the
a

and fishing-baskets section of the

text.

like), some
16.

scribe may
"

omitted

whole
on

Rhapta.
text

This

location

depends

the condition

of the

preceding
mouth
near

regarding the island Alenuthias.

be the modern
same

Rhapta would

Pemba, 25' 38" 59' E. (5" Pangani S., ), at the

name

If that be

of the river of the

if

Zanzibar, it would
if

be

at

or

Bagamoyo

(6"
,

31' S., 38" 50' E.

);

Monfiyeh, the
upon

modern

Kilwa
very

(8" 57' S.
text

39" 38' E. ).
from is mutilated

\^incent's insistence
the

Kilwa
name;

is

well grounded, likely

suggestionof

the

ancient

that

is,if the

of description

three islands known of the

to

exist in close

proximity,the
below the

last market-town southernmost between

continent"

would

be naturally

the distances
for

given by Ptolemy
a

island, Monfiyeh. But Rhapta and Prasum suggest

the

former

location

near

Bagamoyo, perhaps Dar-es-Salaam,

Prasum
of

(6" 42' S., 39" 5' E. ).

in 'Africa known The
to

The is

Ptolemy,the farthest point

Delgado (10" 30' S.
with is impossible for Roman
,

him,

evidentlyCape

40" 30' E.).

was

later identification of Menuthias

Madagascar

due

to

the

discoveries of the Saracens,and

times.

Rhapta, Glaser
to

notes, has its name

from

an

Arabian

word

rahta,

bind.

95

96

16. Great

in stature.

"

"The
on

whole the
coast

system
or

of

slaveholding
in

by

the

Arabs

in

Africa,or
for the

rather

at

ceedingly Zanzibar, is ex-

strange;

both slaves,

in individual

strengthand

numbers, however,
more

are

so

superior to the Arab

the

they might send rebel,

that

that if they chose to foreigners, It happens, of the land. Arabs flying out

they are

spell-bound,not animals, and

they

knowing
seem to

their

strengthany
that

than be

domestic dishonest

consider

they
so

would

if they loss
on

ran

away

after

being purchased, and

brought pecuniary
) 16.

their owners."

introduction. (Speke, op. cit.,

Sovereignty
"

of the

state

that

is become

first in

Arabia.

of the policies pictureis here given us of the early Arabs. Prevented by superior force from expanding northward, but free to useful commercially to their stronger neighbors,they were A vivdd Africa. exploit activitiesin the

early Egyptian records bear testimony earlier. The second millennium B. C, if not
The mentioned
was

to

their Au-

saniticCoast"
when
century

in

"

15

was

of probablya possession
was

Ausan

that

state

independent, which
coast to

not

later than

the

7th

B. C. From

Later the
the 3d

became the 6th

then Katabanic, then Sabaean, centuries A.

Homerite.

D.
,

and the Adulis inscription In

Cosmas

it Indicopleustes,
to

was

according to Abyssinian.
until

Mohammedan
and

times

it returned

the Arab

and allegiance,

Zanzibar
were

the adjacent coast

accepted the Englishprotectorate

fact of Arab the

they

dependencies of the Sultan of Muscat.

Glaser has well expressedthis undoubted
dominion
'

II, 209) {Skizze,

was

We

must

abandon finally into

a

idea that Mohammed

the firstto

bring Arabia
and

history. So long as Rome

in the world's leading position Persia (and Egypt and Babylon before Arabs

them) retained
But
as soon as

their power, these

states

the became

expand in Africa only. exhausted,then Arabia burst forth

world."

could

and irresistibly

overflowed

the northern

(See also Punt

misunderstood

und

20-23. ) die Siidarabischen Reiche,

Previous translators of the in the have Periplus
text.

much

the

meaning

of this passage

16. Arab

captains who
in
to
a

know

the whole

coast.

"

The in

discovery by Carl Mauch

northern

1871, of

strange

structures temple-like

Rhodesia, led
The

great deal of wild

assumption as

to

their

history.

ruins

are

stone loosely-built

some enclosures,

of them
parently apwere

in form, having elliptical irregularly

conical The

pillars within, and

of largest them

facing North, East and West.

situated somewhat
near

South of the present

of the Sabi River

Salisbury-Beira railwayline,
and within reach of the trade

the upper

waters

97

of

known Sofala,
It
was

to

have
at

been

frequented by
that

Arab
were

traders in mediof Sabasan

or

a;val times.

once

assumed

they

Phoenician
but

origin and
and

of great

antiquity. The
See
for

subject was

ously voluminof
A.

written uncritically

up.

instance

Ancient Ruins

Rhodesia,by Hall J. T.

Neal, London, 1894; Monomotapa, by

and The

W'ilmot, London, 1896,

Ruined

Cities of

Mashonaland,by

Bent, London, 1902.

The
appearance

of the and the

structures

suggestedthe
at
once

form

of ancient the

Arabian

temples,

locality was
of

identified with

Professor King Solomon's voyages. Miiller {Burgen und Schlosser, II, 20), noted a resemblance between 31" 10' E. ) and the temple enclosure the Zimbabwe (20" 30' S
,

ubiquitous land

of

Ophir"

at

iMarib, the
The is
no

of capital whole

the

ancient
was

Sabaean kingdom
of
course

of Southern

Arabia. there African

argument

pure any

assumption, as
of

reference within

in ancient si.x hundred made

a

literature

to

knowledge

the

coast

miles of the port of Sofala.

careful his of investigation of that
were

Dr.

Da\id

Randall-Maciver and

the ruins in

1905,

in proved conclusively the

account

work, Mediceval
of negroes, A piece
cement not at

Rhodesia, London, 1906, that

of probablyKaffirs, of Nankin the bottom china of
one

structures

the work

the so-called

kingdom

of

Monomotapa.
in the that
were

of the late mediaeval of

or

period,found They

the structures, 15th century.

stone,

showed

they could

date

earlier than the

14th

enclosures for defence,

rudelybuilt of
found
to

loose

and

their supposed orientation was

be inexact and

probablyaccidental. by Dr.
Maciver in

The

service done

this Kaffir kraal did

not,

however, need

the antiquity of disproving be to supplemented by his trade far down

of Arabian denial (pp. 1-2) of the probability

at
a

thiscoast distance
coast; and

very

earlyage.

The

Periplusmentions

Rhapta,
on

some

as the lastsettlement south of the Zanzibar islands,

the

Ptolemy describes Cape Delgado. Dr. Maciver may have known the given by Guillain in 1856 {Docuonly through the account Periplus de l' but la g'eographie et le commerce Afrique Orientale), I'histoire, mcnts sur
at

all events
in the

and
coast

given in ignores the detailed account is definitely made Periplusthe statement

he S. )
was

both those

works,
the

that this whole

to right
"

(to about 10"

under "subject held the

some

ancient in

of sovereignty

the power

which

primacy

Arabia;
as

that

is,

in the 1st century the

A. D. the

rightwas
who

ancient still so

to

be

beyond
was

explanationof harbors,spoke

the merchant

described it.
of Arab

The

coast

by Arab frequented
the them.

ships in command
the

captains who

knew

language of

the natives and

intermarried with

98

This
negro

condition is corroborated
the whole
coast,

by

the known

Arab

infusion in the

peoples on

which

is of far earlier

originthan

the Mohammedan \\'ho

were

colonization. the natives and what

was

their

language, as

tioned men-

in the before the

read Periplus? Rev. J. Torrend, S. J., in a paper Rhodesia included in its Proceedings ScientificAssociation, of the
coast

(\',2, Buluwayo, 1905), analyzes the languages

finds
a

and

between striking similarity the island of Lamu

the

speech of

the Tana

Ri\ er, which that of the

empties below
lower Zambesi in

about He

2" 4U' S., and

Cizimba

C18"-19" S. ).
so-called Pokomo
quotes

of gives a long comparative list and tongues,

words

these He the

evidently

identical.

Dr. Krapf and

is the

other

German

philologists as
the coast, and himself it

saying that
that the
to

Pokomo

aboriginal language of
from

that the modern

Swahili is derived is
e\en

it;

and and

he

believes

Cizimba
of

more

primiti\ e,

that

gives

the

key

most

the

modern

dialects of the

southern

coast.

Father

Torrend,
brought
modern

fullof the

Sofala-Ophirtheory, argues Zambesi, but peacefuldisposition,

to

that the
not

languagewas
sea, and
ticularly par-

from

the Tana
are

River

the

by

land because the

tribes

of

rather
come

by

assuming by sea-traders,
The
ho\ve\er traffic,

such

to

have

from

Arabia.
any

it is hardlylikely that as assumption is certainly far-fetched,

busy, would

have the

brought
coast
to

this negro
a

language and
The ward migrated souththat the

it 1500 transplanted is rather suggestion

miles down

different tribe.
race

that this branch

of the Bantu

within historical times,through the African

and rift-\alley, be

modern
most

tribes of

the lower

Zambesi, said
their

to

speakingto-daythe
those
more

language,are primitive
on

while descendants,

who

mained re-

the Tana

have

had

their speech modified

notablyby

later

contact

with the outside world.

name

The

Cizimba, borne
Roman of
an

by

the

modern which

dialect, suggests
was

the them

Agisymha through
marched and

of the

geographers;
adventurous
southward of
a

known

to

the

report

who youth, JuliusAlaternus, the Garamantes in

for four

months word

from

brought back
negroes

regionabounding
name

(Fezzan), inhabited rhinoceros,

5 J. It
seems

by
an

and

bearing that
somewhere later

( Ptolemy,

I, 8,
the

not

unreasonable found

assumption that

he did reach

head-waters

of the of

Nile and
this Bantu

in that great

the rift-valley and

ancestors

tribe which

migrated southward
of A'lonomotapa

formed,

among raphers. geog-

the so-called other confederations,

the medi";val

This and

of East rift-valley
must

Africa
great

is

feature striking
on

of

its topography,

have

had

bearing

itsearlytrade.

good

99

is given by Prof. J. M. description Gregory, {The Great RiftValley, London, 1896). It is a natural depressionbeginning at the lower shore of the Red direction

Sea between

Massowa

and the straits, westerly takinga south-

African

East through Abyssinia to the British and German lakes Rudolf, possessions, including Nyanza, Tanganyika and
and

Nyassa,
that this
power,

running almost
ever

to

the

Zambesi. under

While

it is unKkely Arabian
more was or
a healthy un-

was valley

at

one

time

the control of any

were

it is

probable that

the

tribes

it inhabiting the

in

commercial less j;egular

more

relations with

North,

and

that it

important
swamps.

avenue

of trade than the

sea-coast

with the

its broad

It is indeed
no

that quite possible of the

Mashonaland
to some

which gold,
extent

layat
found
to

great distance south its way

might valley,
in

have tribe

along
it is

this natural trade-route

by exchantxe
manifest
coast.

from

tribe; and

entirely unnecessary,
attempt
to

the disproving

of the Mashonaland antiquity fact of earlyArab influence

to ruins,

disprovethe

and

infusion

along the

East African

Neither is it necessary
culture in down the
two

to

deny

the

of earlyArabian generalinfiltration of the

directions from

the head-waters

Nile,southward

and rift-valley,

of Guinea. beliefs and

through the Sudan toward the Gulf folk-lore and religious In fact this general spreadof culture,
westward

is too practices,

well attested to admit

word in the text, in modified

of denial.
to

17. Palm word a nargilios,

oil.
"

The

is corrected nauplios, forms in other

which

appears

Greek

geographers.
is of
course a

This

is the

Prakrit nargil, Sanscrit narikela, narikera, of the word

on

and "cocoariut,"

the appearance

the

Zanzibar

coast

confirmation The

of Indian word which

was

trade there.

(See Lassen, op.

the koukioadjective coins the Greek

I, 267. ) cit.,

Greek

koix,whence

from Latin cucifera, phoros,

the

" 19, Periplus,

adjectivekoukinos.
This

palm
well
as

oil
in

was

probably native
causes as

the Hindu

Linn., order Palmea; nucifera, carried by natural Indian archipelago,and

from Cocos
to activity most

of the

world. tropical

It

is

one

of the

most

useful plantsknown, providingtimber

for houses

and ships, leaves for thatch and fiber for binding and weaving, aside from the food value of the nut, fresh and dried,and the oil. As a medicine also it
was

of

ripe fruit being

etc.,
to

mixed form

importance to the Hindus, the pulp with clarified coriander, cumin, butter,

of the moms, carda-

their
nut

consumption.
the 6th century

The
as

for dyspepsia and a specific narikela-khanda, in described by Cosmas Indicopleustes was

and by Marco argellion:

as

Polo in the 13th century

(I, 102; II, 236, 248)

349-363.)

Indian

nut.

(See also Watt,

op.

cit.,

100

".

.V

-S

"-1

102

The

of Arabia Petraea has its name district

from

this city. The

native name,
to referring

Jud. IV, 7, 1) was according to Josephus {.Ant. the variegatedcolor of the rocks in the Wady
name was

Rekem,
IVIusa.

The

Bibhcal

Sela,

city of Edom"

(2 Kings, XI\', 7;
means as a

Isaiah, X\'I,1; Judges,I, 36).

between dwellest Strabo in the clefts of the 21 j says
a

Sela (Arabic Sal)

'hollow

rocks," and Obadiah, 3, apostrophizes Edom

rocks, whose
Petra smooth within and and there for
most

"thou that
on

habitation
a

is

high.
is

"

(X\'I,IV,
and

is situated on level
are

spot which

rounded sur-

fortified by

rock, which
abundant

is externally
water

but abrupt and precipitous, both for domestic

purposes

springsof

watering gardens. Beyond

part
a

the

enclosure

the country

is for the
my

toward desert, particularly had been

at

Judaea.
to

Athenodorus,

who friend, found

many

Petra,used
also many

that he relate with surprise,

strangers

Romans

and

other

there." residing Alarcellinus

Ammianus of the
most

(XIV, 8, 13)

describes the

place as "full
with strong tants inhabi-

plenteousvarietyof merchandise, and

which castles, in defiles, order
to

studded

forts and

the watchful solicitude of itsancient

repress

has erected in suitable the

the

inroads cf

neighboring nations."
The

topography of

Petra is well known

through the descriptions

surrounded valley entrance, and

of Flinders Petrie and others. with cliffs, by precipitous almost impregnable. It and from
a
a

It was

fertilebit of and

long, narrow
to

winding

seems

safe storehouse Yemen. The

for the

a place of been, first, refuge etc. myrrh, frankincense, silver, coming

,

have

Biblicalreferences show
the taken

it as

an

Edomite
entered

hold; strong-

after

when but, being abandoned it was the Babylonian captivity, makes the descendants
see

Edomites

Palestine

by

the

Josephus
Glaser and

of

Nebaioth, son
an

Nabatasans;whom of Ishmael,while
tribe noted who in
an

others

rather

Nabatu,

Aramaic B.

of inscription the of \alley Here

Tiglathpdeser III (745-727 probablyin

were

C),
B. C. and

migrated to

Edom

the 6th centuiy

at

the Nabatairans from

nomadic first

predatory, inviting
Gulf
of

attack by land from the

Antigonus, and
down
to

by

sea

on

the

Akaba,

Ptolemies

(Agatharchides, 88; Strabo, X\'I, IV, 18).

orderly commerce
may
was

they settled Soon, hf)vve\er,

as exceedingly,

and prospered
suppose

tlie ruins

of

Petra testify. One

with

that
to

part,

at

of least,

their trouble

Syria and Egypt

than their the

due

their

commercial

rather agirressi\eness
to

predatoryhabits.
trade

They

fought

hard

maintain

and

control

caravan

againstthe

with Rome competitionof Egyptian shipping. In their dealings they both shoulders; helping Titus againstJerutried to carry water on

103

salem,but supportingthe Parthians against Rome

This conflict of interests
was

as

occasion

offered.

D., when Trajan reduced them to subjection (Dio Cassius, LXVIII, 14). After that time Petra declined; the ship of the desert was blanketed by the ship
of the sea; the 2d and when it was
"

terminated

in 105

A.

the overland

trade

toward revived,

the

end

of

century,

Palmyra
The

which

reaped the advantage.

of this

19. Malichas.

mention

the date of the important in fixing be

text.

king of the the Ordinarily

word
as

Nabataeans
name
"

is

might
Hebrew
'

accepted

as

transcriptionof the Arabic

appears

malik

melech, king, which

and
as a

in such

Hebrew

names

Abimelech"

Melchizedek;" Jew would

there title, have
were

but been

of Josephus, who according to the writings between the name and to distinguish likely

the

kings having
which
was

that

name

in what
same

he
as

called

the

of Arabia," "country

the certainly the Jews who had

that of the he
tions men-

Nabataeans.

In

his

Antiquities of
of

(XIV, 14, 1)
befriended his
to
case was

Malchus, King
who had

Arabia,

Herod taken him

same

and
up

loaned
and

him

money

just before
38

by
of

Mark
the

Antony,

the Roman

Senate agreed
year

make

King

Jews.

This

occurred

in the

B. C.

This

chus Mal-

of Alexandria Caesar for his siege loaned cavalry to Julius

(Aulus

Hirtius, Bell.

lex., I, i);

and

subsequently sent
Mark

auxiliaries to

Pacorus, the Parthian emperor, him to pay an indemnity.

This

for which

Antony compelled
mentioned in the

Malchus

can

not, of

course,

be the

one

Periplus. But Josephus {Jewish War, III, 4, 2) mentions a King and five thousand of Arabia, Malchus, who sent a thousand horsemen Jerusalem. These footmen to the assistance of Titus in his attack upon
events
were

in the year than

70 A.

D., and

this

King Malchus
text.

can

hardly

be

other

the Malichas quotes

mentioned

in the

See also Vogiie,

or

who SyrieCentrale, of his father Aretas

of inscriptions
or

this Malichas
a

Malik, and
of Tiberius

Philodemus,

Hareth,

contemporary

and Caligula.
19. the

Small vessels from

is

Arabia."

Strabo

(XVI, IV, 24)

to to

has

followingaccount "Merchandise
Rhinocolura
at

of this trade :

conveyed
near

from

Leuce

Come
thence

Petra,thence
other nations.

to

in Phoenicia

Egypt, and

by the Nile to Alexandria. present the greater part istransported Hormus, and is then It is brought from Arabia and India to Myos
But

conveyed on
the

camels

to

Coptus
"

of the

Thebais, situated on
free

canal of

Nile, and to Alexandria. The policyof the Ptolemies, in seeking to dependence

on

Egypt

from

mercial com-

Yemen,

and

to

encourage

direct communica-

104

tion with Arabs.

port
are

India,had
The
to

been

continued of

by Rome
19 from

at

the
to

expense

of the

small vessels"

"

Muza

the

Nabataean that traded be reached

be contrasted
to

with the The

largevessels"
caravan

of

" 10
not

from in the

Mosyllum
same

Egypt.

trade

could

way,

and

along the

Red

Sea the camel

in Arabian reduced

could

always compete
halfjection subto

with the ship.

century,
to

This remained

hands

for another

when Rome.

the

Emperor Trajan

the Nabatasans

19. Centurion.
but the officer, of the
text

"

Vincent
not

assumes

that At

this

was

Roman

does
was

indicate it.

this time and

the

kingdom
as

Nabataeans well have

on

independent,powerful
from the 25 per
cent

prosperous;

it
us

might

been,

duty our
Rome.
to

author

tells

it levied 20. text; other

the rich trade between

"

Arabia
are

and

Arabia.

Two in

meanings

attached the entire

this word

in the
every
as

in this

"

20 and it
means

" 49
other

itrefers the

to

peninsula; in

instance

Yemen,

Homerite-Sabaite
and

kingdom

from distinguished

the

kingdoms

divisions of political

the

peninsula.
20.

Differing
a

in their

speech.
;

"

In

the
coast

north

the

taeans Naba'

spoke Arabic;

dialect of the Aramaic

alongthe
of which
true

the

Carnaites'
the modern
own

out spoke various Ishmaelite dialects, at

has grown

the
to

of trading-posts

the

Minaeans,their
on

guage, lanthe

allied

Hadramitic,was

spoken;
the

reachingYemen,
coast

speech was
20. described 20.
writers
at

Himyaritic. opposite
the below

Similarly,that is,to
the

Berenice,
other

beginning of
men.
same
"

the firstvoyage,

in

" 2.

Rascally
oxen

Compare
Beduin and the and

observations of

concerning these
The
were

robbers:
asses

plowing,
with the

feedingbeside
them
away;

them

and have These

the

Sabeans

fell upon

them, edge

took

yea,

they

slain the
are

servants

of the sword."

(Job I, 14-15.
of Saba in Central

not

the

Sabaeans of Yemen,
smooth"

but

men

Arabia,the
The

nation talland

of Isaiah

XVIII.)
to a

Beduins
and

have

reduced which

robbery

in all its branches

complete

regularsystem,

offers many

details." interesting

TBurckhardt.
Before need. Beduins
summer no

)
we

condemn lightly
to

the robber and

we

must

realize his

sore

According

Doughty
pastures
very sorry

other travelersthree-fourths famine.

gaunt

of the

of northwest

Arabia suffer continual

fail and the

In the long

drought when
are

camel-herds

give
guest

milk the\ her

in

plight; then

it is that the
some

housewife

cooks

slender

mess

of

rice

lest secretly,

would-be

105

should smell the pot. The hungry gnawing of the Arab' s stomach is lessened by the cofFee-cupand the ceaseless 'tobacco-drinking' from
the nomad's
p.

precious pipe."
shalt call his And
every

(Zwemer,

Arabia

the Cradle of

Islam,

157.)
Thou
name
a

Ishmael; because
wild
man;

the Lord hath heard will be

thy affliction.
e\ery

he will be man's

his hand

against
dwell in

man,

and

hand

the presence

of all his brethren."

against him; and he shall (Gen. XVI, 11-12.)

tribes
any
name
are

20. Garnaites.
which raiti-s,
cannot

"

These

wild

called in the

text

Can-

be identifiedwith would

other contemporary
to

record.

Some

commentators

change the

and FabriCassanites;

substitutesCananites. cius,followingSprenger,

Glaser's suggestion is
that the
n

165-6). certainly preferable {Siizze,

settlements the of the ancient tribes mention
as

He

thinks

and

should be reversed, making Camattes; Kama

being one
the

ern of the northwhich

kingdom
were

of

Minaeans, to

neighboring Pliny
a

Beduin

32) and Ptolemy both

whom describes

this

nominallysubject. Pliny (VI, place as a cityof the Minaeans; people

in

the

oldest commercial in myrrh from of the and is

to

Arabia,
He and

having
refers

monopoly

in the

trade

and

frankincense, through

their control of the

to doubtfully
to

caravan-routes

their

legend
of

producing regions. of Minaeans relationship

his brother for

the

Rhadamaeans

Minos

Crete

Rhadamanthus.
this preserving Ptolemy adds

Pliny need
evidence of

not

have

doubted, and
wide
extent

be thanked

Arabian early
to

trade in the Mediterranean. of this

his testimony he
east

the

early Arabian
who dwelt

trade,when
in the
extreme
a

describes
near

the

people
of the
'

called Rhamnae and Purali, From who

to

the banks

planted their
the borders

at capital
was

place called
no mean

Rhambacia.

'

Crete

of India

sphere of activity.Compare
of

Ezekiel
were

XXVII,
with

22

The

merchants

Sheba

and

Raamah,
chief of

they

thy merchants:

they

occupied

in thy fairs with

and all spices,

all precious

stones, and

gold.

"

Strabo also toward

the Red

(XVI, III, 1) describes "the Minaei in is Carna; next to them city Sea, whose largest
chief

the part
are

the

whose Sabaeans, At the time

to

cityis Mariaba.
the Periplus
term

of the

Minaean"
been extended

was

no

longer
the

limited nomadic
routes

the southern

but traders,
over

had

to

include
caravan-

Ishmaelites
a

whom

their settlements of authority.

along the

exerted The

varyingmeasure kingdom
had the Sabaeans.

Minasan

long since lost

When

its identity, having

been

conquered by

Saba fell before

we

Himyar its
that
at

allegiance was

transferred likewise; but

may

assume

the

106

date of the

it was Periplus

almost independent. When

its
over authority

the Homerite
most

dynasty became Hejaz;

the spur
among

powerful,it asserted
the
so

of the
was

when

Abyssiniansconquered
The

Yemen

their rule

not

acknowledged

far north.
was a

insurgenceof

the Ishmaelites under

of Islam

logical consequence
is identified
;
a

of centuries of civil war

their former

overlords in Yemen.

20. Burnt

Island

by Ritter and Miiller

most

with

Jebel
course

Tair, 15" 35' N., 41" 50' E.

from Berenice
to

volcanic island in the direct

Aluza.

Fabricius prefers Disan, the

northerly
of

of the Farsan

group,

16" 45' N., 41"

out

40' E.

but

this location is
the middle

improbable,as being
the

of the of

course

down straight

gulf," and
20.

in the midst

"foul waters."
"

Chiefs
this time

and
has

Kings of Arabia.
alreadybeen
driven
to

The

turmoil Within and

a

in South few
years
cumbed, suc-

Arabia

at

mentioned.

the Habashat and

had been Hadramaut

yet

Africa,Kataban Himyar
remained.

Saba had The

and

Homerite

dynastywas
was

not

and firmly established, tribe

the condition

of the country

feudal, each

Such is the

of independence. enjoying a large measure condition here described,where Mapharitis,nominally

taxes
on

Homerite,
21. with the

le\ied its own

commerce,

and

maintained

its own

colonial enterprisein Azania.

Muza,
modern

mentioned Mocha

by

our

author
,

as

seaport,

is identified
to

(13" 19' N.
was

43" 20' E. ).
some

According

Plinyand
at
as

Ptolemy, the market-town

of village Both
names name

miles

inland,probably
seaport

the

modern

JVlauza;
of the

and

the Plinydistinguishes

Masala.

stillexist

(Glaser,Skizze, 138-40; 168j.

to

the In the Periplus the port. 21. 800

easy

extended city is, apparently,

include

Twelve
or

thousand
stadia.

stadia.
may

"

The

actual distance is about in the

text

miles
matter

8000 with

It

be

mistake
as

(a

very

Greek

numerals), or,
our

Bunbury
have

suggests

(History

of Ancient
as on so

II,455) Geography,
many

author

may

tance calculated the dis-

days' sailof 500 stadia each.

winds
cause might readily

No
such

callsbeing made
an error

the coast, contrary Where

no

in calculation.

instruments

existed

for

measuring distances,
the

estimates would

be necessarily

rather

general.
"

21.

Sending
to

their

own

ships,

to

Somali
the

coast east

and can Afrijoyed en-

India in competition with the Egyptian Greeks; down

coast

their

own

(" 16) possessions

where

they doubtless
at

special privileges.Foreign shippingwas

which
such
as

unwelcome
Roman of
to gifts

Muza, rulers,

to preferred
our

supplythe north-bound
to

caravans.

subjects,
the

author,had

pay

in the dearly,

form

107

for

permissionto
22. Saua

trade

there;

Hindu

shippingwas

stopped at Ocelis Mogawir,

("25).
is identified

by Sprenger with

the Sa'b of Ibn

(13" N., 44"

the modern 40 miles above

E.).
Mocha.

Ritter and

Ta'is,(13"35'

N.,

43

followingNiebuhr, prefer Miiller, 55' E. ), in the mountains about

of the
a tribebelonging Ma'afir,

11.
to

Mapharitis

is the country

chief or sheikh had, evidently, whose especial Himyariticstock, "lawful Their location Charibael. from his king" (" 23) privileges the
was

in the southern

Tehama. is the Arabic Kula' ib.

22. Cholaebus 23.

Saphar,
the

mentioned
about

by Arabian
of

geographers
on some

as

Zafar,
the road

is
to

located by Niebuhr

100 miles N.
town

E. of Mocha

Sanaa, near

modern of

Yerim,

miles

southeast

of

which, on the summit of the the capital was

Timna Sabaean, in the 4th of the A.
century

circular

its hill,

ruins still exist.

Zafar of the

Homerite

dynasty, displacing Marib, that

of the Minaean.
was

Gebanite,and Carna
D.,
a

Here,
the

Christian church

built, following
and merite Ho-

between negotiations

the Roman ibn

Emperor
who

Constantius

King Tubba
6th century it was

Hassan,
of
a

had embraced

Judaism.
at

In the

the seat

one bishopric,

incumbent

of which, Sanaa

St.

of a profanation resenting Gregentius, of the

the church

by

tain cer-

in Yemen,

then ruling the Abyssinian government, Koreish, inspired Mecca. against a disastrous expedition to undertake
"

23.

"God
p.

Charibael. blessed (him)."

numerous

This

is the

Arabic The
a

and Kariba-il,

means

(Hommel,
this
to

Ancient Hebrew

Tradition,
than
a

84.

Glaser has shown

be

rather royaltitle,
a

name,

and has edited

of inscriptions A.

king named
and whom

Kariba-il Watar he identifies with

Juhan'im who
this Charibael.

ruled about 40-70

D.,

(Die Jbessinierin Arabien und Afrika, pp. 37-8.) of the Joktanite Both were and Sabaites. 23. Homerites
"

race

of South

Arabia, the

former

being
we are

the

younger

branch.

In the
to

tribal

genealogy in Genesis
Three

X,

shown

their relation
are

the
as

Semites of the North.

of the children of Shem

given

Elam, Asshur, and

Arphaxad.
names son was

Arphaxad's
are

son

was

Salah,and Babylonia
the Arabic

his and

grandson Eber.
Chaldsea.
is Kahtan, which

These

associated with
which

Eber's second
appears

Joktan, of
of

form in the

farther south

along the Persian Gulf, Joktan, most Ptolemy, north

his
son was are

of El Katan. peninsula

Of
two

the

sons

identified (Hadra-

with

the

southern

coast;

of them o[

being Hazarmaveth
of

the maut), and Jerah (cf.

Jerakon Kome

Dhofar).

The

last-named the Arabs

call Yarab:

Yashhab

{cf.

108

the Asabi in

named
to

Oman, " 35),and Abd-es-Shems) is said to begun

of its great

his

grandson "Saba
founded the

the Great"

(surand

have which thus

the cityof of irrigation with this

Marib,
the

have

dam,
are

on

vicinity
scendant de-

depended.
rather

The

Sabaeans

connected of

Saba, a
make

to

Jerah, and not Central Arabia; Yemen,

with whom

Sheba, son
would

Joktan,who
Hommel

is referred
a

Glaser and

would

colony from

while Weber

reverse

the process,

having by

the Sabaeans migrate southward

for the conquest

of the Minaeans.
was

the dam at Marib According to Arab accounts the primacy of King Zul Karnain, suggesting
at

finished

a certain

the Minaean

dynasty
were

that time; but from

about

the 7th century

B. C. the Sabaeans
caravan-routes,

supreme

in all southern wild

the Arabia, controlling

caravan

and

forcing the
stationswere
the Koran and cities,

tribes into
at

service.

Colonies
routes. was

and

restingthese
so

established

intervalsalong the
that the journey

We
easy

learn from

(Chap. XXXIV)
travel
secure

between

by night or day might

by day;
be
not

the

distances and

being
the

short that the heat in the next, such

so

of the

passed in one,
be carried.
statement ;

night
of

that
may

need provisions

The

number

settlements
took
seventy

be inferred from Minaea

Strabo's

that the

vans cara-

days between
wealth

and Aelana
to

and

all the Greek the value

and

Roman

from writers,

Eratosthenes

to Pliny,testify

of the

the trade,

of those who

controlled

and it,

their

jealous

hindrance The

of all competition.
entry

of the fleets of the Ptolemies of colonies

into the
a

Red hard
same

Sea, and
blow
to

their estabhshment the caravan-trade.

along its shores,dealt homily

was

If

we

sift fact from result

in the

chapter
of
many

of the of the

Koran,
and

we

find that the

a

abandonment increase had

to

and caravan-stations,

consequent
now

in the be

cost

of

camel-hire

of the provisionswhich and dispersion

poverishmen carried; im-

rebellion of the dwellers in the

were

stations, Syria Periplus,

its public

so were

that

finally most
and

of the cities which and

a

between

Saba and

ruined

abandoned,"

few

years

later than the

to

Marib

of itself, stripped
was

its revenues
an

and unable
which

maintain
away

works,

visited with

inundation

carried and

its famous

reservoir-dam, making
of its people. and
to

the

cityuninhabitable
of them
country
seem

forcingthe dispersion migrated northward

the of

Many

to

have of

have

settled in the

southeast
was

Judaea,founding

kingdom
the Roman The

of the

which Ghassanids,
at

for

generationsa bulwark

Empire
great

its eastern

boundary.
under
got

Sabaea by the Romans expedition against Gallus, rStrabo, XVI, IV, 22-4; Pliny,VI, 32) never the valleyof the

Aelius

beyond
surmised

Minaeans; turning back thence, as

Mncent

110 Roman Parthian

Two

Roman

Marcus

Emperors servingtogether: 161-169. Aurelius,Lucius Verus

" "

Geta Caracalla,

211-212.
"

Valerian,Gallienus
Maximian Diocletian,

253-259.
"

ing 286-305, and through se\eral succeed-

reigns.
24. Saffron

(Crocus sativus, Linn., order Iridacea).

"

The

part

that entered into trade which

were

was

the
a

stamens

and

of pistils

the

flower,

used

as medicinally, or

ery, paint or dye, a seasoning in cook-

and

perfume
Derfume,

ingredient of ointments.
courts
were

As

theatres and halls,

strewed

with the

Ill

and plant, which

it entered

into the composition of many

same

spirituous extracts,
2. )

retained the

scent.

(See Pliny,XIII,
to
a

Lucan

(Pkarsa/ia, IX, 809) refers

the limbs into many of

the

sweet-smelling essence
salves or balsams.

of saffron that issues from

statue."

Saffron also entered

It
was

of the scented

much safflower

adulterated

the

of other plants, such as by adding the stigmata and the marigold order Composita), {Carthamus tinctorius,

(Calendula officinalis, order

Composita).
Saffron is blended It is
with wine
or

Pliny (XXI, 81)

and boxes.

says.

water

is extremely useful in medicine.

Applied
in and

with

egg

all kinds it disperses is

generally kept of inflammations, those

for suffocations, hysterical

in horn

of the eyes

it particular;

employed also

for ulcerations of the

liver, lungs, stomach, chest,kidneys,

cases

and bladder.
parts, and for with

It is particularly useful in

of inflammation of those The

cough

and

pleurisy

flower is used locally

op. ctt.,

Cimolian

chalk for erysipelas."

(See also Beckmann,

I, 175-7.)
24. Sweet
among

rush.

"

The

text

is kypens. various

There

is much

fusion con-

the Roman the including

writers between

speciesof

aromatic

anointingoil (Exodus XXX), which was probablyAcorus calamus,Linn., order Aroidea; a herb, useful medicinallyand as a flavor. semi-aquaticsub-tropical calamus" and between "Syrian But Pliny (XIII, 2) distinguishes rush, some
calamus of the Hebrew

"Syrian sweet-rush," both

so

components

of the been

Parthian

ment;" oint"regal

that sweet-rush may order

,

rather have An
account

schcenanAndropogon

thus,Linn.

Graminea.

of itsproductionis

given

(XXI, 70). That by Pliny(XII, 48), and of its medicinal properties the temple of Jupiter from near most highlyesteemed, he says, came
Ammon in

Egypt;

the

next

best from from

Rhodes.
its use with
sores

It had
in

an

odor

sembling re-

that of it was throat

nard; and aside

as a

perfumes and
and

ments, oint-

employed

and diuretic,

wine

vinegar for
been

or ulcers,

in liniments for ulcerous

generally.
text

of the that the kyperos It is possible, also,

may

have

the

Egyptian

papyrus
to

according

(Cyperus papyrus, Linn., order Cyperacea);used, sails and mats, Pliny (XIII, 21-2) for boat-building,

it as a for fuel. He notes coverlets and ropes, and the roots cloths, growing in conjunctionwith the sweet calamus, and productof Syria, much

favored by King Antiochus which

was

for

cordagefor his
Romans.

navy,

instead of

spartum,

by preferred
was

the

Again (XXXIII,
and

30)

he says
next

papyrus
to

used

for

smelting copper

iron,being

favored

pine wood.

112

The
than

suggestionin

the that

text

is,however, for

an

aromatic
more

rather

cordage or fuel,so
identification. McCrindle's

Andropogonschoenanthus

is the

able prob-

of suggestions

turmeric

(^Curcumalonga, Linn., order

these both
or

and galangal {Alpinia officinarum, Hance, order ZingiZingiheracea)

beraceic) are products

24. of

not

borne Far

out

and by Pliny's descriptions; the

text

are

the

East, while
ointments.
all known hence

indicates

an

Egyptian

Mediterranean

product.
"

Fragrant
fit to of the
them
an

thought
odor single Persians
use

mingle whole;

ury Pliny (XIII, 1) says that "luxodors, and to make one fragrant
the invention of ointments. themselves the bad The in

and so, by
which
are

and they quite soak extensively, adventitious recommendation, counteract dirt."

of

it,

odors

produced by
account

His

of the manufacture articles of trade

ointments

(XIII, 2)
There
were

throws
two

lighton numerous principal components.

the former
was

in his time.
or

They
as

consisted of oils the latter

as

and juices, A

solids:

known the

stymmata,

hedysmata.
or

third element

cinnabar coloring matter, usually

to

alkanet.

Resin and

gum roses,

were

added

fix the

sweet-rush, sweet

oil of Among the stymmata were calamus, xylo-balsamum, myrtle, cypress,

odor.

saffron oil, lilies, fenugreek,myrrh, cassia, pomegranate-rind, mastich, included The cinnamon. and hedysmata nard,myrrh, nard, amomum,

balsam, costus, and marjoram. without oil, formed an Myrrh used by itself, ointment, but it was be used, for otherwise it would be too bitter. stacte only that must
The

formula

of the

regalointment,"

made

for the

Parthian

cinnamon, comacum, Kings, included myrobalanus,costus, amomum, cardamom, spikenard,marum, myrrh, cassia, storax, ladanum, opobalsamum, Syriancalamus
rum,

and

Syriansweet-rush, cenanthe,malabathsweet saffron, cypirus,

serichatum, cypress, aspralathus, panax, and wine. marjoram, lotus, honey

The
nus,

Mendesian

ointment

included of bitter

resin and myrrh, oil of balamom, carda-

oil metopion (Egyptian

almonds), omphacium,

sweet-rush, honey, wine, myrrh, seed of balsamum, galbanum,

and resin of terebinth. Another

included oils (the common

kinds),sampsuchum, lilies,
cinnamon.
a

fenugreek,myrrh, cassia, nard, sweet-rush,and

24. in South of

Myrrh,

"

gum
to

exuded
some

from in

the bark of

small tree, native

the Somali
coast

Arabia, and

extent

Oman,
It forms

and

as Bahamodendron Africa; classified

Myrrha (Nees), or Commiphora

the underwood of

(Engl. Ahyssinica ), order Burseracea.

113

forests of

acacia,moringa,
It
and

and

euphorbia.

From

earliest times it has

a been, togetherwith frankincense,

constituent of the

incense,perfumes, anointingoil
of the in
components

and

ointments.

was was

an

ingredientof
one

Hebrew

(Exod. XXX),
celebrated

also

of the

numerous

of kyphi

the

used Egyptians,a preparation

the the

fumigations, trading
"

medicine, and embalming. It was of the Egyptian kings to expeditions

of
measures

object of
Land
,

numerous

of Punt.

ment monu-

Sahure,
of

28th from

century

B. The

C.

records

of 80,000 receipts

myrrh
marvels

Punt.

of Hatshepsut f 15th expedition

as

century

B. C. ) again records myrrh

of the country of God's

the

most

important
was as

cargo;

its All

listof the

of

Punt"

follows:

goodly fragrant woods

myrrh
trees,

Land, heaps gold of

ebony,
ihmut

pure

ivory,green
southern
was

fresh myrrh-resin, Emu, cinnamon wood,

of

khesyt wood, monkeys,

The

incense, sonter
"Never

incense, eye

cosmetic, apes,
their children. of this for any Records

dogs, skins of
has been

adds: inscription

panther,natives and brought the like

"

king who

since the

beginning.
clear

Ancient (Breasted,

and Hanbury, op. cit., 140-6.) of Egypt, II, 109; Flilckiger

Pliny (XII, 35) gives a

'

account

of the
a

gatheringof
year,

the the

gum
same

'Incisions are
as

made

in the myrrh-tree twice

case as

and

at

season are are

in the incense-tree; but in the

of the
far
as

myrrh-tree
the

they
which

made

all the
to
a

way

up

from
tree

the

root

the branches

able

bear it.

The

spontaneously exudes,before
the
name

incision is

made,
to

liquidwhich
there is no

bears

of

stacte

to {stazo,

drop) and
in

which

myrrh

that is of

to quality

this is the

cultivated myrrh;

superior. Second only the wild or forest kind,

the best is that which he Stacte,

is

in summer." gathered
as

says, sold

high

as

40 denarii the

pound;

cultivated

myrrh,
at

at

maximum

of

11 denarii; Erythraeanat 16, and odoraria

14.

And

he continues:

"They give no
other countries the the
to

tithesof myrrh
as

to

the

god,

because
pay

it is the

produce of

well;

but the growers

the

fourth part of it
up

king
common

of

the Gebanitae.

Myrrh is packed

bought
into

indiscriminately by
but of
our

people and
any

then

bags;

tests principal

perfumers separate it without its goodnessbeing its unctuousness

several kinds of myrrh:
the of
next
are

the diiBculty, its aromatic

and

smell.

"There

are

the

firstamong

the wild which of cludes inthe

myrrhs

is the the

and Troglodytic ;
that

the

Minaean,
fourth

aromatic,and
collatitia
.

in Ausaritis,
a

the

kingdom
is the

Gebanita.

and A third kind is the Dianitic,

a

mixed is
a

myrrh

or

fifth again is the Sambracenian, which

brought

from

cityin

the

kingdom

of the

near Sabaei,

the sea;

and

114

sixth is known
also which

by the

name

of Ausaritic.

There

is

white

myrrh
to

is produced in

only

one

spot,
same

and
as

is carried for sale the port of

the
or

cityof Messalum."
Muza.
The
'

(This

is the

Masala

See

138. ,) Glaser,Ski%z", name myrrh is from the Hebrew The ancient The

and bola Indian The

Arabic
or

mur,

meaning
scrit the Sanbola.

'bitter.
' '

Egyptian word
Persian

was

hal,and
or

was

vola.

modern

and
"

call it bol
text

24.

Gebanite-Minaean

stacte.

is corrupt,

having
"

: gabeirminaia

Miiller and Fab ricius alter this to in

"Abiraea and Minaea,

not

which

appear

Sprenger'smap
wild trees,
either
as

of

Arabia, but
as

in the

trict. myrrh disnatural from

Stactehas alreadybeen
exudation from
on

described

the gum

yieldedby
that the

from distinguished
or

coming

incisions
can

trees

wild

cultivated;while

adjective qualifying
was

which hardly be other than Gebanite-Minaean,

among

the best varieties in

Pliny'sclassification.

(See also Glaser,Ski%ze,

88-9. )
24. in boxes

Alabaster.
of

"

Pliny (XIII, 3),

says,

"Ointments keep best

with which oil,
as duces con-

all of the
away

and perfumes when alabaster, the the more to their durability for instance.
to

mixed

thicker it is,such

the oil

almonds,
sun

Ointments,
for which lead." 3. )

too,

improve
they
are

with

age;

but

is apt in
a

spoil them,

reason

stowed usually

shady place in vessels of 12; Mark, XIV, 7; John, XII,

24.

(See also Pliny, XXXVI,

The is corrupt,

Avalites

and

the

far-side coast.
aus

"

text

having Adulh;
Adulis.
' '

Fabricius translates
Adulis it is
not
was

dem

gegeniibergelegenen
its exports
to were

But

not

oppositeMuza,
that they
at
went

quite
tions relanot

and different,

mentioned

Muza.

The

of Habash those of

and

Himyar,

the

date

of
was

the

were Periplus,

friendly commerce,

and

Adulis

an distinctly

Egyptian

the other hand, the text describes, On in " 7, the trading-station. articles carried by the Berbers from Avalites to Ocelis and Muza for sale We

there;
must

to

which

this passage

refers the
our

as

conclude, therefore,that Avalites,"which

narrow
or was

already mentioned." scribe copied "Adulis"

author
wrote.

instead of

what

25. A

strait.

el-Mandeb,

"Gate

This is,of course, the strait of Babof Tears" (12" 35' N., 43" 12' E. j, so called
"

because of itstreacherous 25. The 43"

winds and

currents.

island Diodorus

is the modern

Perim

(12" 38' N.,

Pliny; the
the

18' E.).
25. Ocelis is the Acila of Strabo,Artemidorus
the modern and

name

survivingin

Cella.

Forster

traces

in this name

115

tribe of
connects

Uzal,
Ausar

son

he also Joktan (Genesis X, 27) with whom (Ausal or Ausan) in the Frankincense Country of
"

which
at

survives in the modern

Ras el Sair.
near

This is the districtwhich

onetime

held the
ancient

'Ausanitic coast"

Zanzibar, as stated
Sanaa.
on

in

"15.

The

cityof Uzal
Sa'id
from

is the modern with

a

Ocelis
the promontory formation
a narrow

is identified

by Glaser

bay

the northern

side of volcanic

of Sheikh

(12" 48' N., 43" 28' E. ), a

shore He
no

which channel

jutsout
from

the Arabian

and
notes

is

separatedby probability
this
says

the island of Perim.

the than
text

that Indian whence

ships were
went not

permitted to by
land
to

go

further The

place, sailing

their cargoes
a

Muza.

merely

that it was into the

market-town, but gulf;" but Pliny (VI, 104)

was

the first landing for those

states
on

the
port

of Onesiauthority for those

that Ocelis critus, from

the

most two

convenient other

India.
which

He
were

mentions
not

ports,

Muza

coming (Masala) and

were

Cana,

but frequented by Indian travellers,

and modem Arabian Aden

only

for the merchants

dealingin frankincense
Arabia
very
were

spices.

26. Eudaemon

is the
an

(12" 48' N.,

markets.

45" 0' E. ), from

early times

important trade center, where

the Mediterranean

goods from
It was, of the under

the

east

for trans-shipped of Ezekiel

probably,the Eden
Minaean
and the Homerite

XXVII,

Sabaean dynasties. While

3, and the chief port in eclipse temporarily

the 4th
tury cen-

by kings, it had regained its position

for negotiated
a

A. D. when and
terms

Constantius

church

to to

be built

there;

the Arabian almost The

as

geographers and Marco Polo refer glowing as those of Agatharchides.

port the
at
name

its activitiesin

Periplus gives the

like

of

the

entire

district;

Eudamon
to

Felix, being an
'

attempt

the

and had

hand' (as one faces the right the idea of good fortune Latin, attaching of good fortune. the same significance,
26. Charibael

translating Yemen, the country hke the Greek east) ; the Arabic,
to

the

hand. fight

Eden

destroyed the place.

"

The

text

is corrupt, attacked

having
this
our as

Casar.

It is quitecertain that 1st century,

no

Roman

emperor

place during the

author

and

the titleis equallysuspicious,

to

having

more

referred correctly Fabricius

his

in " 2,^, sovereign,

autokrator.

Miiller and
the

substitute Elisor, retainingthe

him
to

second
the

of syllable

word, and
But

suppose

have

been

king

of

Frankincense

Country.

Schwanbeck

Museum {Rheinischen
ports sup-

and Glaser Charibael, VII. Jahrgang, 1850) prefers fur Philologie, him the

by proving
in

that Eleazus,and

not

EUsar, was

the

name

of

king mentioned
The

"
are

27.

indications

againsta westward

movement

by

the

mon-

116

arch

at

Sabbatha;
of

his outlook

was

in the other

direction.

The

Peri-

plusindicates his control of the fertile frankincense

the
account

far beyond valleys

who Strabo,

knew

Chatramotitis
the Habash

as

producer of myrrh
The Chatraand sians Per-

only;
motitae

this

movement

followed
cope

migration.

had,

it is true, to

with

an on

alliance of Homerites
either side and and

which but this

was

pressedthem ultimately
in
a

engulfedthem;
were

later century. of

Saphar
within

Sabbatha

not

yet

beyond
From

the

period
Sea
to

expansion

their

respectivespheres.
Alps
was

the Red

the summits
on

of the Arabian the

eastern

that of the of the latter. and

former;
Between

the Wadi the

two an

Hadramaut,
attack upon

that slope,

mountains. layprecipitous Aden

Topography

history

alike discredit

by
with

the Chatramotitas.

But in the alliance of Muza the destruction Homerite which

was not

Saphar we

have
was

the motive
at

for the

of

Aden.

The

foreign trade gained

centered the

port, and

Cholaebus
had

for his merchants the Sabasan

rights
loss

those of Aden great; built there. Ibn

enjoyed under
that

kings. The
tells us

Khaldun

(Kay's edition, p. 158)

hardly more
in the
account

that the

city was
common an

mostly of reeds, so
It involved

conflagrations by night were

than the discontinuance of
at

described as fair, Berbera,quoted under " 14.

annual

by Lieut. Cruttenden

11

Cana
.

may

be

identified with

Hisn

Ghorab
all

48" 20' E.
capes
text.
on

), a
are

fine

harbor, protected by islands

ruins and

from

( 14" 10' N., winds by projecting

in the

either side and

numerous a

in the
one

described as offing,
famous The

Here of which

version is given by Forster.

as

Himyariticinscription, "Island of Birds"

guano,

is described has its

name

by Miiller
from the The

450
same

feet
cause

high,covered
as

with

and thus

the

promontory

Hisn Ghorab

(Raven Castle).
Fabricius Cana

modern

town

is called Bir AH.

(pp. 141-2), following Sprenger and

west,
says
at

locates Ritter,
not to

farther slightly

Ba-l-Haf.
port
was

This

seems

accord
jecting pro-

with the text, which from

the

this bay," while

Ba-I-Haf would

"justbeyond the cape be "just before."

described
as

The

identification and fails

to

depends
take into

too

literally on
that

the stated distance of the islands

account

they are
and
not

the "facing

port."

This is true

of Hisn and

Ghorab Glaser

of Ba-l-Haf.

MiiUer Hisn Ghorab

(p. 278)

{Ski%%e, pp.

174-5)

support

the

(VI,

location by comparison of the distances givenby Ptolemy and the neighboring 7, 10) between his Kane emporion ports. Hisn Ghorab
the
way
ocean

From

to
a

the interior leads up

the Wadi
east.

Maifa, which empties

into the

short distance

to

the

118

north
no

of

Cape Guardafui. graduallyrise

the
coast

Here

the climate

changes;

the monsoon,
on

longerchecked by

the African above

coast, leaves its effect 4000

the coastal

which hills,

feet, clothed
and broken.
our

with

tropical
ern north-

while vegetation;

slopesof
feed the

these

are narrowr plains mountains (known to now

The

author

as

Asich, " 33)

which

water-course

known the
as

as

the Wadi

Rekot,
These

about 100 miles

are

long, which
fertile
coast

into enipties

Kuria Muria Ras

el Hadd.

Bay; beyond

plainsas
and

far

mountains, and
Muria
the frankincense of the

the Dhofar
were islands,

Jenaba districts, facing which perhaps the

and it
was

lie the Kuria

the oldest and

most

productiveof
to

districts of various powers

Arabia;

always
their rule

the ambition
so as

of that

region to

extend

include the

Dhofar
coast

mountains, the
"

Hadramaut

and valley,

the

opposite Somali
the restricted area the steppe and control and

of Africa in

thus

the productionand commanding controlling The

price;
of the the

frankincense trust." short,forming a Arabian incense-lands, bordered as they were them

by

made 'desert,

constantlysubjectto
at
a

attack time

by
and
a

different

wandering tribes; while

intensive cultivation of
for
a

the

same

their local
great
"

ditions, con-

of
constant

controlled product of
state

value,made
of
caste

ordered peculiarly in Semitic

of

society

for

development
order given.

unusual the

lands,and

in which

the cultivator,

the warrior,and

had privileged slave,

their place in the

Of
know
ago.

the

age-long strugglefor control

than the Greek world
carry

of

these
two

sacred

lands

we

more todaylittle

writers of

thousand

years

The

modern

takes itslittlesupply of frankincense

it to

from
sent
"

the Arab
to
a

vessels that
or a

Bombay

or

Aden;

its armies

are

the conquest

defence

of lands in other lines of

a

productivity of
to

Kimberley,
the

Witwatersrand,
was a

Manchuria.

But

the

ancient
great

world

Incense-Land

true

Eldorado, sought by
tribe that

the
to

empires and
Mount

fought

for

by
for

every

Arab

managed
or

enrich

itselfby tradingincense
on

on temple-service

the Nile The

Euphrates,
forbidden

Zion,

or

in

Persia, India,or
in of records

China.

archaeological
failto add

succeed expeditionthat shall finally and regions,

to greatly
our

penetratingthese
their past,
cannot

recovering the
store

of

knowledge
to

of the records

surrounding civilizations, by
as

showing Egypt

the

complement

such

those

of

Hatshepsut in

and

and by giving the groundwork III in Assyria, Tiglath-Pileser

for the treasured scraps of information

preservedby Herodotus, Theo.

Eratosthenes,Agatharchides,Strabo,Pliny,and Pto!em\ phrastus,

At
present
as we must

be satisfiedwith

such

knowledge

of the Incense-

Land

may

be

had

from

these,and

from

found inscriptions

by

119

Halevy

and

Glaser in the homes

of its

neighbors,the

Alinaans

and

Sabaeans.

During
Incense-Land Habashat.
of
w

the
was

2d

and held

1st centuries B. C,

the greater

part of the

by

the

the Aethiopians or Incense-People,

on

Pressure by the Parthians Glaser

and found
on

the East forced

an

alliance, Habashat,
on
we

hich

the record
one

at

Marib, between
and Soon

the

Hadramaut
other.

Saba

hand, against Himyar

50 B. C.
outposts,

Raidan

the find

This

was

not

far from

afterwards
and

the Habashat

gone

into their African

Marib
of

ruled by

Kings
more

of

Saba and

Raidan;"
us a

while

after

couple

generations
over

the Raidan

shows Periplus
and

Homerite coast;

king
and

who
a

rulesalso

Saba

and

the East African

to

king of

the Hadramaut

whose whose

is expanded title rule extends

over

"King
the

of the Frankincense Kuria

Country,"

and and

islands of

Muria, Socotra
had

Masira, all former By

the 4th

dependencies of
century
as

the Habashat.

A.

D.

the

kings

at

Zafar

absorbed

the

whole, being known

while the

"Kings of Saba, Raidan,Hadramaut

regained a
foothold known
etc.
as

and Yemen;" in Arabia dan, Rai-

Abyssiniankings,who
were
' '

during that

century,

"Kings of Axum, Himyar,

of Genesis
crater

Habashat, Saba,
The
name

Hadramaut,"
held
to

the Hazarmaveth

X,

means

Enclosure of Death," referring probably to the

whose

of Bir

Barhut,

rumblings
Smith
:

were

be the groans

of lost souls (^V. Robertson authorities there the Ruins

Religion ofthe Semites, p. 134,and

Narrative
of
a

qjoted).
cl H.

(See Wellsted: Hajar, Journalof

Maltzan: the Reisen in

Journey to

of Nakeb
von

Royal Geographical VII, 20; Society, W. L. C. Arabien, Braunschweig, 1873;

et

\"an den

Berg :

Le

Hadramaut

les Colonies Arabes dans I' ArchipelIndien,Ba-

teenth NineJourney, to the Hadramaut, Geographical Century, 1894; Expedition Reisen in Sild-Arabien, AInhra-lMnd Journal, IV, 313; L. Hirsch: und Had/iramut, Leiden, 1897 ; the works alreadycited of Glaser, and the Austrian Expedition Hommel, Weber, Hogarth,and Zwemer; Reports. )

tavia,1886;

J. Theodore

Bent:

The Hadramaut,

27. Sabbatha.
motitae above
was

"

The

native

name

of this

of capital
some

the Chatra-

Shabwa.
Wadi

It lies in the and

to

Wadi

Rakhiya,
west

distance

the

Hadramaut, According
save deserted,

about

60 miles

of the present

Shibam. capital,

Bent for
a

{Geographical IV, 413: Journal,

few

1894) it is now
mines in the

Beduins, who
are now

work

the salt lower

vicinity;while

the

natives

all in the

Hadramaut

valley.

120

This its walls. 27

is the Sabota

of

Pliny (VI, 32) "with sixtytemples within

of the

Frankincense,
is
a

one

most

ancient various and

and

precious
Arabia.

articles of commerce,

resin exuded in

from

species of BosSouth

wellia,order
Birdwood

Burseracea,native
Soc.,

Somaliland

1871), distinguishes larly particuB. Frereana,B. Bhau-Dajiana (the mocrotu of " 9), and B. CarB. thur'tfera, the last-named yielding the best incense. native in terii, XXVII,
a India,yields

(Trans. Linn.

resin of less is thus

much fragrance,

used

as

an

adulterant. benzoin.

Irankincense The

allied to myrrh, bdellium,and closely is from libanos, Somali

term

Greek

word

Hebrew word

Arabic luban, lebonah,

for cream, and Marco

meaning perfume,
'"

white"; cf. laben,the

which is the Chinese white Hebrew
connect

"milkPolo

for frankincense.

always calls it
Another Hommel would

incense."
name was
'

with the

shekheleth, Ethiopic sekhin,which Bay of Sachalites" of " 29.

Frankincense

trees, frnm
from dating-

the Punt

Reliefs in the Deir

el Bahri

temple at Thebes;

the 15th century B. C.

After

Naville.

The

of inscriptions

the

early Egyptian dynastiescontain,as

to

we was

might
Land'
use
'

expect,

few
to

references
the upper

the

trade

in

incense, which

brought overland
and
not

Nile

of Punt by the "people

and God's in the

is

That incense was sought out by the Pharaohs. clear from the earlyritual. The expedition to sufficiently

121

Incense-Land
was a

under

Sahure, in

the Vth

dynasty (28th

century

notable exception. B. how

In the Vlth dynasty,under

C.) Pepi II (26th

B.

century records

C),
he

royal officer Sebni,sent to the Tigre highlands, "descended to Wawat and Uthek, and sent on the
tWo
one

with royalattendant Iri,

cotton),one
under

tusk,and
of
were

others, bearingincense, clothing (probably hide" (as specimens). In the XItu dynasty,
a

Mentuhotep IV (21st century B. C),

a

record

of

the

completion
goats

royal sarcophagus
incense slain,
nomes was

states
on

that

"Cattle were (Delta of

Xllth

tered, slaugharmy

put

the fire.

Behold,an
the

of 3000 followed Amenemhet

was

sailors of the
it in safetyto I for

of the Northland And in the

Nile)
Intef of the

Egypt."
B. C.

dynasty,under

(20th century
to caravan-route

sent

stone

Hammamat from
success,

), another royalofficer named along what was, in the time Coptos

to

Periplus,the Mut,
to to

Berenice.

He

sought
to

for it eight days without

then prostratedhimself

"to Min,

and-all the gods of Great-in-Magic, incense

upon

this highland, giving

them

the

fire.
.

Then
was

all scattered in search, sance; obei-

and I found I
Then
gave

and it,

the entire army Montu."

it rejoiced with praising,

to praise

followed

period of

disorder and

Arabian

domination

in
was

Egypt, during which

the condition

Arab

merchants

controlled the trade.

This

described

in Genesis
came

XXXVII,
to

25,

when

"a traveling

company

of Ishmaelites balm and

from

Gilead, with
carry

their camels
to

bearing
of the in

spiceryand
was

myrrh, going
reaction

it down great

Egypt.'' It

ended
or

by

native

under whom
were

the

Pharaohs

X\'IIIth

Theban

under dynasty, monarchs

the land increased in power

not content to

all directions.

These
upon

remain

in

mercial com-

dependence
to

Arabia,but
each
season

which organizedgreat fleets and

went

the

"Land

of Punt" land

brought back
of from

unprecedented
el Bahri
to

treasure.

This

in former

times,according to
it was The heard

the Deir mouth

"the people knevy not; reliefs,

mouth

by hearsay of
and
were

the

ancestors.

marvels brought thence

were

under
to

thy

the kings of fathers, since the time of

Lower

Egypt,
ancestors

brought from kings of

the

of the
return

of the

another, Upper Egypt, who

one

old,as
thy

for many But

payments;
so

none

reaching them
to

except

carriers."
army

Amon-Re,
land and

inscriptioncontinues,
the Incense-

led the Egyptian

by

sea, until it came

brought back great store of myrrh, ebony and ivory,gold, monkeys, dogs, panther-skins, apes, cinnamon, incense, eye-paint,

Lan^.

and

natives and their children.

any

"Never
since the

was

brought the
and

like of this for

-trees
are were

king

who the

has
court

been

beginning."

Incense earth

planted in

of the

temple; "heaven

flooded

122

with incense; odors

was

are

in the Great

House,"

and the heart of Anion

made Then

glad.
followed
a

series of and

in the campaigns in Syria, resulting

submission of that country,

of Arabian

annual remittances of great quantities

"

and Eastern
"

treasure

incense,oil, grain,wine, gold and

the

while silver, preciousstones and sent giftsof lapislazuli,

came

even

Chief of Shinar"

at

Babylon
of the

the

"Genabti"

of the Incense-Land

Theban

sudden offeringtheir tribute. The direct, made a possible great enrichment dynast\' aside of and the setting
enormous

opulence
in the

worship of
ples, tem-

Amon,
as

endowments

for the

well

as

value. of princely annual gifts B. C. j, "founded

So Rameses

II,of

the

for his father offerings dynasty ( 1292-1225 cultivated trees, growing for him;" forhisi-a wine, incense,all fruit, "the god of all while the court responded that Rameses himself was XlXth
"

that they people,

may

awake, by

to

giveto

thee incense."
to set

His

successor

Merneptah
are

was

bidden

the AU^Lord

free multitudes who the

bound

in every before

to give offerings to district,

temples,to

send

in incense

the

god."

And

in the XXth
as

dynasty,under
resources

meses Ra-

III (1198-1167
nation
were

B. C. ), it seemed
the

if the

of the

poured bodilyinto
the ways the of

lap of

Amon.

The and

god opened
for
to

for the Pharaoh serpent

Punt, with myrrh

came

incense down his

thy

diadem;"
And
to
'

Sand-Dwellers

bowing
record of

name"
endowments
every copper, year

in the

that great Pa/ijrz/j ii/"7rr/,f,

thy and gifts

as

compiled for his tomb, there are such entries lapislazuli, gold,silver, malachite,precious stones,
Amon,
oT

garments incense

royal linen, jars, fowl; myrrh, 21,140 deben,

246
measures,
a

white

cinnamon 2,159 jars,

incense

304,093
'

in various measures;" stored of necessity,

are (The quotations

special Incense House.'

of

from

Breasted,Ancient Records
ended

Egypt.)
Egypt
and

At

this time

the

Hebrews and

their servitude in them

to Palestine; migrated
was

naturally among

also frankincense

counted holy.
was

The of

sacred incense
sweet
a

of the

(Exod. XXX, priests perfume

oil upon burn
a

34-5)
pure

composed
'

spices, stacte, onycha, galbanum, with

like

frankincense; of each
And
when of fine

weight
a

pure

and holy.

any

will offer

meat

(Levit.II, offering
and it, the
put

1-3) it shall be
frankincense
upon

and flavor, and

he shall pour the

thereon be
an were

priestshall
of by fire, in the

memorial
unto

the

to altar,

made offering

sweet

savour at

the Lord."

There

specialrooms

temple

Jerusalem
and

for storingit under when

one a

priestly guard 'I Chron.

rooms was

IX, 26-30);
as a

later,
sidered con-

of these

occupied XIII, 4-9j.

dwelling,it was
trade in the

(Nehemiah sacrilege

The

days of

123

Israel's prosperity was

the wilderness like with all

important:

Who

is this that cometh with

out

of

of pillars

smoke, perfumed
shall

incense, myrrh and frankSolomon

powders

of the merchant?"
cover

(Song of
thee,the
;

III,
of

6.)

"The
and

multitude

of camels

dromedaries

Midian

Ephah

all they from

Sheba shall come

they shall bring

dred hun-

gold and incense; and they shall shew forth (Isaiah LX, 6.) And the Queen of Sheba
and
twenty

of the Lord." the praises

"gave the king

great

an

talents of there
came

gold, and
no

of spicesa very such

to

store, and

precious stones;
these which the

more

abundance Solomon."

of

Queen

of Sheba

gave

King

spices as (1 Kings

X, 10.)
The

Nimrud

of Inscription
'

the great

Assyrianmonarch
my

Tiglathcame lord,over-

tellshow Pileser III,

and
"

'fearof the brilliance of Ashur,

of

Merodach-baladan,
how
he
came

Yakin, King

of the

Sea-Country,"and
'
"

made in

dust of his land

submission, bringing as tribute gold the abundance, vessels of gold,necklaces of gold,

sea

precious stones, the product of the

beams (pearls.'),
all kinds."

of

ushu-wooA,

spices of clothing, party-colored ellutu-vfoo6.,

In the Persian empire frankincense tells us
every every year
to
was

treasured. equally 1000

dotus Hero-

that the Arabs

brought a tribute of
that
a

talents'weight
burnt

Darius

97), and (III,

on

similar quantity was altar to Bel

at

year

by

the Chaldaeans the

sent

their great in

Babylon
Leonidas

(I, 183).
frankincense

From
was

of Gaza spoils

Syria,500 talents'weight of
to

by Alexander
had

the Great him for

his

tutor

who Lives') (Plutarch,

rebuked

loadingthe Macedonian
be
more

altarstoo
he had

lavishly, remarking conquered

the

that he

must

economical the

until

countries

that

produced

frankincense !
was

(PlinyXII, 32.)
with

The

temple

of

Apollo
,

in Miletus

presented

10 talents'weight in 243 Antiochus

was

and his brother Venus

af

by Seleucus II, King of Syria, Hierax, King of Cilicia. The temple of

frankincense
:

B. C.

Paphos

with fragrant

"IpsaPaphum
Laeta Ture
suas

sublimis abit, sedesque revisit

ubi

templum illi, centumque

Sabseo

calent

arae

recentibus halant." sertisque

"

Virgil, I, 416. Jeneid,

came

And
from

to

the infant Saviour in Bethlehem

"

"three wise

men

and myrrh" (Matt. II, gifts, gold,frankincense, according to a Persian legend quoted by Yule, "the 11), signifying,
the east, with the the myrrh divinity, the

the frankincense gold the kingship,

powers

healing

of the Child."

124

Likewise
of Amon

in

funerals
the
your

were

its virtues

required.
instructed

The
to

priests
be
any
.

under

XVIIIth

dynasty were
be
ye
not

lant vigiof

concerning
your

duty,

careless

concerning

rules; be
ye up

ye
me

pure, be

ye

clean concerning divine things

came

bring

for

that which of consisting

forth
;

before,put
to me

on

the garments

of my

statues,

linen

offer ye
me

of all fruit,

give ye
incense

me

shoulders of beef, fillye

for

the altar with

milk, let They

be

heaped
in his
sweet

thereon.

"

(Breasted, II,571.) op. cit.,

and

buried him
was

own

sepulchres
odours and and

laid him

in the bed which

filledwith

divers kinds of spicesprepared by the

a

apothecaries' art; (II Chron. XVI,

the

they made
At the

very

great

burning
with

for

him."
ticularly par-

14j.

time
as

of the

Periplusthis was

fashion in Rome,

Pliny observes

disapproval

(VII, 42):

"

"It is the luxury which

of which
prompts
to
are

is

displayedby
Arabia what the dead

man,

even

in the paraphernalia and

death, that
him been
to

has

rendered

thus
was

'happy;"

have

bury with produced for

the service of the the

so

stood underoriginally gods. Those who

assert

to likely

be the best
not

with acquainted
a

matter,

that this
fumes per-

country
as

does
was

produce, in by
And the then
are

whole

year,

of largea quantity the funeral into

account

burnt

Emperor Nero
let
us

at

of obsequies the
vast

his wife

Poppaea.
of and

only take

number
each

funerals

that

celebrated throughout the whole

are

world of the
to

year,

the heaps of odors that

piled up
that
were

in honor
are

bodies

of the

dead;

the and

vast

quantities, too,
men

offered

the

gods

in

single grains;
them

yet, when

in the habit of offering

up

to

the salted

cake, they did

then than

not

show

themselves

any

the

less propitious;nay,
even more

rather,as
to
us

the facts themselves prove,

they were

favorable

they

are

portion, too, I should like to know, of all these to the gods of heaven, and the deities of the shades below.?
The
customs

largea perfumes really comes

now.
"

How

are

and shipment of frankincense the gathering ruling described by Pliny (XII, 30), as follows: carefully

"There

is

no

country

in the

world," (forgetting, however,

except very

"that produces frankincense the Somali peninsula),

and that indeed
not
are

Arabia,
center

the the

whole

of that.

Almost

in the

of

region

a community Atramitae,

of the
a

Sabsi,the capital
At

of whose
a

kingdom
of the

is Sabota,a

place situateon
this is the

mountain. lofty

distance

eight stations from

name on

incense-bearing region,
districtis inaccessible

known because

by

of

Saba

{.Abasa'O. This

of rocks which

the sea, from

side,while it is bounded on the rightby it is shut out by tremendously high cliffs.

every

126

ered The

in the

autumn;

it is the purest

of

and all,

is of

white

color.

takes place in the spring, incisions being made second gathering for that purpose
not to

in the bark red

during the winter; this, however,

with the other incense.' of the country
'

is of

color,and
And

be

compared

of the storage of all the incense further incense which

account
i

in the

capital,

Plinygivesa
"The
to

XII, 32) ;
on

after

is carried being collected, is left open

camels' backs

Sabota,of

place a single gate

the At

for its admission.

To
a

de\ iate from offense. capital

the laws have made high road while carryingit, this place the priests take by measure, and not of their

by weight, a indeed, it
out

tenth part in honor

not

god,

whom

they call Sabis;

is

allowable the

to

disposeof

it before
are

this has been the

a can

done; divinity
certain

of this tenth

public expenses
all those

defrayed,for
who have The made

entertains generously number be

strangers

of days' journey in

coming

thither.

incense

only
reason

exportedthrough the
a

country

of the

and Gebanitae, well.

for this

it is that

certain
are

tax

is paid to their

king as

"There

certain

portionsalso

of the frankincense and in addition

which
to

are

given
and

to

the

and priests
as it,

king's secretaries:
as

these,

the keepers of

well

the soldierswho their share

at
one

the guard it,

as

gate-keepers
then besides,
pay

various other

employees, have
is

well.
water taxes

And
to

all along the route, there

another

place

for,at imposts

fodder,lodging of
the
consequence

the stations and of which

various the

and

besides;
camel is 688 be made

is, that
of
our are our sea

expense

for each

before

it arrives

at

the shores

fthe Mediterranean)
still to

denarii; after
to

all this,too, there of the of the

revenue

certain payments

the farmers
a

of

empire.
sells
at

Hence second

pound

best incense

of denarii,

the

at 5, and quality

of the third

at quality

3 denarii."

27. To

Cana

on
as

rafts.
"

This

was

the that direct

Dhofar, or "Sachaof
to

litic" frankincense, which valley, would the

from distinguished

the

Hadramaut

naturally go by camel
story of

Sabbatha.

Pliny thinks,
tribe

(VI, 34) doubts

from tribe
a

the
to

inflated rafts,derived, he
the
name

fancied
"

resemblance A
settee ;

given
a^/^w Asich

the

African

using them

the Greek
were

word

meaning "bladder."

But the Ascitae, as alreadyshown,

the founders of Axum. And in still doubt

from

(" 33)

and

were

the inflated raft is authentic, being the

use general on

well-known
the

a kelck,

type
no

the

whence Euphrates,
coast.

migrating Arabs

brought
of "

it to the south

This is
to

the probably, also,

cargo-ship"

33,

sent

from

Cana

Masira

Island for tortoise-shell.

127

Inflated

from raft,

relief at Nineveh.

After

Layard.
means

27. The

neighboring
coast

coast Kuria

of Persia
Muria
the

that part of

the South Arabian which word did

between

Bay

and

Ras el Hadd, The

coast

had

been conquered by recently

our

Parthian Empire.

Parthia"

author rather of

avoids, and
the

it is

likelythat this
of

likewise, knowing

independent sphere
while
an

influence

of of

the constituent the Arsacid

never

Kingdom

Persia; which,

integral part
to
an

maintained possessions,

its local government

extent

allowed the districts nearer28.

Ctesiphon.

Imported
and

into
: a

this

place.
"

The

listof imports indicates

the

nature

of the trade

little wheat, wine, and

cheap clothingfor

the

Hadramaut,
and

graven

images

for the household

worship
and

of its

king;
for

the Mediterranean

products,copper, they
were

tin,coral

storax,

re-shipment to India, where

they
went

in demand

(" 49), and

whither

in Hadramaut in

frankincense then Bent the

as

produced
was same

now,

toward

shipping(" 57), along with the the country. The outlook of Hadramaut, India by sea, and toward Egypt by land.

found the
natives

going

to

fullof Parsee merchants, conditions;the capital when India,the Straits and Java, and returning
the of

they had amassed a competence; because of England's domination

convictions of rulers and Maltzan described the Hadrami

English protectorate accepted in the face of the religious India,

as

people {^Geographical Journal,IV, 322).

traders in Cairo
the keenest of the the Dutch with
ernment, gov-

lot,and spoke

of their activities in the

East; while
Sumatra
them

findingthe islands of
in Van

Java

and

overrun

dramaut Hasulted re-

of Arabs, stimulated inquiries

in

which Batavia,

den

Berg's book
could

on

their country, the

comprising more

details than

Bent

gather on

these uncompromising people,

and spot! An enterprising who have been the Chatramotitae, may

128

active power both of whom

in the Minaean

dynasty and
on

the Sabaean

that followed
to

it,
the

subsisted mainly

the carriage of frankincense between

were

north,
and

in which

they were
to

the mediators of those shed who

the

profane
for the

world

the

unpolluted caste
the sacred tree,

able

the by propitiating

of spirit

and

gather itsblood

tion purifica-

of mankinJ. 28. commanded

Coral.
a

"

This

was

the red coral of the and

Mediterranean,which
was one

high price in India

exports

China, and

of the

Roman principal
gaza

and

Aluziris.

(See

being shippedto Barbaricum, Barythither, "" 39, 49, and 56. ) As an import at Cana
to

it was

intended

for reshipment in Roman

India in Arab
meant
two

or

Hindu

bottoms.
a

28. Storax
was solid,

times

different

things:one,
was

the

resin of

order Styrax officinalis, in incense.

somewhat Styracacece,
storax

resembling benzoin, and used

of

Liquid

the sap Asia

order Hamamelidacea, Liquidambar orientalis, and

nati\e in S. ^^^

Minor,

and Hanbury (^Pharmaexported,accordingto Fliickiger

an

It was cographia, pp. 271-6), as far as China. useful in chronic bronchial affections. stimulant,
net

expectorant

and

The

does Periplus
storax

between distinguish
at

them, but Fluckigerthinks that the

for India and
of

dealt which
own.

in

Cana

was

the

liquid storax, destined

for
a
'

China;

would

have There

had
was,

little use

an

incense
use

less value than their in

however,
the

local

for

storax

defendingthe
trees;
see

incense frank-

from gatherers Hirth

serpents"guardingthe
the Roman
that the which

pp.

131-2. annals

in his China

and

Orient quotes

Chinese

coveringthis period,which state the juice of substances, fragrant

he
are

Syrians they boil

collect all kinds of into su-ho"

"

which

identifieswith
more

storax.

Later annals,referring to the 6th century, Storax is made

itis not
a

complete.

by mixing

and

the juice boiling It is further said

of various

fragrant trees;

natural

product.
storax

that the inhabitants of Ta-ts'in of itj, squeeze then sell its

(Syria) gatherthe
a

the juiceout, and thus make

balsam

(plant, or parts {hsiang-kao) ; they

thus goes

dregs
"

to

the

traders

of

other

countries; it
when

through many
is not
very

hands before

reachingChina, and,
Chinese

arriving here,
have

fragrant.
references
one

These been the

indicate that the

tree. particular
name name

su-ho

may

not

product of
notes

Glaser
state connect to

the the

su-ho,which
of the country
to

the Chinese

annals

further and
or

have been
with the
was

producing the
be the
same as

storax,

cityLi-kan,supposed
a

Rekam

Petra,which
usu-vfooA from

point
in

mentioned

this with the shipment. He compares several Assyrian inscriptions a tribute received of

Arabia, and

with

citycalled Usuu, placed by Delitzsch south

129

of Akko
near

on

the

sea

"

but Glaser thinks it may

have

been farther north,

Tyre.
28.

Aloes,

bitter

cathartic, being
LiliaceiE.
commerce,

the

dried
was was

juice

exuded

from

Aloe
an

Baker, Perryt,

order

This
and in

from

very

early
Aloe

times

important article of
Another in South
as

produced almost
was

in Socotra. entirely native hepatica, but also mention

was as

less variety,

demand,

from

in Arabia, particularly

the Hadramaut the

valley,

far

northern

Oman.

The

failure of

to Periplus

Socotrine aloes is surprising, unless the product of the island

in Cana. This is
as quitepossible,

monopolized
In modern

the island

was

to subject

the Hadramaut. times these and

many

other varieties

are

in use, both

wild and
p.

cultivated, throughout
very

the tropics. Bent collected in

{^Southern Arabia,
many

381) found
the

little aloes it had

Socotra,but
the gum;

fields
He scribes de-

enclosed

by walls,where
ancient method

formerly been
to

produced. weight,then

stillused

prepare
own

the thick allowed

leaves
to

piledup
the
sun

until the juiceexudes for six weeks and

of their

dry in

packed finally
"

in skins for shipment. the Arabian

coast
was

29. The

Bay
was an

of Sachalites.
erroneous

Until

surveyed,there
a

idea held

by

all the

geographers,of

deep

indentation

in the coast-line between

Ras

el Kelb

(14" 0' N.,

48" 45' E.) and

which the Ras

Ras

Hasik

Fartak,or
The

tween (17" 23' N., 55" 10' E.), midway beSyagrus (14" 0' N., 52" 12' E. ) bisected is very
one

supposed gulf.
which make

error

evident
most

in

Ptolemy's
and

tions, observaof the

Ras Fartak

of the

features striking

coast, whereas

its actual

is unimportant, projection
east. to

its heightless

than that of the ranges The of coast;

as name as

farther

in

applied in " 29 seems " 32 that part of it lyingeast Omana;

but in

apply to

this whole

strip
This

of Ras Fartak
name

is subdivided

of the district

"

33

the

is resumed.

accords with the Arabian Dhofar. The

the
same

geographers,whose

Shehr extended

beyond
"

word word

is Hellenized from the Arabic Sahil, coast, Sachalites that appears in East Africa
as

Sawahll, where
coast

the ferent dif-

natives

are

called Swahili.

This

narrow

of strip

plainwas

from and ethnologically topographically

the

Valley of

maut. Hadra-

The

mediaeval form

of the word
was

was

Sheher

or

Shehr, and

the

mediaeval port that replacedCana Polo). Ibn Khaldun

coast:

Es-shehr

(the Escier
has the

of Marco

(Kay's translation, p. 180)

"Ash-Shihr

count followingac-

of this

is,like Hijaz and Yaman,

one

of

130

the
maut trees

kingdoms
and

of the

Arabian

peninsula. It is separate
no

from there

Hadra-

Oman.

There

is

neither cultivation,

are

palm-

in the country. goats. which Their

The

wealth of the inhabitants consists of camels

and

and with
as

of milk food is flesh, preparations feed their beasts. the camels called The
country

small

fish,

they also
Mahra,
and

is also known
are

that of

Mahriyah camels
with

reared
tiguous con-

in it.

Ash-Shihr
to

is sometimes

conjoined

Oman,
as

but it is

Hadramaut,

and it has been

It

described

the constituting
on

shoresof that country.

the Shihrite and

and produces frankincense, The

as
' '

the seashore

ambergris
on

is found.

Indian Ocean
if Shihr
were

extends

along

the south

the north
are

Hadramaut,
one

the sea-shore

of the latter. Both Hommel

this
name

under

(in Hilprecht, op.

some

king. cit. 700-1)

to

argues

for

derivation of for frankincense, in

use on

from

word

allied
not

the old Hebrew

seem

term

which shekheleth;

does

to

have

been

the

south coast, while the evidence also

of the Arab The

writers is against him.

(See

178-9. ) Glaser, Skizze,

Periplus in " 32

is against him,

which "f^a/zftV as qualifying"frankincense," by using the adjective be quiteredundant. would Vaughn {,Pharm.Joum. XII, 1853) speaks of the Shaharree luhan from

Arabia,

as

yieldinghigher prices
the

than

that

produced

in

correspondingto Africa; a term exactly of the Periplus.

29.

Sachaliticfrankincense"

Always

fatal.
"

The

reports of the unhealthy character been assumed

to
s

of

this coast,

spreadby the

earliest traders, have The

be their
party

device

to

discourage competition.

fate of Niebuhr'

in

of Bent' s explorations, recent tragicoutcome Yemen, and the more and the scorching confirm the dangers from malaria, sufficiently dysentery
sun.

But aside from

frankincense
tree
was

the

the tapping of the questionof physicalhealth, believed to be attended by special pressed dangers,exthe

in the of divinity W this belief the

faith of
tree

people, and

arisingfrom

the

supposed
recounts

itself. Smith

Robertson
as

{Religion of the Semites, p. 427)

of

follows :
value religious

"The
animal

incense
was

was

originally independent of
of
a

for sacrifice,
was

frankincense

the gum

very

holy species
like

of tree, which

collected with
was

religious precautions. Whether,

in unguents
or

the sacred odor therefore, it appears altar sacrifice,

samora

used owed

burned

an

to

have

like the gum its virtue, the blood of

an

of the animate

(acacia)tree,

to

the idea that it was

and divine plant."

131

And

again (p.133) : injury. The

Mohammed.

In Hadramaut the

itis still dangerous to touch

the sensitive mimosa, because

avenge

that resides in the plantwill spirit in the story of Harb who

set

the

same

idea appears

b.

Omajfya and Mirdas b.

before and

Abi

Amir,
When

historical persons

died
to

a an

eration gentrodden un-

these
the
away

two

men

fire

with tangledthicket, of the

design to bring it under

afterwards.
set

tion, cultiva-

the demons of white

it
was

place flew

with doleful cries in the shape

soon

serpents, and

the intruders died

The

Jinn they
these
trees

believed slew them

Here the

because they had

the trees

fire to their form

dwelling-

place.
of the

of spirits

take serpent

when

leave their natural seats, and

oshr and But

in Moslem similarly
serpents

the jinn superstition of

hamata

are

which

frequent trees
power

species.
Or

life and primarily supernatural

are

reside in the
even as

themselves,which again the value

And like human

conceived

as

animate

and
as an

rational

of the gum

of the acacia
menstruous

amulet is connected
that the
,

with the idea that it is a clot of

blood, i. e.
fables of
ff. 2 ,

tree

is a and

woman.

the old Hebrew similarly

trees

that speak have

' '

act

beings (Judg. IX, 8

in the savage and

Kings XIV, 9)

their

source original

of vegetable personification species. is well

The

Romans
were

Greeks, it
hence,
as

known, believed
of serpents shown and has

that the

souls of the dead

the earth in that 3d ed. ,

incarnate

in the bodies Frazer

revisited

form;
such

{Golden Bough,
of in

IV, 74),

when Euripides,

that described in the Baccha as practices nursing mothers entered the Dionysiac revels clad
serpents, which

deer-skins and
the Roman also, the

girded with
custom

they suckled.
in every

Hence,

of

keeping
with

serpents

household, and

serpent-worshipconnected
as

their in
a

to whose god Aesculapius,

as well shrines,

to

those of Adonis be

childless women Syria,

dead the
a. jinn, or saint, by

paired re-

that they

might
serpent

quickened by
Such
and
same was

the the

god himself,in
Herodotus

form.

births of Alexander

of Macedon
to

the

concerning Emperor Augustus.

two

belief

refers

this
been

belief in
as

passages

107 (III,
The which

and II, 75) which Arabians

the

have

laughedat
says,

travellers' yarns.

gather frankincense," he

"by burning styrax,

Phcenicians import into

size and various in

great number

Greece; for winged serpents, small in form, guard the trees that bear frankincense, a
each
are

round

tree.

These
the

are

the

same

vade serpents that inbut the

Egypt.
smoke
of the

They

driven from the is,

trees

by nothing else
of the

styrax." That
perfume

wrath

incense-spirit was
every
narrow

by the appeased
he says, these
near

providedby the
met

And styrax-spirit.

spring,
pass

winged
they

serpents flew into

were

Egypt through a

Buto,

where

by

the ibisand

defeated;

hence

the

132

veneration

for the ibis in

over

Egypt.
its blood

Here
as

is

a evidently

belief that the

hovered tree-spirit and that the

the traders carried it to

market, by
the

danger that threatened

of their it was
own

the

Egyptians was
The ancient
at

averted

defensive is

power

sacred bird.

location of this Buto

but disputed,
as was

probablyalong some Coptos

of
an

desert trade-route

such

that between also the

name

and

Berenice

the time of the from

Periplus.
God'
s

Buto Land"

borrowed Egyptian deity,

(Yemen;.
has the
same

Theophrastus
serpents,

story of the

but refers it to
to

cinnamon

guarded by winged {Hist. Plant., IX, 6).

tree

According
from

Herodotus, all myrrh;

the which

fragrant gums
may

of

Arabia

were was

similarly guarded, except

a more

suggest

that myrrh the

less imbued purelyJoktanitedistrict, of Arabia.

with

animism

of the earlierraces The of Isaiah

same

belief 60.
waters

probablyappears

in the

serpents" fiery flying

XXX,

Medicinal sacred
to

were

guarded by
sacred
while

similar powers;

dragon Apollo

Ares

protected the

spring above
among

Ismenian

(Frazer, Pausanias, V, 43-5);

waters
were

the Arabs

all medicinal

protectedhy Jinns (W.

faith of the

Robertson
presents

Smith, op. "/.,168).

many

The

Incense-Land
While

features in
no

mon com-

with that of the Greeks. indiscriminate warning against and

Frazer

is

doubt

rightin

assimilation of

deities

Greek, Egyptian
of

there is certainly truth in the some Semitic, Bacchus (son of Jove and Semele, daughter of who
came

words the

Euripides'
mus) Cadof the

Phoenician

to

Greece
and and

having having come

left the

wealthy lands
the the stormy

Lydians
and

and

Phrygians walls;

the sun-parched
over

plains of

Persians,
coast
"

the Bactrian and

land of the

Medes,
of the

t/iehappy Arabia, and there

all Asia which

lies along the

my

Salt Sea,
of these
to

having established
8 (III,
and

mysteries"

and

"everyone
the

foreignnations celebrates these orgies." I, 131), the only deitiesof Urania,

whom

According

Herodotus
were

Incense-Land

Dionysus

and

they called

Orotal and Ahlat; while the Semitic people of Meroe

Zeus

(II,29)

shipped wor-

(Ammon)

and Bacchus

(Osiris)whom

Glaser assimilates

with the Katabanic biichcn 43 Reichc,

were ).

gods

'Am

and

Uthirat {Punt und die Siidara-

Now

the invocations of

Dionysus
one

in the

teries mys-

according to
of Bacchus told drawn
was

Evoe, Sabai, Bacchi, Hues, Cicero {De natura 23) deorum, I, iii,

Attes,Attes, Hues!"
of the

and
names

Sabazjus; in whose mysteriesat Alexandria, we are ' initiated had a serpent by Clement Protrept. ii,16) persons
through t'le bosom
of their

robes,and

the

was reptile

identified

134

for

believingthat

this is also the

"Isle of
of that

the

Blest," the farthest

the the search

point reached by
narrative of known
"prayer

the

wandering
which

hero

BabylonianOdyssey,
a over

Gilgamesh;
for the
to

joinsto
a

the story of

world offered

soul of

found departedfriend,

in the end record of

by
an

Nergal,god
the

of the

dead, the material

of Arabia. The

early migration around

Cushite-Elamite
recounted

shores

theory of

this

vol. II) is thus outlined by Glaser (Siizze, migration, Hebrew (^Ancient Tradition, by Hommel p. 39) : furnish the
us

"Egyptianrecords
evidence.
a new race

with

From

Xllth
on

logical importantpiece of ethnodynasty (2200 B. C. .0 onwards

an

makes

its appearance
name was

in Nubia.

This

Egyptianhorizon: the Kashi appliedto Elam (Babyl.kashu: originally

the

cf. the KissiQi of Herodotus, the modern

and

Khuzistan; cf. also

Hebrew
southern
to

Cutch

Kachh

in

India), and according

to

to

translation, was Arabia;

the 2d millennium

afterwards
from

given

various

parts

of

central and
"

this he B. C.
"

argues

that in very
must

earlytimes

prior

northeast Africa
to

have been
on

colonized

by

the Elam-

wJio had ites, is

pass

around Arabia
fact that

supported by

the

in the

theory so-called Cushite languagesof

other of the

their way

thither. This

Somali, Beja, and Africa,such as the Galla, find grammaticalprinciples analogous to those we dialects,
northeast

allied

early

with a totally dissimilarsyntax Egyptian and Semitic tongues combined with that of the with Semites or no analogy Negro presenting any but the of the Ural-altaic in resembling closely syntax Africa, tongue the Elamite language belongs. languages of Asia, to which Cushites (the Aethiopians According to this view, the much-discussed have been and Herodotus) must Elamitic Kassof Homer originally
. . .

who itcs,

were

scattered
note

over

Arabia

and

found

their way
a son

to

Africa.

to It is interesting

that the Bible calls Nimrod has

an

of

Cush, and
What the

that the

name

Gilgamesh

Elamitic termination.

epic tells us of his wanderings around Arabia must therefore be regardedas a legendary version of the historical migrationof the into East Africa. Nimrod is merely a personifiKassites from Elam cation
Nimrod
of the Elamitic race-element of which
traces
are

still to be

found both in Arabia and in Nubia." And

references in the in the
: same

book,

pp.

35-6, Hommel
form

thus he

describes the dates

at

epic,which

in its present

about

2000

B. C.

"In the 9th

Mashu (central

canto

we

are

told how

he set

out

for the land of

the Arabia), and the

gate of which

the cliffsof

Aga

Salma), was
name

(therocky pass formed by guarded by legendary scorpion-men.

appliedto Arabia in

(Hence perhaps

"land of darkness"

135

earlyHebrew
the that sea-shore
no one

annals. )

For

12

miles the hero had

came

to

make

his way
space

through dense darkness; at length he

where dwelt the since eternal

to

an

enclosed
who

by
Sha-

virgingoddess Sabitu;
ever

tells hitn
save

days has

crossed

the

sea,

mash,

the hero.
"Difficult is the crossing, and
And

extremelydangerous the
of Death thou which
cross

closed

are

the Waters

way, bolt its entrance;

How, then, Gilgamesh, wilt But

who

the sea.'"

Gilgamesh
"Isle of

is directed

to

Arad-Ea,
Him

the sailor of he asks

to

Per-napishtim,
across

is in the forest

felling a

cedar. After

ferry him

to the

the Blest."

cutting120

timbers

60 cubits

long
an

not but "oars," as the translation has it, (surely inflatedraft) and smearing them with pitch,

rather

logs

for

"Then

embarked; Gilgamesh and Arad-Ea The their way. on ship tossed to and fro while they were A journey of forty and five days they accomplishedin three days,
And thus Arad-Ea arrived
at

"

the Waters

of Death"
at

"

which
where

may

have

been

Bab el Mandeb,

and

the

"Isle of the Blest"

dwelt

of Gilgamesh. great-grandfather Shamash-Napishtim,

same as

The
the

the island Pa-anch of the Egyptian tale is obviously

incense-land

Panchaia

of

Virgil{Georgics I, 213),
an

and

the

tale

itselfindicates that Socotra

trade of
not

was

importantcenter
Here

of

international

far from
met

the time

of Abraham.

the occasional navies

of

Egypt

the

from

the Gulf

peoplesof Arabia and Africa and the traders of Cambay and perhaps in greater numbers
sea

India,
the

from

active ports Eirinon of

in that ruined
a

of
not
a

past ages,

the Rann
at

of

Cutch
of the

(the
Peri-

" 40);
nor

condition
were

changed

the

time

plus,when Greeks,"
element found

the inhabitants yet when

to

"mixture of Arabs and Indians and

visited Indicopleustes the the

Cosmas

place,
Greek

noting itsconversion
was

and Christianity,

observing that
Marco
Polo

planted there by

the Ptolemies.

32) (III,

from all still"a great deal of trade there,for many shipscome quarters with goods to sell to the natives. A multitude of corsairs

(called Bawarij, from Cutch

come

and

Gujarat)frequent
their

the

island; they
and this

there
to

and

encamp

and

put up

plunder for sale;

they do
The

for good profit,

the
or

Christians of the

island purchase it
,

knowing well
names

that it is Saracen

Pagan gear."
Panchaia Glaser would
connect,

Pa-anch

and

as

alreadynoted, with such others as Pano and Opone, the land of Punt likewise consacred bird was whose nected and the Puni or Phoenicians, with Panchaia. Plinygivesthe story (X, 2) :
"The
and eagle,

Phoenix, that
has
a

famous

bird of Arabia
the

the size of

an

brilliant golden plumage around

neck, while

the

136

rest

of the

body is of
feathers
a

purple color;
the head When

except
a a

the

which tail,

is azure, throat

with

long
to

intermingled of

roseate

hue;
nest

the

is

adorned sacred

with the

crest, and
sun.
.

with

tuft of feathers.
a

It is
and

old itbuilds

of

cinnamon

of incense,which sprigs
upon worm,
to

it fills with itsbones

a

perfumes, and then laysits body

and
;
marrow

them

to

die.

From

there

small a springs

which

changes
the

into

littlebird its

the firstthing that it does is

to

perform
to

obsequies of
the Sun

and predecessor,

carry

the

nest

entire the

the

City of

near

Panchaia, and
revolution
a
new

there deposit it upon the great year

comes

altar of that

divinity. The

of

is completed

with the life of this

bird,and

cycle
one,

round
seasons

again
and

with the
appearance

same

characteristics as
stars.

the former

in the

of the

has supposed this to SeyfEarth

refer the

to

the passage

of

Mercury
18:

ev

ery

625

years,

and

Glaser

connects

legend

with

the

hawk-faced

Egyptian god

Horus

(Khor).
and

Compare
bird

Job XXIX,
from

"Then

said,I shall die in my nest, Khot). The nix" (^Khor or

his
name name

I shall multiply my
came an

days as

the PhcE-

Arabian

land, hence
the
may
same

from

the

people thereof; just as date-palm,native

the southern chmatic
or

the Greeks

gave

phoinixto
to

the been

in that

land;

which

be

assumed

have

shore of the Persian

Gulf,whence
its inhabitants

convulsions of nature,
in

political changes, drove

their culture with them and duplicarrying oppositedirections, cating Gulf in the Persian Mediterranean place-names continuously

and

Seas. Erythraean (See the introduction

Ueber

die l^ilker und

Sprachen Afrikas in
und die Sudarahischen

Lepsius' Nubische Grammatik; Glaser, Punt

and R"iche, the reports of the Austrian

South Arabian

) Expedition.
"

.30. Great
are

lizards,of which
African

the flesh is eaten.

These

laranus probably

order niloticus, family Varanida:,

native Laeertilla,
more

throughout the
five feet.
to

region, and
farther

a length of attaining

than

Another

V. salvator, while species, India and

east.

somewhat The

seems larger,

be native

only in

flesh of all the Var-

is eaten although offensive to the smell, anidce, The considered equal to that of fowls. name

by

the

and natives, is from

to

J'aranus

the

Arabic Ouaran, lizard;which warn"

has been rendered

by

mistaken
a

resemblance
name.

the

lish Eng-

into

popular Latin

Monitor.

Natural {Cambridze

History, VIII, 542-5.)

"

30. Tortoise.
of tortoise-shell the so-called

It is uncertain is from

what

species are

meant.

The

commerce

Chelone

family Chelonida, imbricata,

but seldom

hawks-bill"

found turtle,
more

in all tropical waters,

reaching a length of

than thirty inches.

This is a "true

137

sea-tortoise," as
'

our

author

puts

but it,

he

goes

on

to

describe
may

the largest and with the thickest shell," 'mountain-tortoise, which

my das, the

be Chelone
one likely

of the

but is more (alsoa sea-tortoise), land-tortoises(family which apgigantic Testudinida:) pear

green

turtle"

in many
most
are now

of the islands of the Western

Indian Ocean;

of which

in

gascar), extinct,{Testudo grandidieri only recentlyin Madawhile others, like T. gigantea and T. daudini, stillfound are less frequented islands. The land-tortoise" and the "whitemay

tortoise"

include

several species of

(See Cambridge Natural

30.

Pyxisand Cinyxis, History, VIII, 364-387.)

"

Testudo.

Cinnabar, that called Indian.

(Dragon
of
a

's blood. ) The

confusion between
our

dragon'sblood (the exudation

dracaena)and

cinnabar than

absurd

(XXXIII, the properly

dragon
combats The
when

but less (red sulphide of mercury) is of long standing, first sight. The it seems at story is given by Pliny he says, is 38, and VIII, 12). The word kinnabari,
name

given to

the

thick

matter

which the

issues from

the

crushed beneath

the

weight of
The
to

mixed dying elephant,

were

with the blood of either animal.

which
was were

occasions take

the

continual
the
two.

believed
to

place

between

dragon

said

have

passion for elephant'sblood;

he

twined himself around

all the ear, and drained dead
to

the

elephant's trunk, fixed his teeth behind the the elephant fell blood at a draught; when
his fall crushingthe thus attributed
to
now

the

ground, in
was

intoxicated

dragon.

Any
the

thick red earth

name

such

combats, and given

iron J,
was

kinnabari.

Originallyred

ochre

(peroxideof

earth so named. Later the Spanish quicksilver the principal probably and prename given the same earth (red sulphideof mercury),was ferred
as a

pigment

to

the

iron.

Later, again,the exudations

Dracana schizantha draco
m

of

Dracana

cinnabari in Socotra

and
,

in Somaliland

and Hadramaut

(order Dracanece) and given

the the
name

Calamus

India

(order
texture

Palmea),
and
no

were

kinnabari.
is
not

Being

of similar

appearance,

confusion

as surprising,

the Romans

had

knowledge

of chemistry.

in his day, of prescribing made by physicians Plinynoted errors the poisonous Spanish cinnabar instead of the Indian; and proposed earth minium, the problem by callingthe mercury a solution of the ochre

and miltos,
We

the
now

but vegetableproduct kinnabari,

usage

did

not

follow him.
for

give the
the

mercury

earth

the

old Greek
same name

name

dragon'sblood, and
Wellsted

dried juice we

give the

in

English. {Travelsin Arabia, 1838, II, 450-1)

one

noted

the two

of Dracana, varieties

of which

had

leaves the

camels

could eat,

138

while the other

was

too

bitter. Bent

of this gives a good description trunk and foliage resembling an umbrella turned inside out. that very from of

(^Southern Arabia,379,381, 387) twisted peculiar tree, with itsthick,

He
notes

littleis
and

now

exported

from

Socotra,the cultivated product

method

Sumatra

South America

having supersededit. The

gathering is
tree

the

the dried juicedeing knocked simplestpossible, the

ofl the

into

bags,and
to

nicely-broken drops fetch

the best price.

According
eastern
' '

the

Century Dictionarythe word

=

cinnabar is

'of

xinjafr, origin: cf. Persian "zinjarf,

Hindu

cinnabar. shangarf,

The

bit of

folk-lore quoted by Pliny confirms Combats

with
a

the

Indian

nections con-

of Socotra. of the
a

dragon or
a

serpent for possession in all

at

sacred place,or
Mediterranean

for the relief of

oracle of Delphi, of
in St.

countries; such in Adonis in Syria (perpetuated

same

people, appear suffering related of Apollo were

the modern

the faith

George
in the Semitic
a

Tiamat
held hero

and locality), to say nothing of Marduk Babylonian creation-story.But in all these legends, in the

by
or

people

or

borrowed

from
an

them,

the

contender
a

is
ma-

god; while
in Socotra

in Socotra it is is

elephant. Plinyoffers
of Africa.

teriaUstic
not

which explanation,
or

unconvincing because elephants

natural

are

found
a

in the

neighboringparts
a

dently It is evi-

local faith rather than

upon

it

by Bent's

observation

and light fact, may be thrown that dragon's {^Southern Arabia, 'i79)
blood of
two

blood

called in Socotra is still In the Mediterranean

brothers.
was

' '

world

this gum
uses.

used

and medicinally
must not refer,
as

as

dye;

in India ithad also ceremonial of the Kushan

One

to

the Buddhism
as

dominant dynasty, apparently

the time of the
upon

far south
to

the

modern
"

Bombay
Brahmanism

at

but Periplus,

rather

the

earlier faith
among

overlaid
races

then nature-worship, The

lent preva-

the Dravidian triad

were

farther south.

members

of the

Brahman

Brahma, Vishnu

and

the Siva,

creator, preserver, shrine

on an

and

destroyer; they were

island in Bombay

at a worshipped especially harbor, called Elephanta (in constant

connection
was

commercially with
the

the Gulf of the

of

Aden),
at

and

an

elephant'shead
and the end of

visible emblem
was

sacred syllable AUM,

the

the representing
any

which triad,

pronounced

beginning
many

reading

of the

sacred books, and had

mystic properties. The

of the form of
was

more elephantsignified

the first particularly person

Brahma triad, of the

the creator,

while

the

dragon

or

serpent, in the these combats from which

cobra,'

Siva represented
an

the
a

destroyer; and

Pliny,between
called "blood

elephant and

dragon, the blood

139

of

two

brothers," seem
the

to

be

reflectionof the perpetual conflictbetween

of the Hindu
name

first and

third persons that the

names

triad.

It is notable
among

Hindu
of the

for Socotra appears manifestations

likewise

the mysterious

seven

of the power

of AUM of

in their ritual: the from there"

"Earth, Sky, Heaven,

Abode Blest, the Indian of merchants

Middle

Region,Place
the

Abode of Births,

Truth;"
who this
as

that indicating had

island had its name

to

"emigrated
of

carry

on

trade

(" 30), especially in

name

legendarygum
as

the

and suggesting that the dracaena, dynastytale and the Gilgamesh epic. Another survival of Hindu

is

old

the

Xlllth

influence
of

seems

to

be

the mateb

or

blue

silk neck-cord, the

badge
more

baptism
any

in

modern
custom,

Abyssinian
the
zennar

which Christianity,
or

suggests,

than

Arab

sacred

cord

of the Brahman references in

priest.
Pausanias and
,

(See the
de Yo't^hyry,

J. G. Frazer's
Asiatic

Golden

Bough;

Indian

Nymph., 26%; ) Antiquities

.

Jnt.

Y Researches,

Mi;

Maurice,

30.
to

Yields

no

fruit.
"

This

must

be

understood

this island agriculture; value.

commercial

rich in particularly Aloes, dragon's blood and frankincense

was

referring natural products of

as were

all of

also myrrh plentiful, the

and

other gums;
went to

but
at

owing
Cana.

to

the

monopoly
many

Chatramotitae these
of this

market
no

Bent found

evidences

earlytrade,but energiesof the

The
to

present

exploitation ; the walled

and

the frankincense, aloe-fieldsdeserted, myrrh and the

dragon's blood
in the and cattle,

collected, un-

people employed
full of of jars far
as

production
the Sultan
to

of clarified butter.

island seemed
carry

kept

dhow special

the skins and demand

as

clarified butter and

the

it was in mainland, where (Southern Arabia, p. 346). 31.

race

Muscat

Zanzibar.

Subject

to

the Frankincense

Country.
been

"

By speech,
the Mahra
map

and

Socotra has political allegiance

from rime
upon

joined to
La

districtof South Arabia

immemorial. the

Roque's

of

1716

showed
op.

it

depending

Kingdom

of Fartach"

garth, (Ho-

found

450-3) cit., writingin 1838 (op. cit., p. 45); '\\'ellsted, it jealously mentioned as a dependency of the Sheikh of Kissin,
of

formerly called King

also the 31.
numerous

Furtak;"

and

Bent

found

the

same.

(See

reports

of the Austrian for defence

Expedition.)
two

Garrisoned;
whom the Homerites

againstthe
hard

enemies
on

of the side:

Chatramotitae,by namely,
32. The

they

were

pressed

either

and the Parthians.

Bay

of Omana,
of

being
the

that portion of the Kamar

Bay

of

Sachalites lying east

Syagrus,is

modern

Bay.

(16"

140

15' N.
,

53" 30' E. ).

The

"mountains, high
the modern
over

and

rocky and
and

steep,

inhabited by

are cave-dwellers,"

Jebel Kamar
modern
a

Jebel

Gara, reaching altitudes of The Omana," name

'

3,000 feet.
same as

the

the

Oman,
well
to

seems

to

have

extended
much

at the time

of the

Periplus over

larger area,
as seems as

cluding in-

of the

south shore of the Persian Gulf

as

the

coast

of South Arabia

far

as

Ras Hasik; all of which

"

have

been

subjectto

the

but recently Parthians, of

for Isidorus of

Charax

Spasini, writing in
of the Omanitae Ras Hasik

the time

Augustus, speaks of Country."

The the

Goaesus,King
coast
name

in the Frankincense

between Omana

and Ras

Fartak,likewise associated with

fallen
to

in the

had Periplus,

the Chatramotitas in the

recent

partition

of the Incense-Land.

32. The
Khor
at

harbor

called

Moscha.

"

This

is identified with

Reiri

(17" 2' N., 54" 26' E. ), a protected inlet (now closed

by
a

low

tide

sand-bar) ;
east

into which

empties the Wadi

tpwn

Dirbat.
ern east-

It is a couple of miles
part of the the
coast

of the modern

of

Taka,

in the

plainof Dhofar, a
Ras Risut and

fertile stripof

some

50 miles

along
good

between

Ras Mirbat, surrounded

it

by
a

the Gara

Mountains.

Marco

Polo describes
a

xxxviii) (III, as
' '

very

haven, so
India.
"

that there is It

great traffic of

shipping between
of modern

this and

is,no

Byzantius. The
of

harbor of the Abaseni doubt, the ancient capital, Saphar (whence the

Stephanus
name

Dhofar,

confused

by

many

mediaeval in

of Zafar, the capital

western

the Homerites

geographers with Saphar or Yemen) lay probablyin the

Hafa. dence," resicapital"or "royal

part of the

near plain,

the modern
no more

Saphar
so

seems

to

mean

than the

that the

true

name
'

of

ancient

city is unknown.
"

Ptolemy callsit Abissa Polls, City of the Habashat. The Plain of Dhofar, and the mountains behind
distance the
most

it and

for

some

beyond
vivid

on

either

side,are

the

and original, We

perhaps always
are

Incense-Land important, of description

of Arabia.

fortunate in

having a

the whole

region,by J. Theodore
a

Bent
printed re-

{Geographical Journal, VI, 109-134, with

in his Southern Abessinier (^Die

map

facingpage
corrections
).
are so

204;

Arabia^
the
to

with

careful

by Glaser

in Arabien und from

182-192 Afrika,

The
of

plainisalluvial limestone,cavernous,

soilwashed
and sandstone
one

down

mountains, which
attract

high enough
the

the

rains;
on

that instead of the

and

volcanic rocks

elsewhere

the south coast, here is the year

are

largeoasis by

sea," abundantlyv/atered
The the upper

round, and
the
source

producing crops
of many

of allkinds.

mountains encircling
on

streams,

gatheringin lakes

levels and

to falling

142

ci\ilizationand
About entered

similar religion

to

and

derived

from

the Chaldasan.

1800
and

B.

C,

according to

the Arab

conquered South Arabia,but

as a

Joktanitetribes historians, absorbed by the were largely second, or

economic
power

Cushite stock;
of Ad
was

result of which
in which the
was

the

Sabasan,empire
the sacred and

formed,

the

became Joktanites

land-owning caste,
with the Cushites.

while This

and political

activitiesremained that dealt with the

probablythe dynasty,as
the

Egyptiansunder concerning
seems a

the XVIIIth the

which

publicationof

pictured at Deir-el-Bahri; the Egypt Exploration Fund

of Punt'
not
'

little too

that positive

Land

could

not

be in The

Arabia

because the faces of the Punt people were would

be
at

Semitic.

testimony of Arabia

fault if they were.

Later the Sabaean

stock from Yemen, Cushites,conquered by the Banu Ya rub, a Joktanite themselves in Abyssinia, migrated into Africa,and establishing

continued the ancient conflictfor six centuries

The
a

more.

account

of Ibn Khaldun

f Kay's edition, pp.

the Adites.
"

hint of

the

northern he

originof
says,

179-80) gives Hadramaut, AshAd,

from whose

Shihr and Oman,

originally belonged
Banu Ya

to

people it was
who Hud.
country

conquered by the
Ad
were

rub,son
in company

of Kahtan
son

(Joktan).
of

It is said that the Banu

had

led thither by Rukaym

country

Aram^

formerlyvisited
returned
to to

the

with

the

Prophet
of its

He and

the

people of They

Ad

and

led them it from

in ships to the the hands

its invasion.

wrested

but they were themselves subsequently conquered by the inhabitants, Kahtan ruled o^. er the country, and it Banu Ya rub, son of Kahtan.
was

governed by
Makrizi made

his

son

Hadramaut,

after whom Ad
son

it was of

named.

"

varies the ruler and

over

legend by making
and Babylonia,
a

Kahtan, by whom
Hadramaut
over

he

was

his brother

"Habassia;"
Land
to

he preserves

memory

of the trade of the Incensecame

with land

India,in the tale of

of the

hero of that land who

of
as a

by night
he
turned re-

the

Indians in the form

green

whence vulture, his

bearing seeds of the

It is

pepper,

proof of
have the annual

journey.
more

that Bent regrettable

could

not

learned

of the
at

local faith of the Gara which Dirbat lakes, faith. the is

at tribe, exemplified

reunion

the

probablyan
represent

survival interesting the

of the ancient
conquerors
some

For

as

the

Mahri

Himyarite
represent
to

of

incense

coast-land, so
of

do

the
a

Gara
state

extent

the earlier inhabitants.

Bent found

of armed

truce

under

the

influence restraining
had found the

Aluscat; Haines, Carter, and

the plain fighting among the the gathererswith plain,
to

Cruttenden
the

of villages

and themselves, the

mountain
as lords,

folk fightingwith
of old.

o\er-

Bent tells enough, however,

indicate the

worship

143

of the lake,the of the spirit the foot of

at

waters

of which the

might spirit by

not

be

polluted by

man;

the of

of propitiation

the

"chief magician"
the celebration of

the

time

the frankincense, and gathering

'

of the harvest

by
rest

tribal dance'
the

probably
sent

reminiscent
to

nalian baccha-

rites;after
that the
may

which of the

product is

Bombay

for distribution,

world, in
other is another
east to

the words

of

Pausanias

(IX, 30)
are peated re-

worship God
The
name

with

people'sincense."
of those
west,

Moscha
the
coast

place-names that

along Muscat,
to

from

and survives in the

modern

with

which

Miiller mistakenlyidentifiesthis port.

is
an

According
skins. " the
"

Forster

{op. II, 174-5) this cit.,

the Genaba in the Greek
as

Arabic
or

word

flated meaning "in-

skin," from
The

Fish-Eaters''

floaterson Glaser

word
to to

continues
same

calf. moschos,
to

supposes

word
and

be the

Mocha,

and

signify a
to

commercial

harbor,

the author limen

m"znX.

of the

and Periplus,

Ptolemy, it

is probable that also

Moscha
or

Incense
any

Harbor;" otojc^ojmeaning
even

'musk,''

in later Greek
same
"

perfume,

to

that of

the

idea

was

uppermost

with

Camoes

as indeed strawberries; X, 201) and with {Lusiad,

Milton:

Fanning Native perfumes, and Those balmy spoils. As when to them who sail are past Beyond the Cape of Hope, and now Mozambic, off at sea northeast winds blow Sabean odors from the spicyshore with such delay Of Araby the Blest, a Well pleasedthey slack their course, and many league smiles smell old Ocean Cheered with the grateful "Paradise IV, Lost,
:

their odoriferous

gentlegales. wings, dispense whisper whence they stole

Now

156-165.

(See the
Zwemer,
and

works

cited of Bent, Wellsted,Glaser,Hommel, already Manual of Ancient Hogarth; Lenormant and Chevalier,

Historyof the East, VII, 1-2; also J. B. Haines, in the Journal of the actions for 1839 and 1845; H. J. Carter,in TransSociety Royal Geographical for 1845, 1847, and 1851; of the Bombay Asiatic Society,
Makrizi
De

Valle Hadramaut, Bonn, 1866; Wellhausen, Skizzen und

III, 135-146.) Vorarheiten,

32. The

ship could

not

clear.

"

Compare

the

of trading

the

these with the "chiefs of the land of Punt" over Egyptianexpeditions xxxvii): (III, "heaps of incense," and again Marco Polo's description

''A great deal of white incense grows the Prince; for no to great revenue
and whilst he takes it from
the

in this country,
one

and

bringsin
one

dares sell it to any

at

else;

people

10 livres of gold for the

144

hundredweight, he sells it to
is immense.
'

the merchants

at

60

so livres,
an

his Arab is

profit
graphical geofully care-

'

And

accordingto
the be taken

the Marasid-al-Ittila' ,
same

of about dictionary

period, "this
rest

incense the the

watched, and
But
put

can

only to

Dhafar, where
is made than
over

Sultan

keeps the best part for himself; the

any
to one

to

people.
be

who

should

carry

it elsewhere

to

Dhafar

would

death.

33. Kuria which

Seven

Islands
about

called Zenobian. 56"

,

"

These

are

now

called

Muria,

17" 20' N.
from

E.,

and

belong to England,
In the time of the Hadramaut.

acquiredthem
The

the Sultan of their

western

Oman.

they belonged to Periplus

name

neighbors,the
from the

Zenobian

is HeUenized

Arabic

Zenab

or

Genab;
coast.
numerous

the This

tribe of Beni
same

Genab

having possessedthe neighboring

form of

tribal name,

in the
one

Genabti, appears
of the

in

of Punt.''

as Egyptian inscriptions Punt und (See Glaser,

of the

peoples

Land

die Siidarahischen Reiche, p.

10.)

Concerning trade,a

the relation of these islands to the

frankincense early

bit of folk-lore

preserved by Marco
text

portant. imPolo is particularly the story with and

Pauthier in his French

the Kuria

connects rightly

Muria

group

Yule because of its geographical position;

nonsense.
'

it as Cordier repudiate

Vincent, in fable,"
far
as

his edition of the Periplus

(II, 347)
islands. About

refers the
so

without has

explanation,to
not

these

Its actual source,

known,
and

been

observed.
Polo
says

half-waybetween
the
two

Makran

Socotra,Marco
and

(III,xxxi), are
about 30

islands
one

'"called Male
another. their wives
or

Female, lying
other

miles distant from

men

In the island called

any
men to women.

Male

dwell the
year

alone, without
the month

Every
the

when

of March

arrives the three

all set

out

for

and tarry there for island, April,May, dwellingwith their wives three months and trade

other

months,

wit, March,
At the end
pursue

for that space.

own

of

these

they

return

to

their

and island, months.

.

their for the abide

up

husbandry
children with their till they
custom
are

for the

other
to

nine

As

which

their wives

bear

them,
the
to

if

they they be girls

mothers;

but if they be then

boys

mothers

bring

them

and fourteen,

send them
The
as

the fathers.

Such is the
nurse

of these two

islands.

wives

do

nothing but
"

their

children husbands

and

gather such

fruits

their island

do furnish them

with allnecessaries.

produces; for their (Yule's Marco Polo, Pliny,

touch-

Cordier' s edition, II,404-6.) This story is a reflection of the belief, alreadynoted from
that the ceremonial

value of the
were

incense

depended

on

the

personal

purityof

the

who gatherers,

considered sacred.

No

man

145

ing the

tree, whether
a

proprietor according to
or

the

caste

system

of the

Incense-Land,or
pollution through
of the
tree
was a

farmer

slave or free,might undergo gatherer,

of
women or

the presence
woman,

of the dead.
were

The

spirit

and

the

protecting serpents
the pollution, and had

the souls constituted

of the dead. the

uses

If gathered without
of

incense

most

effective vehicle

prayer,

also certain

in

after conjugal intercourse, availed purification and

as Babylonians,

Arabians Strabo

described

by Herodotus

sovereign by both (I, 198) and

of

(XVI, i,20).
of the been
says

Pliny's account
inflated 4th

skins,has
A.

Ascitas, swimming to the mainland noted. Stephanus Byzantius, writingin beyond

the

on

the

century

D.,
the

Sabsi

and

the

Chatramotitae

dwell the
cinnamon

Abaseni,
and

whose

land yieldsmyrrh,

aloes,frankincense,

plant which resembles the color of Tyrian {^desitu purple (dragon's blood)." Pausanias in the 2d century a deep bay of the Erythraean Sea Grades, VI, 269) mentions
Abasa having islands,
same

red

and

Sacaea,"

which

were

the

home

of these

Ascitae.
on

Bent

{Southern Arabia,p. 230) describes the "Jenefa"

Muria
on

tribe and

these Kuria

Wellsted

islands, pursuing sharks Beni {op. cit., Ghap. V) found the

of South Arabia and

inflated skins,

Geneba"

spread

shark-fishersswimming Oman, inflated skins, and pastoralfolk, living in skin tents, but on noted in " 32. -to caves," as under the S. W. monsoon retreating (Trans. Bombay Geog. Soc. VII, 121; 1846) Lieut. Cruttenden of and General Miles (J. Geog. Soc, 1872) observe that the coast who by partiesof Somalis, South Arabia "is visited every season pay
all along the
coasts
,

the Arabs Here

for the

of collecting the frankincense. privilege foundation for Marco

'

'

is obviouslythe

Polo's tale. the

act

The

wandering Beni
islands and and herdsmen
the year the

Genab,
coast

whose

included locality
east

Kuria
as

Muria

north and

would thereof,

fishermen
of

during certain
engage

seasons,

while during the remainder

more

they would

in the

cense profitable occupationof in-

gathering;in
too

which

they

were

subjected to
of landed den

the

rigid rules

maintained by the Sayyid or

to dighified

caste saintly

do the work occurred of the

(Van
in the white

selves themproprietors, 40-44). Berg, op. cit.,

When

rush of sap the first

springthey left their wives

gum,
trees

perforce,to again when

And their sons

gather

the

best

remaining
became

on

the

incense-terraces

for later

gatheringsuntil
was

the

dormant

their work would

which

for that year

over

and they returned home.

remain naturally

with their mothers be

only during
tabu
as

childhood; past
grown men,

they would

under

the

same

the

and would

begin work

as

gatherers.

146

Far

from

being
"

it tale, fairy

is quite of the

that possible

at

the time

Marco

Polo

wrote

the caste-system
"

Hadramaut

being fully
it was in the and

under crystalized
on

the rule of Islam

this story of the Christian dwellers

was

the

"Male

and Female
in the

Islands"

literally true,

as

earlier times

race-conflict between

Joktanite overlords
the coast,

Cushite gatherers.
The included

"Male
between

Island" was,
of

of course,

and

the Female tinguish dis-

the entire group

islands;the
island."
"

Arabic

dialects

to failing

"coast" and Moscha.

33.

Beyond
is the modern Ras of the

The
and

'mountain
the
name

range

along

the

shore"

JebelSamhan,

Asich

is preserved
as

in the modern
westernmost

Hasik, 17" 23' N., 55" 20' E., as which faces Kuria Muria Islands,
the modern from the native

well it.

in the

33.

Sarapis is

20" 20' N. Masira Island,

name,

58" 40'
,

E.

the first
,

only being syllable

which

our

author

assimilatesto that of the Alexandrian

Osiris of the

bull-worship, XVII,
30

in the Latin,Serapis. (Concerningthis worship, or Osor-Hapi, Sarapis,

in

high

favor

at

the time of the

book see Periplus, Strabo,

de hide et Osiride, Maspero, Histoire Ancienne,pp. Plutarch, Frazer's Pausanias, II, 175-6.) The "r-apis or Ma-j/V-a is probably the same syllable tribe-name This Au-.f"7r or Ausan mentioned in

ff.,
the

as

" 15. (VI, lb)

with the the

confused island is curiously

by

Pausanias

Seres.

After

the Chinese silk culture, he observes: describing

to

island of Seria is known

But but I have

be

situated in

recess

of the Red

Sea.

also heard that the island is formed,

the Ser (this being Masira

not

by

the Red

Sea,
the

by

river named

Channel), justas
by
a

Delta of Egypt is surrounded

it is

by

the Nile and Both and

are

not

sea;

such

also,

said,is

the island of Seria. of Abasa

the

Seres and the inhabitants

are

of the
race

neighboringislands
some

Sacaea
not

of the

Aethiopian
a

say,

however,
Indians."

that they

but Aethiopians,

mixture

of

and Scythians Here

are

confirmations

of the the

as Periplus,

to
as

the possession of
to

Masira and

Kuria

Muria

by

Habashat, and

the commercial

then in possession of the Indus of the Indo-Scythians, activity The

use

valley.

of the

Arabian

by represented

the modern

or Hadramitic, language" (Himyaritic Mahri), noted in " ii, confirms the accompanying was

statement

that the island

then

to Hadramaut, subject

and itstrade controlled from be rather with the

'

Cana.
'

the Ordinarily
'

connection

would
coast,

Fish- Eaters the

of the

adjoining Genaba

subjectat
would
have

that time been

to

Parthians,so

that the

language spoken

Aethiopic or Geez.

147

34. The

barbarous
coast

region which
the Kuria

now

belongs
Rome, by
was

to Persia.

Arabian

beyond
of the

Muria
war

being now Islands,

with him

recently
ble inaccessiand briefly

conquered by
to

the Parthian

Empire, at
and Periplus
own

the

author

is described

apparentlyfrom
out at

hearsay. His
Kuria

carried saihng-course

him

"well
to

sea"

from

Muria

to

Masira, and

thence

direct

the

mouth

of the Indus. 34.

Calaei Islands.

"

These

are

the

Daimaniyat Islands N.
the modern

W.

of from

Muscat

(23" 48' N., 58" 0' E. ), the distance being

The
name

calculated

Masira.

the is obviously

same an

as

Kalhat,
with of
tent

justnorth
mentioned Ocelis in

of Sur

(22" 35' N., 59" 29' E. )

as

ancient
to

tradingport,
confused

by Pliny (VI, 32)

Acila

(not

be

Yemen),
numerous

city of the Sabasi (Asabi)a nation

islands. This is their mart, from

dwellers,with
persons

which

embark

for India."

On
ports

this coast, between

Ras el Had

and

Muscat,

are

the modern

of

Kuryat
and

and

of an
know had

Excursion

nal Sur,which, in the words of General Miles jourin Oman, Geographical Journal, VII, 335-6) 'are
the

the Karteia
as

Tsor,

Carthage and Tyre, who,

earlier than
coast

of the

race

whom of

we

Phoenicians,and
and

the time

Solomon,
venient con-

along the trading-stations earlyoccupation by

in An

southern

of Arabia.
must

Their have
were
"

important positionjust opposite India

the merchants the

led

to
gaged en-

their

of those times who the East and \^ is

est.

exchanging
eastern

productionsof
eastern

migration of

this tribe-name

strongly suggestedin
Fabricius' reading
do

in Kalat,cityand district, 34. of

not
a

Beluchistan.
"

Very

little civilized.
in the text;

This

follows

doubtful passage
see

that offered

by Miiller,"who

well in the daytime," while less probable,recalls the fact noted

observers suffer from in

by

numerous

Oman,
which
wrs

that total

good proportionof

the inhabitants the

ophthalmia or

to due, largely, blindness,

terrificheat of this coast;

described by Abdpicturesquely

sr-Razzak, a 15th
The
heat

century
was so

follows: as Persian,
intense that it burned

the

marrow

in the

bones;
adorned
the with

the sword the handle became

in its scabbard melted like wax, of the

a
' '

dagger were
of from

reduced

to

and the gems which coal. In the plains

was

chase

matter

perfect ease, for the desert

Curzon
,

filled

roasted gazelles.

(Quoted

Persia and the Persian

9.
^

ed. XXII, Society's Question.See also Haklu3rt 35. Galon and

was

mountain.
to
mean

"

While

the

name same as

has

Greek

form,

supposed

fair,"it is the
mountains

that of the islands

and is probably a tribal name:

of the Kalhat."

148

The

range

is the

Muscat,
the
account

and

about

Green Mountains," behind JebelAkhdar, or are 10,000 feet in altitude. Good descriptions and Hogarth, and
of

Zwemer, gi\en by \\'elisted,

and of the fertile

interestis especial

populous Wadi

Tyin, enclosed by these

cit.). mountains, visited by General S. B. Miles (op.

35. The

Ham., family pearl-mussel, Mekagrina margaritifera,

in many parts of the Indian

is found Jviculida,
on

Ocean,

but

particularly
water
a

the

southern India

shores of the Persian and

Gulf

and

in the shallow

between

Ceylon. by Prof.

The

pearlis a deposit formed

at

around

foreignsubstance
larva. Examination that the nucleus which This
he

in the

mantle

of the

mussel, generallya parasitic

the Manaar

Herdman

fisheries indicated

of the

pearlwas
the

a Platyhelminthian generally parasite,

identifiedas the larval condition

passes

of

cestode

or

tapeworm.
a

cestode

from into
some

body

of the

pearlmussel

into that of

and thence file-fish

or

ray.

("Watt, op. cit., pp.

the large animal,possibly Trygon larger 557-8; Cambridge Natural History, III,

100, 449.)
35.

Asabon

mountains.
or

"

This

is

another
W

"mountains of the Asabi,"

as

Beni Assab, whom

tribal name, ellsted described

there still living

I, 239-242),a people very different from (op. cit., Oman,

in living
and

the other tribes of whom American

remnant

exclusion

in their

mountains;

and

Zwemer

Arabia, in the Bulletin of the Geographical Society, T907; pp. 597-606) considers a {,Oman
the
race aboriginal

Eastern

of
to

of South
to

Arabia, their speech being Himyaritic; who

were

allied

the

Mahri
as

and

both

the ancient driven

probablynot

Zwemer

thinks,
rather
a

northward

by Semitic

gration," mi-

but represent

relic of that

southward pre-Joktanite

migrationaround
The

this very

coast.

mountain

preserves

the

name,

being
at

now

the

Jebel Sibi,
of the cape

26" 20' N., 56" 25' E., continued 2800 feet,

in the promontory 35. of Ras Musandum.

the end

round

and

high

mountain

called

Semiramis.
K6h-i-

followingSprenger and Fabricius, mubarak, "Mountain

while
and
not
on directly,

Ritter,identifies
isof feet,
the

this with

of the Blest" (25" 50' N., 57" 19' E. 600

),which,

high,being only about

the strait.

shape here described

is

Fabricius
the Arabic

(p. 146)
Arabian

suggests that the held precious."

name

Semiramis Musandum

probably
a

Shamarida
to

Ras

has been The

sacred spot

from navigators
some

time immemorial.

classic

geographersdescribe
and it, the Arabian

of the practices of the

as

\'incent tellsof those in his time

ship-captains passing follows (II,354) : All

some

shipstake

their

departurefrom

it with

ceremonies

150

to

the

borders

of the

India;
world"

the

same,

of description

mentioned
to

probably,as the author of by PHny (VI, 31) who

information
to set out

the
was

commissioned
east, when command

by Augustus
was

gatherall necessary
to

in the take the

his eldest son the against

about

for Armenia

Parthians and

Arabians."

36. A
Roman

market-town
much

of Persia
confused that it was six

called

Ommana.
statements

"

The
cerning con-

geographerswere
this port, and
'

by similar days' sail"

eastward

supposed
in the

instead geographically, from

of

of Persia," and politically, of Hormus of the Makran. Arabian and mentioned

that the

the straits the

coast

was Periplus,

along

But

Plinythis time
the

is better

informed, and locates it on

the Peninsula
of

side of Ras

Persian
then ed

Gulf, between
a

El

Katar

Alusandum, Cynos

Persian

or

Parthian dependency.
he says

(VI, 32) "the is impracticable that side, on accordingto Juba,on account navigation of Batrasave, of the rocks; and he has omitted allmention of a town
Beyond
the river
( Wadi

Dawasir.O

the
out

Omani,
to

and

of the cityof
port

Omana,
as

which former writers have made

be

famous
at
ones

of Carmania;
present

also of Homna
merchants
say,

and
are

Attana,
far the

towns most

which famous The

the

day, our
"

by

in the Persian Sea.

as

spelling Ommana,"

distinct from for the

'

Omana,"
Both
a

is due
iently conven-

to

Ptolemy, and, while perhaps

between distinguishes the
a same as

incorrect the
two

Periplus,it
are

districts. which the

certainly
from doubt the the

the
a

modern

Oman,
over

maintains whole

nominal, as

century

ago

dominion real,
to

coast-land This of
was
no

bay

of

El Katan

that of

Kuria

\Iuria.

dominion

of that Goarsus of the

mentioned in the

by Isidorus
After

Charax
had

Spasini,
only
cently re-

"King

Omanitae
the

Incense-Land,"
the

and
numerous

come

under

Parthian control.
and freedom

tions alternasubmitted until 1741.

between

dependence
in

whole

country

again to Persia
The
to exact

1650, remaining under

yet
at

Persian

control

location of the port of Ommana

is uncertain
coast.

owing

the limited

knowledge

hand

concerning this
a

Ptolemy

it east of the peninsula, confirms Plinyin locating by the Wadi (possibly

argues

river

Ommano,
Glaser

Yabrin,
the

an

and important trade-route)

for strongly
any

bay

of El Katan. Abu

location between

Thabi

189-194. ) Almost (Siizze, pp. (24" 30' N., 54" 21' E. ),and
be the
are

Khor

ed Duan

(24" 17' N., 51" 27' E. ) might

or

but possible,

the

distance Abu

stated,six days,
or

3000

from stadia, there

coast

indicates straits,

Thanni

Sabakha, at
on

both

of which

fertile spots
,

on

the coast;

El Mukabber

the Sabakha with

(24" N.

51" 45' E.)

being perhaps more

in accord closely

Ptolemy.

151

Aside

from

the

obvious linking of Apologus and

Ommana

as

Persian Gulf ports, in "" 35 and 36, the text givestwo further proofs. sewed The boats" are such as are made still along this coast, and
the wine
as an

mentioned

in
at

"

36

as

an

export

to

India is referred
The

to

in

"49

import
trade

Barygazayrawz Arabia.
now

"many pearls"
exports

exported,and
suggest

in fact the whole

a as

of imports and list

at

in

" 36,
bay
of

such

centers

Bahrein. locate Ommana in the

and McCrindle Miiller, Fabricius,

Chahbar

on

the

Makran

coast

(25" 15' N., 60" 30' E.), reckoning

the Straits of
on

the six days'sail eastward Holdich followed them

from

Hormus;

and Sir Thomas

in his Notes

Ancient and

Meditxval Makran
in his refers

(Geographical Journal,1896; VII, 393-6). It is notable that Gates of India, and 1910, (pp.299-300) he abandons this position
the activity of the Chahbar
ports
to

the

mediseval

period. General
S.
,

S. B. Miles

(Journalof
for

the
on

Royal
the

Asiatic

Society,N.
of

X,

pp.

164-5)

argues

Sohar,
terminus
not

Batineh

coast

Oman,

north

of

Muscat, the
Ommana

ocean

of

an

ancient and important caravan-route; the

statement

but the location

was

does

tallywith
of

in the text, that

six
was

the Straits. or days through, beyond, the

center
an

Ommana
with

active and extensive reference the

to

trade shipping

located India,conveniently
and

with

the

trans-Arabian
this coast of

caravan-routes;

Glaser pointsout
land of where
sent

that probability of

El

Katan
;

was a

also the

Ophir"
the
to

King

Solomon's East

tradingwere ceived re-

voyages

tradingcenter reshipped,or

products

of the

and 36.

overland,
mentioned

the Mediterranean.
an

Copper
was

is here

as

article of export

from in

India

to

the Persian Gulf.

It is

no

longer extensively produced

of the
outer

India,but

formerlysmelted
at

in considerable

in South quantities

Rajputana, and India,

a

various parts the

Himalaya,
and is known Bhutan.

where
to

killas-likerock

along persists Watt,

whole

range

be See

copper-bearingin Kullu, Garhwal, Nepal, Sikkim, and

the authoritiescited in Commercial that this copper But it is possible

Products of India, p. 401.

also European copper,

and

exported from Barygaza ("" 39 and 49) and During Empires, owing
to

included imported at Ommana Cana (" 28) to the Indus mouth thence

reshipped to
the Roman been
a

the Persian

Gulf.

the suspension of trade between

war,

and Parthian
trade

this would

have

natural

arrangement.

Pliny ( VI, 26) speaks of

exports of

copper,

and red lead,as iron,arsenic,

Carmania,

whence

they were

shipped to Persian Gulf

was

and
no

Red

Sea ports for distribution; indicating again that Ommana

port.

Carmanian

152

36.

Sandal'WOOd.
tree

"

tantalum

album, Linn., order Santalaceie.

A small evergreen
Western
a

native in the and

dry regionsof South India (asthe

India
as chiefly

Ghats, Mysore,

Coimbatore); in North
has been known authors is the

cultivated plant. Sandalwood

ancient

in India

from

the

most

times,the Sanskrit
Chandana

various distinguishing for the

woods

accordingto color.
the tree,
or

name

srikhanda series,

white, sandal,and
derived
or

both being sandal,

two

or pitachandanathe inferior, yellow, from Santalum album. They distinguish

kinds of red sandal

santalinus namely, Pterocarpus raktachandana,

and

Ccesalpima sappan.
This mention
to

in the

Periplus seems
It is mentioned
the
name

to

be the earliest Roman

reference

sandalwood.
A.

by Cosmas
and

Indicopleustes
quently thereafter fre-

(6th century by
and

D. ) under

T%andana;

the

earlyArab

traders who

visitedIndia and China.

mistake
as arising,

mas CosWatt
at

the Arabs

attributedit to
from

China,this
and

pointsout
time made
to

{op. cit., p. 976)

the voyage

the fact that Chinese

vessels

this

between

China

the Persian

Gulf, stopping
to finally

trade in Ceylon and India,and

of disposing is the
not

their cargoes

the

Bagdad

merchants.
to

The

wood
at

native of China. Botanic

According
For

experiments
is
a

Royal
many

Gardens

at

cutta, Cal-

sandalwood
further

on root-parasite

plants.
Indische Alurthumskunde,

references

see

Lassen:

I, 287.
36.

XealfWOOd.
tree

large deciduous
wood isthat from
country.

Linn. order Verbenaceie. A grandis, of India. The indigenous in both peninsulas

"

Tectona

chiefly exported from

and

India

at

the present

larly time, particu-

Burma,

is the

most

timber of the important building

Watt, {op. cit., p. 1068), quotingGamble,

Indian
hanadi teak

says

that the

western

region

has

for its northern

limit the Narbada

farther north.

and

Ma-

found althoughitis occasionally rivers, since the date of the

Climatic

changes
area.

Periplushave
and
to

probably restricted its

to

in It is plentiful The

Bombay
its value

Travancore. its great

wood

owes a

ascribed durability,
resinous Watt the matter,

the

fact that it contains

of fluid large quantity resiststhe action of

over

which
one

fills up
structure

the pores known

and
to

water.

mentions

be

2000

years

old,and
earlier.

discoveryof
Nabonidus

teak

in the
century

Mugheir
B.

ruins and

indicates its use

much

there under

(6th

C),

possibly very
"

36. and

Black'wood.

The

text
"

is sasamin,which

Fabricius alters McCrindle

as

translates white
that the
text

mulberry,
refers
to

from

conjecture only.
known still

shows

the wood

in India

sisam,

153

which

Watt
of

describes
the
or

{.op. at.,
and

pp.

484-5)
India.

as

one

of

the best hardwoods

Panjab
and split,

Western

It is very

durable,does
where

not

warp

is highly esteemed
"

for all purposes

and strength frames and

elasticity are required agricultural implements, carriagewell as furniture and wheels, boat-building, etc. as
"

wood-carving. In Upper India

to

the sisam takes the

placeof rosewood,

which Watt

it is closely related. the distinguishes

true

sisam

or

blackwood, Dalbergia sissoo,

native somewhat
as

order

Leguminosa. The
on

Indian

rosewood,

farther

D. south,is Dalbergialatifolia.

sissoois described

gregarious Indus and Narbada,

36.

the banks from

of

sandy, stony, torrential

the

sub-Himalayan, such as the rivers,

exported.

which

Periplus says
order

it was

Ebony.
D.

"

Diospyros,Linn.,
the

Ebenacea.

Diospyros

'.benum and

are melanoxylon

leading varieties producing ebony

D.
tomentosa.

wood;

and India has also D. embryopteris fine black heart-wood

This

(from

the date

plum tree)has

been

in favor since the dawn

of civilization. An about

of Egyptian inscription

King Mernere, Vlth dynasty (B. C. the from a product brought down

2500), mentions

ebony

as

negro-land" on the Upper Nile; and the expedition of Queen Hatshepsut (XVIIIth dynasty, B. C. about 1500) brought it from the "Land of Punt," in this case probablyfrom
from the

Abyssinian highlands, although it might

Old
a

have

come

India.
The earliest definite where it appears
were as

Testament

reference

is in Ezekiel

XXVII,
men

commodity
many

in the trade of

Tyre

the

of Dedan

they merchants;
;

isles were
a

the

dise merchan-

of thine hand

they broughtthee
be

for

present horns of

ivoryand
with the
a

ebony."

If the

Oxford

editor's identification of

Dedan

south shore of the Persian Gulf

correct, this passage

to

indicates B. C.
,

steadytrade
from

in

ebony
the

from

India prior
of the

the 7th century it

and

exactlyconfirms

statement

Periplusthat

was

shipped

Barygaza to Ommana Pliny (XII, 8, 9) says

and Apologus.
that

ebony

came

to

Rome

from

both India the

and Egypt, and that the trade began after the victories of Pompey Great in Asia.
He
notes two

kinds,one

the precious, in

other
terms

ordinary.
of the

II, 116-117) speaks Virgil {Georgics ebony

to

glowing

to India. Herodotus, however, has preferred peculiar 97) to Aethiopia,and states that the people of that ascribe it (III,

tree,

as

country
year,

were

in the habit of

paying to

the

King

of

Persia, every

third
a

by

way

100 of tribute,

billets of ebony-wood, together with

certain

of gold and ivory. quantity

154

36.
p.

Sewed

boats
this
to

known

as

madarata.

"

Glaser

{Skkze,
of the

190 j shows

be the Arabic

"fastened with palm OTWii'izrr^'fl^,

base taken Polo from
'

fiber," which
of petioles
cocoanut.
was a

the fibers sheathing the included,first,

the

date;

and

second, those
Marco

the husks Indian the

of the It

This

latter is what

calls

nut."

later cultivation in Arabia it among

or Sarapis

than the

date,and

does Periplus
33
as a

not

include

Arabian

exports,

althoughnoting it in "
exported to

product of
The

Alasira Island. boats and

were

text

notes

that these sewed

Arabia,

' '

meaning

the South

Coast, Yemen

Hadramaut.

Marco

Polo

of these craft, (I,xixj gives a description as follows: and many of them get lost; affairs, and are fastenings, only stitched together with husk of the Indian from
nut.

"Their
for

ships are
no

wretched

they have
made

iron the

twine

from

They

beat this

nut

until it becomes

like horse-hair, and

that they spin

twine, and
storm.

with this stitch the

not

planks of

the

shipstogether.
but it will
not

It keeps well and is

a

corroded

by
not

the

sea-water,

stand well in
fish-oil.

The

shipsare

but pitched,

are

rubbed

with

They

have

155

one cover

mast,

one

and sail, the top

one

rudder, and
when

have

no

deck, but only a

cover

spread over
on

cargo

loaded.

This

consists of

hides,and
take this then
to

the

of these hides

they put
iron
to

the horses which nails

they
for

India for sale.

They
with

have

no

make

of, and
Hence
many

reason

they

use

only wooden
twine in

trenails in their
as one

and shipbuilding, 'tis a of

'

stitch the

planks
to

I have

told you.

business perilous
them
are

go

voyage

of those
storms

and ships,
are

for lost,

in that Sea of India the

often

terrible.

'

Gemelli

who Carreri,

visitedthis coast

in

1693-9,givesa

similar

: Former description, quoted by Capt. A. W. Stiffe Trading Centers of the Persian Gulf: GeographicalJournal,XIII, 294 :
'

'Insteadof nails, which

cane,

they

are

without,they use hole, and

'

pegs

of bamboo rushes.
a

or

made and further join the planks with strings

a

of

For anchor, they have

stick with
a

largestone

with
to

for oars,

stout

little round

plank attached

the end.

'

"Stitched vessels," Sir B. Frere writes (Yule's Afarco Po/o, Cordier's

used. Ed., I, 117), "are still

but they
are

I have

seen

them

of 200
as vessels,

tons

burden,
gets

being

driven

out
on

by

iron- fastened

iron

cheaper, except coasts)the pliancyof

The
voyagers
as was

where
a

(as

the

Malabar
a

and

Coromandel
But the

stitched boat

is useful in
to

surf."

stitched build in the Gulf is now lish-oil used

to

confined

fishing-boats.
The old Arab

rub the

shipswas
and

whale-oil.

of the 9th century

describe the fishermen of Sirafin the Gulf

cutting up
mixed

the whale-blubber other

drawing

the

oil from

which it,

and used to rub the jointsof ships' ing. plankstuff, des Relation Voyages, I, 146.) (Reinaud, with

Friar

Odoric

(Journal, Chap. II),Writing of "Ormes,"

a

says
pact com-

"here also they use

kind

of

barque
And
any

or

ship called Jase,being

went at
on

togetheronly with cords. them,

wherein

board

into

one

of of

I could

not at

find
the

iron

and all,

in the space

days I arrived twenty-eight

a

cityof
'

Thana"

(on SalsetteIsland,
four of
our

short distance north

of

Bombay),
'

wherein

friars were

martyred for

the faith of Christ.

Jase,Cordier observes,is the

"Sir John Mandeville"
of

Arabic

Djehaz.

construction
'

edition.)
or are

(Voyageand 'Near that isle (Hormus)

account
sea

from this method givesa legend arising Travel, Chap. LIII, p. 125, Ashton's there
are

without ships

nails of iron

bonds,

on

of the ro":ks of adamants

for they (loadstones),

to

all-abundant there in that

a

that it is marvellous
or

speak of,and perish,

draw it would

if

for the

ship passed there that had iron bonds the adamant, by its nature, draws iron ship that
it should
never

iron nailsitwould and it,

so

to

depart from

it."

156

Theodore

Bent

{^Southern Arabia,p. 8) describes

wind
is contrary of any

these

boats

as

having

very

carved and decorated long-pointed bows, elegantly the

with

shells. When

they are

propelledby poles or
to

of boards paddles, consisting with

shape,tied

the end of the

on

poles

twine, and Zwemer,

"Even

the

oarsman

always seats

himself

the

gunwales."
and the odd

{,op. cit., p. 101), further confirms

All the boats have
For

the

Periplus:
well buUt
facture manu-

Sinbad the Sailor might

recognizeevery good lines

rope

spoon-shaped oars. by
except is woven their
at

and

are

the natives of Indian timber.

the rest, allis of Bahrein

come

which pulley-blocks,

from

Bombay.

cloth Sail-

Menamah
have
no

and ropes

are

twisted of date-fiber in rude

ropewalks

which

machinery
out
on

worth

mentioning. Even
one

the

long soft iron nails are "Each boat has

covered
the boat with
was

hammered
a

the anvil

by

one.

sort
a

of

called the kubait, figurehead generally

or

the

skin of

sheep

goat which

was

sacrificedwhen has
to
never

firstlaunched.
The

This
in

blood-sacrifice Islam

uprooted.
men
"

boats used larger

are

divinghold

from the

twenty
are

forty
rope-

less than half of whom and oarsmen."

to

while divers,

others

holders 36.

Pearls inferior

those

of India.
a

"

This

is said still to those of

be the case, the Bahrein the

pearls being of

yellowertint than

but holding their lustre better, in fisheries, particularly and therefore always in demand in India. tropical climates, Manaar
36.

Purple.
"

dye

derived

from

various

species of Murex,

familyMuriddte,
tells of its use
at

and

Purpura, familyBuccinida.
of
our

Pliny (IX, 60-63) purple has

contained in that
quisite ex-

the time is so

author

The

juicewhich
cloth.
. . .

greatly sought after

a

for the purpose

of
a

dyeing
white

This secretion consists of

which
a

tinydrop
for

vein,from body
fish
ones

the
rose

used preciousliquid somewhat

dyeing is distilled, being

The
rest

of the tint of

black. to inclining
a

of

the

is entirely destituteof this juice. It is

great

point to

take the

alive; for

when

it dies it

out spits

this

juice. From
which

the

larger

it is extracted after

takingoff the
the

but the smaller fish are shell;

crushed

alive,together with
Asia the best in

shells, upon
of

they ejectthis
that of Meninx

secretion.

"In
and After left
to

purpleisthat

Tyre, in Africa
.

and Gaetulia,

Europe

that of Laconia.

it is taken

the vein is extracted and salt is added.

They
from time
are

are

steep

for three

days,and day

are

then

boiled in vessels of

tin,by
to

moderate time.
a

heat;
About

while thus

the boiling the whole

is skimmed liquor
contents

the tenth

of the cauldron

in the

liquid state;

but until the color satisfies the

liquoris still kept on

158

Date-wine Nile
Vlth
to

is mentioned

as an

an

Egyptian product shipped up the

the

the

in negro-land,"

of inscription

reign of Mernere,

dynasty,about 2600 B. Cappear

as

Ancient Records, (Breasted, I,336. )

Dates
zer,

food, in
B.

17th century

of the reign of KhenAbydos inscription C. (I, 785). In the coronation of inscription

an

Thothmes B. C.
,

III and
divine

Queen
dates

Hatshepsut,XVIIIth
Amon-Re
included

15th dynasty,

tury cen-

to offerings

wine, fowl, fruit,

among

and bread, vegetables, the feasts and

(II, 159).
conquests

Similar listsappear

Rameses

duringthe same reign. Under III (IV, 244, 295, 299, 347) the PapyrusHarris notes as
new

from offerings

for "offerings

feasts,"dates, 65,480
and
as

measures,
to offerings

3,100
the

cut

branches; again,241,500 measures; god," dried dates,11,871 measures,

Nileures. meas-

1,396 jars; dates, 2,396 dynasty,6th century

"Sail
had
was

Later,under (IV, 944)

great
men

Psamtik

II, XXVIth
and

B.

C.
the

the
took

Adoption

Stela of Nitocris says:

every

set;

their weapons,
every
name

noble

supplied with
The

good thing: bread, beer, oxen,

for the
was date,phoinix,

provision, dates,herbs."
same
"

his

Greek

the

as

that

given
whence

the

traders from

Sidon

and

Tyre
of
was one

"

Phoenicians

Phoinikes,
{Die
have
to
to

numerous

commentators,
suppose

including Movers
name race

himself country

Phinizier, II,i, 1)
been derived from the northern of that the
tree
name race.

the

and

the

date,which

of the

leading exports
a

Mediterranean; noting that

the

date-palm was
that the
tree

symbol

But this in itselfis better evidence

of the
race,

received

of the Phoenicians."

being (So Lepsius

die Vilker und

truly,for Mediterranean
in the

peoples,the
to

introduction

his

Nubian

Grammar, Ueber
has

and Glaser, Sprachen Afrikas,

Punt und die Sildarabischen 66-9). Reiche,

Pliny (XIII, 7)
numerous

of long description date

was

the

date-palm and its

the flowers.
parts,
a

uses;

he

says the Arabian

the

and describes best,

of the trees, and the different sexes fully fine varietyof dates comes A specially which called Syagri,"
taste to

the

of pollination the

from

southern

such Plinytranslates "wild boar," ascribing

as

the

fruit;but
means
no

he
more,

connects

it with the story of the phoenix, that the fruit came 30. from

his

account

the southern The

coast

of Arabia.

than probably, (See under "

)
must
a

the flowers date-palm being dioecious,

to

be

artificially
of

fertilizedin order

ripen the

and fruit,

this involves

knowledge

the habit of the tree, and

intense heat including fulfilled on conditions are only partially all on the Northern Mediterranean.

in favorable surroundings, regular cultivation, and drought duringthe fruiting These season. the

Syrian coast,
to

and

not

at

They

exist

perfection around

159

the Persian of

and Gulf, stillthe principal, When the cultivation

supply.

source probablythe earliest, became certain. important in Egypt is un-

The
the but fruit,
to

in the Vlth earliestinscription, wine

refers dynasty, the time

not

to

(made

from

the

sap),and
as means

is centuries
tury cen-

later than

the

firstEgyptian Punt-voyages. Not

until the 17th

not

does the 15th owed

as

Egyptian date-fruit
is
to

appear
no

food, and
Southern

until the

temple-offering. It
it had

by
in

impossiblethat Egypt
Arabia (the
the Persian

this cultivation

its intercourse
come

with from

Poen-land) whence

turn
a

Gulf, that

or original Phoenician,Erythraean,

in

sense larger

Arabian, Sea.
of the Phoenicians

Among
may

the classical references

to

this home-land

opia are
later

Odyssey, IV, 81-5,where Sidonia and Aethiboth clearly Arabian, (cf. conjoined, 34-5; XVI, Strabo, I,ii,
be cited the

4, iv, 27.) iii,

The

Old

Testament
to

gives numerous
g.,

accounts

of

migrationsfrom

that quarter historian the

own

Palestine;e.

Zechariah

IX,

6;

Ezra

IV, 9.

The

for the earlier

: migration

Justin(XVIII, 3, 2) givesthe reason from the people of Tyre were sprung

distressed by earthquakes, land,being greatly in the

Phoenicians,who
and

left their
some

dwelt

time the

marsh-land

of

but Babylonia,

later by the shores

town

of

(Mediterranean) Sea, where

of the abundance For
see

they built a
of the

which

they called Sidon because

the

fish;

for sidon is the Phoenician word

for fish."

the relation of this WiUiam the

poet

legend
843-7:

to

Oannes, fish-godof Chaldaea,

The connection is noted

T/ie Jonah

Legend.

by

Simpson, Priscian,

sed litora iuxta

Phoenices vivunt, veteri cognomine dicti,

Quos misit quondam

Chaldaeo nimium

mare

rubrum

laudibus

auctos,

decoratam celebratam

Arcanisque Dei

sanguinegentem, legibusunam.
word how

According
udm
means

to

(N. Y., 1907), the Eiselen, Sidon, p. 12: hunt rather than to ftsh; but Simpson shows
to

readilythe whole
the

legend changed according

to

the

surroundingsof

people.
As
to

the race-originof the and

from who

"ludadan,"
was a son

Phoenicians, Syncellusderives them Josephus {Antiq. Jud., I, 6, 2) from Dedan,

the
son

of

Raamah,
X.
A

of

of Genesis them from

later that

account

Cush, according to the genealogy {Chron. Pasch., derives I, 54)

a son

Jobab,whom
Arabia
:

genealogy makes
the precisely of
same

of

Joktan. This
that of

would

indicate

for Phoenicia

experienceas

Southern
become

succeeding waves

the later tending to migration,

absorbed by the earlier.

160

It is

that significant
to

even

the Greeks

knew

Phoenice

as

Canaan.
the

Hecataeus refers
name

"Chna, as
as an

Phoenice

was

and formerlycalled,"

survived

as

late

of Antiochus inscription
can

Epiphanes, being
be who
no

connected
the Canaan

with the of

legendary hero Chna, who Genesis X, a brother to Cush,

This

other

than

and

"begot Sidon,
lowland," meaning is

his firstborn."

of a strip particularly

word, accordingto Movers, means and the same under the hills; coast
or

attached
Gates

to

Cush, Cutch,
to

in its Indian the modern

form,

Kachh

(Holdich,

of India,35), and

Sawahil of East Africa,and

the

Shehr of South Another

rests

Arabia, the Sachalites of

of that the activities
race

Periplus.

(bloody, derivation of "Phoenician" from "/4o";o/, derous), muron

people

as

traders and sea-folk,

of the Greeks.

pirates. So
The author

do the habits of the of the

survive in the puns

Island (" 33) found the dwellers on Sarapis Periplus and the Roman shippingout of Egypt had always ponerois, anthropois
to

go

armed

or

under

convoy.

36. Rome
as
a

Gold.

"

The

mentions Periplus

gold coin
from

as

an

export

from

India,but gold itselfas an product of the Ganges region.

to

export

Ommana

only, and

Gold

was

an

important product of Eastern Arabia, the best fields

courses

being in the Dawasir, and

ten

middle the Wadi

of the Wadi

er

Rumma,

the Wadi

ed

Yabrin.

Glaser
was

gether {Skizze, 347-9) locates altothis production that led the

Arabian

gold-fields.It
to

III Assyrian Tiglath-Pileser

of

refer of

to

gold as

the

dust of the
to

try" coun-

Merodach-Baladan, king
ports
centers

Bit-Yakin,and gold produced

The

make
to

the Persian the east, of northeastern

Gulf
in

also for the

farther

Carmania, Persia,
Arabia
were

and the

Himalayas.

watercourses
areas

probablythe producing II, 11-12, which

land of could while El-Yemama

of

the

land of

Havilah"

of Genesis
or

readily supply caravans

of fields,
s
'

for Chaldaea richer

Canaan;
and of

and the southern of Solomon'

were yield,

probablythe according to Joktan and

it is
not

Ophir'

voyages

(I Kings X)

;
son

the tribal genealogy(Genesis therefore

necessary

X, 29)

Ophir

was

purely Arabian.
to

Into this
evidence

\oluminous is summed

controversy
up

go

farther;the

357-388). by Glaser {Skizze,

and Romans the

To
apyron,

the Greeks which

gold of Ophir"
assumes

was a

known

as

Diodorus

Siculus
on

(II,50)

to
was

be

Greek

word,

"without fire," and

the ores, but roasting

goes
was

to

explain that it
in the earth in

not

reduced by

shininglumps the size of chestnuts. Agatharchidesand Pliny(XXI, 11) are both acquainted with this apyron gold,and Pliny (VI, 23) mentions also a river Apirus

found

161

in

described by Alexander's admiral, regionpreviously as gold-producing. Onesicritus, To the mixed Cushite-Joktanite the JoktaniteHavilah of Genesis,

Carmania,

in

Ophir

of I

Kings,

and

the Cushite Raamah of the under Periplus,

of Ezekiel Parthian

XXVII, rule,was

the the

cosmopolitan Ommana
lineal successor.
36.
now,

Slaves.
the

"

The

Arabs
were

were

inveterate

slave-traders then

as

and

ports of Oman

always active slave-markets.

coast

bian Ara-

dominion until results,

along the
checked

African

had

this

as

one

of its principal

by

international agreement

after

European

pation. occu-

il. The The whole

power

Country
of the

of the

Parsidae,of another
name

kingdom.
the of that
'

author

Periplusgives the
and refers
to

to or Persis, Persia,

Parthian Empire
in East and

the
'

recent

conquests

South Arabia.

This

of 'country

the Parsidae'

is

Persia proper, which of the

to

lowing, includingCarmania; a vassal state in the Arsacid folwould not have shared,as a state, in the Arabian spoils

empire.

Ommana

was

subjectto the Parthian monarchy,

not

Persia proper.

Pliny (VI, 28)

but has

says

'Persiais a country

opulent even
Parthia.' the
"

to

luxury,
Strabo
are a

for long since changed its name 24) observes more exactly,"at (VI, iii, separate people, governed by kings who the

that of
present
are now

Persians other

to subject to

kings;

to

kings of Macedon

in former

but times,

those of Parthia. separate

coast

37. The

Bay

of
to

Gedrosia, while hardly a

by
the stripof

bay

at

all, may
Ras

be assumed

be that bounded

between

(24" 45' N., (25" 7' N., 62" 18' E.) and Cape Monze (25" 6' N., 66" 40' E. ), while the "jutting cape" is Ras Ormara 64" 36' E.).
Nuh 37. Oraea.
"

The

bay
the

is the modern

Sonmiani

Bay (25" 0' N.,

to

66" 15' E. ), and the river is the Purali. According

Purali
at

Holdich, the
the

the

time

of
now

Periplusemptied
to

into

bay running some

These
are

and distance inland,

siltedup

the coast

lines.

of Alexander, VI, 21-2; Indka, people described by Arrian {Anabasis of their country Oritae the or name Oritians, XXI, XXIV, XXV) under
river was called Arabis,and The being called Ora. bank dwelt "an Indian nation called Arabians;" while the western bank
were on

itseastern
on

the Oritae

"dressed like the Indians and equipped with

"

different. but their language and customs were similar weapons, ing Their coast-line ran westward from the Arabis 160 miles ; or, accordto

Pliny (VI, 25-6), 200 miles.

They

dwelt

on

the inland

hills,

162

and along the

Alexander

Fish-Eaters. as shore, the latter being distinguished Rhamconquered the hiU-folk and colonized their capital,
his
own name

bacia,under
Nearchus
on

(Diodorus Siculus, XVI, 104);

"covered with

while hair

fought

the

coast-folk, reportingthem

the

with

ing body, their nails like wild birds' claws, used like iron for killand splitting and cutting softwood; other thingsthey cut fish, Strabo (XV, ii,2) describes sharp stones, having no iron."

their

dwellings,made

of the bones

of

whales and great shells; the

ribs being used for beams

Here from
are more

and the jawbones for doorways. and rafters,

of the The that earlymigrations river Arabis and the radiated
ward outare

echoes

the Persian Gulf. of

a are

the Arabians

reminiscent sufficiently in
source. names

Arabia, while
the

capital, Rhambacia,
from the modern

pears ap-

Ptolemy
The
the

as

cityof

Rhamnae, derived
the

same

Oritas
same

representedby

Brahui.
in Greek
a

Both and the

have

other in

Persian; but
The
country

one meaning, "hill-folk," than this is probably no more

punning

lation, trans-

like that of Makran eaters."

daean well of

into Mahi

"fishKhuran, Ichthyophagi,
to

Ora

is rather related
with the

the

Uru of Chal-

place-names; beingconnected
into the

sun-worship that survived

are a

Christian
race on

era.

The
to

Brahui Southern

Dravidian

tribe left

behind

by
'

their of

its way the

India;
was

in earlier

days the
The

connection
name

both
as

with

Persian Gulf

less broken.

Makran,"
Dravidian;

shown

by Curzon

{Geographical VII, Journal,

to

557)
the

is

while
name

"Brahui"

is thought to refer
same

the hero of

tribe, Braho, a
those

having the

root

as

Abraham

{Imperial
same
'

Gazetteer of
as

India,IX, 15-17).

These

people are
the

probablythe
"

called by Herodotus
as

94) "Asiatic Aethiopians,'and (III,

sunrise,
who
were

again (VII, 70)

to

from 'Aethiopians

similar

the

in
same

Aethiopiansof Southern Arabia, both peoplesbeing represented and both having presumably sprung the Persian army, from the stock;
the
to as

witness

the

record

in Genesis

X, 7,
The the

the and

sons

of

Cush:
and
seems

Seba,and Havilah, and Sabtah,and Raamah,

sons

Sabteca;
name

of Raamah:

Sheba,
in the

and

Dedan.

"

Cushite

survive in

Kej,

of valley

Makran;

Kesmacoran"

of Marco The

Polo.
names

of

the

Pharaohs
a

of the

XXVth

or

"Aethiopian"

dynasty

in

Egypt, point to (I,ch. v)

like

Pa-anch, Poen, etc.),and {cf.

Wellsted Beni Genab
coast.

: Kashta, Shabaka,Piankhi origin Taharka {cf. Katar,Socotra).

noted

the strong racial similarity between

the

in South Arabia

and

the

people found

on

the

Makran

Holdich

VII, 388) {Geographical Journal,

coast
"

finds the island of

center

Haftalu

off the Makran

the Astola of

Ptolemy,a

of the

163

known sun-worship locally gave to Ceylon, but which,

"

as

Serandip;
from
to

name

which

the Saracens

apart

its last the

the Sanscrit syllable,

or Sera,Sarapis,

seems island, dv'ipa,

to

be

related

island of

Masira, off
The

the Arabian

coast.

evident

connection

between

both

wings

of this system

is

generalizedby Gotz
'

im Dienste des If'elthandeh, iFerkehrswege 33-117)

' '

as

'Turanian-Hamitic.
Holdich

(^Gates of India,36)
negroes
as

seems

to

have the

in mind
' '

race

sembling re-

African

the

of original

Asiatic been

Aethiopifrom
a

ans"

in

Makran.

But

their

descent
"

should

have

the

Persian which

Gulf.
in
some

Sir John Mandeville

ways
seems nearer

(chap,xxiv) gives
and

legend Cham,

the truth:

Noah
for his

had three sons, Shem

took

Shem, Cham
Africa,and
most

Japhet
took
of

took cruelty,

the greater and the best part, toward

the east, that

is cleptAsia, and

Japhet

Europe
came was

Cham

was

the greatest and of the

the

mighty, and
of his
son

him

more

than generations

other.

And

Chuse

dered engentower

Nimrod

the And

that giant, of the

began

the foundation be

of- the
come
"

of

Babylon
and

generationof Cham
sea

the

Paynims

divers folk that be in islesof the

by

all Ind.

See also Lassen, op. cit., II,187-191; Sir Thomas of India, pp.

146-161;

and

Gen.

M.

R.

Holdich, Gates Haig, Geographical Journal,

VII, 668-674.
37. Rhambacia.
"

The

name

of

the

is not given in capital

the

the lacuna text, but Miiller fills cius this

with that mentioned

by Arrian.

Fabribut

the capital of Gedrosia accordingto Ptolemy; prefersParsis, place was probably much farther west.

Rhambacia

was

at

no

great

distance from

the modern

Las

Bela

{Gates of India, According to Holdich (26" 26' N., 66" 20' K). 320, 'ill),this whole neighborhood is full of evidences of early (150-1). Arabian occupation; but the exact siteis undetermined
The
ramana,

tribe-name, Rhamnae, Lassen a happy; which, while possibly

"blessed" for Socotra,which
Cushite stock generally. The El Katar

connects
mere

with
pun,
may

the

Sanscrit

explain the

Hindu

name or as

had
root

been

identified with

Raamah,
the
same

of So-co/r-ais evidently

adjoiningBahrein. peninsula,
Arabic
name

an Shamartda, "precious,"

for the mountain of the

at

the

Straits of

Hormus;

the

Island of the Blest" reflect a Cushite

Babylonian

Gilgamesh epic; may the "chosen people"

,^

these
of the
an

like race-appellation,

Hebrevys.?
gum

37. Bdellium

is

aromatic

exuded native

from

Balsanwdendron

a small mukul, order Burseracea,

tree

in northwestern

India,

164

Beluchistan,Arabia, frankincense,and
to

and

East

Africa; closelyallied
a

to

myrrh and
cording Acthe he

similarly employed from Pliny (XII, 19) the best sort came
India and Arabia, Media
to

very

earlydate.
and Bactria,
gum,

from

inferior from
says,
unctuous

and Babylonia. The

the color of bitter
to

ought
when
the

be

transparent

and

wax,

odoriferous,
taste,
purposes

subjectedto
which he
states

and friction,

the

though
it is

without

slightest acidity. When

upon

used
a

for sacred

steeped in wine,
The

it emits
as

still more

powerful odor."
it equal

price in Rome
the poorest
was

3 denarii per

pound, making

only to

of myrrh. quality the product particularly the Indian of the hillsbetween its way the

Bdellium Hindu Kush

and

Ocean,

and

found

westward

through the Persian Gulf ports or overland through Babylonia. Arrian VI, 22) tellshow the army of Alexander, returning {Jnahasis, through
the country of the
came Oritae,

upon

many

than myrrh trees, larger

usual,"
Genesis

from

which
gum

the

Phoenician it away. the

traders

the gathered

and which

carried

accompanying the army It is probablythe hdolach of

from the

II, 12,

reached

Hebrews

"land of

Havilah,"
of
to

the south shore of the Persian

Gulf,the
some

districtof Ommana Hebrew

"
be

36.
a

Bdolach,however,
while of Tudela

is

thought by
same

authorities

crj'stalline gem;

the

word

is used in the for the

Itinerary
the

of

Benjamin

(Adler's edition, p. 98)

same

of pearls

meaning in the Meadows of Gold See also Watt, op. cit., of Mas'udi (Sprenger's translation, p. 544). 1,290; Glaser,Skizxe, 324-5, 364-7. p. 400; Lassen, op. cit.,
A
as

and with the Bahrein fisheries,

passage

in the Book

of Numbers

(XI, 7)

is perhaps of interest

the ancient classification of fragrant gums by size and reflecting the tree. The shape of the piece, rather than by distinguishing is there said (in the R. V. ) to have been "like of the Israelites manna

coriander seed," and the bdellium.'

'

appearance

thereof

as

the

appearance

of

The
to

A.

V. has the "coloras the color of

bdellium,"in
was

contradiction

Exodus

XVI, 31,
'

where

the

color

said

to

be
in

The white; bdellium being brown, like myrrh. the Revised Version, Hebrew, eye, points to
"

marginal
the
true

note

meaning.

shown Glaser has already

to

the anti incense a-a-nete,

to

of the

Egyptian Punt Reliefs

und die Siidarahexuded

be

an

Arabian 7

word,
)
,

tree-eyes" {Punt
to

isclienReiche, p. cracks from in the the

or

and
or

refer

the

lumps, large supposed

under

through
tree-tears

bark,

as through substantialincisions,

distinguished
be

small round

drops, which (as shown

had the Numbers have of

were

to

(" 29)
conclude

the the tree-blood

" 29).
to

The

Hebrews
nvy

after the Exodus

would

same

so classification; we

that the

author

meant

compare

the

small

166

This iVIinnagara may

be identified with the Patala of Alexander'

expedition
"

it

at

of the delta country. capital Bahmanabad, 25" 50' N. 68" 50' E. the
,

Vincent
about

Smith

locates
west

six miles

of

the modern

Mansuriyah.
since greatly

The

site

was

discovered by M. The

Bellasisin Indus delta

of the

remains. 1854, and includes extensive prehistoric has

grown
our

author's

Indus and all its tributaries have

says

time, and the courses changed repeatedly. Vincent probably about

68 30 E.

Smith
of

that the apex

of the delta

was

miles forty
He cites

north

that

approximately26" 40' N., place,

to

numerous

facts 40
now

prove

that the coast-line has advanced Alexander's time.

was a

anywhere
of Cutch
arm

from

20

to

miles since
a

The
broad

Rann
open

(EirinonJ,
sea

saltmarsh, he thinks
the
eastern

of the

running
into it.

to

25" N., with

branch
river and
now

of the formed

Indus

emptying

Silt brought down southward

by

the

into great bars washed of the Rann N.

by

the violent

has tides,

closed the mouth

may

almost entirely. The

from

coast-line he thinks
of Cutch. the

have

averaged 25" probablyopen

ruins
at

Karachi Reclus

to

the Rann

{Asia,III, 142-5) says

when
a

Rann

was

sea

until about the 4th century, this whole

at Parkar,

series of violent He
reports

vated earthquakesele-

region considerably.
corner,

Nagar

the northeast

a large indicating sea-port

trade there.

These from this 38.

changes

may

have

been

one

cause

of the great

migration

region to Java

in the 6th and The

7th centuries A.
reference
to

D.

Parthian
over

princes.
the

"

thian the rule of "Paris very

princes"
The firsthorde

metropolisof Scythia"
Asia
to
overrun

interesting.
was

from

Central

the

Pamirs

the

before Saka, fleeing Seistan

the Yueh-chi.

They
at

settled in the Cabul

valley,

and (SakasteneJ, had known

the lower Indus.

a

By
"

about

120 B. C. their

leader Manes his fine

was

established
as
'

kingdom
the

to Parthia; Cabul, subject

the
'

but 'Indo-Parthian,

his

race

was,

roughly Saka,

speaking, Scythian.
firstconquering Greek
as

Gradually
Bactria
of the

Yueh-chi referred
"

pursued
to

the

(theyare

in this text,

" 47,

the

warlike 'very

nation

in Bactrians, living and

the interior).

Their

king, Kadphises I, conquered Cashmere Kadphises II,who

at

the upper after

a

Indus;
disastrous
quering con-

his son, defeat

acceded
pursuer
"

about

85 A.

D.,

Kuche

by

the

of the

Yueh-chi,
A. D. and
"

the Chinese

general Pan-Chao
southward then and reached Both the upper
were

about
the and

90

directed his armies

the lower

overran rapidly

Panjab
interior

Indus, and Scyths; the

their power

Ganges

points like Indore.

'Min"
the
or

races

called by the Sanscrit Indo-Parthians

Periplus shows Scythia," then

the
at

ruling in

metropolis of

the apex

of the Indus

delta; showing

167

in the Kabul Kushan'

'

to valley

have

been

broken

alreadyby

the Yueh-chi conquest

or

dynasty,but
not

their

subsequent complete
in the

by

the

Yueh-chi The

had

yet been

consummated.

conditions described political

Periplus were

probably
about
power

those that followed the death of Parthian ruler in the Panjab. 51 A. D.

was

Gondophares,the lastpowerful Indooccurred

This is supposed to have

of

After

some

years

anarchy and
and

civil war,

the Saka

again consolidated
from the Indus

under
to

two

lines of rulers;the "Northern Satraps"

the these
power.

the

Jumna,

Both Kathiawar,Gujaratand Malwa. and later subject to the Kushan tributary,

"Western Satraps" in dynasties at first were

led
the of

More

distant southern

raidingby
the
west

the

Indo-Parthians
after
a

to

"Pallava" dynasties along

centuries

coast, which
of
to

couple
referred

succeeded

in

gaining control

much be

of Southern the
ones

India.
to

These in

princes were
as

thought by labricius

"

52
39.

near rulingin Calliena,

Bombay.
text

Figured linens.
Babylon
The
was

"

The

is polymita.

Pliny (VIII, 74)

of
two

says:

very

famous

for

making embroidery in difFerent

have

colors, and Babylonian.

threads it was
was

hence

stuffs of method
at

this kind of

obtained the
with
are more

name

weaving cloth

than

invented

Alexandria;these cloths
were
"

c?i!\^A polymita ;
"

in Gaul

that they

Martial's epigram,
that the the

chequers. Cubicularia polymita" (XIV, 150) indicates

formed in
a

firstdivided into

Egyptian tissue

was

loom,

like tapestry, and

that

Babylonian was
39.

embroidered

with

the needle. stone,

Topaz.
from

The

text

This is chrysolithos.

according to
Red

Pliny,came
two

and Aethiopia (Abyssinia)

sort came

islands in the
Here

Sea;

and he adds that the best

from

India.

is a confusion between
true

kinds of stone;

the Red

Sea gem

being the
and

topaz and of

the Indian either the Romans be led astray

or

or chrysolite

yellow sapphire. The

was we same

knowledge
we are

in

regard to preciousstones
that because the have

vague,

apt to

by assuming
we

have

borrowed

the Greek

Latin The

name

appliedit to

stone.
was

mentioned chrysolithos
was

in the

text

almost certainly our Sea islands, being

topaz, which
an

produced
in the

in abundance

in the Red exports of

important item

east-bound

Egypt, under

the

Ptolemies and Rome.

It was

Strabosays:(XVI, iv,6) "After Berenice cleared of the serpents by the king, on

. .

isthe island
account

Ophiodes. by the
stones

of the topazes maintained these

found there.

A body of

men

was

appointedand

kings of Egypt to guard and maintain the place where found, and superintendthe collection of them. were
"

168

It is remarkable
as an

that the
to

does Periplus

not

mention
was a

emeralds

also

export

from

Berenice

India.
of

There
our

production large They

may

from have have

mines fetched had For

to
a

in the hillsjust west better compete

author's in

home.

pricesin Rome
with the native these

than

where India,

they would

beryls.
as

of description

mines, as well

of the present

ance appear-

of the site of 39.

Berenice, see
See also

Bent, Southern Arabia, 291-7.

This
was

Coral.

""

28 and 49.
was one

the red coral of

assets principal

the Western the

some as were

Mediterranean, which Empire

of the

of

Roman

in its trade with the East. that coral The with

was as

Pliny observes
ornamented

with India their

was

(XXXII, 11) surprise

pearls at Rome.
helmets and its export value

highlyprized in

Gauls

formerly
became

swords, shields and opened

with them. Tavernier in his time in of
:

but coral,

after the Indian trade

it increased,

extremely
the

scarce

found ( Travels in India,II, xxiii)

same

conditions

Although

coral does

not

rank
esteem

among

precious stones

Europe, it is nevertheless the globe,and it is one

so

held in high of the

most

in the other quarters

beautiful of nature's

tions, produc'

that there

are

some on

nations who Tavernier

stones.' prefer itto precious

Ball,in
for coral and
to

his notes

(II, 136),ascribes
to set
"

the preference
a

"the

way

itstints adapt themselves

a

off

dark

skin,

also look well with It

was

white

garment.

also valued
as
a

for its supposed sacred continued in

and properties,
the
worn

the belief and

in its uses
even to

charm

through

Middle
as a

Ages,

the

present

day

where Italy,

it is

protection
in

the against The

evil eye. red principal coral then fisheries,

as

now,

were

Sicily,

Sardinia and

Corsica,near
describes the

Naples,Leghorn
the
coasts

and

Genoa,

in

Catalonia,
Morocco.
"

the Balearic Islands and Tavernier

of of

Tunis, Algeria and fishingby hemp,

swabs"
were

method

crossed
let down

weighted, and bound rafters,

and entangledamongst
than they caught.
art.

with twisted
on

which

the coral
a

the

rocky bottom, breakingmore Encyclopedia Britannica,

For

fuller description, see

Coral.
Red There coral is Corallium
was

rubrum, family Gorgonidie.

in the Red
not

black coral in abundance coast, but these

were

Sea, and
so

others

along the

Arabian

prized

highly. See

Haeckel, Arabiiche Korallen.

39.

CostUS.

"

This

is the

cut

root
on

of Saussurea the
open

lappa,order
the

Com-

tall perennial,growing a posita,

slopes of

vale of

Kashmir,

and

other

of high valleys

that

region,at elevations of 8,000

169

to

13,000

feet.
as a

In the

Roman

Empire

it

was

used

as

culinary
Version

spice,also
in

perfume, enteringinto many than pepper and cinnamon. less quantity

a

of the The

ointnlents, though
Revised

givesit as
as one

marginal reading for Exodus

of ingredients
was

XXX,

24, in place of cassia,

the

of the

the and

anointingoil of
cut

Hebrew

priests.
size

The
both of
a

root

dug

up

into small

pieces,and shipped to
root
as

Rome

and China.

Vincent

describes the

being the

cortex

The finger; a yellowish woody part within a whitish bark. and aromatic,of an agreeablesmell, is brittle, bitterish, warm,

resembling orris.
Chishull Calhnicus
1
to

(^Antiq. Asiat.,71)
the

giftsfrom Seleucu? 10 talents; Milesians included frankincense, myrrh,

notes

that the

2 pounds; cinnamon, talent;cassia,

pounds;

costus,

1 pound.
root,
as

By
in Rome

the Romans

costus

was

often called
was

simply radix,the
leaf. 5 have been

from nard,which distinguished is stated by

caWsA

the folium,
to

The

price

Pliny (XII, 25)

denarii per

pound.
In modern the Kashmir
to

the collection of

costus

is

State monopoly,
to

productbeing sent
Sea ports.
it is used

Calcutta and Bombay, for shipment

it is used merchants in perfumes and
to
as

China

and Red

In China

incense.

In Kashmir

by shawl
is from

protect their fabrics from

moths. The earth.

See

word

costus

the Sanscrit

kushtha, standing in the I, 287-8.

varieties of the

Watt,

op.

980; Lassen, op. cit.,

"

at.,

39.

Lycium.
in the

This

was

derived

from

growing

Himalayas,

at

elevations

of

6,000

to

barberry 10,000 feet.

Berberis lycium,also B. heridacea.

From from the the
stem,
roots

B. aristata,

B. vulgaris, order Berasiatica,

and

stems

yellow dye
was

was

prepared; while

astringent medicine, of which is described by Pliny (XXIV, 77). "The the preparation are bitter, pounded and then branches and roots, which are intensely
an

fruitand root-bark

made

boiled for three days in

copper

the woody vessel;

parts

then

moved, re-

and the decoction

is mixed

boiled again to the thickness

with
a murca as an

of

honey.

It

with various bitter extracts, and

of

olive oil,

ox-gall. The froth of this decoction is used for the eyes, and the other part as a compositions
and
for the of the
cure

in ingredient

face

cosmetic,and

of

throat
"

and suppurations, for diseases corroding sores, fluxes, for dressing open for coughs, and locally and gums, empty

wounds.

Many

lycium

pots have

been

found in the ruins of

Herculaneum

and Pompeii.

(See also Watt,

op. cit.,130.)

170

39.

Nard

the spikenard, species). This is the

from as (the root, from the lowlands, distingfuished different leaf or flower,from the mountains, a totally
root

of the

ginger-grass, Cymbopogon schoenanWestern BeluchisPanjab,India,

order Graminea, thus,

tan

native in the

C jwarancusa,native more and the allied species, to and Persia, allied to the Ceylon citronella, C. It is closely the east and south.

nardus.

From Roman

the

root

of this grass

was as

derived
a

an

oil which
as

was an

used

in

commerce

and medicinally

perfume, and
the army

astringent
its

in ointments. This homeward

says
roots

is

no

doubt

the nard found

by

of Alexander which

on

march,

in the country

of the desert

of Gedrosians,

Arrian

VI, 22): {Anabasis,

of

"This
and

produces perfume
great

many

odoriferous
of it was diffused far the abundance

nard, which by

the

Phoenicians gathered; but much

a

trampled down
and wide
over

the army,

sweet

was

the land

by

the

trampling; so

was

of it." 39.
same as

Turquoise.

"

The

text

has calUan

stone, which that

came

seems

the

callaina (XXXVII, Pliny's countries lying back of India," or of the description

occurs stone

33), a
more

stone

from

"the
His

Khorassan. definitely,
our

itself identifies it with

rocks

abundantlyin
north A

volcanic

intrudinginto
from

which turquoise, sedimentaryrocks

near

in that district. The about 48 miles

fineststones
of

came

the mines

Nishapur (theNisasa of
this the Indus

Maaden, Alexander,36" 30'

would locality
have its mouth, where

N., 58" 50' E. ).

been down the author of the also

natural trade-route from

thence by river, the
du

the Kabul

to

found Periplus Commerce

stones

offered for sale.

au

(See

Heyd,

Levant

Moyen Age, II, 653

Erdkunde,325-330; Yule's Marco Polo,Cordier's ed.,I, 92 Ritter, Goodchild, Precious Stones, 284; Tavernier, Travels in India,II, xix
is only found "Turquoise in Persia in
. .

two

mines, one

near

Nishapur,

the

other

five

days'

journey from

it;"

Russian Lansdell,

Centra IAsia, 515. ) 39.

Lapis

lazuli.

"

The

word
to
assume

in the this

text to

is be

and sappheiros, the

same as our

natural inclination would

which sapphire,
f XXXVII,
opaque

be
a

is also
stone

product
known

of
to

India;
which

but

according to Pliny
as

39) the
stone

the Romans
came

sapphirewas
It was
not

an

blue

with from

golden spots,
the country itwas
our we

from

Media, that is,

suited

in

generalway,
be
very

call Persia.

for

engravingbecause
can a

intersected with hard crystalline particles.

which lapislazuli,
ornament

This
from

nothing but earlytime

has been
as a

in demand

for

and

also

pigment, ultra-

171

marine, which buildings. Our

southern from

was

so

used by extensively
seems

the

Egyptiansin
rather
a

their

public

sapphire
and

to

have

been

product of exported

India

Ceylon, and
to

would

hardly have

been

the Indus

valley.
the

refers Dionysius Periegetes birth

stone to

underlyingrocks
and which
azure

which

gave

the beauteous

tablets of the golden hued

from
our

sapphire
to

which

they detach

the parent

rock,

"

seems

cate indi-

lazulirather lapis Goodchild almost

writers.

than

sapphire.
that this
other
remote extent stone
was

{Precious Stones, p. 240), also thinks

sapphire
It has
the of

the certainly He
says,

Theophrastus
known from
to
a

and
very

ancient

been

times,
by the
of the Romans

being
Law

much

used

by

and Egyptians, of

lesser the

Assyrians. Epiphanius,Bishop given

Lassen
to

Salamis,says
on

Tables
The

Moses
extent

were as same a

inscribed

lapislazuli.

used it to

some

material for engraving on.

is of the

opinion.
says

Beckmann

{Hist.Inv.,1, 467 J
lapislazuli
that itwas
came

writingin
to

the 18th century,

that the real

from

at Bokhara, particularly

Kalab
to

and

Badakshan;
Some
came

sent thence

India,and

from

India

Europe.

also through Russia firstroute

via

Orenburg,

but less than

formerly. (The

corresponds
"

sapphireof the ancients" quoting Pliny,Isidori Orig.XVI, 9; Theophrast. de Lapid.; " 43; V, 157; Dionys., Orb. Desc.,V, 1105; Epiphanius a'^ Dioscorides,
with the xii zemmis,%5; MzxhoAeus de

) Periplus.

I consider itas the

55. Lapidibus,

Tavernier, {Travels in India,II, xxv) speaks of a "mountain producing lapis," which Bali {Economic Geology of beyond Kashmir
India, 529) locates
For
a near

Firgamu

see description Ultramarine was probablynot

fuller

Badakshan, 36" 10' N., 71" Holdich, Gates of India,426, 507.

in the caruleum
was glass

of the

Romans,

which

was

rather copper

ochre.

Their blue

rather cobalt.
says,

39. Seric

skins."

Pliny (XXXIV,
send it to

41)

"of all the different

to

kinds of iron,the palm of excellence is awarded is made- by the Seres,who

next
us

that which

with their tissues and Parthian

iron." And

skins; again
ings cover-

which, (XXXVII, 11^ "the

to

in

quality,is the
most

valuable products furnished

the Seres
to

by

the

of animals These this statement

are

the skins which

are

dye."
those who have

passages

sufficient answer

doubted

in the
see

opposedto

whom

Periplus. (Vincent,II, 390; Miilier I, 288, more Fabricius, reason p. 151.) There is no why
sent

furs should not than in the 16th for

have
to

been

overland

across

Asia in the 1st century

sider, 19th,when the trade was most important. Conin Russian sables to-day, getting even instance,the difficulty
the

172

to

market, and
Tibet As
to the
to

how

much

easier
to

to

get the various

wild

animal

skins

from

and Turkestan

the Indus mouth

!
mentioned

"most excellent iron

this

of the Seres"
was

by Pliny,
rectly cor-

it is open

questionwhether
coast
"

not

Indian

more steel,

described in the Periplus as coming from

to

the Gulf

of

Cambay

the Somali

and

short distance north of

Persia
to

Egypt It was produced in Haidarabad, a and the and to Golconda, was shipped Panjab
famous from

be

made

into steel; the

derived

Damascus
this
source.

blades of the

middle

ages

being

mainly

(Tavernier,

Ball's ed., I, 157.) Travels, 39- Cloth.

with the
"

See also under

whether

"

6. be connected it is
a

It is uncertain

this should

following item, yarn,

item. under

both
seems

or being silk,

whether be

separate
as

If the

as latter,

probable,it would

muslin,

noted

"38

"

the s'lndon of the

Greeks, long

stapleproduct

of the Panjab and Sind. 39. found

Silk yarn.
at

"

According
of the

to

the

the Periplus, and

Roman
at

traders

silk

the in

mouths

Indus

Ganges,
been

the Gulf of various

Cambay, and
routes

Travancore,
W.

whither

it had

brought by
well

from The

N.

China.
for
at silk,

principal highway
and

this time the demand

as

as

was later,

through Turkestan
countries
grew
more more more

Parthia.

As

in Mediterranean the Parthian government

were

the restrictions of insistent,

severe,

became the
root

and
war

quarrelsover
between
Rome

the silk trade

at

of the

than

one

and

or Parthia,

later

between

Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Persia.

reach

This
on

eflort of

to Constantinople

China

without direct, for Abyssinia,

dependence
the but
sea no

potamia, Mesowith

led
the
was

to
a

alliances with
route

trade,and
permanent

Turks,

for

north

of the

Caspian ;
a

result

reached until the 6th century, when succeeded Justinian

s

couple
from

of Christian monks the

was

under

in

back bringing
which

China

jealouslyintroduced

guarded silk-worm'
into

eggs,

from from

the silkculture

Greece, and imports

At the time of the
the

the East diminished.

Rome Periplus,
open
to

sea-route

was

only one

and Parthia being at war, the Roman silk traders.

the

See also under

39. order
ern

"" 49,
a

56 and

64. from

Indigo,

dye produced
about
see

Indigofera tinctoria, Linn.,

about 25 exist in ^^
est-

Leguminosa ;

and alliedspecies, of which

300 in other

India alone,and
modern

the

production Pliny says

Watt

tropical regions. Concerning 664). It was {op.cit., valued in

countries
as a

Western
a

Asia, Egypt, and

the Mediterranean

dye

and

medicine.

(XXXV,

25-7) :

174

The

upheavalis too regularto

of the
a

have
to

occurred have
ocean

by ordinarycauses.
vy^ater,

At

the time

Periplusit seems

been open below Now

although
delta is

shoal,with
with
a

clear opening into the

the Indus the

and delta,

branch of the Indus running into it.

very

Indus

pushed
branch

much

farther

south,and

the

scour

of the tides has carried the

its alluvium

along the
to

coast, almost

blockingup

Rann;

while

the

that watered

it no

longer flows
occurred

in that direction.

One

is led
to to

surmise

that the great in the

migrationfrom
6th

Cutch

and

Gujarat
which

Java, which

and

7th centuries, and

there

led

the establishment of Buddhist kingdoms

(surviving
may

in the tremendous been due

even more

temples of Boroboedor
to

and

Brambanan)
of

have

this

cause

than

to

the invasion of hostile Aryan

a

tribes from
a

the upper

Indus.

The

conversion

navigable bay

into

and salt desert,

the diversion of the rivers that watered starvation would

to

ruin and spelled

multitudes of
been

must it, its agricultural and

to

have ing seafara

who inhabitants, unusual in history.

have

forced

migrate
the

on

scale

considerations tend Geological

to

confirm the

otherwise tradition,
was

unsupported by historic evidence,that

deflected by the Rohri
it
was

Indus
of

formerly

into the Rann Hills directly

was

Cutch, where
formed
a tinuation con-

joinedby
of the canal.

the river which and Sutlej

supposed to
the

have
now

Sarasvati through the

dried-up Hakra
of the Indus

f Wahind)

floods During exceptional

eastern

waters

overflow into the still

desert and

even

into the

Rann.

Other

the desert farther south still channels traversing ing attest the incessant shiftof the main
stream

in its search branch

for the

most

favorable seaward
as

let. out-

According to Burns, a
flowed "Ancient," still
mouth. The rendered
many
constant

of the Indus known about

the

Purana,or

in 1672

120 miles

east

of the present

of shiftings

the

river-bed

toward and arid,

the

west

have

the

eastern

regions continually more

year

have

changed

river-channels into salt-pits. In the Ghazi

1909

of 25,000 city

Dera inhabitants, The

a irina, name

Khan,

was
or

almost annihilated by the Indus.

Rann is from the Sanscrit aranya
or

Eirinon, Rinn
or

waste

swamp.

40. Whether

The
the

Gulf
name

of

Baraca

is the modern
to

modern

Gulf

of

Cutch.

sur\ives It

in the
seems

Dwarka
same as

(22" 22' X.,

Bahlika^ which
and

69" 5' E. ), is uncertain.

is associated with the Vishnu Purana.

be the

Surashtra in the

Mahahharata, the Ramayana

is very uncertain.

41. Ariaca.
thinks that the
name

"

This

word

in the

text

Lassen

the Sanscrit Latica is properly

(pronounced Larica)

175

and included the land

the also gives The
to
name

on

both sides of the Gulf An

to

of

Cambay.
mentions

Ptolemy
Latica.

Larica.
seems
"

of inscription

Asoka
or

earliestform
the

have

been Rastika
appears

Rashtrika, belonging
Maratha

kingdom.

This

word

also in Syrastrene.The

Prakrit form

of this word

Rdshtra survives also in the modern

Another

{Maharashtra). (Lassen, I, 108.)

Ariaca from

explanation derives
seaboard.

Apardntika,an
to

old

name

for the western Indian

(Pandit

Bhagvanlal Indraji, m
Reclus

Antiquary, VII, 259-263.)

According

(Baraca and
has with been

(Asia, III,165) both Cutch and Kathiawar islands. This whole Syrastrene) originally were area
The land

raised in historical times.

is not
over

connecting Kathiawar
is full of

the mainland remains.

50

feet above

sea-level and

marine

Its positionseaward
mixture of
races
"

made

it earlya for

centre

of

trade,and

great

also

an

asylum
The
text

and religious. political refugees, This is

41. the
same

Nambanus.
as

"

is Alamharus.

probably

the Saka

ruler This have

Nahapana.
is the been native the

See under

"

52.
Lassen the

41. Abiria.

"

538-9),argues
of the

must

Abhira, which Biblical Ophir. In

(I,

account

Ophir trade given in I Kings, IX, 26-28; I Kings, X, 11; II Chronicles VIII, 17, and IX, 10, the products mentioned are
and peagold, sandalwood (.0, precious stones, ivory,silver, cocks. apes word translated ape, Lassen remarks, is kophi,not a The

Hebrew

word, but

derived

from

the Sanscrit word

kapi. The

word

for ivory is noted

under

"

49.

The

word

for

is peacock, tukhi-im,

called in the Sanscrit sikhi,

Malabar, togei.
the

Sandalwood,
derives from

Lassen

thinks,was

almug

or

algum, which

he

Malabar valgum. Lassen also refers valgu, to the Indian citySophir (theSuppara of " 52). But the location of Ophir in India is impossible. The land of is and was purelyan agricultural Gujarat, Abhira, the modern country.
the Sanscrit

dealingin

none

of the coast,

productsmentioned, and
not

is at the northern

end

of India' s west
came.

the

southern,from
in Indian

which

these

products
on

is sufficiently Later scholarship sure

coast

locating Ophir
names was a

the

Arabian

of the Persian

Gulf,butthe

for the products

mentioned

enough proved clearly

too,

that it
not

tradingcenter
have

dealingwith India,even
The
name,

if the land itself was

Indian.
we

has

suggestivesimilarity. Just as

wretched Cush," so Abhira, Cutch, Kachh, Khuzistan^Kassites, and Dravidian-Accadian be activity Apir, Ophir suggest the same India,the Persian Gulf, and Africa, which later gave way tween

176

to

nati\e Semitic,
years

Arabian

activity.This day.

would

have

been

couple

of thousand 41. The Arabic

name

before

Solomon's

Syrastrene.
domination.

"

survives in
At

Sanscrit,Surashtra; the the modern Surat,which

the time of of the

modern
owes

Kathiawar.
its
name to

with the the Saka 41.

or

oppositecoast

this peninsula, together Periplus Cutch and Cambay, was subjectto

Indo-Parthian dynasties.

fertile country.

"

Gujarat

is still one
to

of the the

richest

due its prosperity being largely regions in India, its coast-linesand fringing is particularly adapted to
to

60 seaports

the

of its deep fertility

cotton. to

black

the

cultivation of

which soil, Horses, cattle, and other

sheep

and

grain are

exported in largenumbers

Bombay

parts of India.

41.
most

Rice.

"

Oryza, Linn.
is

order
,

Graminea.

The

species now
wild tritialso wild

generallycultivated
of
was

one varieties,

which coides,

various are Ory%a saliva. There (Roxb. ) or 0. importance being Oryza coarctata and native in the Indus and Ganges valleys, (see Watt, op. cit., 823-5).
seems

in Mesopotamia apparently

This

varietyresembles
Strabo and
some

wheat

and

to
on

have

been

mistaken

for it by

of the Greek

writers

India.

and
was

the cultivated form, is native in India, Burma, Oryza iativa, Southern food of Asia, and doubtless China. It is the principal
so

at

the time

of the

when Periplus,

it

was

exported

to

Arabia

and

East Africa.

It

was

cultivated in China, according to Stanislas

B. C.
,

as early Julien, as 2800

and

probably somewhat
in the order

later in India.
it

WdXX.

thinks

the

cultivation began rather in Turkestan, whence

spreadto China, India and Persia

climate also with until

named,
He

the

changing

forcingits wild

habitat southwards. which

cides thinks that coin-

the

region through
in the

the Dravidian civilization. He

invaders passed
also cautions the Arabic ), from the

they culminated

Tamil

the tempting derivation against al-ruzz. Tamil

of the Greek

word

oryzji and
etc.

(from

which

the modern
are

rice, riz, riso, arroz,

rather from the before

arisi, thinkingthat they

Central Asia.

old Persian virinzi

(Sanscrit vrihi), indicating an earlyconnection

radiated from

migrationshad

41. Sesame D. C.
,

order

oil,expressedfrom the seeds of Sesamum Indicum, Pedalinea;an annual plant cultivated throughout the
was a

and subtropical tropical regionsof the globe for the oil obtained from the seed.

Originally, perhaps, it

native

of

Africa,but
that

was

cultivatedin India long before it reached regularly countries. At the time of the Periplus it is safe to

the Mediterranean
assume sesame

177

was

an

important
Our

crop

throughout India
shows Arabia world.
us

and the

warmer

tral parts of Centhe

was

Asia.

author
to

that the oil was

exported from
doubtless it

Gulf of Cambay

both

and

Africa,whence

reshippedto
under which In

the Roman
to

According

the statistics given by Watt in 1904-5

was over

{_op. 982) cit.,

4,000,000

the

area

cultivation in India

acres,

of

about 700,000
modern

was

in the

Cambay

states.

India the oil is largely used for culinary purposes,

in soap

in It is

anointing the body,

also used
as an

adulterant of

manufacture, and as ^hi or clarifiedbutter.

lamp-oil.
become is

It is a In many where

without smell, and not liable to yellow oil, it closely resembles olive oil, and properties olive oil is
not

rancid.

used similarly

the

cultivated.

It is extracted by simple expression

refers
to

in mills. in

Strabo

(XVI, i,20)

the ancient oil.

custom

Mesopotamia
41.

of

the body anointing

with

sesame

Clarified
This
is
not

Butter.

"

The

text

is boutynn (see also under from

cream,

" 14).
Indian
not

fresh butter from

made

but rather the

ghi,an
been

oil reduced

butter. India

Fabricius says that it could

to

have

transportedfrom
read

Africa

under

the tropical

sun,

and would

bosmoros,an
very

Indian grain; but ghi stands

been
no

long
the

journeys to-day and might

century
cocoanut
on

have likely

in demand

in the 1st from

an

the African

coast, which
to

produced
twelve

oil except

palm.
is driven The

According
off and

Watt

478) ghi is {op. cit.,

oil decanted

after heating the butter about moisture sediment. made from the residue

hours, during which the etc.) is depositedas a (casein,

25
per
cent

butter thus loses about

of itsbulk.

It is

buffalo's milk rather than cow's. in

some

G/ii is mentioned
classics.

of

the

most

ancient

of

the

Hindu

enclosed If carefully

in leather skins
many

or

earthen

pots,

while

still

hot, it may
saltor
in the other

be

preservedfor
400

years

without

requiringthe
and medicinally,

aid of

preservatives.Fryer, in 1672-81,speaks of
years

tanks of

ghi

Deccan,
word

old,of great value

high

price.
This

boutynn has been

had

emended variously

by the

tators, commen-

all of whom have been

fresh butter in

mind, although Lassen

should with the

and of clarified familiar with the durability butter, its export from the rich

of probability

agricultural region of Gujarat.

mention of

others,following a it with asafoetida, by way Theophrastus, identify

Lassen, Oppert

and

by boutyros
ghanistan of Af-

of the Sanscritbhutari
was a

("the enemy
and

of evil spirits").But asafoetida

product

would

have

been

brought to

the Indus

mouth

rather than

178

to

Barygaza.

While knew

Theophrastus

may

have

referred

to

it as

boutyros,
that

the Romans

it more

which intimately as laser, used.

is the

word

the author of the Roman

would probablyhave Periplus

as

It entered into

medicine

XIX, (Pliny,
which The he does

remedy 15).
a

for fevers and

disorders. tropical digestive

Fabricius needlesslyalters the

not

text

to

read

bosmons,
that

2l

grain,
millet.

identify. McCrindle
from

suggests wild
some on light

barley or
ascend

following passages
He
says

Strabo throw
the

: question

13) "By (XV, ii,

the
summer

vapors

which

from

so

many

and by the Etesian winds, India,as rivers,

Eratosthenes states,
country
as

is watered

by

During
bosmoros and

the

rainyseason,
sown;

and the level rains, flax and millet, as well in the winter
we are

is inundated. rice and

sesamum,

are

and

season,

wheat, barley, pulse,

' '

other esculents with which

unacquainted.

And

again:

18) "Onesicritus (XV, ii,

says of bosmoros

that it is a smaller

in countries between rivers. It is grain than wheat, and is grown bound are by oath not to roasted after being threshed out, and the men the seed from being to prevent before it has been roasted, take it away

exported.'
The

'

treasuring of this
indicate the native the

bosmoros

and

the
was

which millet, used for

its exportation prejudice against regarded as particularly

pure,

and Other

was

grainmost

temple-offerings. themselves,are the African Kaffir corn (see Pliny, XVIII,

grainswhich

might

suggest

Hokus sorghum(Hindu yWr) or millets, of its remarkable size and prolific and increase) 10, for description portant Pennisetum typhoideum (Hindu, bajra)or spiked millet. Both are imcrops
more

in modern the be

India,but

were

probablybroughtfrom
there. also native in been

Africa in So-

than recently
not

date of the

and being native Periplus,

would maliland,
Wild

probablearticlesof import

by McCrindle, was barley,suggested and therefore not likely to have and Somaliland,
Another
tata

Egypt

imported.

possible grainis the Indus

has been

wild valley confused

rice,Oryxa
with wheat.

coarc-

(Hindu, barirdhan), which

p.

See

Watt,

823.
common

The
was

Panicum millet,

while miliaceum, countries.

grown

in

India,
man's

native in

Egypt

and the Mediterranean

bosmoros

Altogetherthe millet,"Panicum
China and

of Strabo

was

mostprobabl\ "Poor

which Crus-galli;

cultivated to-day in is extensively

gal, given it in BenJapan as well as India. The native name be Hellenized into bosmoros. bura shama, might readily order 843) Panicum Crus-galli, {op. cit., According to Watt is a large, coarse plant, preferringwet ground, such as Gramineix,

179

borders of ponds and banks

as a

of
most

streams.

It is extensively cultivated
"

rainy-season crop
It thrives
are on on

over

of India

on

the

Himalayas

to

6500
the The

feet. rains

light sandy soilsand is often cultivated when

the

over,

banks

of rich siltdeposited by rivers.

yieldis fiftyfold
harvested
poorer
a

in

good soil.
in six

It is the
is

sometimes

weeks, and

quickest-growingmillet, consumed chieflyby the

itripensearly and affords

for classes,

whom

it is useful because

cheap article of food before bajra and the other millets.

41. Cotton

and

the

Indian
of

cloths.

"

These

were

the

and monache, molochine,

sagmatogene
some

""

6 and

14.

The

account

given by Tavernier
says

throws

on light

the earlier
come

{op. cit., II,xii)"White

where
account

cotton

cloths
the

to

production. He Renonsari (near

in

Surat) and Broach,

on largefields,

they
of the

have

means

of

bleachingthem growing
and

quantityof lemons
21 cubits
are

in the

neighborhood. only 20 cubits when

kinds.
The And broad

The

cloths are

long when
broad the be

crude, but
narrow

bleached.
are

There

both

lYi
The

cubit
cotton to

wide, and
cloths and the
to

piece is 20 cubits

long." black,are
two

again:
the

dyed red, blue,or

because which these is used

taken
are near

uncolored

Agra

Ahmadabad,
the
coast

towns

placewhere
are

indigo is made,
constitute the who sells them the

in

dyeing. (the Azania by

The

cheaper kinds
of

exported to

of Melinde

of the

and they Periplus),

trade principal
to

done
to

the Governor into the these

Mozambique,
of the

the Kaffirs of
out

carry

country
not

Abyssins and
soap,

kingdom
rinse

Saba,
these

because

people,

using

need

only
'

cloths." Vincent's
spun

translation of

by sagmatog'enc

that is,unstuffing,"

cottons supportedby Tavernier,who says 'theunspun of small and too from Gujarat do not go to Europe, being too bulky Sea, Hormus, and value, and they are only exported to the Red

cotton,

is

Bassora. Marco great deal of six paces Polo

cotton.

26) (III,
Their

says
cotton

of this
trees

"They locality:
are

have

also

of very great

of 20 years. to an age high, and attaining the trees are It is to be observed,however, that,when arboreum. ) stuff or is not good to spin,but only to quilt the cotton old as that, so the trees give good beds withal. Up to the age of 12 years, indeed,

size, ing grow( Gossxpnim

spinning cotton, but from that age to 20 years the produce is inferior. of Pliny also (XII, 21) quotes from Theophrastus a description it with silk: "trees that bear wool, but the tree cotton, contrasting the those of the Seres; as in these trees from of a different nature
leaves

produce nothing

at

and indeed might all,

very

be readily

taken

180

for those bear

a

of the

vine, were

it not

that they
a

are

of smaller size. when

They
ripe

kind

of

gourd,about
a

the size of

quince, which
which
a

bursts asunder and discloses of linen cloth is made." 41.

ball of down, from

kind costly

Minnagara."

This

was capital

identified by Miiller with

the modern
may

be the

192-3) Indore, but accordingto Vincent Smith Up- cit., of the oldes' of Madhyamika or Nagarl,one ancient town

about eleven miles north exist, India,of which the ruins still ofChitor (24" 53' N., 74" 39' E.). but quiteconjecturally, to place "\lcCrindle and Fabricius prefer, in observingthat it in Kathiawar; but the text indicates the mainland
sites in
from

Minnagara
to

cotton

cloth

was

"brought down,"
"City of
the

by

river presumably,

Barygaza. Minnagara
means

The
the

name name

Min,"

which

was

Hindu

for the Saka invaders. This

name

41.

Barygaza.
Greek

"

is the modern is from

Broach

(21" 42' N., 72"

"

59'E.). The
to
a

the Prakrit Bharukacha, supposed

'

be

of Bhrigu, corruption of Bhrigukachha,'the plain Here of

who

was

local hero.

is at least a

of Dravidian suggestion hero

connection

with the Brahui

names.

Gedrosia, their Barygaza

Braho

and their KacA

place-

The

districtof

was

an

important part of the empire of

is said to have resided at Suklatirtha. Chandragupta Maurya, who After the collapseof his dynasty it fell into the hands of the Saka in power who were at the time of the Periplus. princes, 41.
army
same

Signs of the Expedition of Alexander. 73" 47' E. ) on reached Jhelum (32" 56' N.
,

"

The

Greek

the

river of the of the

name.

Somewhat

above

that

place,on

the

oppositeside

Vincent Smith locates the field of his battle with Porus. (Early river, to Gurdaspur, on History of India,71-8. ) Alexande'r then penetrated Here he began about 50 miles N. E. from Amritsar. the Sutlej river, his
retreat.

The

author got

of the

Periplusis mistaken
trader
from

in

supposing that

the Alacedonians what have

was

beyond by
some

the Indus
at

told him

region,and is probably quoting Barygaza, who would hardly

Under
the
caste

Alexander distinguished
not

Asoka.

system

traders were tfie

of the country,
now,
mere

concerned

with the

activities or political religious

were

and

those concerned

with foreigntrade

often,as
moment,
were to

outcasts;

while

even

had they been

informed, they would

the

ha\'e been

quite equal to attributing anything, for

of deference
to

Alexander, out
more

their Greek

customers,

who

far

interested in h.s exploits than any

Hindu

could be.

182

42.

The

into the head

great river of the ^ulf, at

Mais
the

is the

modern

Mahi, emptying

cityof Cambay.

(22" 18' N., 72"

40' E. )
42.
ern

The
or

river

Nammadus-

-Hindu,

Narmada

"

is the

mod-

Xarbada 43.

Nerbudda.
to

Hard

navigate.
"

The

sketch-map
the

on

the

preceding
side of the that lies
to same

page,

from Herone

Reclus, Jsia, \o\.

shoal is
no

Ill, illustratesthe difficulties.

the
at

doubt be

long bar

at

eastern

gulf,and
to

Cammoni W.

would

the end

of the promontory
entrance

the N.

of the mouth
port

of the

Tapti River, the

This

the
as

prosperous

mediaeval of

of Surat.

is,perhaps, the

the Camanes
44.

Ptolemy.
"

and The first word Lassen derives Cotymba. Trappaga 539 boat mentioned from trapaka,a type of fishinij by other (II,
this

travellers to craft from

region.
waters

The

second

suggests

the modern

a. kotia,

these j.

found

by

Burton

in the Somaliland

ports (First

408 Footsteps,

Fishing-boats Bombay entering

44.

Harbor

Anchorages
of

and

basins.

The

maintenance

of

this

service regular
at

least 100 miles

such
as our

under which met incoming vessels were pilotage, from Barygaza, indicates an active and regular merce, comauthor

describes.

The

"

use

of
as

stations" those of

in the

river is still necessary where modern

here, and trafficis sailing

in other rivers such

more

Burma,

active.

183

45.

Very

great
the To

tides." The

vivid

of description

the

tidal

bore,
waters

in this and

is certainly the following paragraph,

a

result of

personalexperience.
of the Red
same a

merchant

familiar with the all but tideless

a a as

Sea,it must
occurs

indeed have been

wonder

of

nature.

The
into of

thing
the

in many and

placeswhere
estuary, and

strong tide is forced in

narrow,

shallow

curving

Burma,

the

Bay
the of

Panama, According to ImperialGa%etteer of India,IX, 297, high springtides in the Gulf

elsewhere.

Fundy,

Bay

of

Cambay
6
to

rise and
an

fall as hour.

much

as

33

feet,and

run

at

of velocity

7 knots The
cause

knots.
was more

Ordinary tides reach 25 feet,at \% to 6 inevitable damage to shipping, under such difficulties,
of the

the

desertion of the

Cambay

ports

for Surat

and,

recently, Bombay.
46.

The

sea

rushing

in with

hoarse

roar.

Along

the

"Through hoarse roar never remitting, midnight edge by those milk-white combs careering."
Walt Whitman:

Patrolling Bamegat.

47. Arattii."
who
were a

This of the

is

Prakrit form

of the Sanscrit
name

Arashtra,
is often

people

Panjab;

in fact the

Aratta

synonymous

with the Panjab in Hindu

"

literature.

47. Arachosii. modern

Kandahar
says

people occupied the country around the (31" 27' N., 65" 43' E.). McCrindle {.Ancient
extended
on

This

India,88)
of

Arachosia
was

westward
east

beyond

the

meridian

Kandahar,
south
to

and

skirted the

the

by the

river Indus.

On
and

the
on

north it stretched
the the

to

western

section of the Hindu

Kush

Gedrosia.
was

The

province
one

was

rich and main

populous, and
routes

fact that it

traversed by
with
"

of the

by

which

Persia communicated

India added

to greatly

its importance."

47. Gandaraei.

Gandhdra.) (Sanscrit, River, above

was capital

This people dwelt

on

both sides of the Cabul modern Peshawar

its junctionwith the

Indus; the
east

district. In earlier times they extended

eastern

of the

Indus, where
and
prosperous

their

located

"

a large Takshasild,

called by the Greeks Taxila. city, (See also Holdich, Gates of India,99, 114, 179, 185; \incent 2"1, 43, 50, 52, 54; Foucher, Notes sitr la geoSmith, Early History, ancienne du Gandhdra. ) graphie The referred trade-route briefly
was

to

in the mention

of

Gandhara
ward west-

and Pushkalavati
to to

that and

whence to Bactria, leading

it branched

the

Caspian

the

stan Euphrates,and eastward through Turkeof

China,

the "Land
"

of This"

"

64.

47. Poclais.

"abound(Sanscrit, Pushkardvafi,oxPushkaldvaU,

184

whence the Peucelaotisof Arrian. ) Prakrit, Pukkalaoti, of Gandhara the western This was Strabo,XV, 26-8; capital {,cf. IV, xxii;Jndica,lV; Lassen,II,858;, the modern Arrian,^TZfl^ajw, Charsadda,17 miles N. E. of Peshawar, on the Suwat River.

ingin lotuses."

47. Smith

Bucephalus TUexandria.
an

"

This is identifiedby Vincent

of

62) with the modern {,op. cit., " 41. ) Its positionis marked by
present

town

Jhelum.

(See under
west

extensive mound
as

of the
"

settlement.

The

mound

isknown
numerous

Pindi,
west to

the town,

and

yieldslarge ancient
at position
a

bricks and the

Graeco-Bactrian
the

coins-

Its

ferryon

high-roadfrom importance.

the Indian interior

gave

it great commercial

47.

Warlike
to

nation

of the Bactrians.
current

"

This passage,

with
a

its reference view

Graeco-Bactrian coins
which history
sequence

in

Barygaza, presents
other contemporary four

of Indian work. between

does
of

not

appear

in any

The

events

in Bactria

during the
follows:
his death

turies cen-

Alexander

which and the Periplus,

as

is fully set forth

by
the

Vincent The whole

Smith

{op. cit., IX, X) is summarized

of Alexander
was

Empire
The

broken

up

at

and

Eastern section from

Syriato India
were

fell to

Seleucus,one
for

of his

generals.
under and

Indian conquests

but the interlost immediately, vening control

country

remained Theos.

under The

Greek
two

nearly100
akin

years

Antiochus

northeastern

provincesof Parthia
race

Bactria revolted.
set up

The

an Parthians,

Asiatic

to

the

Turks,
which

for

and themselves,

built up

absorbed
was

the

country

beyond

the

which later military power Euphrates. The Bactrian country,

a

then

remained populous and productive, and princes, itsindependence was in Bactria

under

the government

of Greek

finally recognizedin immediately set

the
sea

208 B. C.

The

Greek

monarchs

about

their domains by striving; outlet to to gain an enlarging the

through
modern

Indus Valley. In 190

B.
of

Indus Valley and that part Cabul.

conquered Afghanistan lying around the

C.

Demetrius

the whole

During
Demetrius 160
to

his absence home

in India

re\'olted and relative, Eucratides,

name

returned

but his
to

does

not

reappear.

From ended

156 there

seems

have

been anarchy in Bactria which

in the assassination of Eucratides

seems

by

his

son

Apollodotus,whose

reign

to

have

been

very

short.
a

In the
brother of

years

155-153

Greek

whose Apollodotus, Indus Valley, the peninsulaof Suras'ntra (Syrastrene) and

on

King Menande;, apparentlya capital was Cabul, annexed the entire

other territories

the

western
near

coast;

mika

(now Nagari

occupied Mathura; besiegedWadhyaPataliChitorj, and threatened the capital,

185

putra, which
to

is the modern He
is supposed

Patna.
to

Menander
been
a

had

to to

retire, however,

Bactria.

have
name

convert

Buddhism, and
celebrated logue dianoted

has been immortalized under

the

of Milinda is one

in

entitledThe Questions of Milinda, which books in Buddhist literature.

son Heliocles,

of the most

of

Eucratides, seems
Kush

to

have

been

the last Greek

king to
Greek
the

rule north

of the Hindu

Mountains. of the

This

is reflected by the mention phase of Asiatic history in

over

coinage of Apollodotus and Menander, current time of the Periplus. The coins must have been
the of small silver coins preservation time

Barygaza at
200
years

old, and
that

in commercial

use

for

length of
To

is remarkable.
the
as

understand

very

warlike

nation

of

the Bactrians' which their

own

our one

author mentions
must

livingin

the interior under

king,

'

go

to

the

of central Asia. history B.

Chinese

annals mention

that in the year

165

C,

nomadic

Turki

tribe in northwestern
emperors,

China

and

to owing allegiance

the Chinese

known

as

the

driven out of their territory by the Hiongnu or Yueh-chi, were This displaced and migrated westward. numerous savage in central
waves

tars, Tartribes

Asia,

who

in

turn

moved
which and

westward;
inundated

and

thus the great for

to

of

migrationwere
the Roman

begun

Europe

centuries,
extinguish
tribe

overwhelmed
white

Empire,
their had

long

threatened

civilization.
The Yueh-chi
as

in

westward

movement

drove

out

known rivers.

the

Saka,who

lived between 140-130 and

the

Chu
into

and

Jaxartes
country

These

tribes in the years

poured
continued

overwhelmed Bactria,

the Greek known

as

Kingdom

there

into the

from then called, Seistan,

its conquerors,
for

Sakastene.

Another

branch of the Saka horde

on

settledin Taxila in the Panjab and Mathura Saka

the

Jumna,
the

where

princes ruled
These

more seem

than
to

century

under

Parthian power.

Saka

tribes Another

have

been

connected with the Parthians. originally and southward at a later date pushed on

section of the Sakas the

occupied

peninsula of
This
'

founding Surashtra,
country
to

Saka dynastywhich

lasted for centuriesin Periplus

is referred

to

by

the author
were seem

of the

" 38
the

as

'subject

Parthian princeswho
The

each constantly driving

to

other out."

Sakas of India

have

been

subjectto

Parthians,

and Indo-Parthian 120 B. C.

in

princesappear at Cabul and in the Panjab about ing There is a long line of Parthian princesrecorded as rulamong

Cabul;

them

and
same

reigned in Cabul
princewho

Gondophares, who acceded and the Panjab for thirty years.

in the

in 21 A. D.

This is the

is mentioned

apocryphal "Acts

of St. Thomas,'

186

which, although
the

not

composed
which

until the third century

name was

A.

D., reflects
of history

prominence

with

his

regarded in

the

the time.

The
the

Indo-Parthian

princes
who had

were

driven southward gradually from

by
the

advancing Yueh-chi,
the end

expelledthe last of them

A. D.
"

Punjab before
of this work. The

of the first century

that

is,at

the time

Yueh-chi,
The

whose

westward
of

migration started all

the

this

trouble, had
B. C. central power, and
under

settled in Bactria north scattered tribes and their

so were

Oxus

River

about

70

brought togetherunder a gradually wandering habits were changed for agriculture

the

industry;

that when

Yueh-chi

nation

was

unified

Kadphises I, who began to different people from the savages Kingdom

of Bactria.
years,

rule in 45 A. who had

D.,

it represented a the Greek

overwhelmed

for 40 extended The

and

Kadphises reigned over Bokhara and Afghanistan succeeded was by his son Kadphises II,who
into India. had
never

his conquests

Chinese

emperors

abandoned

their assertion of
sent

over sovereignty

the Yueh-chi. in the years

to

An

embassy
B. C. mission
interest

was

from

China
the

to

the Oxus
to

River
return

125-115
but the

to
was

try to

persuade
between

Yueh-chi

China,

and unsuccessful,
home 100

subsequent revolutions
B. C. and A

kept Chinese

at

70 A.

D.
under
over

Tartar

army

the Chinese

General

Pan Chao

reasserted

Chinese
as

supremacy

all of Central Asia, extending its conquests

far

as

the
to

Caspian Sea.
Chinese
armies

Thus,

with the submission of Khotan

and

Kashgar
Asian With north
commerce

in 73 A.
open

D.,
to

the

route

south from

of the Central

desert

was

thrown

commerce

end

to

end.
route

the reduction of the desert between

of Kuche
was

and

Kharachar
open,
was

in 94 A.

D.,

the

also thrown West

time regular and for the first

East and

made

possible.
route
was

It should be borne
savage

in mind

that this

still policedby

tribes only nominally subjectto communication

on was

the- Chinese

Empire, and
was

while

opened
until the later.

up

immediately, trade
time of the

not

carried Marcus

in

large volume
years

Roman

Emperor

Aurelius,100

Kadphises II, ruler

extended
sent
an was

of the

Yueh-chi,
not

who
as

had far
as

in the meantime the Indus

his conquest of

into India but

yet

delta,

army

the Chinese against 70,000 cavalry

near

General Pan Chao,

and
years

defeated totally

Kashgar;

and

was

obliged for

some

to

send tribute to China.

187

About his

95

A.

D.

he
as

be^an his further

far
as

conquests

of
on

India,and
the

kintjdomreached
The Yueh-chi

Benares

and

Ghazipur

Ganges

Rive:-.

opened Here,
had

up
as

the

commerce

between

India and

the

Roman

Empire.
and
Parthians
to

in Central

merely
tribes.

incidental The it and

subject to
done
on

Asia, the trade had been depredationsof numerous savage they could
existence
to

what

control

and

ganize or-

tribute le\5'

the Roman The

merchants, but they had

of unified power in

not

controlled

it to the

eastward.

the Indus the

and Afghanistan made A'alley

to

Ganges
by
coins

the

Euphrates.

The

from a regulartrade possible rapid growth of such trade is

indicated struck

the

coinage of

the Yueh-chi
were

Kings

in India.

Kadphises I
those of Augustus.

in bronze

only, which
imitated the

imitated from

Kadphises II
which
were

gold coins
a

of the Roman

Empire,
was

then

pouring
was

into India in

steadystream.
maritime

In Southern

where India,
no

there

an

active Roman Roman

trade,there
offered its

native

gold coinage,the
in Rome
announce

being sufficient. embassy, which Trajan,

was gratulations con-

It is probable that the Indian

to

the

Emperor

dispatched by
India.
This

Kadphises II, to

his conquest

of Northwestern

47. Alexander
course,

penetrated
the

to

the
been
was

Ganges.
the

"

is,of

quiteuntrue,
The
as

Panjab having
mass

expedition.
under

great it led

of India the

of his turning-point unaffected by his entirely of

power

inxasion,except
Menander.

to

subsequent centralization

Chandragupta Maurya.
"The In She East bowed

Our

author is confusing Alexander

with

low

before

the

blast

patient, deep disdain; thunder legions past, in And plunged thought again.
let the
"

Matthew

Arnold;

Obermann.

48.

Ozene."
chief The

This

is the modern

E.
,

the

city of IVlalwa.
of the

The

Ujjain,23" 11' N., 75" 47' torious." "vicSanscrit form is Ujjayini,

which
the Greek

from Prakrit is Vjjeni,

one seven

is derived.

Ujjain is
even

sacred cities of India,not

was

yielding
elbow of

to

Benares.

In Hindu

legend it
of her

here

that the The

on Satifell, on

the dismemberment

body by Siva.
The

river

Sipra,

which

is also sacred. itis located,

place was
in Buddhist

important under
known
one

the earliestAryan settlements in IVIalwa.

as

In early times itwas

AvantI, a kingdom
the four

which

is described of India. the

literature as

of

great powers

As Ujjeni

it is very

prominent
one

in Buddhist

records,having been

of Kachana, birthplace

of

188

Sakyamuni' s
as

greatest

disciples. Here

was

Buddhist

monastery

known

the Southern the

from

Mount, while it was the principal stage on the route Deccan to SravastI, then the capital of the great kingdom of
Here

Kosala.
the

also in his younger

of the

days Asoka, later emperor,

was

and
the

greatest

patron

Buddhism,

stationed

as was

viceroy of
the
custom

western

provincesof
act

Maurya Empire.
the

This

also
the

in several

both subsequent dynasties, on

as

sides of the

Vindhyas, for
of

to heir-apparent

viceroyin

western

provinces.

Uijeni was

the Greenwich

of

the firstmeridian India, it was

a

tude longifor all

to

of itsgeographers.

By itslocation

trade

center

distribution was whence produce imported at Barygaza, Ganges kingdoms. At the time of the Periplus it was the royal seat capital, had broken
up,

made
no

the

longer a

being at
in the

Minnagara.

"

The

and
western

anarchy

following the

Maurya empire in the irruptions

had been in power

northwest, its
the
so

of Surashtra and Jvlalwa provinces' who established themselves raided by Saka freebooters, finally
as or

'Western Satraps," or Kshatrapa dynasty. For

before
the formal

generation

proclamation of

the

dynasty the invaders'

their capital. After their claims were was recognizedthey stronghold ruled from Ujjeni,which of Ptolemy describes as the capital probably Tiastenos or Chashtana, the Kshatrapa ruler of his time. It remained, in hands until about the 5th A. Saka apparently, century D., when it reverted the
to

Brahman

power

under

the

Gupta Empire
whose

this

expulsionof
of the have

misbelieving foreigners"givingrise to Vikramaditya of Ujjain,the King Arthur of India,at

nine gems,
"

the tradition
court

the

brightest geniuses

of

India,were

supposed to

flourished.

(See Imperial Gazetteer, VIII, 279-280; XXR', ) 116. I,

48.

sen, 112-114; Las-

Spikenard: Nardostachys jatamansi,order

of the

I'alerianacea. A
eastward from

herb perennial

alpineHimalaya, which
to

extends

Garhwal
of
a

and

ascends
the

17,000 feet
about

in Sikkim.
as

"The

drug consists

portionof by
a

rhizome,

thick

as

the little mounted surfinger,

the remains of the fibers, radical leaves. It is aromatic and bitter, and yieldson distillation an essentialoil. In India it is largely used as an aromatic adjunct in the of preparation medicinal and oils, is popularly believed
to

bundle

of reddish-brown

increase the

growth
to

and

blackness of the hair."

to

(Watt, op.
by
the

at.,

792.)
of

According
the

Pliny fXII, 26),

the
are

Leaf nard varies in price according

name

size;

for that which

is known

hadrosphae-

rum,

of consisting the

When

leaves

sells at 40 denarii per pound. largerleaves, it is called mesosphaerum, and is sold smaller,

190

48.

The

Cabolitic
the

country

is,of

course,

the

modern

Cabul limits of

above valley,

Khyber

Pass; being

within

the present

Afghanistan.
48.

Scythia.
the

"

See under

" 41.
D.

This

was

the

regionwhich
of

was

subject to
whose

Parthian princes,weak
ended
"

successors

Gondophares,

reign had
49.

about

51 A.

Lead.
white

between Pliny(XXXI\', 47-50) distinguishes

black

lead

and

lead;

the

former lead

being
he
says

our

lead,the lattertin (see

from

also under

" 1).

White

came

Lusitania and

in doubting its reportedorigin Galicia, its transportation in boats made

says,
came

islands of the

Atlantic,"and
'

of from

covered osiers,

with hides.'

Black lead,he
suggests

scription Cantabria in Spain, and his-delead and

or galena, sulphideof

silver. It came

also
was

from farmed

and Britain,
at
an

from

Lusitania

"

where

the Santarensian mine

annual

rental of

250,000
of

denarii. had
many

Lead

was

used in the form

and pipes and sheets,

medicinal uses, being used in calcined form, made

same

into tablets in the with

grease

way

as

antimony (see under

used
as an

this

"), or

mixed

and

wine.

It

was

in the

treatment

of

and repressive, and for cicatrization; astringent ulcers, burns,etc., and in eye preparations;
worn

of lead while thin plates

a

next

the

body

were

supposed
the

to

have

coolingand
As
an

beneficial effect.
at

import

Barygaza lead

was

for required largely

coinage

of the Saka 49.

dominions.
"

Bright-colored girdles.
who hill-tribe, worked modern

These

were

probablyfor
mines then
a

the
as

Bhils, a Dravidian
now.

the carnelian

The

Coorgs,
is
now

related tribe, still wear

at

distinctive

which "girdle-scarf"

made

Sirangala. ijmp. Gaz., \'III,

101-4; IX, 36.)

order LegiiTrifilium meliktus, melilote' of the Greeks and Romans, used for making minosa, the chapletsand perfumes, and medicinally. Pliny (XXI, 29) says the from Campania in Italy, best sorts were Cape Sunium in Greece, also from Chalcidice and Crete; native always in rugged and wild localities.
'

49.

Sweet

clover."

This

is

"The

name

which sertula,garland,

it bears in the

sufficiently proves
that of

that

this plantwas The

formerly much
well
as

used

composition of chaplets.

smell,as
the
stem

the

closely resembles flower,

more

saffron,

though
the
more

itselfis white; the shorter and And

an

the fleshy

leaves,
cure

highlyit is esteemed."
the

again (XXI, 87), "the melilote

or

applied with

yolk of

egg,

else

effects the linseed,

in the jaws and

of diseases of the eyes.

It assuages

pains,too,

head,

191

appliedwith
A decoction

rose

oil; and employed

it in

with

raisin

wine,

it is good for the hands.

up raw,

pains in the ears, and all kinds of

of

wine, or

swellings or on eruptions else the plantitselfbeaten

is

good

for pains in the stomach."

many

Concerning the use of chapletsin the Roman details (XXI, 1-10). The chaplet was
the victors in the sacred
games.

world, Plinygives
a crown

of

honor

given
tree

foliage was

used; flowers
380

were

added
came

laurel and other Originally at by the painter Pausias,

Sicyon,about
of thin laminae
or

B. C.

Then

the

"Egyptianchaplet"
then
a

of

and ivy,narcissus, of

pomegranate

and blossoms,
of

durable

article

horn,

and

leaves of

or gold,silver, plain tinsel,

embossed.

Chaplets were
of slaves
or

won

by personalprowess by
the for his parents,
was

in the games, gave

or

by
'

that

horses entered

winner, and
after
out

the victor
to

'the

for himself and right, without

death,
in the

be

crowned
on

while fail,
to

the

body
'

laid
other

house, and

its
not

being carried
The

the

tomb.
'

On

chapletswere occasions,
entitled
to

worn. indiscriminately

use

of

chapletsby

those

not

them

was

forbidden

by law, and Pliny cites several cases used also in Chaplets were
and sepulchres
immortelles
on

of honor

the

Manes;
of

this

custom

punishment for the offence. of the gods, the Lares,the still in the layingof surviving

tombs

departed friends.
veteres serta veneratus

senior '*Atquealiquis Annua

constructo

amores.
"

dabit tumulo.
"

TibuUus, II, 4.
and chaplet, various that in

For devices

such

uses

the

the chaplet, plaited

came

rose

embroidered
was on a

by hand,
demand

into use, and

Pliny notes
from

his time there

of nard unguents. has
at

for
or

chapletsimported
many

made India,

leaves

fabrics,
' '

else of silk of

colors steeped in
our women

Such is the pitch to which

the luxuriousness of

last arrived !
seem

It would
the manufacture

as

if this

sweet

clover might also be intended

Rome.

for

of
"

for re-exportation to chaplets

49.

Realgar.
It
was

The

text

is sandarake.

This is the red sulphide

reached

of arsenic.

from Persia and Carmania,and principally

India from and

where

various Persian Gulf ports.

are

In modern

times both and time

realgar

orpiment
it is not

in Burma quantities produced in large

China,
of the

impossiblethat production existed 55)

at

the

Periplus.

Pliny(XXXIV, and the more friable,

says

"the redder it is the

its odor

more

pure

and

powerful

the better itis in

quality. It

192

is

but it is most remarkable heating,and corrosive, detergent, astringent, for itsantiseptic properties." Dioscorides (V, 122) says it was
with resin and
or

burned
for

the smoke

inhaled through

tube,as

remedy

coughs, asthma,
The Greek

bronchitis.

Theophrastus
modern

also describes its

properties.
word
survives in the
gum

sandarac

from

order Callitris guadrivalvis,

Conifem,produced
the

in

Algeria and
The
was

rocco; Mois

but this
of
eastern
ore

was

not

its meaning in classicaltimes.

word

to origin, referring apparently to

color,and

extended
in the

from
case

gum

because of appearance,

reversingthe
much valued

process

of cinnabar

(" 30).
in this sandarac
tree
was

The
and

wood

by

the

Greeks
'

Romans

for

being, perhaps, the furniture,

found (II, xii) vermillion'
'

thyine wood'

of

Revelation

XVIII, 12.
also

Tavernier
to

brought by

the Dutch

trade for pepper.

49.
ore,

Antimony.
Egypt.
The in
an

"

The

text

is stimmi. and

This

was

the

sulphide
in

stibnite. It was

made
ore

into ointments
came

both eye-tinctures,
and

India and and

from

Eastern Arabia

Carmania,
of

is mentioned

in the tomb Egyptianinscription

Khnum-

hotep II, at Benihasan by "Asiatics of the desert."

made of

(underSesostrisII,1900
it as found

B- C.

),being brought mines, "a

Pliny (XXXIII, 33-4) describes

stone concrete

in silver

of

shining\^ being possessed and refrigerative astringent cine, properties;its principal use, in mediwith frankincense and gum, being for the eyes." Pounded it
white froth, and valued
as a cure

and mixed with grease, irritations, for burns. But its main use was for dilating the pupils as a cure and the for painting eyebrows. Omphale, the Lydian queen who vated captiwas

for various eye

Hercules, is represented by the poet Ion as using stimmi toilet;Jezebel, in II Kings, IX, 30, probably used it when

in her she

"painted her
Pliny and

face and

tired her
women

head;"
in modern

while

it is the chief and

dient ingreits
a

in the kohl used

by

Egypt

Persia.

Dioscorides
was

(V, 99j
in
or

agree

in their
or

of description burned rain-water

preparation. It
mortar.

enclosed with milk

dough
and time

cow-dung,
with

in

furnace,quenched
a

wine,
from

beaten
to

in

This
to

being decanted
under

time, the finest powder

into tablets. and denarius the

was

allowed 49.

dried settle,

and divided linen,

Gold

and

silver coin."

The

Roman

aureus

were

current

throughout Western

and India, under

influenced strongly

Kushan
Indian

and Coins.

Kshatrapa coinages. See

" 56;

also Rapson,

193

The Roman

profiton coinage to
or

the that

exchange was of India,which

even

due

to

the

of the superiority still crude, of base and

latterwas
the

metal (bronze

lead),for which
For

tin bullion, (copper,

lead),was
49.

imported.

Ivory-"

references

see

Lassen, I, .311-315.
this
came

The
used in

word original I

is ibha,

'elephant."From

the word

Kings, X, 22, s/ien habbin, elephant's teeth," which the Hebrews shortened to .fA^;z, which isthe word used in Amos, III, 15; 'tooth,"
Can:.

V, 14.
and form

In ancient

Egypt this word

ibha became

the Roman the

root

Etruscan ebur for ivory. The

abu, whence Greek elephas, or rather

later
'

elephantos, applied first to

article el and

the

ivory and

to

the

animal,was
teeth."

the Arabic

the Sanscrit

ibhadanta, 'elephant' s

49.

Agate and carnelian.

mourrhine. Watt
so

"

See also under

"

6.

The

text

is

kai lithia onychirie

According
articleswhich

to

(o^.cit., 561), the

the

murrhine

vases

and

other

were

highlyprizedin Mediterranean
and like,
came

were countries,

of agate, carnelian and largely

from

the

Gulf

of

Cambay,
The

which
stone

was

the chief the

market

for that Indian

industry.
trap,

is from

amygdaloidal flows
The
most

of the Deccan

from chiefly agates

pur
are

the State of
now

Rajpipla.

cut

is Cambay, but the within reach

and of

importantplaceat which exists also at Jabbalindustry

Deccan
purposes,

and

elsewhere

the

trap.

They
made

are

much

used for ornamental

decorative

being

into

seals, brooches,rings, cups, etc. While the pebbles the collecting primary classes
"

miners

divide them

into

two

those that former

are

not
are

improved by
three
"

burning, and

those
and
a

that

are.

Of

the

there

on30c, cat's eye,

baked to are yellow half-clear pebble called rori. All other stones in March and bring out their color. During the hot season, generally

April,the May,
The down
trench.
a

stones

are

spread in

the

sun

in

an

open

field.

Then,

in

trench,two feet deep by three wide, is dug round the field. pebbles are gatheredinto earthen pots, which, with their mouths
and
a

hole broken
the

in their
or

bottoms, are cow-dung

sunrise. The

set

in
are

row

in the the

Round

pots, goat
sunset

cakes

and piled,
are

whole

kept burning from

stones

to

pots

then taken
About

out, the the end

examined, and
the

the

good

ones

stowed in
the Narbada

bags.

of

May

bags
the

are

carried

to

and floated to

Broach

(Barygaza).
this
treatment

By
darker

lightbrowns
Of

brighteninto white, and

the

shades into chestnut.

into

maize becomes yellows,

a

rosy, orange

deepens

red, and

an

intermediate shade becomes

pinkishpurple.

194

Pebbles

in which

cloudy browns
of white the

and

yellowswere
red.
The the

mixed first hue of

are

now car-

marked

by clear bands

and

the red

nelian varies from

are

flesh to palest
even

deepestblood-red.
The

The

best

of

and deep, clear,

more

red color. White

largerand
are

thicker the
scarce,

stone, the when of

it is esteemed.

carnelians

and

are largesize and good quality

much

esteemed.

This burning of agates is fully described by Barbosa in 1517, and

seems

to

be

of

very

ancient

date.

It

was

then,
but

as

now,

chiefly
may

the

industryof
have

the

Bhils, an

ancient

Dravidian
coast,

tribe which had been

formerly
to

possessed the Cambay

later invaders.
onyx

driven

the hills

by

It is this product, in all

of

probability,
the

which

is the

stone"

Genesis

II, 12,

which

reached

ancient world

on through the 'land of Havilah" Pliny CXXXVII, 7, 8) says that murrhine

the Persian Gulf.

was

firstknown

to

the Romans
was

after the conquests

of

Pompey
Nero

the Great in
one

Asia;

that it

fabulously dear,T.
at

Petronius having broken

himself

of Nero's basins

valued

300,000
a

sesterces, while

paid 1,000,000 sesterces

to

for

singlecup. They
were

Pliny attributes the vessels

of moderate
to

Parthia and
as

Carmania.

size

only, seldom

largeas

drinking-cup, supposed
under

be of

moist

substance,solidifiedby
great of

heat

ground; shiningrather
red fiery between.

than

brilliant; having a quiteopaque.

and

of variety

with wreathed veins,presentingshades colors, with

Others

were

purple and white, ally They occasionlike

warts.

contained

and crystals,
to

depressed spots
taste agreeable not

that looked smell.

They

were

said

have

an

While
more

is Pliny'sdescription
other
to

very

it suggests definite,
to

agate

than any

and substance,
the Gulf of
to

the reference
means

Parthia and

Car-

mania

rather than

Cambay
were

that until the Romans

on

discovered the

sea-route

India they

dependent

the Parthian

trade-routes for their Eastern treasures, and had often

as misleading,

only such information,

the Parthians offered them.

49. Silk cloth."

49.

See under
"

""
by

49 and 64.

Mallow
the

cloth.

See also under

"

6.

This

was

coarse

like fabric,

native

cloth made
blue

the East African

negroes,

which

is imitated by the modern of Hibiscus

drill.

It

was a

dyed
629.

with

the flowers

order Rosa-Sinensis,

Malvacea,
p.

shrub

which

is native

throughout India and China.

49.

See Watt,

Pz""r/on^z^ffz, Linn.,order P/"fra"^. Watt (p. 891), says it is a perennial shrub,native of the hotter parts of India from Nepal eastward to Assam, the Khasia hills and Bengal, westward to and Ceylon. Bombay, and southward to Travancore
pepper
:

Long

The

Sanscrit name

was pippali

originally given to

this

plant,and only

195

within

times was transferred to black pepper. comparativelyrecent mentioned Long pepper is, by Pliny (XII, 7) as well as the Periplus. The
fruit is gatheredwhen
green,

and is preserved by drying in

root

the

sun.

The

dried unripe fruit and the

have

long been

used

in

medicine. SO. Dachinabades.

way
"

"the This is the Sanscrit dah/iinapat/ias,

the modern

toward 50.

the

south;" Prakrit dakkhindbadha:

Deccan. is

Many
T. for

populous
1901,
pp.

nations.

"

An

account interesting

given by
Greek

C. Evans, Greek and Roman 294-306.

an

India,in
His
and

the

Anglo-American
is that

Magazine

conclusion

"the

invader found

there

ancient

highlyorganized society,
those which of the

in itsusages little differing

at

and

modes

of

from living

exist

there are no means time; and although it is not unlikely that the population of conjecture, the present
as was as

the verifying

peninsulawas

great in that the most it

was

period as
most

in

our

own."

If this view
at

is correct, India

populous regionof

the world
most

the time of the

Periplus,
mercially, com-

the

the cultivated,

active

and industrially

the richest in natural

resources

and

production,the
poverty

most

the most wretched in the highly organizedsocially, and the leastpowerful politically. teeming millions, The
great powers of India country,
were

of its

the Kushan

in the far northwest,

the Saka in the

Cambay

the

remains

of the and the

Maurya

in the

Ganges watershed,the Andhra

and

in the

Deccan,
status

Chera, Pandya
made
mensurate com-

Chola

in the South.
one

The

economic

of the country force political

that any it impossible

of these should possess

with itspopulation, resources of

as

and industries. It was

made

up

only so far communities, which recognized the military village power unconcerned relatively compelled to do so ; and they were they were dynastic changes, except
For
a

in

to

note

the

change

in their oppressors.

contemporary

account

of the nations of India,see

Pliny,

VI, 21-3.
This is the modern Pratisthana. Sanscrit, Paithan,on the Godaveri River (19" 28' N., 75" 24' E.). Gazetteer (XIX, 317), Paithan is one According to the Imperial
of the

51. Paethana:

oldest cities in the Deccan.

the

Asoka 2d
century

sent

missionaries

to

the

of and. inscriptions Petenikas,

caves

B. C. in the Pitalkhara
tions Ptolemy menking (138-170 A. D. ) ;

refer

to

the

king and merchants

of Pratisthana.

itas the but it

was

the Andhra of Pulumayi II, capital of the western the capital probably

the provinces, part of the the

seat

of

the Andhra
at

monarchs

having been
modern

in the

eastern

kingdom,
river just

Dhanyakataka, the

above Amaravati

Dharanikotta,on (16" 34' N., 80" 22' K).

Kistna

196

According

to

the

Paithan Periplus,

was

an

important center cityare

said
to

of the
of cotton

textileindustry. To-day and silk. Almost

all

it retains a considerable manufacture

traces

of

the

ancient

have

disappeared.
51.

Xagara.

"

The

Sanscrit

name

had

the

same

form,

ing appear-

in several records betwreen the 6th and 10th centuries A. D.

The

place

is identified

by Fleet
a

with

the

modern of

Ter

(Thair) (18" 19'

g

N., 76" 9' E. ), being

and agrees
text.

contraction It is about the

Tayara, the

and

interchanged. frequently
From

95 miles southeast of

being Paithan,
y

with substantially

distance and

direction given in the

Broach
from

to

Paithan the actual

to

240 miles,and

Paithan

Ter

by road, is about distance, 104 miles,being 20 and 9 days'

are

journey of 12 miles,respectively.There
remains interesting As of the ancient

said

to

be

some

very

city.
merchandise
west

pointed out by Campbell, the

was

from

the

regions
the

along the sea-coast"

of

not traces
,

from

the

coast, but
routes
"

from

Bay

Bengal;

and

Fleet

the briefly

the first at starting from

Masulipatam (16" 11' N.

konda

81" 8' E. ), and the second

E.

Vinu-

fl6" 3' N., 79" 44'

Haidarabad, and Markinda to (in the Ajanta Hills). through the Western
This
was

), joiningabout 25 miles southeast of and Daulatabad, proceeding through Ter, Paithan,

Here the main
to

difficulties began, Broach.

Ghats, over
great
at

the 100 miles the

the
was

highway of
of that port extension

Andhra

natural terminus

Calliena in Bombay

"

52.

The

obstruction

by

the

kingdom, and its Harbor, as suggestedin Saka power in Gujarat

through the
tains, moun-

forced

the tedious overland

to

of the route,

Barygaza. (See J. F. Fleet, Tagara: Ter, in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1901, pp. 537-552; Sir James Campbell, in Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency xvi,181; H. Cousens,Archaeological Surveyof India,
,

Annual

Report,1902-3, p. 195; Imperial Gazetteer, 284.) II,82; xxiii,

51.
can

Country
wheel

without
do carriages

roads.
not

"

Tavernier

says

of the Dec-

the roads being' much travel, too interrupted and there being by high mountains, tanks, and rivers, and difficultpasses. It is with the greatest difficulty narrow that many
one

(I,xi)

takes

small
to

cart.

was

obligedto

take
are

mine
no

to

quently pieces fre-

in order

pass

bad places. There

wagons,

and you
and for

only see
have

oxen

and

pack-horses for
and of much

the conveyance

of men,

the transport of
you

goods

merchandise.

But

in default of chariots,
in the
rest

the convenience for

one

largerpalanquinsthan
more more easily,

of

India;
"

is carried much

and quickly,

at

lesscost.

198

Satraps after another

for 46 whom the
same

generation.
are

From
a

the

Saka
named

era

of

78 A.

D.

years,

there

coins of

monarch

Nahapana, by

the line of the

as

Satrapswas
of

established.
name

This is thought to be should be written

the

Mamharus

" 41, whose

Nambanus. The
Andhra

kings are

enumerated
almost the

in the

Puranas, which,
ing concern-

gether to-

with the them. A

coinage,afford dynastic name,

only information
of these

borne

by

many

monarchs,

was

and Satakarni,

this is supposed to be the

of Saraganus

" 52 (probably
w)\i\" Sandancs
short

who Arishta Satakarni, is

reigned about 44-69 A. D.);

as

probably the
succeeded

same

Sundara
of six

whose Satakarni,

reignof

year,

by

another

of the Puranas.
to

The

reignof

months, is affirmed by at least two this Sundara (the text should be altered
and others the
at

Sandares) is fixed by Vincent Smith

From
these facts it has been
same

83-4 A.

D.

supposed that
in the

itselfmust Periplus
not

be dated in the follow.

upon

year,

83-4

A. D., but this does

necessarily

Its date

is considered
"

introduction, pp.
and Parthian
"

7-15,and
is fixed
at

ample
D.

evidence

Roman,

Arabian,

60 A.

If Nambanus

of

" 41
as

is the

same

as

Nahapana,
as one

it must

yet be
over
ous numer-

shown Andhras

that he is the and conquest

to

same

the great satrap whose

are

victories of the
era

the

of the Konkan

cited

events

thought
has

be commemorated

by

the Saka be

of 78 A. D. that

At least one

Nahapana,
and the

predecessor, formerly thought to been under the now distinguished

are

identical with
name

of

Bhumaka,
preceded

materials

not

yet

at

hand

for

or denying,the affirming,

of others, in possibility the achievements And is

a

the

so-called Kshaharata

line which

of the

Satraps.

if Sandares of in the difficulty

" 52
way

is the
of

same

as

Sundara

there Satakarni, the

great

year

have
gaza,

single his own he be reign. Calliena, must supposed to port, in order that its trade be diverted closed, foreign to Barymight
of his the port
must

the Periplus with identifying

of his Saka have be it done

rival and for this,

bitterenemy!
the port
was

He,

the Andhra

monarch,

still"in his possession;" Konkans

pendency. de-

not,
were

observed,in

that of the

Satraps. The

still nominally, not though evidently The

Andhra an effectually,

inference

is unmistakable the

that the the

is describing a Periplus and its

state

of

thingsprior to
It describes

of recognition coast;

Kshatrapa power
the Saka
era

annexation A.

of the Andhra

that is, to prior,

an

of 78

D.

clearly enough
but harried

Andhra

subjectto port, still

as

the Andhra

kingdom,

and

dominated, "obstructed"

199

the

text

enemy

has it, by the powerful navy of its northern still to obtain possession. was struggling

enemy,

while that

The doubt as to the then, of Nahapana and Sundara? of the former has been indivisibility already suggested; as to the latter, the shortness of his own and those of his successor and his reign immediate and the length of that of his predecessor predecessors,
Arishta the
at

What,

(25 years)indicate for him

long period of waitingas

the Andhra custom,
was

one

of

royal heirs; which, according to

as

spent, Here
name

least in part,

viceroyat
of

the
a

western

Paithan. capital,
and his would
coast.

he

exercised
to
came

all the functions

on

monarch,
on

be the

appear

all proclamationsissued of Sandares" possession of the

the

western

"Since it
ward toas

into the the end

date indicates,therefore, a who Satakarni,

reign of Arishta who,

odds

is referred

to

the

elder Saraganus," and

more

it maybe

had been, as inferred,

the

viceroyat Paithan,a
now

powerful ruler than

to

youthfulSandares,
power
on

struggling against greater

coast.

maintain

the Andhra

that

Between

Arishta and

Sundara

the

Vayu

agreed in placingthree adoption of Sanscrit

5 Purindrasena,
as

other monarchs: the

Matsya Puranas Hala (with whose name

and

are

the

literary languageof Northern reigned

5
years;

India is so
5
years;

who closely associated),

Mandalaka,

Sundara, 1 year, and Chakora, came years. 6 months, followed by Siva Satakarni, These live short 28 years.
Then

coming reigns,
of weak in their
events turn

between and

two

long ones,
of

seem a

to

suggest

quick

cession suc-

impractical sons long reign of

the
sons

strong
purpose

monarch, followed
;
a

by

another

sterner

succession

of de
to

like the in France. of the

reigns of
This

of

Henry II.

and

Catherine described
When

Medici

would

account

for the condition

the author the old

Periplus by some

at Barygaza: acquaintance

king Saraganus (now rulingat Dhanyakataka) was

an

viceroyat
the throne after the it has
matter

he made Calliena Paethana,

active port;
at

now

that he is on
one

and

his

sons

have

tried their hand

the viceroy's post

other,in
for the

the intervals of their turned

over

and literary

artistic pursuits, and been

an

been finally
our

to

young

it has Sandares, his

easy

Saka

to send general

down

shipsand
to

stop

itstrade."
would have

Had

story been
satrap

written in 83 A. annexed

D.,

the informant his

own

said,

"our

has
"

that country

dominions, and

closed itsports. The

known
to
same

is perfectly feasible for Nahapana, explanation been

governor

who

is
at

have
as

in

Surashtra before

he

was

satrap

Ujjeni. But

the great satrap lived untilthe Saka year thatnameinoO A. D.

was

thatoneof itismoreprobable

46, or 124 A. D., his predecessor.

200

There alters both

have been

are

other

of explanations

these three
to

names.

Fabricius

Mambarus
an

and

Sandanes
successor

Indo-Parthian
was a

supposing him to Sanabares, to Gondophares; McCrindle

to

thinks Sandanes

tribe-name, and refers

the Ariake

Sadinon of

Ptolemy.
The inherent conditions the

is convincing. But neither supposition

explanationbased
and probability, in

on

and the Puranic lists

the

coinage has
the

is confirmed

by

the be

of political description

"

52

of the Arishta

if that Periplus,

appliedto
D.

reignof

Andhra

king

Satakarni

(44-69 A.

medium
and

rulingas Sundara, heir-presumptive of Andhra the only show in the Konkans displaying
of his

), through the viceroyat Paithan,

authority
a

which

would
and

have

come

under

the

observation of

Graeco-Roman

merchant

(See A.-M.
,

shipmaster. Boyer, Nahapdna

et

ere

Qaka,\n

Journal A

siatique,

July-Aug. 1897, pp. 120-151; an excellent paper, in which the only of the Nabataean Malichas for criticism is that the inscriptions matter
than the chronology of the Abysshould be thought less trustworthy sinian

Chronicles,compiled

much

later.
"

C.

R.

Wilson, Proposed

in Journal of kingin the Periplus, of the name of an Andhra identification the foregoing the Asiatic Society of Bengal, June, 1904 ; with which in accord, except as to their sequel. Vincent Smith, are suggestions
"

Andhra

Historyand

der Deutschen Morgenl'dndCoinage,in Xeitschrift

"

1903. ischenGesellschaft, Sept.,

"

The Western Bhagvanlallndraji, in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1890, pp. 639-662. Kshatrapas, E- J. Rapson, The Coinageof the Mahdkshatrapas and Kshatrapas,

Pandit

J.

R.

A.

S., 1899, 357-404;

same

mismatic author, Ancient India, in Nu-

Col. J. Biddulph, Supplement, J. A. S. B., 1904, p. 227. observes that our knowledge of in a note to Mr. article, Rapson' s first the Satraps is derived solely from their coins,of which the former are
undated his own;
;

that each

ruler puts

his father' s

name

on

his coins

as

well

as

that the dates

and overlapfrequently;

that of the

two

titles,

Mahakshatrapa
"

indicates the

ent. monarch, and Kshatrapa the heir-appar-

of the Coins in the Indian Museum, Smith, Catalogue Calcutta;also Chronology of Andhra Dynasty,in his Early History, E. J. Rapson, Coins of the Andhra Dynasty,the IVestem p. 190.
Vincent
"

British Museum. See also Cunningham, Book of etc. Kshatrapas, Indian Eras; Duff, The Chronology of India from the Earliest Times to
,

the

Beginning of the 16th Century.)

53.

Semylla.

"

This

is the

Symullaof Ptolemy,the Chimolo

of

Yuan

the Mohammedan early travellers; modern Chaul (18" 34' N., 72" 55' E.), about 25 miles south of ancient Hindu name and was The Bombay. was conChampavati,

Chwang,

the Saimur of the

201

reign of Krishna in Gujarat. (S^e McCrindle, Ancient India,161; Imp, Ga%., X, 184; Miiller, I, 295.)
53.

nected

with

the

Mandagora."
at

This is probably the modern

Banket

(17" 59'
portance, im-

N., 73" 3' E.)

during the S.
but teak and W.

the mouth
monsoon.

of the SavitriRiyv^-rlT^^po'^ '^ closed It is

now a a

of fisliing village
center

no

in former

times

it

was

great

for the trade in

blackwood,and for shipbuilding. (See Imp. Gaz.., VI, 383; (In Miiller, I, 295.) The name 4^"?;za'ara-^zV/. suggests the Sanscrit
,

Ptolemy
53.

the

of positions
"

this and

the is

followingport

ar,^ reversed. )

Palaepatmae.
73" 10' E. ), the
of Siva.

This
name

probablythe

modern

Dabhol

(17"

35' N.
a name

being from
From

the Sanscrit Dahhileshwar,

It is of considerable

historical importance,being the

the 14th
to

principal port
it had ports.

of the South Konkan.

an

the 16th

turies cen-

extensive

trade with

the Persian

Gulf and Red Sea

Here

is the

the 6th century. The

name

underground temple of Chandikabai, datingfrom Ump. Gaz., XI, 100.)

"

Palapatmce is probablythe Sanscrit Pdripatana town," while Pari

was a

the

suffix meaning
the Western

general term
and Mediceval

applying to

Vindhya mountains and

the

coast

south of them.

(Nundo

Lai

Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient

53.

"q. 68.) India,

Melizigara.
"

This

is

placed by Miiller and McCrindle

port

at

the
some

modern

Jaigarh (17" 17' N., 72" 13' E.), formerly a

now

of

but size,

little more

than

that it may which

be the modern of
a

It is not impossible fishing-village. Rajapur (16" 34' N., 73" 31' E. ),

a

lies at the head

to

tidal creek, and

is the

only port
stone

ohi

this

coast Ratnagiri

which

Arab

trade direct, boats still though i vessels three miles of the old
,

of any

size

cannot

approach

within

quay.

(See 7"2".Gaz., XIII, 379; XXI, 66.) of Pliny the Melixegyris of JPtplemy, This is the Sigerus
"

The
a hills,"

name name name

seems

to

suggest the

Sanscrit, Malaya-giri, Malaya

part of the Western

which

covered the southern

in the

Ghats.

The

same

appears
"

Male

of

Cosmas

and

our

Malabar. Lassen

53.

Byzantium.
assumes

This
have

is
a

evidently a colony
of

corruption.

6) (III,
It is
,

it

to

been

Byzantine Greeks, but

a

there is not

the

evidence slightest

of the existence of such

colony.

16" 33' the modern Vizadrog (Sanscrit, Vijayadurga; probably of the best harbors on the 73" 20' E.), described as being one N. Gaz,.,XXIV, 310; so Vincent,Miiller and coast. {,Imp. western McCrindle. ) This is probably the modern 53. Togarum. Devgarh (16"
"

23' N., 73" 22' E. ) described

as

"a

safe

and

beautiful landlocked

202

The smooth. depth harbor,at all times perfectly average 18 feet. The entrance, only 3 cables in width, lies close

of
to

water

is

the fort

point."
53. doubt
a

ilmp. Gaz.,Xl,nS;
Aurannoboas.
"

SO

Vincent,Miiller and McCrindle.

text

The

has initial T

instead of

corruption. McCrindle placesit at the modern 3' N., 73" 28' E. ). It is a place of considerable importance, good iron ore being found in the neighborhood. To the Marathas an his image is worshipped island in the harbor is Sivajl' s cenotaph, and
in the chief shrine.

J, no Malvan (16"

(See Imp. Ga%., XVII, 96.)

is a contraction of is
a

The
and the

name

Malvan

Maha-lavana,
for

saltmarsh," the

Greek

Aurannoboas would

perhaps intended
similar meaning.
"

Sanscrit

which Aranya-vaha, 53.

have

Islands
Rocks

of the

Sesecrienae.
N.
,

These

are

probably the
of rocky islets
town

Vengurla
some

(15" 53'
lengthand
was a

70" 27' E. ), a
out

group

3 milfs in

miles

from

the

modern

of

Vengurla, which
Dutch

port

of considerable

occupationin
Island
20

the 17th century.

importance during the (^Imp. Gaz., XXIV, 307.)

is

53.

of the

Aegidii.
"

This

perhaps

the

island of

Goa

(15

N., 74

0' E. ), the present

Portuguesepossession. It
at
an so

is of historical importance,having been

settledby Aryans

early
Aluller

date,and appearingin
and

the Puranas.

(Imp. Gaz.,XII, 251;

J ; but
text

McCrindle.)

The

to Imperial followingYule, prefers Gazetteer,

it with identify

Anjidiv (14" 45' N., 74" 10' E.

we assume

the
to

location is
be wrong,
on

unless less satisfactory

and
to

the

order the

in the

refer

to

the grouping of this and

followingisland
is

either

side of the Karwar 53. Rocks

point.
of

Island

the

Caenitae."

This

probably the Oyster

islands
west

(14"49'N.,
roadstead 53.

74" 4'

E.),

cluster of

of, and

the facing,

of Karwar. for Greek, "peninsula." This answers modern Karwar (14" 49' N., 74" 8' E.), for the North

Chersonesus."
the trade

the from port and

coarse

point at projecting
times early
as
a

center

Kanara, and

an

active Hubli

late

as

the

16th century,

exportingfine muslins

from

elsewhere blue 53.

also pepper, and interior, cardamoms, cassia, cloth. {Imp. Ga%., XV, 65.) dungar'i
"

in the

Pirates.
go

Alarco
year

Polo
more

(III, xxv),
than
a

says

of

this coast,

there cruise.
stay out
or

forth

every

hundred

corsair vessels on and and children,

These

take pii'ates
summer.

with

them

their wives is to

the whole of these

Their

method

join in fleetsof 20

30

call a

sea

and then they form what they piratevessels together, there is an intervalof 5 or 6 cordon,that is,they drop off till

203

miles between

ship and ship,so that they cover

no

something like

dred hun-

ship can escape them. For when is made one a vessel a signal sights any by fire or smoke, and then the whole of them make for this, and seize the merchants and After they have plundered them plunder them. they let them go, saying,'Go along with you and get more gain,and that mayhap will
corsair

miles of sea, and

merchant

fallto

us

also !

'

But

now

the merchants and with such

are

aware

well manned

and

armed,

great

and go so this, that they don' t ships,

at

of

fear the corsairs.

same

Still mishaps do

befall them

times."

In this

Yule vicinity,
was

Ibn Batuta fell into observes,

the

the pirates' hands, part of

and

strippedto
and

drawers.

The
were

northern
a

Malabar,
a

Kanara,
ancient
was

the Southern

Konkan,

nest

of when

from pirates

very

date until well into the 19th century,

the British arms.
says

their occupation

destroyedby
Marco Polo

(III, xxiv)
ship
some

of

the

kingdom
and

of

Ely (near there, plunder

and else,

Mangalore),
the cargo.

if any for

enters

their estuary

anchors and

having been bound

God 'tis And has
sent

other port, they seize her

You
to
were

For they say.

you

bound
we

for somewhere

hither
no

us,
to

so

have

rightto
And
this

all your

goods.
custom

'

they think
stress

it is the

sin

act

thus.

naughty ship be
which
came

all over prevails

provincesof India,to wit,that

into
to
some

if a

driven it was bound it due

by

of it

weather
sure

other

port than if

that
a

to

bound,

was

be

plundered. But
receive it with

ship
and

to the place they originally

all honor

give

protection.
In

' '

1673, Yule

notes,

to replied Sivajl

the

pleadings of

an

lish Eng' '

embassy, that it was Pirate Coast !) "to restore

Abd-er-Razzak 53. White Island
notes

the laws against

any

of Conchon"
were

(Ptolemy's

shipor goods that

same

driven ashore.

the
"

at Calicut. practices

Island.
,

This

is

probably
as

the

modern

Pigeon

(14" 1' N.

74" 16' E.), also known

Nitran.

It liesabout

10 miles off the coast, about 300 feet high, and is visible for 25 miles. {Imp. Gaz., XX, 136.) It abounds in white coral and lime. This is probably the
of stronghold
may
same as

the Nitrias of

Pliny (VI, 26), merchants;

the and

the

be the Nitra

who threatened pirates, of Ptolemy.

the Roman

53. Naura It seems Goa

was

and
a

Tyndis, the
long
stretch of berth

first markets
on

of Damirica.

clear that

coast

either side of the modern the of

given a

wide

habits piratical
which

of its

by foreignmerchant-ships because of people, and because it produced no cargo Nelcynda,

these
two

they

were

in search. have

Like the followingports, Muziris and

204

been

placed too
from

far north

by

most

of the

commentators.

The South

ence infer-

the few

words

in the those

Periplusis
more

that the

Konkan

and Kanara These

may

districtswere

infested by pirates. particularly

of Asoka' the
s

be identifiedwith the

Satiya kingdom

tions. inscripmodern

The
the

Tamil

ports,

laywithin strictly speaking,

now

regionwhere
the

Malayalam language is Telugu

districts

within spoken, that is,

The

of Malabar, Cochin, and Travancore. districts

Tulu, Kanarese
Dachinabades

and

seem

to

be within

our

author's

rather than his Damirua.

These

four ports

lay respectively probably

Dutch found

within the four districtsinto which the

the Portuguese and

Kerala
;

vancore kingdom divided : Cannanore, Calicut,Cochin and Trawas of which the last-named,at the time of the Periplus,

held by the Pandya kingdom.

The four Tamil
states,
are Chola, Pandya, Kerala, and Satiya, (Vincent Smith, Asoka, Edict of Asoka.

all' named
p.

in the 2d

Rock

115).
did Naura

Mr.
not

Smith
extend

thinks north

{Early History,pp.
of the

Kerala

164, 340-1) that Chandragiririver (12" 36' N. ).

be identifiedwith the The latter

being then
have been

in North

Malabar, may

modern known and has

Cannanore
to

(11" 52' N., 75" 22' E.).

an

place is

active port in the

most

days of

the Roman

trade,

yieldedone
the

of the

important finds in India of Roman

coins,of
It Honavar the

reignsof Tiberius,Claudius and Nero.

clear that the identification of this placewith the modern
a

seems

(14" 17' N., 74" 27' E.), while

names,

tempting
in

one,

owing

to

of similarity within and

is

not

in accord which

with the facts.

was

Honavar

lies
the

rather Andhra

the

stripof

coast

between dispute

Saka dynasties, as
from

well
name

as

the petty the modern

Maurya and Pallava

Cannanore
would

princes; while
answer

of similarity

well. equally
The

location of Tyndis, of the Chera

It is described
as a

of Muziris.

kingdom, depends on that in plainsighton the shore, village

"

and

may

be identified with the modern This drains

Ponnani

(10" 48' N.
same

75" 56'
name,
as

E. ). which

place lyingat
a

the mouth of the

of the river of the

western

rich section have

as

mountains terminus

known for the

the

Anaimalai

would Hills,

been

natural

pepper

produced there,as well

This

for the

berylsof

the Coimbatore

district.

Ponnani

river, according to
on

the

ImperialGazetteer (XX, 164),

unlike nearlyall others

for
some

the

west

for small vessels coast, is navigable

distance inland.
near

Dr. Burnell prefersKadalundi

49

Beypore (11" 11' N.,'75"

same

E.

on

the north

bank

of the

river of the

name,

which

is

also navigable to the foot of the

mountains, and

carries down

large

206

207

N., 75" 8' geography

to

E. j. and

This

conflicts with nearlyall that

the Tamil

we

know

of the

of politics

kingdoms,

and

is entirely impossible

forNelcynda.
the

This which

port, according to the

never certainly

Feriplus, belonged
so

Pandyan kingdom,

extended

far north.

E ofG
.12 Miles.

7/6-50

The

Cochin

Backwaters:

from

Rectus,Asia, \'ol.

III.

208
'

The and
sea,

text

tells us

that Muziris

was

distant from
from
to

Tyndis, by

river 'by

500

stadia,"and
"

Nelcynda

Muziris,

river and

sea, 500

stadia.

This

can

hardlyrefer

anything but

the Cochin

backwaters.

53.

Nelcynda.

"

This

port

is called the

city of

the

Neacyndi,

by Pliny; Melkynda by Ptolemy; Nincylda by the PeutingerTables,

by Friar Odoric, and Nilcinna by the Geographer of Ravenna. Cyncilim behind Cochin in the backwaters,or thoroughfares, It was probably (9" 58' N., 76" 14' E. j, the exact location being uncertain because
but cersand-bars and islands; of river-beds, tainly frequentshifting 31' 9" 36' 76" E. ),which the modern N., Kottayam ( very near 50 miles, from Cranganore. Kottayam, is exactly500 stadia, or of the

according to
ancient
routes

the

Imperial Gazetteer (.XVI, 1),

whose church here
coast.

is is

a one

center

of the
most

SyrianChristian community,
on

of the

the

west

It is also the natural terminus and hills, is still a trade-center

for the trade-

from

the Pirmed

of considerable

importance.
The
name

Xelcynda,Fabricius
a name

thinks

Nilakantha, 'blue neck," Melkynda, which

A

of

(p. 160), is the Sanscrit Siva. Caldwell, however, prefers

Kingdom.
coasts
"

he translates Western
of

good

account

the

topography of the

of India
,

is
p.
at

1907 ed. given by J. A. Bains (AliU's International Geography, 'The coast-line is singularly devoid of indentations, 469). except
the mouths
west
a a

of the The
up

rivers larger

and

toward

the northern

portion of the
found

coast.

only harbors

except for

light-draft are vessels,

as

little way
group

the deltas of the chief

or rivers, where,

at

Bombay,
The
a

of islands affords adequate shelter from coast, in

the

open

sea.

eastern

is provided particular,
The

with

littlemore

than

few
west

protectedroadsteads. imperfectly
coast

southern

portion of the

is

distinguished by
the

series of

back-waters,or
makes the

parallel lagoons,
for small
' '

with the coast, and

a affording

safe and convenient winds is

a

waterway
ocean

vessels when
54.

season

of
"

high
This

unnavigable.
or Ch'eraputra

Cerobothra.
western

transliteration of which

the Kcralaputra,

Tamil

kingdom,
to

in its greatest

sion exten-

reached from

Cape Comorin

Karwar

Point, nearly7 degreesof

part had

the northern latitude. At the time of the Periplus

separated,
and

while the southern

end had passed to its neighbor,the Pandyan kingdom;

with modern
or

leaving Kerala nearlycoterminous

Cochin Muziris districts. The
or

Malabar

capitalwas
of

at

Karur,
of

Parur, opposite
three legendarj'

Cranganore.
son

Cheraputra is
brothers who founded

Chera^"

one

the

the Dravidian

power

in South India.

209

Pliny's use
to applies

of the word and

as

the

name

of

king was
or

the country,

isalso a dynastic name

seem

incorrect;it royaltitle.
to

The debated their

Chera
passage
on

backwaters

to

be

referred

the trade of

Ceylon

with the of
our own

by Pliny in a "Seres" (VI, 22): merchants, who brought for sale

are

accounts

agreed with
wares

the reports

tell us

that the

which further
are

they depositnear
bank of
a

those

by

the

Seres,on
by
them

the

river in their country,

removed Here

if they
must

satisfied with the exchange."

as

Seres

be read the

justas interchanged,
Sinhalese records.
It is

meaning Chera, the Ch and 5 being neighboringChola kingdom is always Soli in

is also
to meant

quite possiblethat Chera

Seres of by Pliny's this

XXXIV,
of

41, who
Adulis.

sent

the best iron

to

Rome;

being

product
from

Haidarabad, and
to

referred

in

"

6 of the

shipped as Periplus,
in

India

See also under

"

Sarapis, p. 146.

is referred Ceylon itself, " 65, and again by Pliny (VI, 20), Pausanias (III, to under 3), xii, and Cosmas II)(book Indicopleustes For further references
out to

The

silent trade, noted by Fa-Hien

Chera
at

and the other Tamil

states

growing

Smith, Early Grammar Chap, xvi; Caldwell, History, of the Dravidian Languages, South Indian Palceogalso History introduction; of Tinnevelly; Burnell, raphy; Shanguni Menon, Historyof Travancore; Francis Day, The LandofthePermauls; J. B. Pandian, Indian UllageFolk; Sir Walter
of the

establishment original
"

Korkai,

see

Vincent

"

"

"

"

"

Coins of Southern India ; Elliot, down K.

to

"

of Foulkes, The Civilization in Indian

the Dakhan

the 6th century B. Padmanabha

C,
"

Antiquary,1879, pp.
/Malabar

1-10;
"

P.

Menon,

Notes

on

in and itsplace-names,

Antiquary, Aug., 1902; Wilson, The Pandyas,in Journalofthe in J. R. A. S., 199; Dawson, The Ch'eras, Royal Asiatic Society, iii,
Indian
"

Dynasties of Southern India,in the Archaeological Madras, 1884; F. KielSurvey, in Epigraphia Indica,Vols. horn, Dates of Chola and Pandya Kings, Vol. II, Chaps, i,iii, iv, v, Gaxetteer, IV-VIII, inclusive; Imperial h is der Grundriss and generally, ix; Biihler,Indische Paltsographie,
viii, 1;
"

Sewell,

Lists of

and Inscriptions,

Sketch of the

"

"

"

und Altertumskunde; Fleet,The Dynasties of the Indo-Arischcn Philologie

"

Kanarese

"

Bhandarkar, Early Historyof the Dekkan, in I,ii; Loventhal,Coins of Tinnevelly Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency ; Hultzsch, South Indian Inscriptions.
and Districts,
"

54. Abounds flourished

a

in

ships.
"

In

these

protectedthoroughfares
which craft,
was

in largely sea-trade,

native Dravidian

of

earlycreation and of great influence in the interchangeof ideas as well as commodities, not only in South India,but in the Persian Gulf,

210

Merchant-shipof

the 2d century, in the Lateran

from

relief on

sarcophagus

Museum.

and

the

coasts

of Arabia Both

and

Africa,with

which

the trade

was

cipally prinits

maintained.

Buddhist and B. C.
;

Brahman

to writings testify

existence in the 5th century

are

but their evidence

is late, as they

the

product of
is

the Northern

Aryans, an
been

inland race, who

appeared
Better
a

in South India after itsactivities had evidence

widely developed.
to to

given by
whereas
,

the

Dravidian

alphabet, supposed

be from

Semitic

and Phoenician) original, or (Himyaritic, the

date from

about lated formu-

1000 B. C.

Aryan,

or

KharosthI,alphabet was
(R. Sewell,Hindu

after the conquest,

about

500 B. C.
,

Period

of Southern India,in Imp. Gaz. II,322. j "Sent from Arabia and by the Greeks"
our error

were

the has

author is

in the

Chera

baci"waters.

The
were

text

shipsfound by Ariaca,but the

not

obvious,as
sources.

the articles of trade No lived

from

and foreign,

Hindu,
Northern medium

Aryan language
their
own

had

penetrated into
secluded

these from

kingdoms,
of

which

life,completely
the which
outer

India,and
maritime

in touch
commerce,

with

world only through the been conducted

with the

had

from very earlytimes. safety ber\ls of Coimbatore, and the

The
pepper

pearlsof

the Gulf of
were

Manar,
to

of Malabar

not

be had

elsewhere,and
the 7th
or

were

largely sought by foreign merchants, as earlyas

B. C."

8th century

(VincentSmith, EarhHistory, 334.)

211

Benjamin
account

of
on

Tudela,
seven

in the

12th

century,

gives the following

is
the

of trade Thence

this coast:

is

days'journey to
of the
stars

the
sons are

beginning of
of

the

country read the

(Quilon) which Sun-worshippers.These are

Khulam
are

Cush,
in

who

and

all black in color.

come

They
from

honest

commerce.

When
the

merchants
of the then

to

them

distantlands and down

to

enter

three harbour,
names

King's

secretaries go before the for their is an has

vails pre-

them

and

record the

their

and

bring them

King, whereupon
property

King

makes in the

himself responsible even

open

which

they leave

unprotected. There
of
any

who official

sits in his

and office,
when From
man
can

the

owner

lost property This

custom

only to

describe it to him

he hands

it back.
to

in all that country.

Passover
go
out

New

Year,

that is all
of

during the
sun,

summer,

no

of his house

because

the

for the

heat

in that country

is intense, and from in his house all the market

at

the third hour until evening.

of the

day onward, everybody remains they go

to

Then

forth and then

kindle

in lights and

placesand all
For

the streets, and

do their work

business

night-time.

they have
the
sun.

turn

night into day

is found there. of the

in consequence

of the great heat of

trees

Pepper
each
man

They plantthe
his
as
own
'

thereof in the
trees

and fields,
are

knows city white

plantation. The
And when
water boiling

small and the

pepper

is as

snow.

they have
over

collected it they place it in

so

sauce-pans

and

pour

it,
and

that it may

become

strong.

Then
black.

they take
Cinnamon

it out and

of the

water

dry it in

the sun,

and it turns
are

gingerand

many

other kinds of

spices

found in this land."

This

54. and

Pandian

kingdom.
modern

"

was

Pandya, the southernmost,

states.

of the earliest, traditionally with of the the

the three Tamil

Roughly Madura;
and of

it
at

coincided
the time

districtsof Tinnevelly and

the Ghats

Periplusit extended beyound

at originally capital,

included

Travancore. which

The
been
as a

Korkai

(the Colchi
name

" 59,

see) had
Here
too,
as

removed

to

Madura

(9" 55' N., 78" 7' E.).

the is used for the of any

in the

Chera

kingdom,
as

country

and

not title, dynastic

the

name

king.
is from

55. Bacafe.

"

(Ptolemy gives Barkare, which

This
can a

perhaps

the

) reading. preferable
at
an

place,distant 120 stadia

be
no

Nelcynda,
distance

inlet of the sea,

for which is

other

than

Porakad

(9" 22' N., 76"

the

22' E. )
from

it is

while close transliteration; the

text.

Kottayam
Porakad
was

exactlyin accord with

once a

notable port, but

declined with the rise of

a

AUeppey, built

few

miles farther north after

canal had

been

cut

212

throuijhfrom

sea

to

backwater
The

and

harbor

works

constructed.

(^Imp.
Dutch, (1503)
of
a

Gaz., XX,
had
as

188.)
at

and Portuguese,

subsequentlythe by by
Varthema

settlements

Porakad.
Tavernier
are factory

It is mentioned

Porcai,and
low
water.

by
and

(1648)
now

as

Porca.

The
the sea,

remains

Portuguese fort
at

covered

being visible
rises in the

in (Ball,

his edition of

Tavernier,I, 241.)
which river, between main

Here

also is the mouth

the Shencottah

of the Achenkoil
pass,

Ghats
core

near

the

highway

Travan-

Tinnevelly. Alalabar and {Notes on According to Menon settlements were nearlyall east of the backwaters
the
present

and

itsplace-names), the
at

the Christian era,

and

beaches
was
a

existed only

as

tide-shoals. led
to

During
changed
present
century

the

middle of
courses

ages
new

there

which period of elevation, from the

the formation the the

ago

while floods islands,

and rivers,

mountains inlets. At
at

of the

the location

of the built B.

tendency is toward

houses subsidence, About 800

Cochin

being now
the

under
sea

water.

C.
,

tion, accordingto local tradi-

reached

the hills. 4th

century

Megasthenes,
sea-coast" the
side of the
town

in the of

B. C.

mentioned
,

as

on

the

now Tropina (Tripontari) backwaters; Ptolemy's three shore towns are

on

the

mainland
Muziris

between

and Barkare

likewise

on

the land side.

56.
the

Large ships.
"

The

increase in the size of

to

ing followshipping

of Hippalus is referred discovery

also in

"

10.

Plinyspeaks

214

that this
coast

v\ as

one

reason

for the

of sailing

the

junks

to

the

Malabar Polo's

in the 2d century the tonnage of the

B. C. and probablyearlier.

In Marco

day

junks was
Alexandria

calculated according to their capacity

in baskets of pepper;
pepper

and he found
or

(II,Ixxxii)
and
more

for

one

shiploadof
for Christendom, this haven of

that goes there

come

to a

elsewhere,destined
too,
to

hundred

such, aye Amoyj.

Zayton"
The the

(Chwan-chau,
trade in pepper unheard-of

above

in the time

of the Roman

Empire brought
and

merchants

profits justas
most

it did later the Genoese

commerce

Venetians. between

It was India and

one

of the

important articles of

Rome,

supplying perhaps three-quartersof

cargo.
most

the

total bulk of the The

constant

average
use

westbound
of pepper

in the

expensiveRoman
as

cookery

is reflected about

by

its

price,quoted by Pliny (XII, 14j

15 denarii, or

$2.55

per

lb.

Constantine to the church by the emperor Among the offerings vessels and fragrant and spices, under St. Silvester, were costly gums frankincense,nard,balsam, storax, myrrh, cinnamon, saffron including and
pepper.

That

it continued for raising the

in

high

esteem

is shown

by

the

terms

offered of

by Alaric 5,000

siegeof Rome:

the immediate

payment

of 4,000 robes of silk, of gold, of 30,000 lbs. of silver, 3,000 pes. of fine scarletcloth,and of 3,000 lbs. weight of pepper." (Gibbon, Decline and Fall,III,271-2.) lbs. of

so

Pliny,indeed, expresses great favor ' XII, 14) :

come so

at surprise

the

taste

that

brought it into
use

It is quitesurprising that the

of pepper

has
we

much

into

fashion, seeingthat
their sweetness,
our

in other substances which sometimes their appearance h:;s nothing in it

use,

it is sometimes

and

that has attracted that

can

notice; whereas, pepper

to

plead

as

recommendation

either fruit or and Who

berry, its only

desirable
we

quality being a

certain pungency; from

yet it is for this that

was

import it all the

an

way

India! And

the first to make the

man

trialof it as that
was

articleof food.?
content
to

not
a

prepare
'

who, I wonder, was himself by hunger only for

the satisfying

of

greedyappetite.''
Europe
the trade
was

In medieval

highlyorganized,the spice
called
and 'pepperers;" the

being
show

handled

especially by
in

merchants

pricesquoted Cape
pay route,
a

and Prices in England of Agriculture Rogers' History

years

that in the
a

of the just prior to the Portuguesediscovery

pound

of pepper Yet the

brought two

shillings, being four days'

above

for

carpenter!

people preferred it

all other

215

spices; it was (V, 310-13):

I Hastow

the first thing asked

for

by "Glutton"

in Piers Plowman

hauegodeale, gossib,"quod
aughte in
and thi purs' any

she' bote she for

wiltow "glotown,

assaye

?"

I haue peper
A

piones," quod
'

spices?" "and a pounde fastyngdayes.

the
pepper
' '

of

garlike,

ferthyngworth of fenel-seed

Friar Odoric Minibar"

circuit
are as

(Chap, iii)describes
the wood And

production of
containeth
or

follows:

in which

it grows

in

eighteendays'journey.
one cities,

in the said wood the other

pepper
unto

forest there

two

called

and Flandrina,

Cyncilim" (probably
is had after this

Nelcynda).
manner:

"In the aforesaid

wood

first it groweth in leaves like

near

which pot-herbs,

they
forth

plant
pepper
are

unto

great

trees
our

as

we

do do

our

vines,and
but

they bring
and

in
a

as clusters,

vines
are sun

yield grapes,
we

being ripe,they
then put into

of

green

color,and
laid in the

gathered as
to

the

grainsare earthen vessels;and

with merchandise

be

dried,and
made

gather grapes, being dried are

. .

thus is pepper

and kept.

At the south
aboundeth

of Polumbrum, which end of the said forests stands the city of all kinds."

(The
or as

proper

form

would be Polum-

bum,

the Latinized version of Polum

are

Kolum,
case

the modern

Quilon.
modern

P and K Parur. )

interchangedhere

in the

of

Karur, the

Tavernier

found
came

pepper

sold principally at Tuticorin

and Calicut. The from the

Some, however, Dutch,"

Malaharis
he do
says
not

from

Rajapur
ed.

xii. Ball's (II,

pay

Ratnagiricoast. ), "who purchase it

on

the

but exchange for it many kinds of it, and quicksilver, and it is merchandise, as cotton, opium, vermilion, 500 livres of it brings this pepper which is exported to Europe. in cash for
. .

but only 38 reals,

on

the
"

merchandise One
to
can

which

they gain 100

of 28
more or

per

cent.

get it for

they give in exchange the equivalent in money

would
be much

30 realscash, but
the Dutch also

purchase it in

that way

than costly He
at

method."
the

mentions

(I,xvi) a largestorehouse kept by

"
"

guese Portu-

Cochin, called the "PepperHouse. and Hanbury, PhamiacoFlilckiger See also Watt, 896-901; article "Pepper;" BranBritannica, Encyclopaedia graphia, p. 579;
"

"

Liber Pontificalis, Rome, 1724-55. dis,Indian Trees; Vignoli, of the serpents guarding the Odoric also describes a propitiation
"

pepper,

similar to those of the frankincense

and

is better in the version of "SirJohn Mandeville" of serpents and of other vermin manner be many that country great heat
of the country

diamond; the story "In (Chap, xviii) :

for the
say.
some men

and of the pepper.

And

216

that when
to

they will gatherthe

the serpents
so.

pepper,

they make
to

to fire,

burn

about

make

and the cockodrills For

if they burnt

flee. the

But
trees

save

their grace

of allthat say
pepper

about

that

bear, the
of any

should be burnt, and it would

as dry up all the virtue,

other

thing; and
never

then the

they did themselves juicemade

the and

much

harm, and they

they anoint
of other
venomous

should
hands made

quench

fire. But thus they do:

a

their

and

their feet with

of snails and

things
beasts

of therefor,

the which

serpents

and

the

hate and dread the savour; because of the

that maketh

them

flee before

them,

smell,and

then they

gatherit surelyenough.
or

This
trees,
or

belief in the guarding of treasure,

the habitation noted with
as

of

wealth-producing
of serpents, has

in by spirits thereof,

the form

already been
appear

attachingto

frankincense The

(" 29),
the
use

and

will

likewise

the diamond

(" 56).
serpents

supposed necessity
stances pf other sub-

of

appeasing or
was

else expellingthe
in Rome strongly

by

to

itself. Pliny ascribes this power in If ignited galbanum, "a kind of giantfennel" (XII, 56).
held
'

pure

state

it has the property

of

driving away
very

serpents

by itssmoke."

And

again (XXIV,

13), "the

spondylium, is sufficient to III,415):

The under frankincense
pp.

kill a

it, mingled with oil and {Georgia, serpent." So also \'irgil

touch of
nidore

"Galbaneoque agitare graves

chelydros."
on

gatherers depended

burning

storax;

see

" 29,
56.

131-2.
"

Malabathnim.

Heeren,

Vincent the

and

McCrindle
a

late trans-

this

and thereby accuse "betel,"

Periplus of
as an

blunder from

in the

""

63 and

65,

where

the substance is described The in

coming

Himalaya

mountains. the
text

translation

rests
as

on

assumption that
or

the petros of

"

65 is the

same

the

Portuguese betre

hetle meaning betel.

\A att

(p. 891)

says

this latter is rather

derived from
it is very

Alalay
if the in the

word

vettilaor

vern-ila, meaning
times entered

leaf,

"

and

doubtful

betel of modern Roman The the tamala

into international

commerce

period.
word
tree

petros is rather

from

the

of Sanscrit /"ff/rfl, "leaf,"

which,
or

as

explained under
The

"" 10,

13

and

14,

is a

varietyof
India
momum

cinnamon

laurel.

leaf exported from

Southern
the Cinna-

was

also from

Cinnamomum

from and possibly incrs,

was

which "zeylanicum
one

in latertimes of
our

cultivated in

Ceylon and cipally prinPliny

is

of the The

sources

cinnamon. from the

(See Tavernier, Traveh,

was

II,xii).

leaf coming

Himalaya mountains
was

from the Cinnamomum

tamala,which

native there.

217

says that the

jnalahathrum have
a

which

entered

so

prominently into Roman

other Roman writers in nard mentioned

perfumes
seem

should

smell like nard, and

it with the

to

have

confused

Ganges

"

63.

(See also Lassen,I, 279-285; II, 555-561J Horace, (II,vii, 89), refers to it as follows:
"Coronatus
Malobathro nitentes

Syrio capillos." the

two most

Malabathrum

and

spikenard were
and condition and is

treasured

dients ingre-

of the ointments A

perfumes of the Roman

empire.
from
as

curious trade
knew cinnamon

suggestedby only
the
as

the fact that the Romans

the

cassia

coming

Somali
from
one

coast

of

Africa,while they knew

malabathrum
was,

coming
in
at

various parts of

India; and
the
no same

yet the malabathrum

tree

least

case, the leaf from

that

produced
the

of cinnamon. variety of cinnamon from This

The

Periplus in

place
trade

mentions

export

India,but in
seems

""

56 and 63 describes the export

a

of malabathrum. date and

to

indicate

monopoly

of very

ancient

thorough
to

enforcement, by
African
coast,

which

the bark
was

only went
an

for trade purposes article of trade Ancient of the

to

the

while the leaf

open

India.

and Lindsay {History of Alerchant Shipping

Commerce,I,
secrecy

156-7),also
which trade." the

remarks

on

this

instance striking the

more

with their

ancients

conducted
he

valuable

portionsof
obtained traded

Herodotus,
about cinnamon
.

thinks,
from who the

could

only have
who
secret

his information

merchants

along
as

the the

shores

of

Malabar

kept the
' '

of itsprovenance

kept Carthaginians
Another

that of British tin.

letterfrom

Mr.

R. E.

Drake-Brockman, dated Berbera,

of the absence of the cinnamon

April 27, 1910, givesfurther

species from
It is that unlikely cinnamon the

confirmation

the Somali

peninsula. (See under " 13, p. 87).

of this country its commercial knew heard of

inhabitants original

anything of
from

until they had

or

value
to

the natives

of India the

Arabs, who
which all,
any

ha\e

been
same

known

the

coastal people from

earliesttimes.
at

These
is

if they traders,

penetratedinto
have

the

interior

would extremely doubtful,

hunted

for

anything of
have

commercial
to

value,and
it up
to

if cinnamon the present

had existed they would

continued and

export

day

as

myrrh they do frankincense, they have

had
to to

gum

arabic.
names

A point which

is worthy of notice is that the Somalis have whereas

go

for allthe lastthree, for their

names

the Arabic
two

language

for cinnamon. of which

are

They

know

of

and varieties, koronfol

karfa,both
led
to

imported. "It is highly probable that

both

Strabo and

Plinywere

218

believe that the

into
same

cinnamon and spices pouring myrrh, frankincense, from the the kingdom of Aethiopia and upper Egypt all came traders in Aethiopia obtained a better price for place. Possibly

their myrrh and

cinnamon

if they stated the

difficulties and
of the
savage

dani;ers
Gallas

it in the countries collecting they experienced

or

their antecedents in the Horn

'

of Africa.

'There
been and

can

be

no

doubt that the natives of these regions have

their less warlike have

always
Somalis
there

greatlyfeared by
their antecedents

neighbors. The
keen and traders,

always
ever

been

can

be littledoubt that if cinnamon

not

existed in these regions,

been

the

it would of collecting practice

was

have inferior

dropped unless

the

specieshere collected
its marketable value."

of

very

and gradually lost quality

Through
of
statement

the courtesy various be

the

of the

same

gentleman
of

the
may

aromatic than

gums
was

mens specigathering Somaliland,a more positive

in

made

possibleunder trade,
in the Punt

" 32,

pp.

141-2,
the
a Bahri,

concerning
character

Egyptian
trees

frankincense

determining

of the

depicted on
was

reliefs at Deir el

photograph of
Professor

which

reproduced on

page

120.

Breasted in his Ancient

Records of

Egypt (II,263-5),
the records

callsthis
refer
to

tree

myrrh, and translatesit

In the of publications

as

myrrh

wherever

it.

the

Egypt ExplorationP'und {The

of the supposed elsewhere

but is located III,12), it '\scaAe.A frankincense, Temple of Deir-el-Bahri, in Somaliland African in the reliefs. in the

neighborhood

of

Mosyllum, because people

who
appear

appearance

of the Punt

Specimens
no

of

true

myrrh

sent

from
to

Somaliland

show

that clearly the

sculptorcould

have

intended

depictby

the rich

on foliage

the bare,thorny,trifoliatebut almost leaflessmyrrh tree, nor reliefs, yet the almost equally leafless varieties of Somaliland frankincense.

This
of

tree

is

the Boswellia Carteri, clearly in Southern where the

frankincense

of the rich

plain

Dhofar

Arabia.
can

This

is the only place producing

on a

frankincense

trees

be cultivated

fertile plainby the is no

s

shore,in

the midst of green

coast
are

fieldsand cattle. There

these conditions.
not

place on objection
favor ions dominmodern

the African

which
not

meets

Naville'

that the natives of such

a

Arabs,"
the who

/. e.,

in Semitic,is really
race

belief;they were
at

Cushite pre-Semitic,
are

whose

centered

Dhofar, and
can

there by the represented the

trees

Gara

tribe.

There of

be

no

questionthat
the

in that relief are of the

the frankincense
the Periplus,

Dhofar,

"Sachalitic frankincense"

modern

Shehri luban.

219

To

the

possibleobjectionthat
part of the Somali

the Darror

and Nogal
fertile and

in valleys,

the southern
a

peninsula, are
east

might

duce pro-

better foliagethan the northern

far short of the
a

coast, it may

be said that the

'
sea.

fertility stops
whereas 56. Rome
to

coast, which

is absolutely desert;
'

the reliefsshow

rich and

fertile plainborderingthe
"

great
the East

quantity of coin.
has

The

drain of
to

speciefrom

already been

referred

under
says

" 49,

and is

condemned bitterly
one us

by Pliny. "The
our

subject,"he

(VI, 26), "is

well worthy of
of less than which

notice, seeingthat in no year does India drain back her own 5S0M0,Q00 sesterces (g22,000,000)giving
are

wares,

A the

sold among 100 times their first cost." at fully us in 22 A. D., this was made generation before the Periplus,
a

of subject If
a

letterfrom

the emperor

Tiberius

to

the Roman

Senate
how

reform

is in truth the

where intended,

must

it begin.? and How

. . .

am

to

restore taste

of simplicity
. . .

ancient times?

shall we

reform

the

for dress ?

How
in

are

we

to

deal with the peculiar that rage for

articles of feminine

and vanity,

with particular

jewels sends, foreign

which and precious trinkets, in

drains the

empire

of itswealth,and
to

exchange

for baubles,the money

even

of the Commonwealth of

nations,and 53.) iii,

This

to

the

enemies

Rome.?"

(Tacitus,Annals,
the East without the the

extravagant

importation of luxuries from

of commodities
to

adequate production
main
cause

offer in

exchange, was degradation of

tary mone-

of

the

successive depreciationand

Roman

currency,

to leadingfinally

its total repudiation. The of

standard of

Rome

was

established by accumulations
The
to

precious

from metal resulting in 272

its wars.

sack of the rich

of Tarentum city

B. C.

enabled
,

Rome

silver. After the destruction

of

change her coinage from copper to Carthage and Corinth in 146 B. C,

into general use, and through the wars of Caesar gold coinage came that in 47 B. C. its ratio to silver 1 to was as gold became so plentiful

8.9, lower
about

than

ever

before
aureus

or

since.

Under

Augustus

the ratio

was

to

9.3,

the

being
India
was

worth

25

silver denarii.
after which
came

Under the

Claudius the

sea-route

to

opened,
form

reign
of

of

Nero, marked
the

by

every

of wastefulness and

gance, extrava-

during which
an silver,

silver denarius fell from

cent

1-84

to to

1-96 pound
it. Under

alloyof

20 per

copper per

being added
under

Trajan
50 per become
was

the
cent.

alloy reached

30

cent, and

SeptimiusSeverus

218 A. D., t\i"denarius had under Elagabalus, Finally, and was repudiated. Even the golden aureus wholly copper

tampered with.
exchange
in

Exported

in

to largequantities

become

the basis

of

India, the supply at

home

was

exhausted.

Under

220

Augustus
when the

the

aureus

weighed 1-40
taken

of

pound

of

gold, and under

it fell to

Diocletian it

weighed but 1-60.

was

Under

Constantine

1-72,

coin

Monnaies Byzanonly by weight (Sabatier, tines,

i,51-2; Brooks
It was

Adams, Law of Civilizationand Decay,25-8). this steady loss of capital, wealth was to replacewhich no new
the

to produced, that led finally

abandonment

of Rome
to

and

to

the and

transfer of the
soon

at capital to

the end

of the 3d century

Nicomedia

afterward

Byzantium.

Coin

of Nero

commemorating

the opening of the harbor-works

at

Ostia.

In

the Madras the

Government
the

Museum

there is nearlya

complete
A

series of

coins of

Roman
them

Emperors during the period of

excavated in southern

active trade with

India,all of
are

India.

notable fact is that there

may

two

distinct breaks in the but discovery, which

series ; which
seem

of
a

course

be

suppliedby

later

to

cate indicoins
are

cessation of trade due

to

turmoil political and Nero

are

in Rome.

The

of

Claudius Tiberius,Caligula,
few of

numerous.

There Those
then

very

Vespasian
break
as

and and

Titus

anywhere
are

in India.

of

Domitian, Nerva, Trajan

comes

Hadrian

frequent;
to

there

another
so

untilthe lasting

time of Commodus. the

cation, This indi-

far

it has any the

value,points again
rather than

datingof

the

Periplusduring
and For
see a

reign of Nero
of Roman

during those

of Vespasian

Titus. full
account

coins discovered in South India,

E.

Thurston, Catalogue No.

2, Madras

Government

Museum,

pp.

1-47.
56.

Crude

glass.
"

The

originof

the

in India glass industry

is

According to Mitra, Antiquities of Orissa, I, 101, it was made in Ceylon in the 3d century B. C. and Pliny (, XXXVI, 66) of India as superior 'made of refers to the glass because to all others, pounded crystal." Mirrors,with a foil of lead and tin,were largely and Pliny indicates (XXXVII, used there at the time of the Periplus,
uncertain.
,

222

back of the sea-coast, would the hill-country kodu-nadu, the transliteration of the text. the facts while supporting the
term

accord

with
case

In

any

does

not

seem

to

have

been

appliedto

an

exact

locality.

56. Great
fisheries of the

quantitiesof fine pearls." These were from the in " 59, and brought to be Gulf of Manar, mentioned
ports, the

sold in the Chera trade. 56.

meeting-pointof

Eastern

and

Western

Silk

cloth.

"

From

China, by
and
"

way

of

Tibet

and

the

Ganges.
56. 56.

See under

"" 39, 49

64.

Gangetic spikenard.
Transparent
and which
stones.
"

See under
These there
were was

"

63. the beryls principally

a

of the Coimbatore

for district,

which

constant

demand

in

Rome,
Malabar

always found

their

principal foreignmarket
gem
reason

in the until

ports.

This

localization of the
the

trade

continued

after the

Portugueseperiod in India; (II,xxi):

Goa
was

is stated

by Tavernier
trade largest
stones.

formerly the place where

and
the merchants there

there

was

the and

in all Asia in All the had

diamonds, rubies, sapphires, topazes,

went to at

other

miners

sell the best which there

they

obtained

mines, because they had

country,

full liberty to
the

sell,
kings

whereas, in their
and
to

own
were

if they showed

anything to
both pearls,

they princes,
There
came was

compelled to sellat
also
at

whatever in

pricethey pleased
of those those
"

fix.

Goa

largetrade
the
coast

which

from

the island of Bahrein

on

in the Persian

Gulf,and

fished for in the Straits of Manar

of the island of
source

Ceylon.

India and Ceylon

were

preeminentlythe
were

of

productionof
part of the
as

preciousstones
civilized world. 1. The

of all kinds,which Wzxx.

exported to

every

the production (p. 556) classifies from the

sea-green

follows:
to

Beryl

group,

aquamarine
20. ) 15. )

the

white.

2. Diamond.
3. Pearl. 4.

of Pliny,XXXVII, (The beryllium (The adamas of Pliny, XXXVII,

Ruby.

(The

carbunculus of
numerous

Pliny,XXXVII,

25. )

5. Sapphire,occurringin

yellow, green
Malabar

and white.

various blues, colors, violet, Produced mainly on the Southern

6.

found in India but more hills, now rarely frequently in Ceylon. (The hyacinthmof Pliny, 41.) XXXVII, the Ig^ varieties of Pliny'scarbunculus. Spinel. (Included among

) 7. Topay,.
and the

Watt

doubts its production in India

on

at

any

shows Periplus

the contrary

that it uas

place, imported

223

from

the

Red

Sea.

(The
of

chnsolithosof Pliny,XXXVII,

42.)
8.

Turquoise. reachingthe

product

not Persia, occurringin India

but

northwestern

ports of trade.

(The

callaina of

Pliny,XXXVII,
9. Garnet.
tana

33.)
in many
parts

Common

of

India; those

of

Rajpu-

being the

best.

(One

of the 12 varieties, perhaps the

alabandk,of Pliny' s carbunculus. )

10. Jade and
upper

Jadeite;
W^hile

found
a

mainly

in Turkestan

but

also in

Burma,
to

while

serpentinefrom Afghanistan is often produced

The in

substituted. their way

not

India, these
Persia.

all find is China.

Indian markets.
or

leadingmarket
from and in demand

11. Lapis Lazuli,

used

also ultramarine;
of all kinds

Largely
in

for decoration

India,

Egypt and the Mediterranean world of Pliny,XXXVII, (The sapphiros

12.

from 39.

the earliest times.

)
the Romans
more

Quartzose, including
a.

Rock
not

white crystals,
seem

and

colored,which

do

to

have

from distinguished

precious
9-10. j"

stones.

oi Pliny,XXXVII, {j:\\" crystal

b.

cedony, bloodstone,chrysoprase,jasper,chalAgate, carnelian, cat's eye,

onyx,
etc. opal,

(^Achates, murrhine;

donyx; sarcarchedonia; sarda; heliotropium ; chrysoprasus ; iaspis,

astrobolos; onyx;
13.

XXXVII.) o^a/ (Pliny, through red,dark blue,olive

in

Tourmalines, varyingfrom
green,

black

and

India. For further

white, the red varieties being commonest 29. ) of Pliny,XXXVII, (The lychnis
of the

discussion

depositsand trade,see

Lassen, I,
in all

229-43; Tavernier, II.

"Beryls,"says Pliny (XXXVII,

and of
a are

20), 'areproduced
The

India,
beryls
a

to rarely

be found

elsewhere.

lapidaries
the

cut

hexagonalform,
the

because

the color,which

is deadened

by

dull
the

uniformityof

is heightened by surface,
cut

reflection from
stones

angles. If they are

whatever.
most
"

in any

other way,

these

have

no

liancy brilThe
green

(The crystals are

those which The

hexahedral.) naturally
in color resemble the pure
are

esteemed
sea.
. .

berylsare

of the of
an

people of India
and

marvelouslyfond of beryls
are

form, elongated

say that these

the

only preciousstones

they preferwearing without the addition of gold."

In the Mrkhchhakatika, an which includes
a row

earlySanscrit play,there
where

is

scene

of

jewelers'shops,

artistsare skillful

topazes, examining pearls,

coral lapis beryls,rubies, lazuli, sapphires,

224

and

other

jewels;
on

some

set

rubies in

gold;
cut

some

work

with

gold ornaments lapis

colored

some thread,

some string pearls, some

grind the

some lazuli,

and pierce shells,

coral."

(Mitra,op. cit.,

p.

11)0..)
5b.

Diamonds.
have

"

The

text

is adamas. the Romans that

Some
ever

commentators, knew the

true

notablyDana,
diamond.

doubted whether
can

There

be

no

doubt adamas

Pliny in his description substances, probably

possessed
the

(XXXVII,
quanz,

15)

includes

under

other

iron ore, emery,

etc., but he also says that the diamond

the greatest

value,not only among

as

the precious stones, but of all human

possessions; and
source

Watt known

says
to

(p. 556), India

nations. various mentions

was

long

only

of diamonds

European

Garcia

de
as

Orta

(1563),

Eastern
the

diamond Decam"

mines, such

those of

and "Bisnager" (Vijayanagar)

(Deccan).
of particulars

Ball,in
all the
a

his translation of Tavernier's Indian

sources

Travels, givesfull

of and
court

diamonds

(II, 450-461).
to

Tavernier
examine The (1
)

was

diamond

merchant and

the

first European (1676)

India.

the diamonds critically

jewels of

districtswere, principal districts of Southern Group:

"

Kadapa, Bellary, Karnul,

Kistna, Godaveri, (Golconda,etc.);

'2' Middle

Group:

"

Mahanadl

valley,districts of Sambalpur, conglomerates

Panna

Chanda;
(^3) Northern
'

Group:
)
.

"

Vindhyan

near

worked still

Pliny (XXXVII,
not

15j

describes in
a

the

Indian
of

adamas
a

as

'found,
nature to

in

stratum

of it

gold,but

substance

kindred

crystal ; which

resembles closely

in its transparency

and its highly

and hexahedral forms." (The true form of the polishedhexangular diamond is octahedral.) In shape it is turbinated, running to a

point at of, two

a

either
cones
"

and closelyresembling,marvelous to think extremity, united at the base. In size, as too, it is as largeeven

hazel-nut. The

Romans

seem
on

to to

have

had

no

knowledge

of

diamond-

cutting. Pliny goes

while which from
at

say that

its hardness is beyond all expression,

to

the

same

time

it

owing quite sets fireat defiance;

name

it has received the indomitable powers the Greek." and damao, (a privative, After his of description the hardness of which
sets

which

it derives

to

subdue.")
serves, diamond, Plinyobthe
to two most

the
at

this indomitable power,

violent agents in nature,

naught

fire, namely, and iron,is made

yieldbefore

225

the
warm;

blood

of

he-goat.
must

The

the stone, too,

be well

blood, however, must steeped in it.

"

be

fresh

and

Ball

(Tavernier, Travels, II, 460-1), quotes

century)about Indian diamonds
meat
on

story from

Nicol

Conti (15th

obtainable

only by flinging
could
not meat

piecesof
be with

the

mountain,'
of
were were

'

where
serpents.

the diamonds The carried

collected owing diamonds

to

the number them

pieces of
to

stickingto
from whence

then

their

nests

by

birds of prey,
. .

they
on

recovered
common

by

diamond

seekers.
on

This myth is founded

of
a

the very

practicein India

the who

opening
are

mine, to offer up cattle to propitiatethe evil spirits these being represented by the supposed to guard treasures
"

myth. can;"
the

At such which
we

birds of sacrifices

prey

assemble

to

pick up wjiatthey
with
pepper

is the foundation have

a

for the remainder

of the story.

Here

to striking similarity

the beliefs connected

gathering of
The Thousand

as frankincense,

outlined under

" 29, and

("56).
Nights and
the One the Night givessubstantially
same

story

Sinbad (dxliv-v;
the
stone
:

2d voyage),while Sailor,

tifying idensufficiently

Walking
the
stone

along the valleyI they

for that it is

found

that its soil

was

of

diamond,
and
celain por-

wherewith
(myx,

piercejewels and
a

precious stones
off

and iron break

nor

hard
can
we

dense stone, whereon

cut

neither
nor

neither steel hath effect,

aught therefrom

save it,

by
Polo

means

of the leadstone."
more

Marco

xix) records (III,

in those mountains other

this ancient definitely

are

belief:
a
velous mar-

Moreover

great serpents and this in

rife to

degree, besides
The
any

vermin,
venomous

owing

to

the great heat. that been

serpents
one

are

also the
that

most

insomuch existence,
many

going
Now

to

region runs
mountains

fearful peril;for

have

destroyedby
to valleys,
men as

these evil reptiles.

among

these

there is
no

are

certain great and

deep
the

the bottom
go

of which

there

access.

Wherefore

who lean
as

in search of the diamonds

can

take with them

piecesof flesh,
of
a

they
are

get, and

these

they cast into the eagles that

the
carry

bottom those the

valley.
thrown

Now

there

numbers

of white When it and it.

haunt

mountains

and feed
down where
as soon

upon

the serpents.
upon
to

eagles see
to
men some
on

meat

they

pounce

it up
are

rocky hill-top
the
a

they begin
as

rend

But there

watch,

and

they see

that the
away.

eagleshave settledthey raise

when the meat,

ing loud shout-

to

drive them the

men

And
the
to

eagles are
in the

thus

frightened
full of diamonds
For the

away

recover

pieces of
the
meat

and find them

bottom.

which

have

stuck

down'

226

abundance but
to

of diamonds

down get

there in the

depth of
one

the

is astonishing, valley be

nobody

can

them;

and if

could which
are

it would
so

only

be

devoured by the incontinently

The
part

serpents

rife there."

for the birds, defence and profit of man. who Compare the bird Jatayu, gave his lifein defence of Sita againstthe Raksha Ravana, in the Ramayana ; the ibisat Buto who

played by the eaglesis that

of other sacred

defended

the frankincense-serpents, Egypt against

(p. 132), and the eagles who XI, 755; Pliny,X, 5.j
Connected
in

fought the dragons. (Virgil, Aeneid,

of the diathat in the efficacy mond

with these beliefs off from the

was

warding

wearer

all sorts

of evils.

Sir John it
may

Mandeville"

{Travels, XVII),
that beareth and

recounts

it for his

day, and

still be observed.

He
and him

the diamond

manhood,
of victory And

it keepeth the in

him hardiness him, it giveth limbs of his body whole. It giveth

upon

his enemies

plea and
or

in war,

if his

cause

be

rightful.

if any and

cursed witch
mischance

enchanter
to

should bewitch

him, all
him.

that
stone.

sorrow

shall turn

himself through virtue of that

man

And

no

wild beast dare assail the

that is if venom and lunatic,
or wax

that beareth it on that the

And
or

it healeth him

them

fiend pursueth
presence
.

travaileth.
anon

And

poison be brought in
moist and for
to

of the

diamond,

it beginnethto

sweat.

Nathles

it befalleth often time that the

good diamond

loseth his virtue by sin,

And then it is needful
to

and for incontinence

make it to
recover

of him

that beareth it.

his virtue The

again,or
text

else it is of little value."

has

56.
as

Sapphires.
"

is hyakinthos, which

been

lated trans-

jacinth,ruby and
Rubies
from quantities

amethyst.
are

Jacinth is
Burma
and that the

product of

Africa
came

rather than India. in great the had

as

from

probablynever

India.
a

Pliny says
his word

hyacinthresembles

amethyst,but draws
in mind
a

distinction between

violet

and sapphire,

meaning
the

sapphirefrom blue to refers to the "lovely Dionysius Periegetes land complexions smooth,
Goodchild
the and of the dwellers
are

all tints of

Plinyprobably really might be translated purple.

of the

them.

Indians

where

dark,their limbs exquisitely

smooth surpassing and 188.

tleek and

the hair of their heads

dark blue like the W.

was

hyacinth."

Ancient India, (McCrindle, p.

{Precious Stones, p. 183), also thinks that the sapphire of Pliny, and says that the principal hyacinthus source
that part of the world
were was

of

sapphiresin
at

in the

watered

gravelsof
have the been
same

Southern
and
on

Ceylon, which
of the
coast.

derived

from

watered

crystaline rocks;
would

the time Malabar

the natural market Periplus

the

The

ruby, which

is

of practically

227

chemical
same

composition,being of the corundum place as the sapphirein Ceylon, and

in much greater

group,
was

was

found in the

probablyclassifiedby
rubies and sapphires
at

Plinyunder the carbunculus

are

(XXXVII, 25). Both

found the

of

Periplusthese

in Burma and Siam,but quantities depositswere probably unknown

the time
western

to

commerce.

56.

Tortoise-shell

from

Chryse.
to

"

Fabricius objects to this

but it is probable

and altersit to "that found along the coast;" reading, that the
text
a gives

correct

reference

the active trade of Eastern

in South Indian shipping in

ports; which Polo and

'

""

60 and

63.

Marco

notes

mentioned is, indeed,specifically the ships "from the particularly

great

province of Manzi,"
to

says

xxv) (III,
one

that the
of those

ships from
that go
to

Malabar
the

Aden
a

and
very

Egypt

'are not

to

ten

eastward;
To
assume

notable fact."
were

that conditions be
to

the

same

at

the time of the Periplus of the

sea-

would Chinese
trade
to at

go

beyond

the

evidence;
the

yet the records of

an

themselves pointstrongly to
that

existence

active

time,

to certainly

Malacca, and

less frequently, perhaps,

India and beyond.

With this item ends is the listof articles traded
compare

in

by

the author

of the da
my

the

Periplus. It
of
on

to interesting to

it with the letter from Vasco

Zamorin Gama

Calicut
return

the

King
of

of

carried by Portugal,

his there

from

India fourteen centuries

later: "In

kingdom
and

is abundance What

cinnamon, cloves,ginger,pepper,
from

precious

stones.

I seek

thy

country

is

gold,silver,

coral,and scarlet."
57. which
ocean

Hippalus first discovered.

be placed Roman
at

"

The

of Hippalus, discovery
a new

may
to

about but

45

A.

D.

(see p. 8J, opened

Arabian and

shipping;
not

it is
ocean

probable that
for many
use

Dra-

vidian craft had

that

that frequented

and inconceivable centuries,

they should by
of both

have
most

made

of the feature

periodicchanges
of their climate.

of the monsoons, The

far the

notable

evidence

countries

on indicates,

the contrary, that

were

they
tell

steered boldlyout
of it

of sightof land, before

records

written

to

A-Ir. Kennedy

in

an

article in the

Journal of the Royai Asiatic

monsoons were derstood un-

1898, (pp. 248-287) Society,

before the time
of

also thinks that the

Hippalus,but beginning
to

doubts of the

the

beginning of
B.

any

regularsea-trade before
ascribingall such trade shipswere
China.
known
to to

the

7th century

C.
,

of the activities
come

Nabonidus, in whose
from

time from

have

Babylon

India and

even

between Following this reign he thinks st-ii-tradc

I"'i' .i :ind

Babylon flourished
but

for

couple

of the

being mainl\' Dravidian centuries,

settlement
of

partly Aryan,

and

leading to

Indian

traders in

He minimizes the tance imporArabia, East Africa,Babylonia and China. of the earlyEijyptian considering them purely trading-voyages,

while local,

the

numerous

references
passes

to

articles and

routes

of

early they

trade in the Hebrew

are

he scriptures

by

with

the assertion that

due But

to

the revision followingthe whatever

may

return

of Ezra. revision
are

have
same

been

Ezra's

of

the

Hebrew
in the trade in

the books, substantially

articles of

trade

described indicate
to
a

records of Egypt
articles of Indian

at

corresponding dates,and they

the Somali
coast

originto

and

overland

the

Nile,

centuries before Such

Ezra's

day.
a

(See

also under

"i5 6, 10, 11, and 12.)

change ex-

opinions presume
at to common

continuous

without trading-journey But

of cargoes
passes

meeting-points.
and
port
to

primitive trade
of the

from

tribe

tribe

port.

At the time

Periplus cargoes
South

changed hands
reliefs

in

Malacca, Malabar, Somaliland,

The
custom

Arabia, Adulis and Berenice.

Amon-Re

is stated in detail

in the Deir el Bahri

of 1500

describingQueen
tells the

Hatshepsut's expedition

B.

C,
one

where

queen,

"No they were

The

trod the incense-terraces,which of from mouth

to

the

people knew

not;

heard

mouth

by

hearsay of the
since the time
were

ancestors.

marvels
were

brought thence

under
to

the Kings thy fathers,

of Lower of the
a

Egypt,
for

brought from
Kings
of

one

and another,

cestors an-

of the
many

Upper

Egypt,

who

of

old,as

return

Ancient Records, II, 2S7). payments." (Breasted,

was

It

the

achievement particular

of the
to

Egyptian Punt expeditions

their
source

that
the

they traced
from

the treasured articles

and

freed wise Liketo

land

the heavy
must

charge

of those
not

'many payments."
for from
a

Hippalus world,
but for

be

remembered,
its

discoverynew
Arabian

the of

freeingthe Roman by tracingit to

made.

Empire
source.

monopoly
no

the Eastern trade

Beyond India
knew but of such

lasting
ceptional, ex-

discovery
the
account

was

Ptolemy, indeed, given by Marinus of Tyre;

colandia carried

Cattigara through
voyages
at were

and the majority of the Chinese ships stopped

while the

Malacca,

Malay
to

the trade

to

Malabar.

It remained
direct of the
munication com-

for the Arabs

complete
the

the

through

line"

by opening
the ends

under

between Bagdad Caliphate,

earth,
'

Lisbon

and

Canton. W'.
p.

Prof. T.

Rhys Davids,
quotes
: an

in the

Journal of the Royal Asiatic

passage

1899, Society,
to

432,
as

Buddhist interesting

referring

earlysea-trade

follows

230

bet,long before
in the

the

Aryan
'

invasion of southern the

India; while
whom
was

passage

Rdmayana

suggests

ships of
When

those

the

invaders

contemptuously called
his
messengers
to

monkeys."
the Gulf

Rama

the four winds

'

in search of

itwas Sita,
to

dispatching the maligned

and covered diswere or sails,

Hanuman

who her.

"flew'
Who

across

of Manar

Ceylon

can

doubt

that the
to

wings

he
a

used

that the who

Dravidians

ferried and

across

Ceylon
'"

force of

men, Aryan landsand been

race

later turned

crushed

them

under

the caste-system

established the
the

dynastiesof

Dravda-d'esam
to

Stern
one

must

have
own

that brought them subjection the

worship
to

of their

under

guise of

monkey,
own

and

carry

the cult of the

monkeykeys mon-

god

Hanuman
are

in their and

shipsto

the vales of

Oman,

where

unknown the

where

it has outlived the memory observer.

of its founders, B.

to

confusion

of the modern

(Gen. S. Speke,
when

Miles,

in

Journal, VII, 336.) Geographical

also Significant is the fact that Lieutenant
source

planning

his

of discovery
a

the

of the
out

Nile, secured

his best information

from

map

reconstructed

of the Puranas.

{.Journal, pp. 27, 77,

of
great

III). It traced the course 216; Wilford, in Asiatic Researches, Great Krishna, through Cusha-dvipa, the river, the from a
' '

lake in
correct

Chandristhdn, Country

of the

Moon,"

which

it gave

the

positionin relation to the Zanzibar islands. The name was the and from the native Unya-muezi, the same having meaning; map m entioned native another the trict discorrectly Amara, applied to name, borderingLake
'All
our

Victoria

Nyanza.
says

previous information,"
of these the of priests the

Speke,
the

the "concerning ancient

hydrography
who told it to

with regions,originated

Hindus,
view
to

Nile;

and

all those

busy Egyptian
a

geographers, who
be famous

disseminated

their knowledge

with

in for their long-sightedness, the The

source

solvingthe
so

mystery

which

enshrouded

of their holy river, were

traders had
a

many

hypothetical through

humbugs.

Hindu

firm basis
"

to

stand upon

their intercourse

with the
must

Abyssinians.

(See "

14. )

Altogether it
Ocean

be supposed that the navigation of the Indian and Arabia; that Western
that this

began

from
at

the Persian Gulf

an

India

"claimed itsshare

earlydate; quiteas

and

community

of interest whose

Jong excluded
been

their

customers

of the Mediterranean great

a

world, from
as

standpoint Hippalus was

discoverer

if he had

really

"the firstthat
Into that silent sea."

ever

burst

57. Throw which

the

Ship's head.

"

The

text

is

trachelizontes,
the neck

is a wrestlers' term

'throwinir by meaning literall"'

231

B
o

p4

ho

pa

.in

(U

^1"

T3
o

-^ n"

"""5
c
""

232

The

word

has led

to

much author the

unnecessary'

confusion

in the

translation

of this passage. obvious

Our

is

w hich is describinga sailing-course

by referringto

map.
to

The
the Gulf

course straight

before the mouth

as

the
of

trade-wind,from
the

H-isn Ghorab
carry
a

of

Cambay

or

Indus, would
'stand
out

vessel
coast

along the changing

Arabian

shore

far

as

Ras

Fartak,l^eyondwhich
would
to
sea

the

recedes,so gradually
its course. the

that the vessel

without

A vessel bound
with the
type

for the Malabar then rigging

ports

and saihng before

have

wind,

of

in use,

would

required steeringoff her

wide
as curve

course

the

whole
coast.

a time, thus describing

before
as
now

making
on

the Indian wind.

Boats

were

not

handled

then easily

beam

The

requireda quarter-rudder
steersman.

constant

pullon

the tillerby the hands

of the

57. The India

same

course.

"

Pliny's account
cited

of the
commentators

voyage
on

to

(VI,

26), which

has been

by

most

the

is appended for comparison. seen Periplus, in in many with the Periplus particularly points, agrees of

It will be

that

hile it

its description the altogether

Arabia,

its description of the

Indian

coast

is

not

same:

'In later times it has been

the
\'oyage

considered

well- ascertained fact that

reckoned Syagrus,the Promontory-of Arabia, to Patala, and thirty-five at thirteen hundred miles,can be performed most with the aid of a westerly advantageous!}" wind, which is there known from the
name

by

of
age

Hippalus.
that followed

The
one

pointed out

shorter route, and

promontory
was

safer
for

to

those who
port

a Sigerus,

in

might happen to sail from the same India; and for a long time this route
cut
was
even

followed,
and the

until

at

lasta stiU shorter

discovered

by
to

merchant,
us.

thirst for

gain brought India

are
on

still nearer
year;

At the present

day
are

voyages

made board

to

India

every

and
seas
are

companies of archers
infested with greatly

carried

the

as those \'essels,

pirates.
It will the whole
not

be
route

amiss from
on

too,

on

the present has

occasion,to
been be stated

set to

forth
us

of the

Egypt, which
which
The does

of

late, upon

information

reliance may is one subject

placed,and' is here
well

publishedfor
five hundred
in

the firsttime. in
no

worthy
her

of

our

notice,setingthat
and

year

India drain
sesterces,
us

our

empire

of lessthan
own

millions of fifty
are

gi\ ingback
one fully

wares

exchange, prime
Two

which

sold

among

at

hundred

times

their

cost.

miles

distant from
to

Alexandria
up

is the

town

of

Juliopolis.
and

The

distance thence

Coptos,

the

Nile, is

three

hundred

233

the Etesian winds are performed, when blowing, in twelve days. From Coptos the journey is made with the aid of camels, stations beingarranged at intervals for the supplyof fresh voyage
water.

eight miles;

the

is

The

first of these stations iscalled

Hydreuma (watering-place)
,

and
a

is distant twenty-two
one

distance of

miles; the day'sjourney from

to

second the

is situate on

mountain, at
a

last;the

third is at

second

Hydreuma mountain;
there

distant from
the
next

Coptos ninety-five miles; the fourth is on a that is another Hydreuma, that of Apollo, and
hundred and

is distant from

Coptos
on a

one

miles ; eighty-four
is then another

after which, station

at a

is another

mountain.

There

place called the New

and thirtymiles;
or

Hydreuma,
next to

distant from

Coptos

two

hundred

and

it there is another, called the Old

a

dreuma, Hy-

the

Troglodytic,where
that affords the New

detachment for
two

is always on thousand
seven

guard,
persons.

with This

caravansary

lodging

last is distant from

come

Hydreuma

miles.

After

leavingit we
the Red

to

the

Sea
The

and

distant
part

cityof Berenice, situate upon a harbor of from hundred and fifty-seven Coptos two
of this distance is

miles.

greater

night,on
whole

account

of the

extreme

heat,the
Berenice. sail at

generallytravelled by days being spent at the days to perform

the

in stations;

consequence

of which

it takes twehe

journey from

Coptos

to

set Passengers generally

midsummer,
in the

before

the

rising
bears
name;

of the arrive

Dog-star, or
at

else immediately after,and

at

in about

thirty days

Ocelis in Arabia, or else

There is also
a

Cana,

region which by
of
to

frankincense.

third port of Arabia, Muza

on

it is not, however, those touch

used by

persons

their passage and the

as only India,

at, it who

deal in incense

perfumes
of the the

Arabia.
is

More
called To

in the interior there is a

city; the

residence

king there

Sapphar, and
who
are

there is another

cityknown

by

name

of Save.
em-

those

bound

for

Ocelis India,

is the best
to

place for

barcation.
to possible
name.

If the

wind, called Hippalus, happens

at
a

arrive in forty days is

not

the
very

nearest

mart

in

blowing,it is Muziris by India,

for disembarca-

be

This, however,
account
a

desirable

place

tion,on
occupy

of the

which pirates

where frequentits vicinity,

they

is it very place called Nitrias;nor, in fact,

rich in articles of
a

merchandise. distance from

either for these

Besides,the
the

roadstead

for

shipping is
to

considerable
in

shore,and the cargoes loading or discharging. At

the
name a

have the of

be

conveyed
that I
am

boats,

moment

writing
liesin Here

pages,

of

the

king

this

place

is Caelobothras.

Another

port, and

much

more

convenient

one,

is that which

of the the territory

people
to

called

Neacyndi,
a

Barace

by

name.

king Pandion

used

reign,dwellingat

considerable distance from

234

the
from

mart

in the
pepper

at interior,

cityknown
to

as

Modiera.

The

district
out

which

is carried down

Barace

in boats hollowed known

as to

of

singletree
of these of the former

(see illustration on
names

p.

212), is

Cottonara.
be found in

None
any

of

nations, ports, and

which

cities are

writers,from

circumstance
names.

it would

appear
set

have since that the localities from

changed their
Europe,
our

Travellers
the

sail

India
of

on

their

return

to

at

the

beginning of
or

Egyptian

month

Tybis, which

is

December, Mechir,
and the

at

all events
as our

before the

sixth day of the

month Egyptian
go

same

Ides of January;
year.

if they do this they can

set

return

in the
upon

same

They

sailfrom

India with

south-east wind, and

or

enteringthe Red

Sea, catch
be

the south-west

south."
"

58. Dark
can no

Red

Mountain.
to

The the

text

is

doubt

that it refers

"Red

Pyrrhon. There Bluffs,"a series of

on

high sandstone
Varkkallai 45' E.

and

lateriteheadlands, which

abut

the

coast

at

(8" 42' N.), and again below Anjengo (8" 40' N., 76" of the Indian geologists, the "Warkalli Beds" ). These are
pierced by
Tirur
a

been and have recently

canal

to

complete the

backwater

communication

between

and

Trivandrum, nearly200 miles.

that the author of the

Gazetteer, XXIV, {Imperial Beyond

did
not

300.)
must
assume

this point The

we

Periplus
as

go.

remainder what

of his he
set

referred work, usually

to

the

"sequel,"represents
at

learned

Nelcynda

or

Bacare, and

down

of acquaintances by inquiring in writingtoward lightening the

darkness 58.

of Mediterranean

ideas

concerning all matters

to

oriental.

Paralia.

"

According

Caldwell

56), this is a translation of the Tamil

Burnell and Yule, it is Purali,an This is supportedby Gundert
in his

{Dravidian Grammar, to Karei, coast;" according

for Travancore.

ancient local name

Malayalam
this country

translation of

the

and by the Malayalam Dictionary, Raja's tides still Ramayana. The

of

include that of Puratisan, Lord

in

Purali."
from

The

native

name

for and

generalwas

Malayalam,

mala, mountain,
"

alam, depth; the land at the foot of the mountains, Piedmont. is the coast-line below to the author of the Periplus, Paralia,
Travancore

the

backwaters,around Cape Comorin,

within the

and

as

far

as

Adam's
and

Bridge: comprised Tinne\elly.

58.

modern

of Travancore districts

Balita." E. j.
a a

This It was

is

probably the

modern

VarkkaUai

(8" 42'

N.

76" 43
,

formerlythe

southern

end of the

longline of
connected

backwaters,and cutting through

with others

place of considerable commercial

bluff the lachwaters
far
as

importance. By
the chief port

have

recentlybeen
is
now

as leading

Trivandrum,

which

235

of the district. At
an

Varkkallai is the celebrated temple of

from by pilgrims all parts of it
a

avatar

of

Vishnu, visited

Janardan, India;while

numerous

mineral

springs in the

resort.

{Imp. Gaz., XXIV,

58.

make vicinity 300.)

favorite health

Comari.

of the

Indian form

Cape Comorin, the peninsula (8" 5'N., 77" 33' E.).

"

This

is

southern The
was

extremity
is the the

name

Tamil

of the Sanscrit
or

which virgin, Kumar'i,

consort

appliedto

goddess Durga,
Yule in her honor

the Parvati,

of Siva. that the the

observes

(Marco Polo, II,882-3)

of the
most

is still continued; and it is

'

accordingto

monthly bathing Gazetteer Imperial

(X, 376),
Southern In the and China firstand

one

important places of pilgrimagein

India.'

first century
were

of the Christian great

powers

era

Rome,

the
were

four

of the

Parthia, India, world, of which the

last

advancing,the
Of
the

transformation.
has
p.

passing through political world's religions, the Buddhist,as Edmunds

3d Christian Gospels, the
"

others

well said {Buddhistand

ed., Tokyo,
But it was

1905,

23),

was

the most

the

Buddhism

of the had

Maurya Empire
power

powerful on planet. no longer The Asoka. of the Emperor disintegration been followed by the rise of the Indo-Scythian
of the Andhra in the Deccan. in the

in the
were

northwest, and
great exponent those of the in 126 A.

Both

these

Buddhist,the Scythian Kanishka

of that
not

following century
the
ways

being the second

barbarian
were were

faith; but

of

the

Hindu,
when

the two

chief Buddhist powers

at

war,

and

D.,

the Andhra

king Vilivayakura

II, or
set

Gautamiputra Satakarni conquered, the

a

up

memorial

at

Karll
.

how telling

he

queen-mother Balasri destroyed the Sakas,

the and
taxes

Yavanas, and Pahlavas

levied in accordance

properlyexpended
the sacred

which

he the

with

law

prevented

mixing
To

of

the

four

castes."

(Vincent Smith, Early History, 188.)

movement

the north

the great missionary

through Turkestan
made had of those
not

and

China

from had only justbegun, while the rice-migrations into Burma

the Himalayas

and Indo-China, which

in the the but middle
ages,

kingdoms
the Law in
matters

bulwark

of Buddhism the native

taken

place. In
of

Ceylon Piety,as

race,

were Sinhalese,

for heartily

in Asoka's

day;

opposed

to

them

and racially

were religious,

their their the

neighbors and

ancient

enemies,
whose

the

Southern
who

Dravidians,with
never

embraced
was

Aryan dynastiesand and Buddhist doctrine,

of the the

caste-systems,

had

primitivenature-

worship

included bodilywithin the cult of the Hindu

gods. god

Siva

Rudra "the auspicious," especially,

storm,

Fedas;

the

of the

the destroNcr

and

reproducer,was

deityvenerated

by the

236

with his consort or "energic principle,"Durga. tog-ether Dravidians, while their the cobra,hers the lion, ( His symbol was son was Ganesa, the god of learning. ) And as the southern kingdoms elephant-headed,

waxed

strong,

so

their

was religion as

pushed.forward,steadily displacing
turn

Buddhism
continent

in itshome-land of

it in

spread outward

over

the great the earlier

Asia; untilthe Deccan

of the
structure

and

Bengalreturned
by
Kanishka

to

while faith,
had left but

built up

the \\ hite Huns

wreckage.
as seen

The

of India religion
at

by

the author

of the satraps,

Periplus was
a

therefore twofold: Buddhism under Asoka the had

Barygaza under

the

Saka
at

heterodox

the Law supplanted

observed
the

Ujjeni and Pataliputta

of the form earth under stillupheld

Mauryas, and preached to

B. C.
;

nations

in the third century

while the purer

at

by

the Andhras the

could

not

be found

their western the south

port,

Calliena,

which
was
our

Sakas had
in

"obstructed." In

the earlierfaith

advancing,and
author the

Nelcynda, where
set

some

acquaintancerelated to
eastern

thingshe
and the

down

about the

half of

was

the great epics which

suppliedthe information; the Ramdyana,

use

it India, the Puranas,

Mahabharata

which

continued

to

uphold
the
'

the

"southern

sisters" in the

of that visible altar-flame which

those

of the north had

thought to replaceby contemplation of

their lesson from be the Katha who

'inner

light,

'

'

but

were

"that lire is
oblation."

anew learning day by day to

Vpanhhad:
with the

praisedby

men

wake,

Underlying
trees

the

formal

acceptance

of

the

Brahman

faith there of

in the form still existed the earlier animism, the worship of spirits and

serpents, with all the train of associated beliefs described in

as

such

Fergusson,Tree and Serpent Worship ; Tylor, Primitive gion Culture; Frazer,The Golden Bough; W. Robertson Smith, The ReliErnest Crawley, The Tree of Life. The identity of the Semites;
works indicated

of belief has been

by

the

legends attached
international trade
as a means

to

the

most

ured treas-

articlesof earlytrade.
a

For

on began largely

and religious basis,

to

was

continued

of

elaborating worship. peoplesmay regardingthe

sacred
as or a

And be

the

and persuasiveness of activity the wide acceptance the of

the commercial

attributed

their assertions their

own

of and sanctity peculiar efficacy There and

trust
was no reason

of spirits

trees.

per

se

for the

Egyptianfaith in myrrh
of their
own

ing purifyfor the

cleansing agent beyond

their
own

the gum in

trees,

of the

Babyloniansand Greeks

or frankincense,

of the Romans of

in

cinnamon, bejond

or pine-resin

the

golden bough"
Rome

their earlier faith ; it was that which

was

the resultof the eclectic spirit which

accepted

told them

by

strangers.

The

in serpent-cult

238

was was

said to have
the
war

been of the

established by the descendants Pandava

in the the heroes brothers, Whether
to

of

Pandu,
the

who

father

of the

North

Indian

recounted
was

Mahahharata.
it
was

dynastic

connection

legend like of Pushkalavati and Takshasila through Pushkala and Taksha, sons
whether or real, Bharata
descent in the

attached

the

Ramdyana,
which

is less

important than
in

the obvious

Aryan

of the dynastyin this Dravidian

institution land,and their rigid

a

of the caste-system

still prevaOs here

completenesslong
would
see

since outgrown northern

race

in other parts of India. of this

Those

who

in the

spread
not

dynastya
and
,

southern

originfor
the

the Dravidian

do

take into account

the late

originof

dynasty, probably
among
a

the 5th

or

4th century

B. C.

itsalien character

people

alreadysettledand developed.
Arrian

VIII) givesanother {Indica, Pandasa, who,

sons;

version of the
was

dynasty, from

he

says,

originof this 'the only daughter of

was
"

Heracles,among many she which ruled,was

and married
her

the land where Pandaea her

she

born, and
No

over sort conseven

named

after her.

worthy
age

appearing,Heracles made
years,

marriageable

at

the

of him

himself,"that the familyborn

the Indians. in entire

from

and

her

might supplykings to
The
story is not
power

accepted by Arrian by Heracles

in

faith;he observes
the postponement

that the

exerted
more

hastening the maturity of

connection
one

Pandasa might
of his
own

have been applied to naturally he says in another

very

senility; but, as
to

(XXXI),
who reads

"I know, however, that it is a

the ancient tales
prove

task for difficult

are

that they

false.

'

'

In Greek
with

literatureconcerning India, Heracles

is

tified idenusually

The

Vishnu, and Bacchus with Siva. dominion of the Pandyas was divided
and

among

three

reputed
in

brothers, Chera, Chola

The had capital been

Pandya,
century
as

in which B.

form

it

appears

of the 3d Asoka's inscription

C,

and
to
as

in the Madura
a

removed,

Pliny states,
describes

Periplus. (9" 55'

its city,

N., 78" 7' E. ), which

gates

the Ramdyana

great

being of gold inlaid with gems. and The secedingkingdoms were larger
most

more

powerful than

the

the original, of " 59. The

important being the Chola, the "Coast Country"

of these

succession dynastic chain in Indian

kingdoms

forms

the of

broken longestun-

history, covering a period

at

least

two

thousand

years.
"

(See Imperial Gazetteer, XVI, 389;

\'incent Smith, F,arly History,

341-7; and

authorities

quoted

on

p.

209. )

239

The
in
were

Dravidians of Southern

India

were

active traders and whom

nists colo-

Ceylon,in opposition to the native

with Sinhalese,

they

in

their power

and in spite of whom frequentconflict, the northwestern effectually over

the

they had
coast

extended

of

Ceylon, the

region of
59.
waters

pearl-fisheries.
"

Pearl-fisheries.

These

were,

as

at

present, in the shallow

of the Gulf

of Manar. that

(See

under

"" 35, 36, and

into

56. )
in Rome
to

Pliny (IX, 54-8) says

after the surrender about the time The of of

pearlscame

generaluse

Alexandria;but
the
.

that they firstbegan

be used

Sylla.
very

first

belongs to
island of The from
year

rank, and the pearl.

highest position among

most

all valuables

The
.

productive of pearls is the

Taprobane. originand production of

its influence
the
so

the shell-fish is not When the

very

different of the
as

that of the shell of the oyster. exercises it opens it becomes

on

genialseason
of

animal, it is said that, yawning,

a

it were, which
many

and its shell,

receives and that of its

kind

dew, by shape

means

of

impregnated;
the

at

after length it gives birth, the of

to struggles,

burden
the

in shell,

pearls,
in
a

which

vary

accordingto
state

of quality

the dew.

If this has been

perfectly pure
is white clouded when which
more

when

it flowed into the

then the shell,

pearlproduced
a

and

but if it was brilliant, if the sky should

then the turbid,

to
a

pearlis of
from

color also;
it
was

happen
be of

have

been

lowering
all much it

generated,the pearlwill quite evident

a

pallid color;

it is
upon

that the

of quality than

the

pearldepends

calm
a

state

of the heavens
or
a

of the sea, and hence

is that it contracts
the

cloudy hue,
the

limpid appearance, morning.

the
. .

accordingto
It is wonderful the
state

of degree of serenity that

sky

in the thus

they should be influenced heavens, seeingthat by the action

a

pleasurably by
sun

of the of

of the

pearlsa;e
best

turned

red color,and lose all their whiteness,just like the human

it is that those lie at which
too

body. deepthe sun's

reason

Hence
sea

keep their whiteness

a

are

the

which pearls,

great

depth

to

be

reached

Ly

rays.

I have

seen

pearlsstill adhering to
as

the shell; for which

the shells were

used

boxes for ointments.

as

"The
and is
covers

as lish,

soon

it even

the hand, perceives

aware

shuts its shell that it

up

itstreasures, being well

if it

that it is for them it cuts of

sought; and
be

happens
.
.

to

catch

the hand part

it off with the

sharp edge of the shell.

The rocks and

greater
crags,

these

pearlsare hand,
by
sea-

only to

found
out

among

while,on

tl.e other

those that lie

in the

deep

sea

are

generally accompanied

240

dogs. And
from

the yet, for all this,

women

v\ill not

banish

these

gems

their ears!

gloryin having pearlssuspended from their fingers, with even danglingfrom their ears, delighted two or three of them or each other; and now, of the pearls against the rattling as they knock
"Our
ladies
at

the

present
are

day, the

poorer

classes

are

even

affecting them, by
a woman more

as

people
than

in the
as

habit of
a

publicis as good

saying,that 'a pearlworn lictor walking before her.'

on

in

Xa}-,even only on
to
wear

they put this,

must

them

their

feet,and that,not
walk with

the laces

of their sandals but all over but they tread

upon

the shoes; it is not

enough
them

pearls,
foot
as

them, and

under

well.

"I
was an

once

saw

Lollia Paulina,the wife of the Emperor

solemn
"

Caius

"

it

not

at

any

or publicfesti\'al, any

but only at ceremonial, with emeralds her and

ordinary betrothal
shone

entertainment

covered
her

which pearls, in her her

in alternate her
ears, upon

layersupon
her

head, in

hair,
on

wreaths, in
the

neck,
at

in her

and bracelets,

and fingers,

value of which
was

amounted
once

in all to
to

40,000,000
the

sesterces;

indeed

she

prepared

prove

fact, by
presents
to

showing the receiptsand

made

acquittances. Nor
treasures

were

these any had

by

prodigal potentate, but

which the

descended

her from

and obtained by grandfather, Such are the fruits of plunder and

her
was

of spoliation

the provinces. for this

extortion ! all over

It was

reason

that Al. Lollius which

was

held

so

infamous

the East for the

was,

presents

he extorted from the

the kings; the result of which took be

that he and

denied
was

of Caius Cassar,and friendship

say, that his

all this
the

done, I

granddaughtermight
with

poison; seen, by
of

by

of lamps,covered glare

all

over

jewels to

the

amount

fortymillions of sesterces!"

Plinythen
with

recounts
serve

the well-known him

an

story of

Cleopatra' s

wager

Antony
it. The

to

entertainment

costing ten

millions of
ing swallow-

sesterces, and

of her
same

dissolving a
been

great pearlin done

vinegar and
says, in
a

thing had

before,he
who

Rome, by

Clodius,son
each guest
was

of the

actor tragic

Aesopus,

served

meal in which

Of
this and take

the

given a pearlto swallow. Polo Marco pearl industry,

water

says
more

(III, xvij: "All round

than

gulf the
in
some

has

depth of
more

not

10

or

12 fathoms,

places not
the

than

2 fathoms.

The

pearl-fishers
where gulf,

their

vessels, great and

from have
must

and proceed into this small,

of his

they stop
Of
the

of April till the middle beginning

May.

produce they
And

firstto also
pay

pay

the
men

king, as
who

the royalty, the great

tenth part.

they

those

charm

241

fishes (sharks)
in

to

prevent

them

from
water,
are

injuringthe
one-twentieth termed

divers part

whilst of

gaged en-

seveking pearlsunder
These

all that

they take.
and the charm There the divers
one

fish-charmers

Abraiaman
at

(Brahmans);

their charm
so

holds good for that day only,for

work mischief
at

nightthey dissolve

that the fishes can

can

their will."

be little doubt that this kind of protectionwas

and Periplus, \\Ae observed

soughtby force,

at

the time of the

itstill in

of the

Brahmans"
case

In the
took spirits other of the

of

thisancestral officebeinga Christian! exercising and diamonds, the guardian frankincense, pepper
of
serpents

the

form

and

were

appeased or repelled by
to

or spirits

by sacred
e

birds.
suppose
or

But sharks called for the visible aid

the

priests. ^\

may

shark

have

been

soulless
from
a

and
time
caste

unimpressionabledemon,
after the Aryan could invasion

else that the

dates industry that the

of Southern
to

India,so

priestly
pent-cults ser-

properlydecline

stand aside for the benefit of the

that had

preceded them.
country.
"

59.

Coast

This is the time

country, third of the

different from, and of the

yond, be-

the the

Pandyan kingdom, kingdom;

most at

Dravidian

states,

Chola

the

as Periplus,

it states, the
'

and largest, richest,

is from the

prosperous

of the three.
"

Coast Country'

the native name,

our

Chola coast,
modern

Portuguese derived
it was

Chola-mandalam,from which cens word Coromandel. By the Sara-

Maahar, not to he confused with given another name, and referring the to Malabar; the meaning being "ferrying-place," and the Far East. for Malacca By the Ceylonese it shipping-trade
was even

called

which Soli,

name

they applied to both Chola and Pandya,

were more

though

their relations with Madura

important.
on

The

boundaries were,
into the

roughly,from Bay
of

the Penner

River

the north
on

tying (empDuring

Bengal at Valiyar River (10" 3' N. ), or even

the

14" 40' N. ), and

the south the

the Vaigai (9" 20' N. ).

mediaeval

period the Chola

and

kingdom conquered and absorbed its

are

the Pandyan, progenitor,

they

still classifiedtogether in the

modern
The

Carnatic."

belonging pearl-fisheries

to

this

kingdom,

the

product of
of the Palk

which

was

sold only at the capital, Uraiyur, were

those

north of Adam's Strait, Gulf of Manar, which administered from 59.

from those of the Bridge, as distinguished belonged to the Pandyan kingdom, and were

Madura.
This is

Argaru.

"

nearlya

correct

transliteration of

yur Urai-

now

of the Chola kingdom, the ancient capital ("cityof habitation"), 49' N., 78" 42' E. ). part of Trichinopoly (10"

242

of this Previous identifications the fact that it v\

as

name

have
a

failed

to

take

into from

count ac-

inland,and
around

in

different country

the

Pandyan kingdom.
The Rock of 340 of

capital grew
feet above

up

fortress built on
out abruptly

the summit
to plain
a

of the

which Trichinopoly, the old the

rises

of the

height grand.

which city,

nestles picturesquely at its foot.

the rock is very
a

"The

view

from

frowning heights of
hewn
out

Little is now

left of the old fortificationsbut the citadeland A covered

passage

like pagoda' '

temple.
After the the

of the rock leads to them.

(Furneaux, India,p. 430.)

destruction of Uraiyur about removed
to

the 7th century modern

traces

A.

D.,

was capital

Malaikurram,
which

the

Kumbakonam
of its former

(10" 58' N., 79" 22' E. j,

grandeur; Walter (Sir
andafter other Coins Elliot, 164, 342.) History, 59.

retains still

changes to Tanjore (10" 47' N., 79"8'E. j. 130; Vincent Smith, Early of Southern India,
The textile industry of both Trichinopoly famous from

Argaritic muslins.
doubt that be little world
the
came

"

(or Uraiyur) and Tanjore

There
can some

has been

times. early

of the finest fabrics that reached

the Roman of

from
ages,

this
came

kingdom
those

of Chola.

From

this part

India,in
were

middle

gold-threadedembroideries
markets.

which

in such

demand

in the Saracen

60.

Ships

from

the
the

north

"

that

is, from
a

the

Ganges

and
of

Bengal.

Kalidasa,in

Raghuvamsa, tellsof
he
went

tour

of conquest

India,made

of Rama; by Raghu, the great-grandfather eastward

to

from starting

Ayodhya (the modern Oudh) who conquered the Bangalis,

Indian Antiquary^1879, pp. 60. Camara.
the mouths of the
"

the ocean,

"having

trusted in their ships."

in (Foulkes,

1-10.)
a

Ptolemy mentions
Kaverl

Chaberis emporion, at

one

of

of the

were Periplus Karikal(10" 55' N., 79" 50' E.).

River; probablyboth this and nearly,if not quite,identical with

This is probably intended
for

the Cawara the modern

60.

Poduca.
the modern

"

"new PWW;i7;^/-/,
So

town,"

Pondicherry (11" 56' N., 79" 49' E. ).

McCrindle and Fabricius; Bohlen, Ritter,Benfey, Miiller, Yule, followingLassen, prefersPulikat (13" 25' N., 80" 19' E.).
60.
may

Sopatma.

"

This

"fair is probably^i^-^x^towi?,
Madras
the

town,"

and

be

identified with the modern

Lassen Camara
at
or

(II, 542) doubts

Sopatma; and
of the than there

(13" 4' N., 80" 15' E. ). of identifying either possibility

evidence that
isted Pondicherry excan

is

no

the time

Periplus. The

location of all three ports

be

no

more

conjectural.

243

60.

Ships
are

of

the country:
of hollowed in

Sangara.
logswith
India
and

"

The

first were,
and

no

doubt, the craft made

such
as

plank sides

outriggers,

Ceylon (pictured on were probablymade of two such p. 212); the largertype, sangara, of a fair-sized canoes joined togetherby a deck-platform admitting deck-house. Dr. Taylor (^Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Jan.,

stillused

South

1847,pp. 1-78),says
coast

that the
canoes.

used ndimsjangar is still

on

the Malabar

changadam "a samghadam Sanscrit, raft." India in Ersch " Gruber's Encyklopadie, Benfey (art. 307) on trade derives it from the Sanscrit sangara, ever howmeaning Lassen, ; doubts the of the word and to application (II,543), shipping, Heeren iiher die Politik, 361) ascribes the word to {,Ideen etc., I, iii,
in

for these double

Caldwell and

gives the

forms in

Malayalam;

jangala in

Tula;

'

'

as Malay ojiginal.This is quitepossible, and found throughout the archipelago. a

the type

itselfis Malay,

Modem
use

double

canoe

with deck-structure,of the sangara

type;

in general

in South India,Ceylon, and the Eastern

Archipelago.

The
coast

largesize comparatively
two

of the

shippingon
on

the Coromandel which

a

is indicated also by the

Andhra

coinage,

frequent
tonnage.

symbol is a ship with

masts,

of considerable apparently

244

The

maritime

attested

by

the

which the ship type bears witness, to is also traffic, coins which found on the are largenumbers of Roman (E.
*

Coromandel

Coast."

J. Rapson,

Coins of the A ndhra

Dynasty,

Ixxxii). Early

South
from

Indian

Coins

(re-drawnand restored Plate I, fig. 38

Coins of Southern India) Elliot, Plate II, fig. 45

Kurumbar

or

Pallava

coin
a

of the
two-

Coromandel
masted vessel
or

coast;

showing

shiplike the modem

if honi.

coasting

coin, showing a two-masted ship presentingdetails like those of the Gujaratishipat Boroboedor, and the Persian shipat Ajanta.

Andhra

The

shippingof
harbor

the Andhra
at

and

Pallava coins doubtless survives

in the modern

masida boats"

Madras:
never

"The

(of Madras)
will the
secure

can

be

harbor

of

refuge,and shipping

all that the works

is

immunity

for

landingand
is
so

operationsfrom
whole
shore
to

tremendous
coast.
on

surf which
. . .

of

the

Coromandel

generalalongthe Passenger traffic from the

the
a or masulah pier,

the vessels is carried the

an

from by jolly-boats

boats from Madras

any
was

sho(;e. These
open

latterare
when

relicsof

bygone day,when

roadstead and
a

form

of

jdUy-boat was
masulah
boats with together
to

matter
are

landingthrough the surf by if not sible. extremely difficult, impos-

These

flat-bottomed
of
cocoanut

planks sewn
and
are

rope

barges constructed of caulked with oakum, fibre,

built craft solidly
the
crest

able
of

withstand better than

on

far

more

the

shock

being landed

the

sandy beach

from

of

seething

breaker."

(Eurneaux,India,254.)

246

60. Colandia:

"

This
than

name

seems

to

be of Malay

and origin,

perhaps means
is the
name

no

more

ship."

Koleh panjail, sailing ship,"

in modern

for the

fast fishermen

entered

Singapore gattas. recorrupt, the

The
onta

and Craft,166.) Sketchesof Shipping (Pritchett, is kolandiophonta, supposed to be text generally the present of participle
to

being

be." the

But
word

Rajendralala
from
the Sanscrit

Mitra

{.Antiquities I, 115) of Orissa, shores." for going to foreign "ships kolantarapota,

derives

lines laung-zSt,(without rigging) ; a carvel-built vessel on the same in the The use on as use. largertype, general Chindwin River, shows Chinese influence, althoughthe lines are tlioseof ancient the stem-cabins This differently arranged from those in Egypt. type displays the higher-built Chinese junk. See also Chatterton, Sailing Ships,7, 31.

Burmese

the dug-out laung-gofor river

The

colandia which have

or

made

the voyage
to

to

Chryse

and
or

were

of great

size,must
Tonkin

been

similar

the Chinese The

junks

the Burmese of
to

kattu laung-zat,
was

Chindwin

traders.

sea-trade of the Gulf annals mention

voyages

of very

earlydate. Chinese
known region,
extension B.

Malacca
century
was

prior to
B. C.

the Christian era, and

This

probably as earlyas the 12th the Chinese as Yix'e-chang, to

boundaries under
or

independent until the

Han

of the Chinese

the

dynasty (2d

century

C. ).

The

compass,

south-

pointingchariot," was

known

in the 11th century

B. C,

but, as indi-

247

cated used

by Hirth Undent Historyof China,pp. 126-136),was probably until appliedto navigation mainly for geomancy by Persians and
China visiting
steered in the 6th and

Arabs

7th centuries A. D.
the
sun,

The

Chinese

themselves
nature

by

the

stars

and

and

by observingthe

of the sea-bottom.

earlytype of Chinese junk,showing the individual cabins in the with his stock of goods, as told by stem-structure, each occupied by a merchant ited exhibshipping, Marco Polo ; from the serialcollection of models of commercial
Model
of
an

in the Commercial

Museum,

Philadelphia. Chinese

The
came

Arabian Bassora

geographer Mas' udi mentions

in his time, and in the

junks which

to

: t Ajanta, cave-paintings

248

commemorative
a

of the visit of

Persian embassy in the early7th

tury, cen-

ship is shown
of vessel.

that type

influenced by which, if not a junk, is manifestly 40. ) (See Torr, Ancient Ships, plateVII, fig.

Marco
the

Polo
that

junks of
'

of (Book III,Chap. I) givesa detailed description s edition II,249-51.) day: (Yule' merchants
go
to

'The

ships in which
of firtimber.
some

and fro amongst

one

the Isles each of

of

India,are
contains

They have but

60
man

deck, though
the
to

them

50

or

cabins,wherein having
one

merchants The

abide

at greatly

their ease,

every

himself.

ship

hath but
two

one

rudder,but
of larger in the the

it hath

four masts;

and sometimes

they have
.
.

additional masts,

which

they ship and unship at pleasure.

some

"The
severances case

their vessels have with

thirteen compartments

or

made interior,

planking stronglyframed, in
.

mayhap
"The

ship should springaleak. fastenings are all of good iron nails plank laid
over

and

the

sides
.

are

double,one
"Each
of them 5000
or

and the other,

caulked

outside and in wood-oil.

with lime and

chopped hemp, kneaded They

indeed

togetherwith

of their great
are

at least200 mariners,some ships requires

300. 6000
are

of great and

baskets of pepper;
now.

size,for one ship shall carry they used formerlyto be larger

no

than they

And

when

there is

wind
to

they use
. .

sweeps,

so

big that
ship has

to

pullthem
certain 1000

four requires
or

mariners

each.
to

Every
are

great

large barks

tenders attached

it; these

large

and carry 50 or 60 mariners baskets of pepper, enough to carry of them 80 or 100.'' left Ceylon in So Fa-Hien a apiece; some

large merchantman,
men,

on was

board

of which
a

there
rope,
a

were

more

than

200
a

and

to

which

attached,by
or

smaller
from

as vessel,

provisionagainstdamage
the in where Java-dvtpa, he

injuryto

the

largeone
And

the

of perils

chap. navigation." (^Travels,

spent

xi. )

landing from again

board

this vessel in

five months, he also had

on
'

embarked

another
men.

large merchantman, They

carried

which

more

than 200

for 50 days.' provisions

(See Yule's Marco

other

Polo,II,252-3,
a

for description of
account

junks in building, ship-

mediaeval writers;also, for

full

of

Burmese

primitiveand
60.

Burma, 132-8. ) modern, Ferrars,

.

Imported
from

everything.

"

Yule, in
:

his Marco

Polo (II,
in

333), quotes
length from
coast.

the Arab
to

geographer Wassaf

"Maabar extends

Quilon
and

nearly300 Nellore,
laden the

parasangs

The of

curiositiesof Chin

and Machin, and the

on

alongthe seabeautiful products

they call Junks,
the surface

Hind

Sind,
with

largeships which
of the wind The wealth
on

like sailing

mountains
are

wings

of

the water,

there. always arriving

of the Isles of the

249

Persian Gulf
other
are

and in part the beauty and particular, from Irak and Khurasan countries, Rum as far as from

in

adornment and be

of

Europe,
key
of

derived

Maabar,

which

is

so

situated

as

to

the

Hind." Marco called

himself

(III, xx)

calls Chola

"the kingdom of Maabar

and where India,

which Soli,

is the best and found."

noblest province in

the best

pearlsare

Friar Odoric
the and

(chap, iv)
most

says

of

this

kingdom:

"The

king

of

said region is

rich in

gold, silver and precious stones, and

all the world."

there be the fairest unions 61.

in (pearls)

Palaesimundu.

"

This

is the modern

Ceylon.

According

to

Lassen of

(I, 201)
piety;"

this word that

is the Sanscrit

"abode of Palistmanta,

the law

distinction is of which

of Gautama Buddha. The is,the Dharma called Taprobane, interest; by the ancients" it was

the name Tdmraparn't, given to it in the RdmaThe knowledge concerning Ceylon which reached the west yana. Eratosthenes and Strabo, of the islandbefore through Onesicritus, was its conversion author
to

is the Sanscrit

Buddhism
it in the its

under time

the of

zeal missionary

of Asoka.
to

Our
new

speaks

of

its greatest devotion

the

which religion,

neighbors
McCrindle

the

Dravidian

kingdoms

of

Southern

India

never

fully accepted.
to

According
or Taprobane,

(^Ancient India, 20, 160), the

name

was Tamraparrii,

colony into
The
name

the
means

and island,

givenby Vijaya,who led the firstIndian landed. appliedto the place where he first
' '

copper-colored ;
of the of inscription Asoka

compare

the Tdmra-liptt, Pali

port sea-

town

at

the mouth

Ganges.
at

The

form, Tambapanni,
Brahmanical

appears name,

in the

Girnar.

Another

Dvtpa Havana,

'island of Ravana,"
,

napper (the demon-king, kidsome

of Sita in the Ramdyana) of

is thought by

to

be the

origin

Taprobane
.

Ptolemy
firsttwo
but palai),

notes

that the ancient

our

name

was

Simundu

the (mistaking for the Greek

of syllables in his
own

author's

word

Palaesimundu
of the
as

time it

the Salike,

country

Salae.

Cosmas
notes,

Indicopleustescalled

Sielediba;which,

McCrindle

is

for the island : Sinhala-dvipa, through the Pali the true Sanscrit name To this source "island of the lions," or lion-like men-heroes. be traced its other names, Serendib,Sylan,and Ceylon." may Pala;simundus (VI, 24) but applies it to a the name Pliny knows the harbor city"adjoining "the most famous cityin that lies the

facing the south," and calls it the king's place of residence, island,
"

containinga populationof 200,000. of Ceylon, and Pliny seems south coast

But there is no
to

harbor

on

the

be

confusing his cityand

250

harbor

with the actual position of the island in relation

at Cape Comorin. lost,

to

the ancient

harbor,now
In
nagas,

the

Ramayana
and

the

Sinhalese
human

are

referred

to

as

rakshas and
to

demons invaders.

not spirits,

because

racially opposed
in
an

the

Aryan
had

So Fa-Hien

to relating
no

their trade

interesting passage "the country originally : chap, xxxviii) ( Travels,

was

describes them

human

but inhabitants,

and occupied onlyby spirits

on a

nagas,

with which

merchants

of various countries carried

not

trade.

When

was trafficking

did the spirits takingplace,

show

themselves.

They
the

simply set
to

forth their

preciousthingswith labels of the

made
"

priceattached

them; while

the merchants

their purchases And he found

according to
houses

price; and

took the

thingsaway.
and Sabasan

in the capital city

are

"many Vaisya clans

and beautiful."

merchants, whose

stately

Cosmas

book (Christian Topography, Indicopleustes

itstrade in the 6th century and Periplus,
a

XI J, tellsof

Ceylon
what

and

A.

D.

his

account

amplifies
for
parison com-

is said in the
:

translation is appended

"This ii the great island of the

which where
country.

ocean,

situated in the Indian the

is called the

it liesbeyond the pepper it in great numIt has other small islands scattered around ber;
some

by by the Indians Sielediba, is found; and hyacinthus stone

have fresh water,

Greeks

Sea; Taprobane,

of which
are

and

cocoanut
so island,

palms.
90 miles.
one

They
Two has the which of

very

close

to

one

another.

But that great in breadth each

its inhabitants

say, is 300

leaguesin
the the

and length,

about

kings reignin region of

is the merchants of

hostile to island,

other;
rest

of whom

and hyacinthus, and

the other the

of the

in island,
a

market-town from

port.

It is frequented by

great press

far countries.
sect
a

In that island is established the Church

and Persians, the whole of other of
one

Christ,of

the

of the

there

is

presbytersent
But
to

from the

and Persia,

deacon, and kings,are

service of the church.

and natives,
seen

the

faiths. Many
of

temples are
great

be

in this

island; on

the top

them, they say, is a hyacinthus,

a

in full view, top; and it shines

and sparkling

very

great, like

spinningsun

brightly, sending out iiery rays almost like the sight. From
all parts of Persia India,
and

a marvellous itself,

Aethias

opia come
were

multitude of ships to
between

this island,which
it sends

is placed

it

midway
"From

all lands; and

shipslikewise

hither

and

thither in alldirections. the inner

that is,from Tzinista and from the regions, other brought silk cloth,aloe-wood, cloves, market-towns, are and sandalwood,and other products according to the place; and it

251

forwards
pepper

them

to to

those

of

the

that is, to outside, Male,

in which

grows;

Calhana,where
the
castor

brass is found, and sesamin

wood,
and
to

and
to

various kinds of cloth (for it, too, is a great

market-town);
spikenard ;
and in it transmits Now

Sindu, where
the

musk

is

found,

and

and

to Persia,

country

of the

Homerites,and Adulis;
products likewise.

return to

it receives other inner

thingsfrom
its
own

all these places, which

the

regions,with

Sindu

is the

beginning of India;

for the river

Indus,which
India. These

empties into
are

sian the Per-

Gulf, separates
market-towns which has five ports

Persia from

the

best-known

of India:
to

Sindu, Orrhotha, Calliana, Sibor,and Male

which
pepper

is

Mangarouth, brought; Parti,

And

Salopatana,Nalopatana,Pudapatana.
about

then,

at

distance of
is

five days and

nights from

the

mainland, out

in the ocean,

that is,Taprobane. Then Sielediba, again, on the mainland, is a market-town, Marallo,shipping conch-shells; and there is Kaber, shipping alabandenum, and then the country from which cloves are

shipped;
there is
'

and

then

which Tzinista, the

ocean

sends silk cloth; within which

encircles it on the
east.

no

other
so

land, for

'And

this island

Sielediba, placed in
And

the midst of all markets

came

which India, and

on

receives goods from produces the hyacinthus,

shipsto
matters

all, being itselfa

of trade
years
one

very
our

great market.
own

there

thither

from

parts, named took him

at

Sopater,who
to

died about

35

ago.

And

his business that

a

the island of
same

Taprobane,
from whom

where and

it happened there landed those

vessel arrived

the

time

Persia,
was

Sopater,and
of the

together those from from Persia,among

And
so,
as

Adulis, among
whom
was,
was an

ambassador

Persians.

the

custom

the the

captains and king.

And

tax-collectors receivingthem, brought them

before

being admitted
the
proper

into the he

presence

of the be

king, after they had offered

And how then with he asked
your

homage,
goes

bade

them

seated.

them:

"How

it with your

and countries,

trade
the

and

commerce.'"'

"Excellently well," they

said.

Replying,
most

king asked, "Who, of your kings,is the greatest and "Ours Without delay the Persian answered:
the powerful, he Then has
power

ful.?" powermost

is the

greatest and
to

the

richest; he
he

is the But
you

do

whatever

wills."
have

king of kings; and Sopater was silent. nothing

this man
both
most
at

said the

king, "You, Roman,

have

to

say.?"
such

And

"What Sopater replied,

you

to

say, when

says

things? If
examine and and the
most

wish
you

to

learn the truth, you will

'

have is the amazed

kings here; magnificent

this

them, and

see

which

one was
'

powerful.'
have

But the king

speech,
You

said,"How

I both

kingshere.?'

And

he

answered,

252

have

the money

of

both;
of the

you

have

the

gold

coin

of the
;

one

king,
the

and the drachma

other,that is,the milharense

"

compare

And he, approving images of both, and you will see the truth. bade that both be produced. Now the gold coin was and assenting, and well-shaped; for thus are the best exported thither; bright, fine,

and the miUiarense with

reverse,

was

of silverand I need coin. the The

hardlysay,
at

not

to

be

pared com-

the

gold
at

king

looked

both

obverse and

and

then

other; and
the Romans that
upon

held
are

forth the

gold coin with

be treated with led around
me,

saying. Truly admiration,

and wise.
' '

and powerful magnificent

And

he commanded

Sopater should
an

honor; that he should be

the

seated

elephant,and
This
with him
to

whole
those when

citywith
also from
these

and
And

drums, and acclaimed. Adulis, who voyaged

so

Sopater told

that island.
was

things happened,

they

say,

the Persian

greatly

ashamed. 61.

Almost
are general

touches

Azania.

"

Our

author's

ideas of the

world in
he
was

similar to those of Pomponius Alela,with whom

retains

whose nearly contemporary; map the old idea of a balancingsouthern

"

(reproducedon
continent he
extent

p.

100)

of the Antich-

thones,
The

with the

eastern

end

of which

identifiesTaprobane.
for have

Periplusdoes

not

indicate quitethat The

confusion the

Ceylon, but
been

aggerates ex-

its size tenfold.

to

may

due partly

the

left by descriptions grandiloquent

visited the

Emperor Vol. II. ) Geography,

62. Masalia.
"

Augustus.

Ceylonese embassy which (See Bunbury, History of Ancient

Maisolia

This

is the Kistna.

of

Ptolemy,

who

has

river

Maisolos, probablythe
is

In Sanscrit, as McCrindle
in the Machhlipatana, construction

shows,
modern of the

the

name

Mausala,

which
,

survives

Masulipatam (16" 11' N. Bombay

of the

81" 8' E.

), until the

railwaythe

chief port
no

of entry

for the Deccan.

At the date of the Andhra in the

it was, Periplus

doubt, the
it

greatest market the best

kingdom. Bay
of

Tavernier

found

(I, xi)

anchorage

Bengal,and the only place from which vessels sailfor Pegu, Siam, Arakan, Bengal, Cochinchina, Mecca, and Hormus, as also for the islands of Madagascar, Sumatra,and the Manillas.
"

The In

text
s

notes

the it

great
was

of quantitj'

cotton

cloth made

there.
cilled, pen-

Tavernier' chintzes

time

noted especially called

for its painted, or

to

(II,xii)

that is calmendar,

say, made

with the

brush."

He

contrasted these

fine hand-painted fabrics with

The he observes, was supply,

coarse

printed goodsfrom Bengal.

the demand.

never

equal to

See also Imperial Gazetteer, XVII, 215.

254

Lassen

(II, 657)

thinks

this story the

of original

the battle between

pigmies and cranes, in Hesiod and other Greek writers. and is reproved by detail, Metrasthenes relates the story in some and says that there Strabo (XV, i, 57): "he then deviates into fables,
are men

of

and five,

even

three

spans

in

height,some
with the
are as

of whom the

are

without

with nostrils, of three

spans

only two
in

breathing orifices above

war cranes

mouth.

Those

height wage

(described
geese;

by Homer)
these
eggs

and

which with the partridges,

eggs

large as
which
cranes

the peoplecollect and destroy

of the
or

cranes

lay their
to

there; and nowhere a crane found; frequently

a

else are
escapes

the eggs from

the young

be

this country

with

brazen

point of
This

weapon

in its body, wounded

by

these

people."

of the Kavyas,called referred to in one especially mentioned in the Mathe combat, first which recounts Kiratarjuniya, tribe is between habharata,

Siva in the guiseof

Kirata,or mountaineer,and

Arjuna.
62.

Bargysi.
"

These

are

the

Bhargas

of the

Vishnu

Purana,.

there mentioned

and doubtless of like race. neighborsof the Kirata, in Journal of the Asiatic to the Periplus, (Taylor,Remarks on the Sequel Society of Bengal,Jan. 1847.)
as

62. of who the

our

Horse-faces
no
"

and
doubt

Long-faces.
told him

"

This

is

no

invention

but was author, spoke by his book

by

some

friend

at

Nelcynda,
eastern

the Sanscrit writings. The for the Tibeto-Burman

to
races

Aryans professed
at

greatest contempt

their

and frontier,

their references Vara

them

are

full of
a

exaggerationand
in the
tains moun-

fable.

The of

Sanhita Purana

mentions

people

east

in India," that is,

the hillson
"

the Assam-Burma

frontier,
and

called

Asvavadana,

horse-faced.
so

(Taylor, op. cit. ;

62. Said
among
eat
one

Wilford

in Asiatic

VIII Researches,
notices such
are

IX.)

to

be Cannibals.

"

Herodotus the

a custom

the

other

to living Indians, are

east, who

nomads
'

and
any

raw

who flesh,

called Padaeans." is sick,whether

are

(Ill, 99.)
a woman or

When
a

of the community
a man

it be

man,
to

if it

be

the

men

who

his

nearest

connections

put

him he

death,
feast who

that alleging

if he

wasted

by disease his flesh would

be sick,in like manner
same as

spoiled;but

if he denies that he is
upon
are

sick, they,not
woman

agreeingwith him, killand

the
women

him.
most

And

if a

intimate

with her do the

the

men.

And

whoever them

but few old age, they sacrifice and feast upon; attain this state, for before that they put to death every reaches into any

among
one

that falls

distemper.

"

255

(R', i,45), "Ultima vicinus Phoebo tenet Arva daeus;" and Strabo (XV, i, 56), quoting Megasthenes' account
Indian mountaineers
The
same
'

So Tibullus

Paof

'who

eat

the bodies of their relatives.

' '

practices were

said by Dr. Taylor

the

to

be followed
Tibeto-

couple of generationsago
Burman and
means

by

Kukis, or
Assam
because

Kuki
and

tribe in the Chin

were

Hills between
eaten

Chin, a Burma;

the sick

aged

killed and

of the belief that

were

by

such the

their souls remained

in the

tribe,and

preservedfrom
for

into agonies of transmigration The which

name

the bodies of animals.

of

Padaeans"
in the Vara
"

isprobably meant Sanhka

is the Purana.

under Purushada,

they appear
63.

Ganges.

The

name

applied in
district is

the
meant

same

paragraph

to

river and district,

more river,

town.

By
as it,

the Hughli especially

not west

estuary, but

east

Bengal; by the of Ganga-Sagar

about the

island and
century,

of

at

present.

This, until

15th

was

the

mouth largest the sacred the Adi

of the

Ganges;

the

Hughh

river and

Sagar island were

ancient

mouth, emptying

and still retain places, Ganga, silted up, and channel

as at

their

sanctity.This constantly

the river

tendingeastward,finally joined its main

into the the
town

to

that of the Brahmaputra,

present

Meghna
of

estuary

XII, 133-4). By
the modern
to

Ganges

is probablymeant

(/ot^. Ga%., Tamra-lipti,

gave

Tamluk

(22" 18' N., 87" 56' E. ), which

river in the the

its name

the

Tamra-parnI
This
was

Pandya kingdom, and

of

to

the island of

Ceylon.

sea-port

Bengal

in the in the

Post-Vedic
great
' '

and

mentioned Buddhist periods, being frequently

was

epics. It
were

the port of the the hero

who Bangalis,

trusted in their ships, who

conquered by
Fa-Hien
merchant
to

of Kalidasa' s
years,

Raghuvamsa. Here
he embarked
sea

it in

was a

that

sojournedtwo

after which the

large
.
. .

the

and went over vessel, floating country of Singhala." is

to

the southwest

which This identification,

supported by
and

many

seems scholars,

preferable
ancient

to

that of the

Fergusson

Dr. Taylor, who

,

would

place

Tamra-lipti at

modern

Sonargaon (23" 40' N.

90" 36' E. ), the

the chief port of Eastern Suvarnagrama, the middle

ages.

Empire and in
modern

Bikrampur, one

of the

Bengalunder the Gupta Near here was Vikramapura,the of Chandragupta Vikramacapitals

date from so earlya to ditya. But its importance does not seem while it is more that the name likely period as that of the Periplus; the sacred,and at that time of Ganges would have been localized on the principal, estuary. Strabo has been accused of ignorance for remarking (XV, i,13) its waters But his that the Ganges by a singlemouth." discharges
"

256

information probablyreflectsthe
as

esteem

in which

that mouth

was

held,

well

as

its predominant

in his time size,

"

63. the
says

Malabathrum.
source

This

was

from

the

Eastern 65. the

greatest

of

supply,as
is

noted under

"
in

Himalayas, Ptolemy, also,

of the

"the
"

best

malabathrum

produced

country

Cirrhadae. 63.

Grangetic spikenard.
"

This

was

probablythe
valued

true

nard, spike-

from
to

the

Himalayas, noted under

" 49, and

sufficiently
the Romans

be

to Nelcynda, where shipped in considerable quantity

fouftd it ("

56).

Pliny describes another kind from the Ganges (XII, 26) which "is altogether condemned, as being good for nothing; it bears the
name

of

and ozcenitis,
"

emits
was

a a

fetid odor."

This, as

Watt

remarks

(pp. 451, 462, 792),

allied to the
These

nard root"

of

Cymbopogon or Andnpogon, " 39; probably Cymbopogon jwarancma.

variety of

the lemon-grass,ginger-grass, citronella, species, etc., all yield confused. have been much and until recently aromatic oils,

Plinyconfuses 59), f^XII,

63.

this grass
"

also with
grow
not streams

malabathrum, which,

he

marks re-

is said

to

in the marshes of the best

are

like the lentil."

Pearls.

"

These

were

remarks, those

of the

Ganges

qualit}'; as Dr. Taylor inferior, being small,often

and usually reddish. irregular, 63.

are

Muslins
muslins of

of the finest sort, called

the

Gangetic.

"

These all the

to

the

Dacca
test

the district, of which

most
was

delicate of

fabrics of drawn

India,an
a

ancient

for the piece

be

through
which

J'entus textilis, or were nebula, finger-ring. Romans knew in who

to
a

names

under
the

the

of them.
to

They
the 10

are

mentioned

in the

Institutes of let a

Manu,
weaver

way

show

organizationof
cotton

industry:

has received

palas of
and

thread

give them back in weaving; he

Tavernier
on

increased who

eleven, by the

rice-water
a

the like used

does otherwise
a
a

shall pay

fine of V) panas."
took
an

tells of

Persian
cocoanut

ambassador

who

his

sovereign,
riched en-

returninghome,
with

of the size of when it of

was a

ostrich's egg,
a

precious

stones;

and

opened
muslin
so

turban

was

drawn would

from

it 60 cubits in

and length,

fine that

you

know scarcely of history

that you
cotton

The

had it in your hand." spinning in India goes

back

to

remote
are

antiquity, being associated

such

with the Vedic

woven

gods
woven

or

goddesseswho
The
patterns

described and pictured as wearing

garments,

garments.

of

showing

in both great skill from

and tinted in

are design,

abundantly reproduced

early temples

Mitra {Jntiauities of

257

Vol. II),from whence Orissa,

at industry

it appears

certain that the

era was

cotton

tile tex-

the

time of the Christian

western

far in advance

of

that of any While

seems more

of the
cotton

countries.

may

have possibly it has

been

spun

first in

Turkestan, it sula peninindustry

fine

that likely

always been
found

native in the Indian the cultivation and

and both

that the

Aryan invaders
The

well established.
to

for earlyFedas,

example, referred principally

doubtless of In
the

woolen
as

cloth of
are

various

kinds, some

such quality,

stillmade

in Kashmir.

Rig

I'eda the

material used
The

in

clothingis not
"

specified.
Sabha
Parva
"

Mahabharaia
:

in the

enumerates

presents

brought to Yudhisthira
Cloths and
and

skins;

the

former

of

wool

and

embroidered

with

and weasel; blankets of brocades;the lattermarten various manufacture by the Abhiras of Gujarat; cloths not of cotton, but of sheep or goat wool, or of thread spun by worms of (silk.''), or Turkharas and Kankas; or by Scythians, patta fibres and linen, woven,

gold, shawls

by princesof housings for elephants, Midnapur Mysore.

The various

the Eastern from

and

Ganjam;

fine muslin

lower Bengal, tribes, people of Carnatic and

Ramayana
kinds.

mentions
trousseau

silken,woolen
of
vestments

and

cotton

stuffs of

The

Slta consisted of
of
every

woolen

stuffs,

furs,precious stones,
ornaments, Heeren

fine

silk,

divers colors,princely kind." Cashmere

shawls.

and sumptuous
supposes

of carriages

the woolen
a

stuffs to have been

Ramanuja
The

mentions

stuff from
custom
as

Nepal.
the shown

change

of

Aryans penetratedinto
in the Laws of

the

hot

climate of the

Ganges Valley is
the
use

Manu,

which

Brahmans prohibited Aside from

in
use.

of wool. allkinds
were

the

priestly caste, however, fine fabricsof

in silken if his

In

an

the earlyplay,the Mrichchhakatika,

buffoon

inquires:

who

is that

gentleman dressed
rollingabout
be little doubt
as

ornaments,

and

with rich raiment,glittering of ioint.?" limbs were out

(Act IV, Sc. II).

There known
' '

can

that the fine muslins of Eastern

under

such

names
' '

as were

"Textile Breeze",
made
course,

'

Bengal Evening Dew ", although

and
the

or

Running Water

there
were

before the Aryan invasion. both by hand, and

from

Spinning and weaving,

this industry was

of

renewed

by

the

cottons

Manchester
yarn

of mills about Bombay, starting in finest

some

this

fine superlatively
the
to

is still duced pro-

In 1888 quantities. said

to

spinners who
two

supplied the
in the

were quality

be

reduced

elderly women

258

of Dhamrai, about 20 miles north of Dacca, but it was thought village for that the industrymight be revived with any revival of the demand this fine fabric. An incredible
amount

of

patienceand skill were

fineness of
to

requiredin
the
pass
a

this

industry.
described of The number

One

way

of and

testingthe

often fabric, whole piece

by

mediae\al

earliertravelers, was
an

20 yards long and

best test,

yard wide through

was

ordinaryfinger-ring. proportion to size and

ago
a

however,

by

the

weight
made

in

of threads.

It is said that 200

years
so

piece of muslin
as

15 yardslong by 1 yard wide could be

900
same or grains, a

fine

to
a

weigh only piece of

the

littleo\er and

1-10 of

pound.
not

In made

1840

dimensions

texture

could

be
p'ece

finer than

1,600
and the

grainsand was valued at about S50. long by 1 yard wide could not be woven
the work could

of this muslin

10 yards

in less than five in the

months,
when

only be

carried prevent

on

rainy
from

season

moisture

in the air would

the thread

breaking.
were

At several places in northwestern but nowhere

were

India fine muslins

those of

duced, pro-

of

equal to quality
at

Bengal.
The

These
at

also
the

shipped westward, appearing

of the Indus and the Gulf
to
was

in the of

Periplusas
and

exports

mouth hand

Cambay.
looms
to

change

from
not

spinning and weaving

as

power

spindleswas

gradual

in

Europe, but

due

the

direct importation of

that a few months sufficed to destroythe earlier so European fabrics, and to laythe way for the modern textilemiUs of India. industry Lamb of Tartary. J. H. Furneaux, (See Henry Lee, The Vegetable India: Bombay, 1899; chap. iii. T. Art ManufacN. Alukharji, tures The Cotton Plant, publishedby the U. S. Departof India. Also, ment of 1896. ) Agriculture,

63. Gold

mines.

"

This
from

was

probablythe gold
to

of

the

Chota

Nagpur
mouth.

plateau,located
The rivers

75

150

miles

west

of the

Ganges
river

flowing north

and

east

of these

highlandshave

long produced alluvial gold

in considerable

quantities.The

Son, which formerlyflowed into the Ganges at the site of the ancient the modern called by the classical capitalPataliputra, Patna,was writers Erannoboas, from the Sanscrit hiranya-vaha, carrying gold." (McCrindle, Ancient India,p. 43; cf the Aurannoboas of " 53.) There was also a substantialsupply from Tibet,which produced
'

the famous

ant-gold" mentioned
to

by

all the

classical writers from

the
name

Herodotus

Pliny. As Ball pointed out

{Journalof
a was were

Royal Irish
for the

Academy,June, 1884),the "ant-gold" was

small fragments of alluvialgold; this
to
name

Sanscrit

passed on, being applied

also referred
to
as

the dogs of the Tibetan

miners, which

259

The griffins.
as

"horn of the gold-diggingant," mentioned

by PUny

preserved in the
made of

temple of Hercules
a

at

Erythrae, was
on a

gold-miner's

pickaxe,
Herodotus

wild sheep' s horn mounted

handle.

(See

III,102-5; Arrian,Anabasis V, 4-7; Strabo,XV, i,44; Pliny, XI, 36; McCrindle, Ancient India, 51.)
Gold about 60
was

also brought into India through the Tipperah country

east

miles

of

the and

from Ganges delta; coming chiefly northern it

the

of river-washings

Assam

Burma.
was

Tavernier
silk of that

notes

xvi) that (III,

and
that both

of poor
sent

like quality,
to

the

country,

were

overland

China

in

exchange

for silver.

In Assam, Ball notes, it was

to

formerlythe
a

custom

for the of

rulers

require their subjectsto wash for gold every year, while regulargold-washerswere Tipperah
merchants back

certain number

days

taxed.

xv),took (III,
and others of
the size of
our sea

trading in Dacca, according to Tavernier yellow amber, tortoise-shellbracelets, coral,

numerous are

with shells,
15 "/

round
also of

and the

square
same

pieces of

coins,which

tortoise-shell

and sea-shells. The

ernier as Tavwashings are, however, of substantialyield, himself states (III,xvii). See also Ball,Economic Geology of

Assam

India, p. 231, and the A lamgirnama the Indian Antiquary,July, 1887.

The
coin

of Muhammad

Kazim

ri663),in
the Sanscrit

called caltis is thought by Benfey

There
was,

to

be

kalita,"numbered."
called kali

however,

South

Indian

coin

137), while Vincent, quoting Stuckius, (Elliot, op. cit., of Bengal called kallais. Wilford (^Asiatic mentions one Researches, called canden. the refined gold V, 269), preferred
Pliny mentions
mines been of

gold

on

the Watt

Mysore); but, as

(coming from the observes (p. 565), gold has always

Malabar
coast

mainly an
63.

articleof import in India.

be little (the "golden"). There can known the Malacca peninsula, to Ptolemy meant doubt that by this was the Aurea althoughthe location "justopposite the Chersonesus, as

Chryse

Island

"

Ganges"

disposesof

long

voyage

in rather summary

fashion.

mense Im-

gold mines
which
from
to

of ancient date have been

discovered in the Malayan

are

State of Pahang, north of

gave

Malacca, and

these the

probably the
made
the

ones

the

name

of

"golden" to
B.

peninsula. It is known journey

and
as perhaps as early

Chinese
as

records that shipsfrom

that country

Malacca

earlyas

the 4th century

C,

the

12th;

while the legend of Buddha's

visit to Cambodia

is at least

260

suggestiveof
China.

the

great
,

influence exercised from

India

over

all Indo-

{FurtherIndia,N. Y. 1904, pp. 6-7) givesan of the hazy, yet vaguely excellent account correct, ideas of the Romans Of Chryse, in the 1st and 2d centuries concerning the Far East.
H.

C.

Clifford

the

golden,Plinyhas nothing to only that

it was the land of
we

tell us, and the author of the

Periplus speaks,
ends

tells us

situated oppositeto the situated silk,

Ganges.
where the
was

He
seacoast

however, of Thina, whence externally,'

him
as an

may

gather that Chryse

the
east

conceived

by

island lyingnot

only to

of the

Ganges, but also to

a

the southward in

of the Chinese

Empire.
the
must

This

vance adindicates a distinct

knowledge,

for the isleof

enveloped in Chryse, albeitstill Periplusa real country,

have reached him tend
even

golden haze, was to the author of mythicalfairyland. Rumors mere

on it,

and

no

concerning
to

which

he believed he could
to

rely; and this would

Malacca,
no

prove

that the
was

sea-route

China

via the Straitsof

was

though

it

not

yet in
east.

generaluse,
know Marinus

longer unknown
a

to

the mariners

of the

We whom

that less than of

century

later the sailorAlexander,

the the

from

Tyre derived
sailed to
concluded

knowledge

quently subse-

by Ptolemy, himself and beyond, and it may safelybe

utilized this southeastern
passage

Malay peninsula,
of feasibility

that the
to

had become
from the the

known
west
was an

the seafarers of China

to test

long before

an

adventurer

enabled

the fact

of its existence the illustrating

through
of

means

of

actual voyage."

And

as

state

knowledge in
voyages

the Roman

world in the 1st century,

Mr. Clifford aptlycites Josephus (^Antiquities VIII, 2) of the Jews,

who
recounts

the

Ophir
At

identifications :

curious Solomon, venturingsome Ezion-Geber,a bay of Egypt on the Erythrasan

a

of

Sea,the king constructed Berenice( !),and is near

the Hebrew in

number the

of

ships. The

port is now

named

cityof Elan,formerly deemed to be in assisted King Solomon jurisdiction. King Hiram greatly
navy,

preparinghis
s

sending him

mariners
was

and

Solomon'
Aurea

officers to the land that of old

which Chersonesus, It is uncertain what Asia

belongs to India,to

conducted who pilots, the called Ophir,hut now fetch gold."

account

of Eastern

knowledge Plinyhad of Further India. His to begin with the (VI, 20) professes Scythian
Arctic
"

the Ocean, "^-that is, he mentions origin of the Attacori

sunny
a on

and after
of

some

names

of doubtful

the the

Promontory
blasts
.

Chryse
a

and the nation

gulf of that

name,
.

people protectedby their

eat

hillsfrom

all noxious

and in the interior the Caseri, and. Scythians,

human

who people of India,

look toward
numerous

the

flesh.

Here

are

also

wandering nomad

tribes of India."

262

But the itselfso much

it gave
state
was

success a

of Ts'in had
state

brought

its

own

reaction.

It was

Tartar
the Han

that it could

not

control all

China, and
of the

way

to

dynasty. The Loyang

the

political importance
emperor,
to

emphasized, however, by
his from capital

the first Han in Honan

who

removed

Kaotsou, Hien-Yang or
to

the Singanfu in Shensi,

western

ancient Ts'in

and capital,
rest

in order

make

that

location

more

accessible

to

of the

empire, built a
use.

great

high-roadfrom

Loyang

to

Singanfu,which

is still in

Buddhist

in pilgrim

northwestern times

China:

froma6-ft.
a

Museum, BaileyWillis,CarnegieInstitution, Washington.

1128 Philadelphia,

from enlarged

panelin the Commercial portionof a film exposed by

263

The

Han effort

dynastysoon
to
recover

lost its outposts

them

beyond
of

made 25-58

no

until the
a

A.

D.,
by

who his

made

China

reign military power

the

wall,and Kwang Vouti, conquered

the

and

Anam,
over

and

policytoward
His
son,

the Yueh-chi

reasserted

Turkestan. led
to

Mingti, began

sovereignty westward aggressive

policywhich
led his army

defeated

near

Pan-chao,who of Chinese and Tartars as far as the Caspian, and who Khoton the Yueh-chi lished king Kadphises,then estabIndia. It was
in thisregionthat Buddhism
seems

the great conquests

of the General

in upper
to

first
from

have

reached

China, rather than

was

through Tibet
or

or

Burma, and

this time with

China

always

more

less directly in communication

Western

Asia.
"

Richard, Comprehensive Geography oj"the Chinese Empire; Douglas, China; Boulger, History of China;" E. H. Parker, China;" Y{. B. Morse, The Trade and
" "

(See Hirth, Ancient Historyof China;

Administration of the Chinese Empire. )

64. under
source

Raw

silk and
and 56.

silk yarn

and

silk

cloth.

"

See

also

"" 39, 49
of

This is the earliest correct

routes

statement

of the

silk and

of the

by

which

it reached

the world's

markets.

Silk is the cocoon-secretion

mori, family Bombycida,order in the warm-temperate firstcultivated,

Chinese

mulberry-leaf moth, Bombyx and Lepidoptera;native,apparently,

climate of northwestern

of the

China.
of

legends

mention

the

making
the
worms

of musical instruments

wood,
B.

with

silk threads,under

emperor

Fu-hi, (29th century

the

C),
of

while the rearingof the

,

and

invention of reel,
' '

loom,
wife
woven

etc.

are

ascribed

the

emperor

known 'Ladyof Si-ling, as the Lei-tsu, Huang-ti (27th century B. C-). Cloth was
to

of

embroidered silk, enabled

were

by

the

empress,
as

and those of the

higher
other

classes were

to

discard skins

wearing apparel. Soon by

the man's

textile materials

and dyeing introduced; discovered, so

for the firsttime indicated

that rank outward

and

positionwere
In the

appearance.

dating from Chou-li,

government

the

11th century

B. C,

it appears
every

that the Chinese

the productionof silkin supervised and

same

of design,ornament, and that specialties detail, alreadymonopolized in different families. The the in

embroidery,were
book

describes
i

provincesof China:

King-chou,

the modern

Hu-naa, had

trade

ing and skins; Yu-chou, next on the north and reachcinnabar,ivory, the Yellovir River, traded in bamboos, varnish, silk and hemp; noted Shan-si) was while the northernmost, Ping-chou (the modern for especially
cotton

and

silk

textures.

It

was

this province which

264

was

most

in

contact

with the nomad

tribes of

Central Asia, through

whose

reached the hands silkfirst

western

nations.

Ancient History of China, 9, 22-3, 117, 121-2). (Hirth, The of antiquity evidence
seems

the

in India is uncertain, but the silk industry

to

weight of by
way

be in favor of itsimportation from and of

of the

Assam Brahmaputra valley,

while
"

China, Eastern Bengal,early

native
not varieties,

in the Christian era;

the the

cultivation

feedingon

mulberry leaves
tasar

(themodern

J ntheraa paphia Saturnidce, mcixx^in^ silk);Anthercca assama (feedingon laurel species the castor-oilplant) were

and principally),

Attacus ricini (feeding on

probablyallstimulated by the value of the Bombyx silk. Natural History, (See Watt, pp. 992-1026; Cambridge VI, 375.)
The
soon

trade in silk

yarn

and

silk cloth existed in Northern Silk is mentioned

India

after the

Aryan

invasion.

several times,as

in the Mahdbharata, the Ramdyana, and from foreigncountries, gifts and it may be assumed that some of Manu; trade at least the Institutes
went to

farther

west.

The

Egyptian records
and it was,
no

do

not

mention

it

prior
of

the Persian conquest,

doubt,through the empires

the
at

Darius and Xerxes

The Hebrew

that it firstreached contain scriptures

Mediterranean
two

world.
to

least

references

silk:

the dmeshek of Amos

III, 12

seems

to

be the Arabic Ezekiel

dimaks,English
seems

damask,
mean a manner
a

silken fabric;while

meslii in

XVI, 10
mentions

to

silken gauze.

Isaiah also

TXLIX, 12)

the Sinimm

extreme indicating

distance.
that the Greeks learned of

It has

been
s

supposed

silkthrough

Alexander' Persia.
account:

but itprobably reached them previously expedition, through Aristotle {Hist.Anim., V, xix,11) gives correct a reasonably

"It is
At

great

worm

which

has

horns
a

and

so

differs from
a

others.

its first metamorphosis it produces

"

then caterpillar,

a chrysalis all these changes takingplacewithin bombylius, and lastly

six months.
cocoons

Prom

this animal

women

separate

and

reel off the

was

and

afterwards

spin them.
of

It is said that this

of

first spun
cates This indiAristode's
parent trans-

in the island of
a

Cos

by Pamphile, daughter
raw was

Plates."
before Coa in

steadyimportation
The
gauze

silk

on

bobbins

time.

fabric he

mentions
at

the famous

or vestis,

(woven also

Tyre and elsewhere

the of

which Syria),

came

into favor in the time of

of Caesar and

Augustus.
art

Plinymentions
the

Pamphile

Cos, "u-ho discovered

from the
not

unwinding
and of the

silk"
tissue

(from

the

bobbins,not
the
same

cocoons)
to

spinning a

therefrom; indeed,she having discovered

a

ought
of

be

deprived

gloryof

art

making

garments

which, while they cover

charms.'
'

woman,

at

the

time

rexeal her naked

fXI, 26).

265

He

refers

to

the

same

fabric in

VI, 20,
a

where

he speaks of

"the
After
to

so Seres,

famous

for the

wool
comb

that is found off

in their forests. that adheres

steepingit in water,

they
to

soft down
our

the

leaves; and
the twofold

then

the

females

of

part of the world

they give
the
gions re-

task of

unravelingtheir
manifold

textures, and labor,

and
so

of

weaving
the

threads afresh.
which
are

So

is the
to

distant are

thus ransacked

ladies may

in

their public display who the

supply a dress through which our charms. Compare Lucan, Phar' '

salia, X, 141, through

the

describes

Cleopatra,
of the

her

white

breasts resplendent
texture

Sidonian fabric, which, wrought in close

the Seres, needle workman

by

skill of the

of the Nile has the web.

men
' '

and has loosened the warp separated, Silk fabrics of this kind
the
were

out by stretching

much
was

affected

by

also during
'

reign of Augustus, but

the

the fashion

and considered effeminate,

earlyin
men

reign of Tiberius
not

the Roman

Senate enacted
garments

law
of

'that

should

defile themselves The

by wearing
cost
we was

silk." from its his

(Tacims, Annals, II,33.)

an

enormously high;
learn that silk was
it himself
nor

account

of the

Emperor
that he of

Aurelian neither

worth

weight in gold,and
wife
to

used

allowed

possess
tastes

garment
were

the an thereby setting it, example against of its resources. valuable

are

luxurious

that

drainingthe empire
most

Pliny

includes

it in his list of the

most

productions'
trees

'

(XXXVII,
are

67); "the

costly thingsthat
other

gathered from

nard and Seric tissues.

Pliny (XXI, 8) speaks of

last to such
not
a

uses

for silk:
no

Luxury
at

arose

at

pitchthat

chapletwas
sewn

held in

esteem

all if it did

consist

of leaves entirely been

together with
from

the

needle. from

More
nations

recently again they have

imported

India,or

the most as beyond the countries of India. But it is looked upon else of silk made of nard leaves, refined of all, to present chaplets or of many

colors steeped in unguents.

of
our women

Such is the pitch to which

the

luxuriousness

has

at

last arrived!"
writers there
tree
was some

Among
between in his
raw

both Greek

and Roman

confusion

both being called silk, omits translation of the Periplus,

cotton

and

wool;"

and

Fabricius,
But

silk

altogether, considering
cotton.

material, yarn
of description

and

cloth alike
err

to

be

Turkestan

although these
in his

accounts

in

some

correct details, Plinyis sufficiently

cotton.

He

the wool-bearing trees distinguishes

of the Seres from

those of the Indians

'

(XIV, 4), and

nut,

describes the

ton cot-

shrub, with
inside which
a

its 'fruit resembling a bearded

containing on

the from

down, which silky

is spun

into threads; the tissue made

and softness"

is superior to all others in whiteness

(XIX, 2),

266

while

his account
so

of the silkworm
near

is
:

at

least within

sightof

the

truth,

althoughnot
"At
naked

it as Aristotle' s
assume

first they

the

appearance

of small

butterflieswith

being unable to endure the cold,the\' after, the winter and assume throw out bristly quitea thick coat against hairs, the leaves,by the aid of the that covers by rubbing off the down bodies,but
soon

roughness
with their branches of

of their feet.

This then

they

compress
out

into balls by

it carding the

claws, and

draw it fine

it

and

hang
it out

it between
as

of the trees, making

by combing body,
state

itwere;
a

last
in

they all, they

take and roll it round

are

their

thus

forming they
warm

nest

which

enveloped. It
are

is in this

that
a

are

taken;
the

after which fed upon

they

placed

in earthen of down

vessels in
soon

place,and
another

bran.

sort peculiar

shoots forth upon

to

body,
task. and

on

being clothed with

cocoons

which

they are
then

sent to

work
are

upon

The

which

they have begun

and
a are

form drawn in

rendered soft
into threads the
men

pliable by
means

the aid of water,

a

out

by
even

of

spindle made
to

of
use

reed.

Nor,

have fact,

felt ashamed

make

of

garments

formed
summer;
so

of this material for

so

in consequence have
manners

of their

extreme
our

in lightness
own

greatly

degeneratedin
garment
even

day
too

that

far from

wearing a
An-

a cuirass,

is found

to

be

heavy.
Textrinum

(See also Lassen, I, 317-322; III,25; Yates, tiquorum. )

The of silk from reeling from of the
"

the

cocoons

was

confused
a

into

ing comb-

of down the
cause

the

which leaves, with

had
cotton.

also

basis of

confusion

Compare

but was truth, Virgil, Georgia,

II,121;

'Velleraque ut

foliis depectant tenuia Seres. " the bear

two

between Plinyfinally distinguishes Arabian cotton that (XII, 21): trees

nature

fibers in referring to
of
a

wool, but
trees

different

from

those

of

the

Seres; as
might
very

in these

the leaves

produce

and nothing at all, vine.

"

indeed

be readily

taken

for those of the

The

word

silk'' is from

meaning Mongolian original, sirkek,

Hence
was

silk;
Prom whose

Korean

Chinese sir,
the
name

ssi.

the Greek

ser,

Latin sericum.

this word

Seres

appliedto

the

peoplesthrough

hands the product came; be understood,not by which must the Chinese themselves, but rather the Turkish or Tibetan intermediaries. That
the word
;
was

extended loosely

to

cover

most

of Eastern

Asia is undeniable

Sinim, while
China proper.

the

the Since,Isaiah the Ptolemy distinguishes Periplus gives nearly the correct form, This, for

but

Plinyhas

curious

mixture

of Seres and

Cirrhadas in his Scyrita

267

(VII, 2), whose

with who live
on an

flat-nosed Mongolian

faces

he
"

describes

as

having
he
nects con-

merely holes in their faces instead of nostrils, and whom

allied race, the the
are

Astomi,

people who
the
source

have

no

mouths,

eastern

side of and

India,near
trees.

of the themselves he

Ganges;
with
some a

their bodies
down

rough
from

hairy,and they
"

cover

plucked
Ammianus

the

leaves of

Here

shows

knowledge
Seres :
64.

of the silk trade

through Assam.

Marcellinus

(XXIII, vi) has

the
two

more

knowledge
the

of the

Beyond

the

districts of which and

on

on Scythias, a Serica,

eastern

side,is a ring of
both
their western

mountains

surround

country

erable considtribe the

as on

for its extent side border

snowy

the

of fertility

its soil.

This

the

on Scythians,

the north and

east

they look
as

toward

deserts; toward
. . .

the south they extend

far

India and the Ganges. 67.

The

Seres themselves
as ease

live quietly, always avoiding arms moderate

Their

and

battles;and
to none

is pleasant to

and quietmen,
delicious.

they They

give trouble
and have

of their

neighbors.
the breezes the
trees

climate is agreeable

healthy;
numbers

the of

sky serene,
a

gentleand
of which
a

shininggroves,
crop

through continued
the natives

watering produce
make into
a

like the fleece of

a now

sheep, which procurableby frugalof

other

delicate the
use

wool, and spin into

of the

kind of fine cloth, formerly

the lowest

confined of the

to

nobles,but

people without

distinction.
are

68. "The
a

natives themselves

the

most

men,
men.

vating cultiAnd

and shunning peaceful life,

cross

the

of society their

when

strangers

their river

to

buy

cloth,or

any

other

of

their merchandise, they interchange no

but settle the conversation,

so

priceof
"

the articleswanted
own

by

nods

and signs; and they are

never

modest

their that,while selling

wares.

produce, they
world
the

buy

any

foreign

But

to

the the

Graeco-Roman

Seres

were

people

as

The of Prester John in the middle ages. subjects in Sinhalese mouths; see p. 209), and even Cheras of IVIalabar {Seri identified and Masira in Southern Arabia (see p. 140) were Ausar
as ubiquitous

with them.

Concerning
with the

of the long struggles in Persia, over Sassanid monarchs the

emperors

at

Constantinople

the

silkever-increasing

of the Christian monks trade,culminatingin the romantic success in bringing the jealously-guarded succeeded who eggs to Justinian,

hidden in

bamboo

cane,

culture of Greece

and

therebylaying the foundation the Levant, see Beazley, Dawn

of the silk-

of Modern

268

Heyd, Hutoire du Commerce du Levant au Moyen la S'erique et htstorigues sur des D'Anville,Recherchesgeographiques Agf, des Inscriptions anciens (1768) in M'emoires de T Acad'emie Rjoyale et Belleset commerciales Lettris, xxxii,573-603; Reinaud, Relations politiques
" " "

Vol. I; Geography,

de r

Empire Romam
chr'etienne. also See

avcc

T Asie Orientale pendant les cmq

premiers

siecles

de I' ere

Richthofen, China, I, chap,

"

x;

"

Stein, Sand-buried

im Dienste des Jl'elthandels, Gotz, J erkehrsvcege des Altcrtums,I; 496-511; Speck, Handelsgeschichte Letourneau, du Histoire Commerce du IS E'colution du Alonde, Commerce; Noel, I; Ancient Commerce, and I; Lindsay, Historyof A'lerchant Shipping I, " 16; Tozer, A Historyof Mayr, Lehrbuch der Handelsgeschichte, Ruins

of Khotan;
"

"

"

"

"

"

Ancient

281; Geography,
"

"

Bunbury, History of
Buddhist
and

Ancient

Geography, I,
4th Gospels,

565; II, 166, 658;

ed.
,

Edmunds,

Christian

introduction.

64. from the

the

Through
Yellow
century
two

Bactria
River
to

to

Barygaza.

"

The

overland

travel

in Bactra, firstinstituted, possibly, early then

2d

B. C. and
The
to

obstructed for nearlytwo

to

centuries,
most

followed

routes.

and earlier, the Khotan of which

the Chinese

the the
on

portant imor as

because southern follows

:

it led
the

jade-field, was
may

Nan-lu the map

way,"

stages

be

traced

Nor The

Singanfu, Lanchowfu, Kanchow, "^ iimenhsien,Ansichow, Lop (theAsminta of the Greeks) where the routes divided. to Tsiemo
Nan-lu
followed
over

south of the Tarim and westward

River
to

to

Khotan

and and

Yar-

kand, thence
This
was

the Pamirs

the Oxus
army

Bactra. Pan
or

the

earliest route

opened
D.
same

by
The
course

the Chinese second from

under

Chao, being cleared in 74 A.

northern thence
over

route, the

PciAu

way," followed
of the Tarim

the

north

through Kuche
the Terek
to

to Tsiemo, Singanfu and Aksu to Kashgar,and to

the tremendous

heightsof
route to directly

the

and SamarJaxartes
another

cand.

Thence

a more

led southward
Antiochia

while Bactra,

led

southwestward second
route
was

This Alargiana(.\ler\-.) D.
to

opened by Pan Chao

in 94 A. Yilmenhsien
at

jV variant of the P'ei-luled from

Hami,
was

Turfan

and Kharachar, meeting the above

in
some

route

Kuche;

this
was

preferable

respects, being close

to

the

mountains, but

subjectedto

constant

attacks by the

savage

Hami Tartar tribes,

an

storm-center

in the Chinese
route.

and annals,
Another

especially beinga important outpost for the

Turfan

defence of the main

the Tian-shan
to

variant led from

through

Urumtsi

and

Kuldja, thence

by

the

Hi River and

270

tudinal extension
Rome

of

Asia;
of the

but the

evidence

of

direct trade between

and China
The

is remarkable.
route
was

first part

minutely described
followed

before

our

author's

time,in
route

the Mansiones of Maes the

Parthica of Isidorus of Charax Macedonian

very

Spasini. nearlythe

This
same

direction

as

the Chinese

Nan-lu,

after

leavingBactra,crossing
ward southturning

the Pamirs

to Kashgar, on diagonally

but then the Pei-/u,

more

which

through Yarkand to Khotan, and in passing Thagura" took a than the Nan-lu itself, direct route and also a more southerly, it joined half-way between Lop Nor and the Bulunzir (the
east

"river of the Hiong-nu" ) ;

as

of which

all three

routes

were

tical iden-

far

as

Singanfu.
to

(See map

face p.

500, Vol. I,of

"

Richthofen's

China;
"

Stieler's

Hand-Atlas, maps 12, 13, 19, 21;

op.

61-2;
"

Atlas of the Chinese Empire,plates Stanford, Lansdell, Chinese Central Asia, Vol. II; Stein,
"

chap. cit.,
At Bactra

V.

and

map.)
trade-route branched

this overland

westward
to

to the through the Parthian highlands

again, following Euphrates,or southward

the Indus. From the

Bamian,

the Cabul

the Khyber valley,

Pass and

Taxila the highway of the with at Palibothra, capital

Maurya dynastyled through the Panjab to

a

branch

from

Mathura Indus
tribes

southward
to

to

Ozene
was

and

the

Deccan.
to

The the

route

down

the

itsmouth

less
lower

importantowing
reaches. This

character

of the

livingon
says

the

is indicated the

by

the

text, which
route to

far

more

of the
of

products carried by coming

Yet mouth
to
a

overland

Barygaza

than

those

Barbaricum. part of the Chinese While

to

trade was,

localized apparently,
went to

at

the

of the Indus.
or

the valuable silk cloth where Barbaricum,

Barygaza,
for

the yarn,
a

thread,went
white
use

it was

exchanged
"

productalways more
in extensive This is not and

highly valued in China than in India incense, or

in China shehri under

namely,
Polo
fume." per-

frankincense; the
found still

luban,which
the
name

Marco

of

"milk

listed in the

Periplus among
its way The
up

the

imports at
to

other

Indian and

ports,

found evidently thence

to

the

Indus

Peucelaotis
went to

Bactra, and

China.
in and

silk yarn,

in return, and in the

Arabia, where
market.

it was

used

fabrics for which

Arabia

making the embroidered famous Syria were so

silk-shot Roman

Concerning
the

the

frankincense
writes

of

the

Deir-el-Bahri

reliefs Mr.
that

R. E. Drake-Brockman cattle shown

againfrom
not

Sept.18, 1910, Bulbar,

the

in those reliefs are

humped

cattle

to. peculiar

271

"Somaliland
Western bred

(and likewise
Arabia

to

much

of

East

Africa,Madagascar
humps;
of

and
are

India) but the

The

ordinary type,
and

without

which

in Southern

Socotra.
in fact the whole

cattle of these

regionsand

Gallaland
travelled

and

Southern Abyssiniaare

all the humped

variety. I have
never seen

in these regions and have fairly extensively doubt if they ever breed, and very much
parts,
as a

the

non-humped dried-up
is
to

existed

in these

the hump
sort

is to these cattle what storehouse.

the camel's hump

are

the

camel,

of

cattle Besides this,

ever

rare

in Somalibers num-

land proper,
or were

and it is improbable if they

existed

in

greater

exported."

Vase

of black pottery ornamented collection in the Commercial

with

Madagascar

of humped cattle. figures Museum, Philadelphia.

From

the

This its terminus

is

one

more

proof

that the Punt

must

Expedition did
have
gone
to

not

make

on

the

Somali coast, but

the Plain of
was a

Dhofar,
Xlllth

or

to possibly

the south side of

which Socotra, the

dency depenof the

of Dhofar.

The

localization of
the

island Pa-anch Panchaia

of

dynasty tale, and

incense-land

in Virgil,

272

makes Socotra,
on

that

an

but altogether the possibility; interesting

scene

the

of the

of strongly suggestive Periplus. (See also pp. 120, 141-2,and 218.)

reliefs is

more

Dhofar, the

Sachalites

See Ptolemy, I, 11-12, VI,

le
commerce

13;
"

De
et

et Guignes, Sur les liaisons

des Romains

avec

les Tartares

les Chinois: in M'emoires de

Vol. xxxii (1798) pp. et Belles-Lettres, Inscriptions de T Empire Chinois du cote 355-69; Remusat, Remarques sur l'extension de t Occident (1825) ;" Lassen,I, 13-14,11,519-660;"Yule, Cathay and the Way Thither; Stein, Sand-Buri(d Ruins of Khotan; Gen.
? Academic Royale des
"
" "

AI.
"

Haig, The Indus Delta Country; Richthofen, China,Vol. I; tains; Merzbacher, The Central Tian-Shan MounVincent, II,573-618; Bonin, Grandes voiescommerciales de F Asie Centrale; Manifold,
R.
"

"

"

"

Recent

"

and Economic Development in Central and Western Exploration China (with map) in Geographical Journal, 281-312,Mar. 1904; xxiii, CoL Geil, The Great Wall of China; Keane, Asia, I, chap. v.
"

AI. S.

scribes 1890, deSociety, Bell,in Proceedings of the Royal Geographical his journey of 1887 along the entire Central Asian trade-

route

between 64.

Kashgar and Peking.

Damirica
the Tibetan

To

by

way

of the

Ganges.
the
same

"

This

was as

the
the

route

across

in plateau, starting

direction

Turkestan led and Lhasa tribes

as,
to

routes,

from

Singanfu
to to

to

Lanchowfu;
and
the

branching here, it
The
to
route

to

thence Siningfu,

Koko Sikkim

Nor,
and
was numerous

southwestward,by Lhasa

the

Chumbi
the lower

\'ale

Ganges.

from

by

Brahmaputra

little used, owing

other passages the Arun River

the savage into

it. There were inhabiting for instance, a frequentedroute

India;
sacred

by

through Nepal
to

the

Ganges, or by followingthe
of Kailas
to

upper

Brahmaputra

the

peak
of

and

the

source

Gartok
the

the upper

Indus.

or continuing through Sutlej, But natural conditions, stated in " 66 as

of the

made Periplus itself, for impracticable

was commerce.

these

routes

through

Western

Tibet

almost

This Buddhist

the

route

which

later became

the great highway of

between pilgrim-travel
one

Mongolia and
men

Lhasa.
ever

It is best
traversed it:

described by

of the few

white

who

have

Thibet Hue, Recollections of a Journeythrough Tartary, 18U-46. The country he

sea

and

China during
in "the

Chinese
of

Buddhist

monk

Fa-Hien

spent

two

years
. . .

the capital of which is a seaport this Tamalipti, ^fter in a large merchant-vessel, embarked and went the over floating
to

the southwest.

It

was

the

beginning

of winter

and

the wind

273

was came

favorable
to

and

after fourteen of

days,sailing day

and

night,they
the

the country

Singhala."
came

(^Travels, chap,
were a

xxxvii. )

'To
text; from these them that the

Damirica"

the

eastern

shipping,according to
for meeting-point

is,the Chera
China
at

backwaters the Gulf of

the trade
not meet

Sea

to

Suez.
the
same

Our

author

did

vessels would

Nelcynda,
taken him

because
away.

monsoon

that

brought

have

Alarco Polo tellsus

There is in this

something

of this trade in his

a

xxv) : day (III,

pepper,

kingdom
delicate

of Melibar

great of
nuts

of quantity of India.

and also

and ginger,and cinnamon, and turbit,

manufacture
come

They

very

and
coffee

beautiful buckrams. in ballast. also

The

shipsthat

from

the

east

bring

They
and

also bring hither cloves and silver,

cloths of silkand

gold, and sendels;

gold

and other fine spices." spikenard, See Holdich, Tibet the Mysterious; Rockhill,The
"

Land

of the
and

Lamas;
its

"

Sven

Hedin,

Central

Asia

and

Tibet; Waddell, Lhasa

"

Results of the Tibet Mysteries; Younghusband, The Geographical estan; Journal, Crosby, Tibet and TurkMission,in Geographical xxv, 1905;
"

Candler, The Unveiling of Lhasa; Landon, Lhasa, and The Openingof Tibet; Sarat Chandra Das, Journey to Lhasa and Central
" "

A Journey across Tibet; Littledale,

" "

Tibet; Deasy, In
" "

Tibet and

Chinese

Turkestan; Carey, Adventures in Tibet; Sandberg, The Exploration Report, of Tibet; Tsybikoff,Lhasa and Central Tibet (Smithsonian
"

the Tangut Country,and the Solitudes Prjevalski, iMongolia, of Northern Tibet; Sherring,JFestern Tibet and the BritishBorderland.
" "

1903);

64.

Few

men

come

from

there, and
and

seldom.
trade

"

Until the
were

subjugationof

Turkestan

by China, travel
routes
as

overland
upper

hazardous. The naturally used were never so actively

through Tibet and those leadingthrough the

were

Burma
For

Pamirs.

racialand topographical reasons this, See Lassen, 1,167-9; Kemp,

"

alike responsible.

for a also, of a recent useful and detailed account most journey along the littletravelled Burmese route, R. F. Johnston, From Pekingto Mandalay. Another theory, outlined by Kingsmill( The Mantse and the Golden in Journal of the Royal and Ancient Tibet and its Frontagers, Chersonese, and Terrien de Laand xxxvii), China Branch, xxxv Asiatic Society, locates couperie (in his introduction to Colquhoun' s Among the Shans),

The Face of China;

this entire traffic in upper

the Burmese the
name

Burma;
or

Thinae identifying
the Northern the Chinese

with

Theinni,
with

form

of

Hsen-wi,
Polo

Shans,and )

Tien,

given by Marco
La

to

province of Yunnan.
But whatever

(See also Rocher,

may

Province Chinoise de Yunnan.

be the relation of

Ptolemy's "'""sand Cosmas'

Tzinistato Burma^

274

it may

be asserted that the Thinas

of the

Periplushad
overland
route.

nothing

to

do

with that
to

region. Silk was brought thence by the Turkestan Barygaza," that is,
center

through Bactria Why ignore

the

ancient of
name

of the silk industry, to find a fancied Singanfu,

a never locality

similarity

in

important in silk production,separated

Early Chinese Buddhist and Abyssiniantyjics, on pp. Museum, Philadelphia.

9-storied 64-5.

pagoda:
a

compare

illustrationsof Hindu
in the Commercial

From

model

exhibited

275

from and the

the silk-routeby 1000 miles of the

not

most

difficult in travelling

Asia,

settled by Shan tribes until some centuries certainly Periplus? The theory is manifestly impracticable. With the rise of the Kushan their former

later than

dynasty in
home
on

the

northwest,and
should

their
was

relations towards

the Chinese
routes

border, it
A.

natural that communication While

the

by

the Turkestan

increase.

military successes
that the Chinese

of China

did

not

begin until 73
the

D.,
58
two

it is known
to

Emperor Ming-ti (who

into

ruled from

75)

introduced

Buddhism

China

by

invitation of

Indian
A.

Sramanas, Kasyapa Matanga and Bharana, who arrived D. (Takakusu, Introduction to his edition of I-tsing, p.
such
an

in 67 xvii.)

Before
on

invitation there then missionaries,

seems

must
as now

have

been

considerable activity
of
commerce.

the part of The

text

the forerunners

to

be

conditions prior to describing

the

journey
mans the RoRoman

of the Sramanas As

in 67 A.

D.

which with the knowledge, or lack of it, contrasting of displayedconcerning China, the following account

the districtof Antioch, taken from Chinese annals particularly Syria, date as the Periplus, is of interest. the same of almost (Quoted from

Hirth, China
ANNALS

and

the Roman

Orient.):
DYNASTY
88 5th century A. OF

OF

THE

HAN Chapter

CHINA

(SectionHou-han-shu," partlywritten during the

and
The

D.,

embracing the period A.

of the Roman

D.

25

to

220)

first detailed account this account based

on

empire contained in the Chinese annals: Roman describing Syriaand its capital Antioch, and being the report of the Ambassador Kan Ying, A. D. 97
of the Ta-ts in is also called Lichien
western

(1)
as
'

The

country
on

(Li-kin j and,

being situated
the

part of the sea,

'

(i. Hai-hsi-kuo, e. (4) cities,

of 'country

western

part of the sea' it contains

are

).

(2) Its territory amounts

four hundred
ten.

to

several thousand
of

/i; (3)
states

over

and

dependent
of cities are
on

there of

several times

(5)
There

The

fences destones mile-

made
are

stone.

(6) The
with other
trees

postalstations
and

and
are

the roads
trees

covered
of

plaster. (7)

pine
The

and cypress

and all kinds

bent
on

plants. (8)

and practice the planting of trees agriculture of silk-worms. (9) They cut the hair of their heads, and the rearing embroidered clothing, (11) and drive in small carriat^es (10) wear covered with white canopies; (12) when going in or out they beat

people are

much

drums, and
of the

hoist

banners, and flags,

pennants.

(13)
over a

The

precincts
// in

walled

cities in which

they live measure

hundred

276

circumference.
from

(14) In

the

citythere
the

are

five palaces, ten

// distant
to crystal

each

other.

(15) In
in

palace buildingsthey use

are

make

vessels used pillars;

goes
to
one

taking meals
to

also made. After let

some a

(16) The
has
with
to

king

palace a day

hear
a

cases.

five days he
man a

completed
follow^ the throw he
a

his round.

(17)
bag.

As

rule,they
who have the

bag

king'scarriage
the into the
are

Those When

matter at

submit,
palace

into petition

king

arrives
matter.

the

examines

rightsand
under

wrongs

of the

(18) The
kings are (20) When
from
not
a

documents official who

the control of

(generals.') thirty-six chiang (19) Their

of merit.

discuss conjointly

government

affairs.
men

permanent
severe

but they appoint rulers,

or

calamity visits the country,

the king untimely rain-storms, The

one

is deposed and

replacedby

another.

reheved

his duties

submits
of that

to

(21) The inhabitants degradationwithout a murmur. like the tall and well-proportioned, somewhat are country
his

tains they are called Ta-ts in. (22) The country conChinese, whence the and rare much precious stones, especially gold, silver, moonshine the hsieh-chtpearl,'' "jewelthat shines at night, the chu-tan (cinnabar.''), amber, glass, lang-kan (a kind of coral), hsi,corals,
"

green

silk-cloth of

gold-embroidered rugs and thin jadestone {ching-pi), various colors. (23) They make gold-coloredcloth

and asbestos cloth.

(25) They

further have

fine

cloth," also

called

water-sheep); it is made from the of wild silk-worms. (25) They collect all kinds of fragrant cocoons the juice of which they boil into su-ho (storax). (26) substances, of other foreigncountries come from there. (27) All the rare gems
ui, (z.e. down Shu'i-yang-ts
of the

They
one

make of

coins

of

gold and

silver.

Ten
sea

units of silverare

worth

gold. (28) They traffic by the profit of which T ien-chu (India),

honest
are

with

trade
are

are

in their transactions and The

there

and (Parthia) is ten-fold. (29) They double prices. (30) no An-hsi

Cereals
treasury.
to
are

always cheap. budget is based on a well-filled the embassies of neighboring countries come (31) When
driven

their

frontier, they are

embassies
to

by

post

to

the

and capital,

on

arrival,

presentedwith golden money.

send
on were

02)
the

Their

to

China,

but

An-hsi

kings always desired ' Parthians) wished to

it is for this This
reason

carry

trade with them

cut

in Chinese

and silks,

that

they

off from

communication.

(33)
the

lasted tillthe Huan-ti's reign

ninth year

of the Yen-hsi

period during king of

Ta-ts from

emperor

{r=

A.

D.

166)

when

the

in,An-tun

( Marcus

Aurelius

Antoninus) sent
dates the

an

embassy who,

the frontier of Jih-nan tortoise shell.

(Anam)
that time

offered ivory,rhinoceros

horns,and
with

From The

(direct)intercourse

this country.

of their list

278

turers

from of

(the Sea
Maeotis
of the

from the Euxine Sea. As to Lake Maeotis crossing Colchis, Azov) Strabo says (XI, i,5) : "Asia has a kind of peninsular
on

form, surrounded
as

the

west

by
at

the river Tanais

and

the Palus
coast

far

as

the Cimmerian which terminates

Bosphorus, and Colchis;

"

that part of the

on
on

Euxine
as

the the

north
east

by by

the the

Ocean,
same

far
as

as

the mouth
as

of the

Caspian Sea;

sea,

far
errors

the confines of Armenia.

were

These See

corrected

revived. by Ptolemy, but subsequently

"

345, 367; Huntington, The Tozer, Historyof Ancient Geography, Pulse of Asia; Mackinder, The Geographical Pivot of History, in Geographical cation Journal, 422-437, April,1904; Kropotkin, The Desicxxiii,
" "

of Eurasia,ibid. June, 1904.

,

In this group

of modem

Tibetans

may

be

found
men

the

closingparagraphs of the
and the

Periplus: "the
of

with the

all the types mentioned in flattened noses," the "men

with

"Horse-faces"

bodies and

"Long-faces," of " 65. flat faces" broad,

"

" 62,

and

short,thick

65. Besatae.
to

These
to

were

another modern

Tibeto-Burman

allied tribe, and

the

Cirrhadae,and

the

Kuki-Chin, Naga

Garo

279

tribes. the

Ptolemy placesthem east of the Ganges, and corroborates tifies Lassen (III, Periplus as to their personalappearance. 38) identhe
name

with
a

the Sanscrit

vaishada,"wretchedly stupid," and

Our
author locates them Tibet
was

says

they were
The

tribe of Sikkim. of

"on the

borders
to

of the Land

that This," indicating

then

subject
near

China.

location of their annual fair

must

have been

the

modern
or

the

Gangtok (27" 20' N., 88" 38' E.) above which the Cho-La tier, Jelap-La Pass leads to Chumbi on the Tibetan side of the fronwhich the Koko
are

from

overland

route

mentioned

in

"

64

led

across

the table-land to

Nor,

Siningfu and

Singanfu. by

Other

passes

through Nepal
the
route

that possible, particularly

the Arun

River, but
the direct the

through Sikkim
Koko Nor
a

involves the least deviation from

the
must

line from
source

to

Ganges;
be
to

while

from

Gyangste to

of the Arun

pass

scaled higher by 3000

feet than

The Roads Jelap-La. (See Freshfield,

in Geographical Journal^ Tibet, Mountain in the IVorld, xxiii, Jan. and March, 1904; and The Highest ibid., xxi, March, 1903; O'Connor, Routes in Sikkim; Louis, Gates
"

"

of Tibet.)
Pseudo-Callisthenes leaf.
caves

They
among

are

who (III, 8) refers to the Bisada gathera of in feeble folk, diminutive stature, and li\'e very

the

rocks.

They
small

understand

how

to

climb
are

precipices
able with
to

through their
heads of

intimate

knowledge
are

of the country
men

and

thus

gatherthe leaf. They

hair which

of

stunted

growth,

big

and is straight

not

cut."

(McCrindle, Ancient
says:

India,p. 180. ) Fergusson {^History of

Tibetans
are a

Indian
a

I, 13) Architecture, slopesof

were

The
pied occusome

fragment of
and

great

primitivepopulation that
the

both the northern

very
remote

southern

Himalayas

at

time. prehistoric

They
and

worshippers of
and been the
on

trees

and

serpents;

and they, and their descendants

Siam

in Bengal, connections,

Ceylon, Tibet, Burma,

Buddhism.

China, have

bulwark

of

In India the Dravidians resisted Buddhism

the south,

and

revival of

Aryanism abolished
for several
resembles

it in the north.'

'

65. Feast
festival and

days.
many

"

This

of description of other

tribal

market the

accounts

Compare
"The
there is a arrive among
set

followingfrom

Herodotus
say

primitive ples. peo(IV, 196) :

the Pillarsof Hercules

Carthaginiansfurther

that
men

beyond
who their

region of Libya, and these people and have

on

inhabit

it; when

they
great
to

unloaded

merchandise,they
a

it in order

the

shore,go

on

board their ships, and make

the

smoke;
sea,

that the

inhabitants, seeing

smoke,

come

down

the

and then depositgold in exchange

for the

merchandise, and with-

280

draw

to

some

distance from

the

merchandise;

that the

Carthaginians

ficient sufseems quantity then, going ashore,examine but if it is for the merchandise, they take it up and sailaway; not they go on board their shipsagain and wait; the natives sufficient,

the gold, and if the

On bankets

modem
rrivfrs

trade-route througfh the mountains

of mattinfrare

of Sikldm.

The

shoulder-

and

distinguishable. easily

281

then

approach and depositmore

ever

gold, until they

have
not

satisfied them; touch the

neither party before

wrongs

the
to

other; for they do

the value of the

gold
the

it is made the

adequate

merchandise, nor
party

do the

natives touch

merchandise

before the other

has

taken

gold."
Pomponius
trade of the

(III, 60) viii, Himalayas; Ammianus

Mela
a

seems

also

to

speak of the silent

the passage

in Marcellinus,
at

already quoted, tells of such Tower' of the Pamirs, where

'

custom

silk

Tashkurghan, the "Stone passed from Eastern hands to

similar
custom

Western;

while

Fa-Hien, describinga
and nagas, spirits
' '

in

Ceylon,

ascribes it to the

the

guardians tutelary

of the precious

articles of trade. 65.

use

( Travels, chap, xxxviii. )

baskets.
"

Great

packs and
this

The

same

thing is

in

stant con-

today in

region,being the regularburden

of the coolies

of

Nepal and Sikkim.

65. Petri.
"

Our

author

is misled

by

fancied

resemblance

to

the Greek, petros, the

fiber; the word

is the Sanscrit /"";rtf, leaf.

wise Other-

of description

the preparation of the tamala leaves is correct,

being corroborated throughout by Pliny.

65.

Malabathrum.

"

The

Cinnamomum
of the

tamala

is native

in this

part of the

Himalayas, being one

Polo
rivers and

trees. principal

So Marco

in (II,xlvi),

his

account

of

Tebet: "It contains

in

in several quarters great abundance. is in great

lakes,in
also grows and

which

gold-dustis found

Cinnamon

there in great fetches

women a

plenty. Coral

demand

in this country

high price,for they

and of their idols."

the necks of their to hang it round delight (See pp. 82-4, 87, 89, 216-18,256. )

66. Influence
Brahman

of the
Like

gods.

"

This

the geography of is still

writings.
the

Tavernier

in the

17th century, who

marized sum-

Ramayana
came

in his

Travels, so
of spell

this merchant the great

of Berenice in he

the 1st century

under

the

epics of India,as

sojourned among
"the sister nations

Cholas,Cheras, and The

"

the Pandyas

three, dwellingby the southern

reason

sea."

region beyond Sikkim, impassableby

of its great

the mightiest peaks of the Himalayas, was within cold, and including the Brahmanas, and the sphere of the Kurukshetra of the later Vedas, the

Mahabharata,

the

home-land

of

the

Brahman

faith; with
of

the

greatest of all mountains, Everest,is associated the name of Siva and Durga; in the western curve sankar, a name

Gauri-

of the great

chain the the axis

is of

the the

sacred universe is that of

peak
and
the

of

Kailas,
the
way

the

Olympus heaven;
the

of while

the the

Hindu

gods,
of

to

ending

Periplus

Sita-quest

in

Ramayana

"Halt
Utmost

not

till

you

reach of the

the wide

country

where

the

northern Gods and

Kurus

rest. blest!"

confines

earth,

home

of

Spirits

283

2"4

ARTICLES

OF

TRADE Enumerated

MENTIONED

IN

THE

PERIPLUS

to theports according

Red

Sea

Coast.

Horn

of

Africa

(The
.

"far-side"

Ptolemais.

coast)
AVALITES.

(Exports)
Xortoise-shell

(Imports)
Flint glass, assorted

Ivory.
Adulis.

Juice of
cloth from Arsinoe

sour

grapes

from

ospolis Di-

(Imports)
Undressed Robes Cloaks from

Egypt

Dressed
Wheat Wine Tin.

assorted cloth,

quality, dyed linen mantles Double-fringed

of poor Flint in many forms glass, Murrhine imitation made (glass In

(Exports partly to Muza)

Ivor)'
Tortoise-shell than Myrrh (better

Ocelis

and

Diospolis)
and in
cut

Brass (for ornament

piecesas coin)
Sheets of soft copper and and Iron ing-utensils, cook(for

rest).

Malao.

bracelets

(Imports)
The mentioned. thingsalready Also Tunics

anklets) (forspears)

Axes, adzes and swords

Copper drinking-cups,round and large Coin, a little

Wine of Laodicea and

Cloaks
and

from

dressed ^AjrsLnoe,

dyed Drinking cups

Sheets of soft copper

Italy

Olive oil Presents for the king: gold and

silver plate, military cloaks, thin coats Indian of skin and

Iron Gold
and silver coin.

(Exports) Myrrh
Frankincense Cinnamon

iron

steel (from

Ariaca)
Indian
cotton

cloth

(the broad
sagmacotter

Duaca Indian Macir

monache),also the
togetie, perhaps -aw
Girdles Coats of skin Mallow-colored Muslins Lac.
c'.oth

(thefar-side) (the harder) (var.of frankincense) copal

bark from (medicinal Malabar) (These exports going to Arabia)

Slaves, rarely.
MUNDUS.

(Imports)
mentioned. thingsalready (Exports)
The

(Exports) Ivory
Tortoise-shell

The

thingsalready mentionedj
also

Rhinoccros-hom.

286

Cana

(which has

trade

with

Egypt,

Teakwood

timbers

the far-side coast, India and the

Blackwood

Persian Gulf).

(Imports)
Wheat
and wine ;
a

as at little,

logs (from India) Ebony logs Frankincense ('from Cana to Ommana).

" "

Muza

(Exports)
style,
Sewed boats called

Clothing in the Arabian quality poor Copper

Tin

madarata
to

(from

Ommana

South

Cora.
Storax Other such things
as

go to

Muza

Arabia) inferior Pearls, Purple Clothing,after the place

Wine

to

the Indian

the

fashion

of

Presents for the king;

and silver

wrought

gold plate, ing horses, images,thin clothof fine quality. the native produce) (Exports,
Frankincense Aloes The
rest

Dates, in great quantity

Gold
Slaves

(to both Arabia)

India

and

S.

Makran
OR.ffA.

Coast.

of the from

the

tioned things menotherports.

(Exports)
WTieat Wine

DioscoRiDA

Island.

(Exports)
various kinds Tortoise-shell, Indian cinnabar (dragon's blood). (Imports, brought by merchants from Muza and by chance calls of ships returning from India) Rice

Rice
Dates

Bdellium.

Indo-Scythia.
Barbaricum

(at

mouth

of

Indus

river).

Wheat Indian cloth Female

MOSCHA.
a few slaves,

(Imports) Thin clothing, in large quantity, some spurious Figured linens Topaz
Coral Storax

(Imports)
Cloth
Wheat Sesame oil.

Frankincense \'esselsof glass Silver and gold plate little. a \\^ine,

(Exports)
Frankincense.
Sarapis Island.
at
tervals) inregular

(Exports)
Costus Bdellium

to Cana, (Exports,

Lycium
Nard

Tortoise-shell. Persian
Ommana

Gulf.
and

Turquoise Lapis lazuli

Seric skins
Cotton Silk yam

Apologus.

(Imports)
Copper
Sandalwood

cloth

Indigo.

287

India

(the kingdom

of

Nambanus).

India

(Chera and Pandya kingdoms).

Nelcynda
and

Barygaza.

MuziRis,
pepper

Bacare;
for

(towhich (Imports)
Wine:

shipscome large and malabathrum).

also Italian preferred, Laodicean and Arabian

(Imports)
Coin, in great quantity Topaz much Thin not clothing, linens Figured
Antimony
Coral

Copper
Tin

Lead Coral

Topaz and Thin clothing

of all kinds

inferior sorts

Crude glass Copper

Tin Lead

girdlesa Bright-colored
wide
Storax Sweet clover

cubit

Wine,
as

not at

much, but Barygaza

as

much

Flint glass

Realgar
Antimony
Gold
a

Realgar Orpiment Wheat (for

the

the

and

silver coin

on profit

(yielding exchange)
:

country

not

the sailors, producingit)

.

a little costly, the King Presents for Costly vessels of silver, singingboys, beautiful

(Exports)
Pepper, produced in Cottonara in great quantity Fine pearls
Ivory
Silk cloth

Ointments,

not

maidens for the harem, fine

of the wines, thin clothing finest weaves, ointments. the choicest

Spikenardfrom
Malabathrum

the Ganges the interior of all kinds

from

Transparentstones
Diamonds

(Exports) Spikenard
(coming through
India also through PoScythia,
from Caspapyra,Paclais, Cabolitis) and ropanisus Costus

Sapphires from Chryse Tortoise-shell, islands and from near-by (Chola kingdom ) (inland)

Argaru

(Exports)
Pearls
Muslins and

Bdellium

Ivory

(namedfrom

the

place)

Agate

camelian (onyx and

India

(East Coast).
Poduca
and

murrhine)
Lycium
Cotton

Camara,

Sopatma from the

cloth of allkinds and

lins (mus-

(where ships come

west

ordinary)

coast, also from and Chryse).

the Ganges

Silk cloth

Mallow-cloth
Yam

(Imports)
Everything
made in Damirica
tries counand the neighboring

Long pepper
Other

things coming

from

the
comes

and
from

most

of

what

various potts.

Egypt.

288

Ceylon. pal.ssimundu,
Taprobane.
formerly

(The
called

place
called

has-

gold

coin

caltis).

Malacca.
Chryse
Island.

(Exports)
Pearls

{Exports)
stones

Transparent
Muslins

Tortoise-shell,

the

best

of

all.

China. Tortoise-shell.
Thin^.

India

(East

Coast,

farther

north)
(Difficult
of access; and few
men

Masalia.
come

from

there,

seldom)
Bacalso

{Exports)
Muslins,
DOSARENE. in

{Exports,
great

overland
to

through

quantity.

tria

Barygaza,
the

by
Da-

vfay

of

Ganges

to

(Exports)
Ivory.
Raw SUk
Silk Ganges.

mirica)
silk

India

(Ganges

delta).

yam

cloth.

{Exports)
Malabathrum

Himalaya
The Besat^.

mountains.

Gangetic
Pearls
Muslins of

spikenard

{Exports)
Malabathrurn
;

in

three the

forms,
medium-

the

finest

sort,

called

the

large-ball,
and the

Gangetic.

ball,

small-ball.

289

ARTICLES

SUBJECT
THE RESCRIPT

TO

DUTY

AT

ALEXANDRIA

FROM

CONCERNING

EASTERN

TRADE

IN

THE

DIGEST

OF

THE

ROMAN

LAW,

XXXIX,

XV,

5, 7.

Classifiedas
(1)
Precious Diamond

follows

stones,

etc.

Frankincense,

Arabian

and

rican Af-

{adamas)
Malabathrum

Alabanda

Beryl
Ceraunium Alabaster

Sugar Myrrh (onyx

arabicus)

Spikenard
Nard

Lapis

lazuli

Sardonyx
Emerald

Pepper Sarcogalla
Stacte

Sapphire
Garnet

(alabanda)
and

Agallochum.

Pearls Tortoise

pearl shell
shell

(3) Dyes.
Lac Fucus

Ivory.

(rock

lichen

or

orchil).

(4) (2 ) Vegetable products

fragrance:
or

Textile.

"valued
as

for their

Byssus
Muslins
Cotton Wool

(flax cloth?)

incense, perfume,

medicine.

cloth

Aloe
Amomum

(Tibetan?)

Capilli Indici(?) Silk, (5)

g'ums dammar
yarn

Galbanum

and

cloth.

Ginger
Incense

Metal Indian steel

(Haidarabad).

Gum

(6)

Animal.

Cardamom

Tigers Leopards
Panthers Lions
and

Caryophyllon
Cassia
Cinnamon

lionesses skins.

Xylo-cassia
Costus Asafcetida

Babylonian

(7)

Human Eunuchs.

290

DATE

OF

THE VARIOUS

PERIPLUS,

AS

DETERMINED

BY

COMMENTATORS The
to

The
dates the which

dates assigned fall into three

before Pliny, assumes Periplus

groups.

which first,
been that

the trade the his

have

existed under
from The
or

Nero,

and the

includes in Periplus

quoted
Felix.
the

summarized

that Pliny possibility of Arabia description of

under these suppositionsis the end latestdate possible

indicate inscriptions that he ruled

reign of Malichas, whose

40 The and

tween be-

70 A.

D.

second in the

group

depends
D.

on

the identification of Zoscales with

Za

Hakale

whose AbyssinianChronicle,
to

dates

were

given by
these
two

Henry Salt as 76
on dates,

89 A.

The
cast

dependence placed on
in doubt, is surprising and El

which

Salt himself
two

view

of the

fact that he antedated

more

kingsin

the list(El Abreha

Atzbeha)

than

emperors

within the reignsof the Roman 100 years, to bring them Constantine and Constantius, who known have had to are them
;

relations with monarchs

one

and

if

so

great it
a

can liberty

be

taken
to

with the that

of the the The

fourth

century,
may

seems score

reasonable of
years
out

suppose

of

first century

be

of

his proper mention of

order.

supposed
Indian

confirmation

of
an

these

dates

by

contemporary

rulers pointsto
than

earlier date

during the period

the reference time when in

of their The
tne
were

rather viceroyalties third group

to

of their

reigns.
on a

of

identificationsdepends
this
to

text

the

"emperors," assuming
emperors

be

there

two

Roman

reigning jointly. This

assumption is

entirely unnecessary.
First
group:

In

the

middle with

of the first century

' '

after

porary nearlycontemChrist,

Pliny.

Exercitationes Salmasius, 835. Pliniana,

"A

earlier than Pliny." little

der Griechen und Rimer aus ihren SchrifMannert, Geographic ten dargesullt, Niirnberg, 1799, I, 131. "Soon after Claudius; about the tenth year of Nero" (which would be 63 A. D.). Vincent,II,59.

"Under

Claudius

or

little later."
und

der Griechen Ukert, Geographic I. i,209.

Rimer, Weimar, 1816,

291

"60 A. D." Benfey, article Indien

in Ersch and

Griiber's hncyklopddie.

1840. Leipzig, Lassen,Indische Alterthumskunde, II,538; III,3.

Sect. II, Vol. 7, p. 90:

before Pliny's Natural History." Unquestionably Schwanbeck, in Rheinischen Museum, VII, 338. A little earlierthan Pliny, who
seems to

quote

from

it; that

is,

prior

to

77 A.

D." K. Preuss. Akad.

der

Dillmann, in Berichteder
1879, Nearly
pp.

Whsenschaften,

413-429.
with

contemporary

Pliny,written

before

the

dedication

of the Natural

History in 77 A. D."

Fabricius, p. 27.
"56-67
A.

D."

in Ausland, Glaser, Miinchen, 1891, pp. 45-6. Skiz%e der Geschichteund Geographie Arahiens, II,

164. Next before Pliny.

' '

Ancient India. on Robertson,Disquisition

"60-63

A.

D."
Commercial

Watt,
56-71 A.

Products of India, p.

371, etc.

D.,
A.

as

shown

by Glaser."

"Before 77

D."

des Altertums, Speck, Handelsgeschichte I, 35; III,2b., 919.

"Duringthe reign of
A. D."

Malik

III,King

of the

40-70 Nabataeans,

Semitiques, p. Vogiie, S^rie Centrale: Inscriptions 1869.) (Paris,

'

107.

During
King,

the

reign of Kariba-il
40-70 A. D.
"

Watar

Juhan'im,the Homerite
und

about

Die Abessinierin Arabien Glaser,

the reign ''During of

Africa,pp. 37-8.
of the

Ili-azzu

King Jalit,
34.

Hadramaut,

about 25-65 A. D."

Glaser,Die Ahessin'ier, etc.,

'The author made
75
or

p.
at

80 A.

D.

his voyages The work

"

various times between

65 and
of

was

written in the last quarter

the first century

A. D.

Haig, The

Indus Delta

Country,28.

292

Second

group:

"80-89
C.

A.

D."

Greed Minores, I, xcvi; depending Geographi Miiller, in the doubtful dates given Za Hakale by Henry Salt, on
his rearrangement of the

Abyssinian Chronicle

in 1812.

"75

A.

D."
de Azania

Bunsen,
Vivien

commentatio philologica, Bonn, 1852.

"80-85 A. D."
de Saint
et des decouMartin, Histoire de la Geographie I'J frig dans ue 1873; also LeNordde g'eographiques, et

vertes

antiguit'e grecque D.,

as

romaine.

"11 -m

A.

shown

by Mailer."
;

II, 445 of Ancient Geography, Bunbury, History

1883.

London,
D.)

"About 10

death" years after Pliny's

(which

occurred

in 79 A.

11^: Cambridge, 1897. To-Ltr, History ofAncientGeographyt'p.

"About

90 A.

D."

(referring to Nahapana,
Journal

the

Nambanus

of

"41),
A.-M.
pp.

Boyer, in
120-151.

Asiatique, Paris, July-Aug. 1897,

,

"83-84 A. D."
of

Sundara to (referring

Satakarni,the Sandares

"52).
C. R. WUson,
in Journal

of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,

June, 1904.
"Between
77 and 105 A.
D."
etc.

Vincent

Smith, Early History of India,p. 371,

D."
in Indian
"

"Between

80 and 89 A.

McCrindle,
"About
85 A.

Antiquary, VIII, 108-151.

D.

Gazetteer of India, J. F. Fleet,article Epigraphy,in Imperial II, 76. new edition,

Third
The based
on

group.

followingbelong
the

to

the 23:

all being curiosities of criticism,

"emperors"
century

of

"
"

"In the 2d

A.

D.,

later than

161, under Marcus

Aure-

lius and Lucius

Verus.

Dodwell, in Hudson'

Feteris Geographite Scriptores, pp. 85-105.

societatis

in Commentationes Heeren, De Inaia Romanis cognita, scientiarum. Gottingen, 1793, XI, 101. regite

294

RULERS

MENTIONED

IN

THE

PERIPLUS

"

5. Zoscales, king of the people called Axumites.

(Dates

fixed

by Salt
on

in 1804
an

as

76-89

A.

D.

his conclusions, the

to

depending
"

arbitrary arrangement
said himself,
are

of
not

sinian Abyspended be de-

Chronicle,as
upon
;
a

he
more

probable period

for

this

reign

would

be

59-72

A.

D.)

"

19.

Malichas, king

of the Nabataeans. also

(Mentioned

by Josephus, Bell. lud.. Ill, 4, 2.

his dates
as

scription In-

cited

by Vogiie fix
Homerites

40-70

A.

D. )

"

23.

Charibael, king

of the

and
fix his

Sabaites.

cited by Glaser (Inscriptions

reign about

40-70

A.

D.

""23.

The

Emperors.
Claudius (Probably and

Nero, 41-54

and

54-68

) respectively.

" 27. Eleazus, king of the Frankincense Country. cited by Glaser fix his reign about (Inscriptions "
38. Parthian

25-65

A.

D.

princes at
which

war

with the

each

other.

(Probably within
dophares,

decade

following
51 A.

the

death

of

Gon-

occurred

D.)

"

41.

Nambanus,
that

king

of Ariaca. the

(Perhaps Nahapana,
name
"

Saka

satrap

"

or

predecessor of
to

but

beforethe
Saka
era

victories which

led

lishment the estab-

of the

of 78 A. had

D. )

"

52.

The

elder

Saraganus,who
44-69
A.

previouslygoverned Calliena.
the Andhra
was

r Probably

then ArishtaSatakarni,

king, who
at

ruled
eastern

about

D.

whose
so

court

held

his

Dhanyakataka, capital, landing

and
on

that he

to

the author
was no more

of the than

Periplus,
a

the

west

coast,

name,

the visible who

authority was

vested in the

western

viceroy.)

"

52.

Sandares,
83-4
as one

possessed Calliena.
Satakarni
"

(Probably Sundara
A.

who

ruled
to

as

Andhra

king

in

D.

"

but before his accession

was

the

throne, while

of the heirs presumptive he

of the-

acting as viceroy at

Paethana, toward the end 'elderSaraganus. ') the

' '

reign of Arishta Satakarni,

295

INDEX
References
to

the text

are

in bold-faced

type

to

the notes

in

light-faced

Abalit, 73 Abasa, 62, 124, 145, 146 See Abyssinians, Abaseni. Habashat,
62, 140, 145

Aethiopia (continued) (See Geez) language,146. Aethiopians,62, 117, 119, 134, 146,
213

Abd-er-Razzak, 147, 2fl3 Abd-es-Shems, 108 Abiria (Abhira), 39, 175, 257 Abissa Polis, 62, 140 Abraham, 135, 162 157 Persian, absinth, Abu Thabi, 150 Abu Thanni, 150 Abydos ,158 Abyssinia (seeAxumites), 5, 6, 7, 8,
57, 59, 60, 62, 63, 64, 66, 73, 75, 77, 88, 92, 96, 99, 106, 107, 109, 119, 141, 142, 153, 167, 172, 179, 230, 271 Abyssinian Chronicle, 9, 64, 66, 67, 133, 200

Asiatic, 162, 163 dynasty in Egypt, 162 Aetna, 133 Afghanistan,177, 184, 186, 187, 190,
223

Africa, 3, 5, 10, 29, 52, 56, 74, 75, 76, 77, 87, 88, 89, 92, 94, 96,
97, 99, 106, 109, 118, 129, 130, 134, 135, 136, 141, 142, 156, 160, 161, 164, 175, 176, 177, 178, 217, 218, 226, 228, 271 trade from interior of, 75 slave trade in,96, 161 Arab 119, 138, 163,

210,

of, 101 circumnavigation extension of, 101 Southern

negroes

AbyssinianChurch, 75 acacia,87, 113, 130, 131 Acannae, 26, 85 Accadian-Dravidian trade,173, Achaea, 71 Achasmenidas,the, 221
achates.
See

of,

163

African 175

98 rift-valley,

agate, 42, 193, 223

Agatharchides,4, 15, 50, 51, 52,63,

87, 102, 115, 118, 133,
160

agate, 223

Achenkoil
Acila

river,212

(in S. W. Arabia), 114 (in S. E. Arabia), 147, Ad, Adiles, 141, 142
adamant, 155 adamas, 222, 224
Adam's

237

Adams,

Bridge,234, 241 Brooks, 220

Agisymba, 98 Agni, 229 Agra, 179 Ahmadabad, 179 Aizanas (elAbreha), 60, 61, 67 Ajanta, 196, 244, 247 Akaba, Gulf of, 101, 102 Akko, 129 Aksu, 268 alabandic stone, alabandenum, 223,
251

Aden, 74, 75, 80, 85, 101, 109, 115,

116, 118, 227 Aden,, gulf of, 3, 4, 52, 75, 85,
138

Adi-Ganga, 255 Adler, Nathan, 164 Adonis, 131, 138 Adulis, 22, 23, 29, 52, 60, 61, 63,
65, 67, 96, 114, 141, 209, 228, 251, 25^

31, 114 alaba-ster, 23, 61, Alalaei islands, Alaric,214 Alashia (Cyprus), 78 Albanians,277
Alexander

66

adzes,24 77 Aegean islands, Aegidii,island of the, 44, Aelana, 108 Aelius Gallus,10, 108 Aesculapius,131
Aesopus,
240

the Great, 4, 39, 41, 42, 51, 58, 69, 70, 123, 131, 149, 161, 162, 164, 166, 170, 180, 184, 187, 189, 264 Alexander, the sailor, (See Marinus
of Tyre), 260 Alexandria, 5, 16, 32, 65, 76, 77,

202

101, 103, 125, 132, 167, 214, 232, 239

Aethiopia, 29, 58, 59, 62, 66, 69, 83, 153, 159, 167, 218, 250

Alfragan,55 Algeria,168, 192 Alilat Urania, 132 112 alkanet,

=

296

Allazi,17 Alleppey, 211 almonds, oil of, 113 aloes,33, 129, 139, 141, 145, 250 'Ain Amon, 132 Amara, country of, 87, 88, 230 Amaravati, 195
=

Apollo'sValley,86 Apologus, 36, 149, 151, 153 apyron gold (see Ophir), 160 aquamarine, 222 Arabia, 4, 14, 16, 25, 28, 29, 30, 31, 36, 44, 58, 60, 63, 64, 71, 75,
80, 82, 83, 89, 96, 97, 98, 99, 103, 104, 105, 106, 109, 115, 117, 118, 119, 121, 124, 128, 130, 132, 133, 134, 135, 140, 141, 142, 147, 150, 151, 154, 157, 158, 160, 163, 164, 168, 176, 177, 192, 198, 210, 228, 230, 232, 233, 270

amber, 259, 276 ambergris,130, 157 Amenemhet I, 121

amethyst, 226
Amhara,
Ammianus
amomum, 57

Marcellinus, 102, 267,

112

281

Amon-Re, 78, 121, 122, 124, 132, 158, 228 Amos, Book of, 193, 264 Amoy (seeZayton), 214 Amon, Amphila, 66 Amritsar, 180
Amu Daria. (See Oxus), 277 204 Anaimalai Hills,

Anam,

90, 263,

276

Anariaci,277 25,26, 27, 30, 31, anchorage, anchors,

38, 40, 44,
182

Sovereigntyof the state first in, 96, 97 Arabia Felix, 10, 132 Araby the Blest,143 Arabia 102 Petrasa, Arabian Gulf, 4, 24, 63 Alps, 116 caravan trade,102, 103, 115 geographers, language,35, 146
sea,

that is

104

159

Arabian down

shipping,89, 97, 118, 148,

155, 201,
coast

andante, 70 Andhra, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200,

204, 235, 236, 243, 252, coinage,198, 243, 244, 245 ship-symbol, 243, 244, 245 261 Wat, AngkorAn-hsi (seeParthia), 276, 277 animism, 131-2, 236-7, 253
253

228

Africa,96 language,104 Arabis,river, 161, 162 Arabs, 3, 4, 5, 28, 30, 34, 59, 62, 88,
Arabic

of East

"

213 -anise, Anjengo, 234 202 Anjidiv (seeAegidii), Anneslev Bay, 60, 66

89, 96, 97, 98, 101, 104, 105, 107, 109, 121, 123, 125, 126, 127, 131, 132, 135, 145, 149, 150, 152, 161, 162, 217, 247
infusion with
98

negroes

in E.

rica, Af-

Annius

Plocamus,
268

oil, Hebrew, 111, 113, 169 anointing

Ansichow,

antelopehorns,74 Antichthones,continent of, 252 Antigonus, 102 antimony, 42, 45, 190, 192 Antioch, 65, 76, 77, 149, 275 Antiochia (Charax), 149 Antiochia Margiana (Merv),
268, 269

in Sumatra and Java, 127 142 historians, of India,161, 162 41, 183, 189 Arachosii, Arad-Ea, 135 Arakan, 252 Aral Sea, 277 Aram, 142 Aramaeans, 102 Aramaic language,104 Arattii (Arashtra), 41, 183 Arctic Circle, 27

Antiochus, 111 Epiphanes,147, 160 Hierax, 123 Theos, 184 Portus (seeAmphila), 66 Antiphili Antony, Mark, 103, 240 Tibetan (see gold), ants, gold-digging
259

Arctic Ocean, 277

Antiochus Antiochus Antiochus

Arcturus, 221 areho,26, 27 Ares, 132 Aretas (Hareth), 11, 103 Argaru (see Uraiyur),46, 241 Aria, 189, 269 Ariaca, 24, 27, 39, 70, 87, 174, 175,
210

An-tun

(Marcus
586

Aurelius

Antonius),
Arib,
Arishta

109

Aparantika, 175 61, 113, 121, 175 Apirus river (see Ophir),160, 175 Apollo, 123, 132, 138 Apollodotus,42, 184, 185
apes,

Satakami, 189, 199, 200 Aristotle, 264, 266 Arjuna, 254 Armenia, 14, 150, 278 Arnold, Matthew, 187

297

Arphaxad, 107 Arrian, 7, 15, 161, 163, 164, 170, 184, 189, 238, 259 Arsacid dynasty,63, 65, 127, 161 arsenic, 151, 191, 192, 221 Arsinoe,24, 52, 69 Artemidorus, 66, 114 Arun river, 272, 279 Arwe, the serpent, 67, 133 Aryans, 174, 187, 202, 210, 228, 229, 230, 235, 238, 241, 250,
253, 254, 257, 264

Aurea

Chersonesus

(see Chryse),

259, 260

Aurelian,265 Ausal, Ausan, Ausar, 74, 96, 115,

146, 267
Ausanitic coast, 28, 74, 94, 96, 115 Austrian South Arabian Expedition,

109, 119, 136,

139

Auxumites, cityof the,23, 51, 59, 61 Avalites, 24, 25, 31, 65, 73, 74, 114 Avanti, 187 awls (or bodkins),28
axes,

) 279 Aryanism (Brahmanism Asabon, Asabi, 36, 108, 147, 148 Asachae (seeAsich), 61, 62 177 asafoetida, asbestos cloth, 276 Ascitae (seeAsich), 62, 126, 145 Ash-shihr (seeEs-shehr),130 Ashur, 123 Asia, 60, 92, 132, 153, 156, 163, 171,
,

24

5, 9, 10, 59, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 67, 89, 119. 126, 133, 141 Ayodhya (seeOudh), 242 Azania, 27, 28, 29, 34, 47, 81, 92, 106, 179, 252
bluffs of,27, 92
courses

Axum.

of, 27, 92

A20V,

Sea of

(see Maeotis),278

172, 176, 185, 186, 194, 222, 236, 260, 263, 266, 270, 275,
278

Bab-el-Mandeb, Straits of, 8, 52, 73,

114,
117

Asia

Minor, 5, 58, 76, 128, 213 Asiatics of the desert, 192 Asich (seeAxum),35, 62, 118, 126,
146 Asmirasa (seeTsiemo), 268

baboons, 43 Babylon, 62, 96, 122, 123, 163, 167,

227,
228

Babylonia, 3, 107, 142, 145, 159, 164,

165, 213, 228,
236 138 Babyloniancreation-story, 149 Babylonian inscriptions, Bacare,Barkare,Barace,44, 46, 211,

Asoka, 175, 180, 188, 195, 204, 235,

236, 238, 249
112 aspralathus, Assam, 84, 194, 254, 255, 259, 264, 267
asses, 61 107

212, 233,

234

Asshur,

Bacchus, 76, 83, 132, 238 Bactra,268, 270 Bactria, 9, 11, 48, 132, 164, 166, 183,
185, 186, 261, 268, 269, 274 41, 184, 185 Bactrians, Badakshan, 171 Baeones,39, 181 Bagamoyo (see Rhapta), 94 Bagdad, 91, 152, 228 Bahardipur(see Barbaricum) 165 Bahlika (seeBaraca), 174 Bahmanabad, 166 Bahrein Islands, 51, 80, 91, 151, 156,
,

Assuan, 57, 61 58 Assurbanipal, Assyria,118, 123, 160, 171, 269 74, 92, 123, Assyrian inscriptions, 128, 149, 160 59 Astabora river, Astacampra, 39, 40 59 Astaphus river, Astola, 162 Astomi, 267 astrobolus (see cat's eye), 223 254 Asvavadana (see Horse-faces), asypha, 26 river (Astabora),56, 57, 63 Atbara Athenaeus, 15 Athenodorus, 102
Atlantic Ocean, 3, 10, 81, 190
124 (see Chatraraotitas), Attacori,260 Attana, 150 Attock, 189 atyob^62 Augustus, 5, 63, 131, 140, 149, 150, 157, 187, 219, 220, 264, 265 Atramitae

163, 164, 222

Aulus

AUM,

Hirtius, 103 138, 139

Aurannoboas

(Aranya-vaha? )

43,

202, 258

Bains,J. A., 208 oil of, 112 balanus, 235 Balasri, Balearic Islands, 168 Ba-l-Haf,116 Balita (seeVarkkallai), 46, 234, 235 Ball, Vincent, 84, 168, 171, 172, 212, 215, 224, 225, 258, 259 balms, 6, 121 balsam, 112, 214 balsamum, seed of, 112 bamboo, 155 bamboos, 263 Bamian, 270 Bandar Abbas, 91 Bandar Hais (see Mundus), 81 Bandar Muriyeh, 85

298

Bandar
Bankot Bantu

Ululah, 85
(see

Mandagora), 201

98 migrations, Baraca,38, 39, 174, 175 Barawa, 88, 92 Barbaricum, 37, 39, 128, 165, 270 Barbary States,56 barberry(see lycium), 169 Barbosa, 194 Bargysi,Bhargas,47, 254 barley,178 Barr el Ajam, Ajjan, 75, 92 Barygaza, 27, 30, 32, 34, 35, 36, 38,

39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 45, 48, 128, 151, 153, 178, 180, 182, 184, 185, 188, 190, 193, 196, 198, 199, 205, 221, 236, 245, 268, 270, 274
15 Basilis, 28, 94, 95 wicker,for fishing, baskets, for shoulder-burdens, 48, plaited, 280
281 247

Bassora,80, 91, 179, 127 Batavia, 46 bathing,

Batineh coast, 151

beryllium,222 beryls, 204, 210, 221, 222, 223 48, 278, 279 Besatas, Bisadae, 216 betel, Bethlehem, 123 Beypore, 204 Bhandarkar,R. G., 209 Bharana, 275 Bharata,235 Bharukacha, 65, 180 Bhils, the, 190, 194 Bhota, 253 Bhrigu, 180 Bhumaka (see Nahapana) 198 Bhutan, 151, 253 Biddulph, Col. J., 200 255 Bikrampur (see Vikramapura), 70 Bilbilis, Bion, 62 Bir Ali, 116 Bir Barhut, 119, 133 sacred (see serpents), 226, 241 birds, Birdwood, 120 Bit-Yakin,Land of, 149, 160
Black Sea
77

150 Batrasave, bdellium,3, 37, 38, 42, 120, Beach, small and great, 27 Beazley,C. R., 267

163-5

blackwood, 36, 152, 153, 197, 201 Blancard,18, 19 Blandi,18 31, 257 blankets, Blest,Island of the, 133, 134, 135,
139, 163,
mountain of
197

Beckmann,

69, 79, 111, 171 Beduins, 104, 105, 119, 141

beef,123 Bel, 123 Bell,Col. M.

Bellary,224
166 Bellasis, Beluchistan, 8, 16, 147, 164, Belus,68 Benadir,92 170

"blood

of two

the, 148 brothers,"138

S.,

272

bloodstone, 223 boats, small,22, 25, 32, 41 sewed, 28, 36, 151, 154, 244
hollowed
of osiers covered with hides, 190 from logs,234, 243 64

Bodh-Gaya,

197 Bodhisattva,

Benares, 187 Benfey, 242, 243, 259 Bengal, 178, 194, 197, 236, 242, 252, 253, 255, 257, 258, 259, 264,
279

Bohlen, 242 Bokhara, 171, 186, 269 Bombay, 80, 91, 118, 138, 143, 152, 155, 156, 167, 169, 176, 182, 183, 194, 196, 197, 200, 252,
257

Bay of, 196, 241, 252

258 muslins, 75 Benguela,

Benmasan, 192

Benjamin of Tudela, 164, 211 Bent, J. Theodore, 60, 97, 117,119, 127, 129, 130, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 145, 156, 168, 237 benzoin,120, 128 Berber, 56, 60 Berbera, 56, 66, 74, 75, 79, 80, 81,
87, 89, 116,
fair of, 80, 91
217

Bonin, 272 Book of the Dead, 237 Borheck, 18 Boroboedor, 174, 244, 245,
bosmoros,
Vll
,

261

178

Boulger,D. C, 263 clarified butter), see Aoa/)'n)"( 89, 177 boutyros(seeasafcetida), 177, 178 Boyer, A.-M., 200 75 bracelets, Brahma, 138 Brahmanism, 138, 139, 188, 236, 237,
Brahman

Berbers

22, 23,24,25,26, (Barbari), 31, 56, 59, 63, 74, 114

241, 253, 257, 281 writings, 210, 281,

282

meaning of, 56 Berenice,16, 22, 29, 30, 52, 55, 68, 101, 104, 106, 121, 132, 167, 168, 228, 233, 260

Brahmanas, 281 Brahmaputra river, 165, 253, 255,

264,
272

Braho, 162,

180

299

Brahui, 162, 180 Brambanan, 174, 261 Biandis,215 brass, 12, 24, 69, 197, 221, 251 69 Corinthian, Breasted,Prof. J. H., 61, 78, 113,
122, 324, 158, 218,
228

Calcutta, 152, 169 Caldwell,Bishop,205, 208, 209, 221,

234,
Calf-Eaters
56 243

(Moschophagi), 22,23,

Bredow, 19 Britain, British, 190, 203 Broach (see Barvgaza), 179, 180,
193,
196

Calicut, 203, 204, 215, 221, 227 Caligula, 11, 103, 220 228 Caliphate, callean stone (see callaina, turquoise),
38, 170,
Calliena (see Kalyana, Calliana), 43,

223_

brocades,257 bronze, 78, 187, 193 Bruce, 73 BucephalusAlexandria,41, 184 Buchanan, Dr., 221 buckram, (see cotton cloth),273 Buddhism, 64, 65, 70, 138, 185, 187, 188, 235, 236, 249, 253, 263,
275,
in 279

167, 196, 197, 198, 199, 236,

251

Calon mountains,36, 61, 147 a caltis, coin,48, 289 58 calves, Camanes, 182 Camara, 46, 242 Cambay, Gulf of, 68, 70, 85, 88, 89,

Java, 174 Buddha, 189, 197, 229,

Buddhist

259

Monastery,
188

Southern

Mount,

pagodas, 64, 65, 274 Buddhist pilgrimroute, 272 Buddhist 197, 210, 228, writings,
229

135, 172, 175, 176, 177, 181, 182, 183, 193, 194, 195, 232, 237, 258 Cambodia, 259, 261 Cambridge Natural History, 136, 137, 148, 264

Cambyses, 59 camels, 30, 32, 52, 91, 104, 108, 121,

122, 126, 130, 137,
74 camel's flesh, 233

buffalo's milk, 177

Biihler, 209, 229 Bulhar,80, 81, 270 58 bulls, 270 Bulunzir,

Bunbury, 106, 252,
268

Burckhardt,104 Burma, 81, 82, 84, 90, 152, 176, 182,

183, 191, 223, 226, 227, 231, 235, 254, 255, 259, 263, 273,
279

Cammoni, 40, 182 Camoes, 143 Campania, 77, 190 Campbell, Sir James, 196 Cana, 32, 33, 35, 36, 45, 115, 116, 117, 126, 128, 129, 139, 146,
151, 233 Canaan, 160
canal between
51

the Nile and South

Red

Sea,
waters, back-

Bumell, Dr., 204, 205, 209, 221, Bums, 174 Burnt Island, 30, 106
off Somali

234

connecting

Indian

234

coast, 81 72, 74, Burton, Sir Richard Francis,

75, 79, 80, 89, 91,

226

182

Buto, 131, 132, butter,177 Byzantineemperors, 7, 59, 172 Byzantium, 43, 65, 201, 220
42, 190 Cabolitic, Cabul, 166, 167, 170, 183, 184, 185, 189, 190,
cactus, 141 132 202
270

Candace, 12, 59 Candler,273 Cannanore (see Naura), 204, 221 117 Canneh, cannibals, 47, 254, 255, 260 of singlelogs, 28, 93, 234, canoes
243

Cantabria,190 Canton, 84, 228 Cape of Good Hope, 143 82, 85 Cape of Spices (Guardafui), 214 to route India, Cape Cappadocia,7
caravan routes

Cadmus,

between

the Nile and

233 Ca;lobothras (see Cerobothra),

the,44, 115, 219, 264 Csesar, Cairo, 127 240 Caius (Caligula),
island of Csenitae,

cake-dishes, 34
123 cake, salted, 36, 61, Cahfl Islands, calamus, 111, 112

147

Sea, 51, 57, 121 261 to Bactria, carbunculus, 222, 227 223 carchedonia (seejasper), cardamoms, 99, 112, 202 Carey, 273 cargo-ships, 35, 126 Carmania, 150, 151, 160, 161, 191, 192, 194, 221
from

Red

China

300
73 carmesin, carmine, 73 Cama (seeKama) Camaites,30, 104, 105, 109 Cananites, Cassanites, Canraites, 105

Camatic, 241, 257 Carnegie Institution, Washington,

262

Chandikabai,201 204, 205 Chandragiri river, Chandragupta Maurya, 180, 187, 186 Chandragupta Vikramaditya,255 230 Chandristhan, 190, 191, 265 chaplets, Charax Spasini, 36, 63, 149, 150 Charibael, Kariba-il, 11, 30, 32, 11)7,
115
13 chariots, Charsadda,184

42, 43, 190, 193, 194, 223 carnelian, 155 Geraelli, Carreri, Carter, H. J., 142, 143 Carthage,147, 219 78, 101, 217, 279, 280 Carthaginians,
Caseri, 260

Chashtana,

188

Chatramotitis Chatramotitas,

dramaut), (seeHa-

62, 116, 119, 127, 139, 140, Chatterton, 246 Chau,

261 145

Cashmere, 166, 257 Casii (see Kashgar), 269 34 caskets, Caspapyrene,Caspapyra, 42, 189 Caspian Sea, 48, 172, 183, 186, 263,
277

Chaul, (seeSemylla),2110 Chera, 195, 197, 2(14, 205, 208, 209,

211),222, 237, 238, 267, 273,
281

Pass, 269 cassia,82, 83, 84, 112, 169, 202, 217

86 false,
caste

system,

in the Hadramaut,

118,

146 "'145,

44, 202 Chersonesus, the, 277 Ch'ien-han-shu, Chin, 248 China, 9, 11, 14, 82, 84, 90, 118, 128, 183, 222, 259, 266, 277, 152, 185, 223, 260, 269, 169, 186, 227, 261, 270, 172, 191, 228, 262, 273, 176, 194, 235, 263, 275, 178, 213, 247, 264, 276,

in India, 180, 230, 235, 238

castor castor

musk,

251

264 oil, 168 Catalonia, Catherine de Medici, 199

cat's eve,

193,

223

228 Cattigara, 30, 39, 121, 139, 149, 176, cattle,

218, 225, 270, 271 humped, 270, 271

35 ca\e-dwellers,

cedar, 78
46 celibacy, Central Arabia, 108

Central Asia, 166, 176, 177, 187, 264 Central Asian trade-route, 186, 269,
272

(See This.) 84, 152 Persia, sea-route to, via Malacca, 260 great wall of, 261, 263 Sea, 273 china.Nankin, 97 Chin Hills, 255 246 Chindwin river, 246 trader, Chinese,76, 227, 247, 263, 266, 268,
279. sea-trade to
276

centurion, 29, 104 Cerobothra, Kingdom of (seeChera),

of Roman 275-7 Syria, annals,128, 185, 246, 247, 259,

account

261, 268, 275, 276,

277

44, 208 Cevlon, 8, 52, 84, 148, 152, 163,

170, 220, 235, 249, 279, 171, 222, 237, 250,
281
to

194, 209, 213, 216, 226, 227, 229, 230, 239, 241, 243, 248, 251, 252, 255, 261,

ships, 227, 228, 276 silks, 169 Chlshull, Chitor,180, 184

Chna,
160

259

embassy from,

Augustus,

252

(see CoroChola, Chola-mandalam mandel), 195, 197, 204. 205, 209, 237, 238, 241, 242, 249,
281

Chaberis emporion (seeCamara), 242

Chahbar, Bay of, 151 Chakora, 199 Chalcedony, 223 190 Chalcidice, 107, 123, 142, Chaldiea,Chaldaeans, 159, 160, 162 Chalukya kings, 197 Cham, 163 Champavati (see Sem^dla),200 Chanda, 224

Cho-La, 279 Chola;bus, Kula'ib,30, 107, 116 Chota Nagpur,258 Chou dynasty,261 Chou-li,263 Christ, 9, 10, 67, 155 Christianity, 64, 65, 67, 135, 162 Christians, Syrian,206 in Ceylon, 250 Book Chronicles, of, 122, 124, 175

302

cotton

cloth,24, 27, 38, 39, 42, 71,

72, 73, 179, 252,
263

Darius

Dar-es-Salaam,94 the Great, 7, 51, 123, 189,

213,
Darror
264

252 paintedchintzes, 256 spinning, thread,256 cotymha, 40, 182, 245

Cousens, H., 196

blood, 70 177 millc, 73 cramoisi, Cranganore, Kodungalur 205, 208 ris), Crawley, Ernest, 236
cow's

Kee

Mu/i-

Crete, 105,

190

crimson, 73 28, crocodiles,

Crosby,
273

34

Cruttenden,Lieut.,89, 91, 116, 142,

145

219 valley, Das, Sarat Chandra, 273 Dasarna (see Dosarene), 253 35, 37, 154, 157, 158, 159 dates, date-palm,136, 158 156 fiber, 158 syagri, wine, 157, 158, 159 Daulatabad,196 Davids, Prof. T. ^V. Rhys, 223 Dawson, 209 209 Day, Francis, 101 Dead Sea, Deasy, 273 De Candolle,76, 157 Deccan, 177, 188, 193, 195, r)6, 197,

220, 221, 223, 224, 226, 276, crystal, Ctesias, 70

127 C^tesiphon,

224, 235, 236, 252,

27J

cummin,
cups,

99,

213 200

December, 234 Dedan, 153, 159, 162 Deir el Bahri, 120, 121, 141, 142,
218, 228, 270,
271

Cunningham,
24

Curzon, Lord, 147, 162 Cush, 5, 58, 61, 159, 160, 162, 175,
211

Cusha-dvTpa, 230 Cushites, 64, 141, 142, 146, 161,

218

language in Africa similar to the 134 Ural-altaic, Elamite Cushite migration, theory 51, 58, 134 concerning, Cutch, 4, 711,160, 173, 174, 175, 176
-

Delgado, Cape, 94, 97 128 Delitzsch, Delphi, 138 Demetrius, 184 Ghazi Khan, 174 Dera ports, 22, 51-2 designated Devgarh (seeTogarum), 201 Dhamari, 258 Dhanavriddhi,229 195, 199 Dhanyakataka,Dharanikotta, 129, 140, 126, Dhofar, 107, 109, 118,
143, 218, 237, 271,
272

Rann of, 135, 166, 173 Cyeneum, 23, 61 215 Cyncilim (see Kelc\-nda), of, 86 Cynocephali,watering-place river (Wadi-ed-Dawasir? ), Cynos 149, 150 cypirus, 112
cypress, 112

Dholbanta, 87 diamonds, 45, 215, 216, 222, 224,

225, 226,
241

C\'prus,61 Cyrene,
Dabhol
69 201 (see Palsepatmae), 259

Dacca, 256, 258,

Dachinabades 204

(seeDeccan), 43, 195,

Dillmann, 66 103 Dio Cassius, 220 Diocletian, DioJorus i^land, 23, 31, 114 Diodorus 160, 162 Siculus, Dionysos, 76, 132 131 Dionysiacrevels, 171, 226 DionysiusPeriegetes, 33, 133-6 Dioscorida, 80, 82, 157, 171, 192, DIoscorides,
213

Dagaan, 85 daggers,28

Dahalak, 66 147 Daimaniyat Islands, Dakshina (seeDeccan), 252 Damascus, 77 blades,172 damask, 264 Damirica, 34, 35, 41, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 203, 204, 205, 272, 273
dammar gum,
80

Dana, 224 D'Anville, 268 Daphnus, 86

24, 68 DiospolLs, Dirbat,141, 142 106 Disan Island, 181 Diu, Djadarot,63 El, 92 Djesair, Dodwell, 18 dogs, 113, 121 Dog-star,125, 233 Island (TruUas), 32 Dome Domitian, 66, 220 Dosarene, 47, 253 river (see Mahanadi), Dosaron Doughty, 104

253

303

Douglas, R. K., 263 drachmas,41 dragon, the, of Ares, 132, 226 of Siva,138 dragon'sblood, 137, 138, 139, 145 legend concerning,138-9 Drake-Brockman, R. E., 87, 217, 270 Dravida-desam (see Damirica), 205,
230, 237,
238

Elephanta,138 57 Elephantine, elephants, 23,43, 60, 61, 137, 138,

193, 236, 252

housingsfor,257 Elis,71 115 Elisar, EUiot,Sir Walter, 209, 221, 242, 244,
259 123 ellutu-wood, Ely, 203 Elymais (seeElam), embalming, 113 emeralds,168, 240 emery,

Dravidians,138, 162, 173, 175, 176, 180, 190, 194, 197, 205, 208,
213, 228, 230, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 241, 249, 279 210, 229 alphabet, 209-11, 228-30, 237 sea-trade, blue,73, 194, 202 drill,
25 drinking-cups,

149

224 30
113

Emperors,
Emu,

dromedaries,123 duaca, 25, 80 Duff, 209 235, 236, 281 Durga, or ParvatI, in Java, 127, 212 Dutch government Dutch, the, 192, 202, 204, 215 Dwarka, 174
225, 226 eagles, Eastern Archipelago,243 Eber,
107

England, English,66, 96, 127, 144,

189,
203

Engler and Prantl,82 Ephah, 123 Ephesus, 65, 77 Epiphanius,171 Epiphi,27 Erannoboas (seeSon), Hiranya-vaha
"

258

54, 55, 101, 108, 118, Eratosthenes, 178, 249,

277

ebony, 6, 36, 57, 58, 61, 113, 121,

125,
153

Ecbatana, 269 Eden, 115 Edmunds, Albert Edom, 102 71 Edrisi,

egg, 190

60 Eritrea, 60 Er-rih (Ptolemais), 259 Erythras, Erythra;an Sea, 7, 15, 22, 29, 37, 48,

J., 66, 235,

268

60, 62, 101, 136, 145, 159, 197, 260

Egypt, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 12, 22, 24, 27, 31, 32, 33, 42, 45, 47, 51, 52, 55, 57, 58, 59, 61, 63, 64, 65, 68, 69, 71, 75, 76, 78, 80, 82, 83, 89, 96, 101, 102, 103, 104, 111, 118, 120, 122, 127, 131, 132, 135, 146, 153, 157, 158, 159, 160, 162, 167, 172, 178, 192, 193, 213, 218, 223, 226, 227, 228, 232, 246, 260, 261 Fund, 218 Egypt Exploration 167 68, cloth, Egyptian
230 geographers, 153, 192, 213, 228, inscription, 264
231 shipping, 228 trading-voyages, Egyptians, 60, 68, 75, 76, 87, 89,

Agatharchideson, 50-2 50-1 of name, origin legend concerning, Erythras,King,

50-1,
87

Esarhaddon, 7,
Es-shehr^Escier

58
=

Ash-Shihr, 129,

130, 142
Etesian

winds, 178, 233 9 (seeAethiopia), Ethiopia,

193

Etruscan,

184, 185 Eucratides, Eudsemon Arabia, 12, 32, 45, 1J5 euphorbia,113 Euphrates,3, 4, 5, 36, 74, 117, 118, 126, 165, 183, 184, 187,
270

131, 132 Euripides, Europe, 92, 101, 151, 156, 161, 163, 171, 179, 185, 214, 215, 224, 234, 249, 258
Euxine

Sea, 278
C,
195

113, 114, 132, 142, 143, 171, 234, 236 Eirinon,38, 135, 166, 173, 174

Evans, T.

Exodus, Book

of, 82, 111, 113, 122,

Eiselen,159 219 Elagabalus, 107, 134, 149 51, Elam, 3, 260 Elan, Eleazus,11, 32, 115, 117 electmm, 78 Elephant,Cape and River, 26, 85,

164, 169 Everest, Mount, 281 192 eye cosmetic,113, 169, 190, 192 121, paint, of, 70, 77, 78, 83, Ezekiel, Book 105, 115, 117, 153, 161, 26+

86

Ezion-Geber, 260 Ezra, Book of, 159,

228

304

Fabricius, 11, 15, 19, 20, 51, 72, 80, 89, 105, 106, 114, 115, 116, 147, 148, 151, 152, 163, 167, 171, 177, 178, ISO, 199, 208, 227, 242, 265 Fa-Hien, 209, 248, 250, 253, 255, 272, 281 annual,of the Besat" : cf Gaia, fair,
.

279
Farsan 106 Islands,

279 Kreshfield, Froben, 17 34, 122, 124, 158 fruit, Fryer, 177 Fundy, Bay of, 183 Fu-hi, 263 Fumeaux, J. H., 242, 244, 258 furs,171, 257 Further India (sec Chrysp), 260

coast, 24, 25, 27, 30, 31, 32, 75, 80 Fartach,kingdom of (see Ras Fartak), 139 "far-side" ports and
Fellatah country, 75
216 fennel, 112 fenugreek, Fergusson,James, 133, 236, 255, 279

Ferrars,248 141, 142, 143, 279, tribal, festival, 280, 281 Fezzan, 98
80 fig,

Gadusii,277 156 Gastulia, 112 galangal, galbanum, 112, 122, 216 Galicia, 77, 78, 190 11 Galilee, Gallas, 218, 271 Gamble, 152 sacred,191 games, Gandarasi {CanJhara), 41, 183, 184,
189

Ganesa,

236

Firgamu, 171 74, 159, 162 fish, 154, 155 oil, Fish-Eaters 22, 23, (Ichthyophagi), 29, 32, 35, 56, 143, 146, 162 28 fishing, flattened noses, men with, 47, 278 flax, 68, 72, 178 Fleet, J. F., 196, 209 13 flour, and Hanbury, 84, 113, 128, Fliickiger
215

Ganga-Sagar, 255 Ganges, 6, 9, 41, 43, 45, 46, 47, 48,

160, 188, 255, 267, 165, 195, 256, 272, 166, 172, 176, 187, 217, 222, 242, 249, 257, 258, 259, 260,
279
256

47, 222, Gangetic spikenard, muslins,256-8 256 pearls, Gangtok, 279 Ganjam, 257 Gara, 140, 141, 142, 218 98 Gararaantes,
Garcia de Orta, 84, 224
188

Forster,74, 114, 116, 133,

143

Foucher, Foulahs,89 Fouike, 229 Foulkes, 209,

Fourth

183

Garhwal, 151, 190 garlands,

garnet, 223
242

Cataract, 58

France, 199 frankincense,4, 13, 25, 26, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 57, 60, 62, 80, 81, 85, 86,102,105,113,115,116, 117, 118, 120, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 130, 131, 139, 141, 143, 144, 145, 164, 169, 192, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 225, 233, 236, 241, 270,
271
customs

gathering of, affecting

Gamier, Francois,261 Garo, 278 29 garrison, 272 Gartok, Garuda, bird of Vishnu, 253 Gaul, 68, 76, 77, 167, 168 Gaurisankar (see E\erest ', 281 Gautama Buddha, 197, 249 (see ViKvaGautamlputra Satakami 235 yakura), 197, Gaza, 123 Gebanites,107, 126 Gedrosia, 36, 161, 163, 170, ISO,
183, 189 Geez, 63, 146

125
130-3 dangersof gathering, 80 far-side, of the tree, 131-2 spirit trade in, 125-6 Frankincense Country, 5, 11, 14, 16, 32, 33, 34, 62, 115, 117, 119,

Geil, 272 Gelenius,17,

gems,

18

6, 222, 238, 240, 276

Genab

Genaba, Beni
Genabti

(seeZenobian,)
162

143, 144, 145, 146,

144

139,

140

(seeGenaba, Zenobian), 122,

Franks, 75 Frazer,J. G., 131, 132, 133, 139,

146, 237 155, Frere,Sir Bartle,
157

Book of, 74, 105, 107, 115, (Jenesis, 121, 149, 159, 160, 161, 162,

164, 194

305

Genoa, Genoese, 168,

214

George, Gerrha, 46 6, 108 Ghassanids, Ghats, western, SO, 152, 196, 201,
205, 211,
2i;

St., 138

(ireeks, 3, 34, 44, 51, 60, 75, 76, 78, 82, 101, 108, 131, 132, 135,, 160, 172, 180, 183, 190, 192,

193, 195, 210, 236, 250, 253, 264, 265, 277

201 Byzantine, Egyptian,106 Syrian,60 89 Greek shipping, 189, 277 geographers, 238 literature, 118 writers, Greenwich, 188 Gregentius,St., 107 gold), 259 griffins (see Tibetan guano,
116

Ghazipur, 187 177, 178 (see clarified butter), g/ii 165 Ghora Bari, Gibbon, 214 Gilead, 121 Gilgamesh, epic of, 134, 135, 139,
163,
237
273

ginger,211, 213, 227, 170, 25ft ginger-grass, 24, 27, 42, 190 girdles,
Girnar,
25
249

Guardafui,4, 6, 16, 63, 85,

89, 101,
118

86,

87,

fizir, Jhser, D:-.

Eduard, 9, 10, 11, 12,

14, 51, 58, 59, 61, 62, 63, 64, 66, 68, 79, 80, 81, 85, 86, 87, 94, 96, 102, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 114, 115, 116, 119, 128, 130, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 140, 143, 144, 150, 151, 158, 160, 164 26, 28, 38, 45, 66, 68, 69, 220, glass,
276

A., Guillain, Guignes, de,

Guinea

97 272

coast, 75, 101

gulfof, 99 Gujarat,70, 135, 167, 174, 175,176,

177, 179, 196, 197, 201, 245, 257, 261 80, 217 arable, 26, 33, 74, 77, 85, 164, 192, 214, 218, 236
classification of, 164

gum gums,

24, 25, 42 flint, glass, Gnhii,61 'see Aegidii),202, 203, Goa

Go"-sus, 63, 14", 150

222

Goaphat point,ISl
goats, 121, 130, 156, 224
Gobi

Gundert, 234 Gupta Empire, 188, Gurdaspur, 18 U Gyangtse, 279

255

desert, 261

Habash, 9, 62, 68, 114, 116, 140,

146

142

195, 197, 224 river, 236 235, 46, goddess, gods, 35, 49, 133, 191, 281, 282 God's I^nd, 61, 113, 120, 132 Golconda, 172, 224 gold, 3, 4, 13, 24, 25, 31, 33, 36, 42, 48, 57, 58, 61, 69, 75, 77, 78, 99, 105, 113, 121, 122, 123, 143, 149, 153, 160, 161, 175, 191, 214, 219, 221, 223, 224, 227, 238, 249, 252, 258, 259, 265, 273, 276, 279, 280, 281
Godaverl 258 ant-gold, 212, 257, 273 embroideries, 236 mistletoe, "golden bough" 133 W., Golenischef, Gondophares, 167, 185, 190, 2(10 Goodchlld, W., 170, 171, 226 Gospels,the, 213 Glitz, W., 163, 268 165 grar", 37,
"

Habashat, 62, 63, 64, 106, 117, 119, Hadramaut, 62, 63, 106, 107, 116,
117, 118, 119, 126, 127, 129, 130, 131, 133, 137, 142, 144, 146, 154
Hadramitic

language,104 Hadrian, 220 Haeckel, Ernst H., 168

Hafa, 140, 141
162 Haftalu, Haidarabad, 172, 196, 209 Haig, Gen. M. R., 163, 272 275 Hai-hsi-kuo, Haines,J. B., 142, 143 Hakra canal,174 Hala, 199 Halevy, 119 Hall and Neal, 97 Ham, 141

Haini

(Khamil),261,
121

268

Gr*-co-Bactrian
91

coins. 184, 185

276

Hammamat,

Graen, grain,31, 34, 61, 122, 176, 157 grape, 75, 76, 157 muscatel, Great Bear, the, 221
Greece, 131, 132, 172, 190, 4, 8 Greek colonies,

hammo-nitrum^ 68 Hammurabi, 7 Handy, R. B., 71 Han dynasty,246, 262, 269 annals,

state, 261

263

267

Ras, Hanfilah,

66

306

230, 237 Haiiuman, tl\e iiionkev-god,

Harkhuf,

61 75

Harrar, 74,

58 harvests, Hasik, 62 28 hatchets, Hatshepsut,Queen, 73, 82, 113, 118,

Hiram, King ot Tyre, 26 J Hirsch, L., 119 Mirth, F., 128, 247, 263, 264, 275 Hisn Ghorab, 116, 232 Hitopadesa,229 Hoang-ho river, 165, 261 Hogarth, D. G., 109, 119, 139, 143,
148

Hauakil

153, 158, Bay, 66

"

228

Holdich,

Sir

Thomas

Hungerford,

Haura, El

Auara, Leuke

Havilah, land

Kome, 101 of, 3, 160, 161, 162,

119

151, 160, 161, 163, 171, 183, 189, 273

164, 194 Ha2armaveth, 107,

Hazin, El, 92 Hbsti,62

Hebrews, 76, 122, 163, 164, 193, 213, 228, 264 scriptures, Hecataeus, 92, 160, 189 Hedin, Sven, 273
260

holm-oak, 73 Homer, 69, 157, 159, 254 Homerites (see Himyar), 63, 65, 96,
116, 139, 140, 251 Kingdom, 6, 10, 11, 30, 51, 94, 104, 105, 106, 107, 109, 115, 119 Hommel, 51, 107, 108, 109, 119, 120, 130, 134, 143
Homerite
.

hedyimata,112
Heeren, 216, 243,
257 7 Heidelberp, Hejaz, 106, 129 185 Heliocles, 223 (seebloodstone), heliotropium hemp, 248, 263

Homna, Ho-nan,
Honavar

150
262

(see Naura), 204 honey, 70, 74, 76, 81, 112, 169 Horace, 217 Hormus, Straits of, 150, 151, 155,
163, 179,
252

Henry II, 199 Heracles, 238

horn,
Horn

Herculaneum, 169 Hercules,125, 192, 259 Pillars of, 279 Herdman, Prof.,148 Herod, 103
Herod

191 of Africa, 87, 218

Antipas, Herodias, 11

11

Herodotus, 60, 62, 71, 83, 84, 101,

118, 123, 131, 134, 145, 153, 162, 189, 213, 217, 254, 258, 259, 279 Herone, 39, 182

Horse-faces, 47, 254, 278 horses, 13, 31, 33, 176, 191, 196 Horus, 136 Hou-han-shu, Chinese annals contemporary with the Periplus, 275 Hsen-wi, 273 Hsi-ivang-mu, 277 Hsi-yH, 269 Huang-ti, 263, 276 Hubli, 202 Hue, Abbe, 272
Hud, 142

HeroopoliteGulf, 68 Hesiod, 253 Heyd, W., 170, 268 73 hibiscus, 74 hides, Hien-yang (seeSinganfu), 261, 262 Hermann Hilprecht, V., 109, 130 Himalayas, 81, 84, 151, 160, 169,
179, 188, 216, 235, 253, 256, 277, 279, 281 Himyar, 63, 94, 105,'106, 107, 109, 114, 119, 142 Himvaritic langTiage, 104, 146, 148
210

Hudson, 18 255 Hughli river, Hultzsch,209 Hu-nan, 263 Huns, 9 White, 236 278 Huntington, Ellsworth, hyacinthus, 222, 226, 250 221 Hyctanis river, Hydreuma, 233 hyenas,43 Hyksos dynasty,58 Hyrcania, 269, 277

116 inscriptions, Hind, Sind and Zinj,92, 248, 249 Hindu Kush mountains, 164, 183,

ibis

185, 189
Hindu

223 (see jasper^, iaspis of Egypt againstincense-spirit (protector in serpent form),

65, 88, 230 traders, Hindus, 253 Hiong-nu, 185, 270 Hippalus,6, 8, 13, 45, 53, 212, 227, 228, 229, 230, 232,
82 Hipjjocrates,
233

131, 132 Batuta, 74, 141, 203 Ibn Khaldun, 116, 129, 142
Ibn Ibn

Mogawir,

107

Hi river, 268 Ili-azzu Jalit, 117

307

images,33, 127
ImperialGazetietr of India,162, 181, 183, 188, 190, 195, 196, 197, 201, 202, 204, 205, 208, 209, 210, 212, 234, 235, 237, 238, 252, 255 incense (seefrankincense), 61, 3, 1i", 62, 63, 80, 82, 113, 120, 121, 123, 124, 126, 128, 130, 133, 136, 143, 144, 145, 169, 233

232, 251, 258, 269, 270,

inflated inflated 62 rafts, skins,143, 145

272

Intef,121 Ion, 192 Irak, 249 165 Irawadi river, 121 Iri, iron,13, 24, 25, 26, 69, 70, 71, 77, 78, 111, 137, 151, 154, 155,
156, 162, 171, 172, 202, 221, 224, 225, 248
70 bright,

house, 122 ihmut (or anti),113,

sonter, 113

164

Incense-Land, 63, 117, 118, 119, 121, 122, 132, 133, 140, 142, 145,

Indian, 70
Book Isaiah, 264

of, 102, 104, 123, 132,

150, 271
terraces, 228

102, 105, 106, Ishmael,Ishmaelites,

121

India, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14,

29, 32, 36, 39, 40, 41, 45, 49,

52, 63, 66, 70, 71, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 87, 88, 89, 90, 99, 101, 103, 104, 105, 106, 109, 115, 118, 125, 127, 128, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 140, 142, 147, 148, 150, 151, 152, 153, 155, 156, 157, 160, 163, 164, 165, 167, 168, 170, 171, 173, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 191, 192, 194, 195, 196, 203, 204, 205, 208, 209, 214, 217, 219, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 227, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 242, 248, 249, 250, 251, 253, 254, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 264, 265, 267, 270, 272, 276, 279, 281 sea-trade from, 63, 99
southern Indian extension

Ishmaelite Isidorus of

104 dialects,

171 Isidore,

Charax
270

63, 140, Spasini,

149, 150,

86 Isis, Islam, 7, 59, 105, 106, 146, 156 Island of Birds (Orneon), 32, 116 Ismenian Apollo, 132 Israel, kingdom of, 58 164 Israelites, Issus,Bay of, 269 Isy, 61 Italy, 24, 66, 70, 71, 77, 168, 190 62 Itiopva^an, 213, 275 I-tsing, ludadan, 159 ivory, 4, 13, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 42, 45, 47, 57, 58, 61, 74,

88, 113, 121, 125, 153, 175, 193, 253, 263, 276 articles made of, 61
sources

of, 101

of

supply,61

63 embassies, coinage,193, 221 empire, 189 255 mountaineers,

Indian

Ocean, 6, 16, 50, 101, 130, 137, 148, 164, 213, 230, 250 Indian shipping, 63, 87, 88, 90, 115, 228 213, nut, 154, 273
228 traders, 115 travellers, 34, 76, 135, 146, 161, 226, Indians, 250, 254, 265 indigo,38, 172, 173 Indo-Aryans, 70 Indo-China, 235, 260, 261 10, 166, 167, 176, 185, Indo-Parthia,

Jabbalpur,193 226 jacinth, 223, 268, 276 jade,jadeite, 201 (seeMelizigara), Jaigarh Janardan,temple of, 23 5 Ides of, 234 Januar)', Japan, 178 Japhet, 163
jars, 122

jase, stitched ship,155 233 jasper, Jatayu,226 Jauf,117 Java, 127, 166, 174, 245, 248, 261 Gujarat!immigration into,245,
261

186, 200 146, 165, 235 Indo-Scythia, 180 Indore, 166, Indus (see Sinthus),4, 8, 9, 147, 151, 153, 157, 165, 167, 170, 171, 172, 174, 177, 178, 180, 183, 184,

146, 166,
176,

187,

185, 268, river, Jaxartes Jebel Akhdar, 148 Jebel Gara, 140 Jebel Haima, 85 Jebel Kamar, 140 Jebel Muriyeh, 85 Jebel Samhan, 146

277

308

Jebel Sibi,148 Jebel Tair, 106 Jelap-La,279 Genaba, Jeniiba, Jerah, 107, 108
jeraki'mKome,

118

107

Jerusalem, 11,

67, 102, 103, 122 jewelrv,66, 219, 223, 224, 225,

205 Jfivs, 192 Jezebel, jhelum, Jihlam, 180, Jih-nan (see Anam),

277

184 276

itnni,131, 132, 133, 141, 237 75 ]oao I, King of Portugal, job.Book of, 104, 136

Jobab, 159 John, Gospel of, 114 Johnston, R. F. 273 74, 107, 108, 109, Joktan,Joktanites,
,

to Ying, Chinese ambassador Roman Empire, 275 Kaotsou, 262 Karachi, 165, 166 Karague, 88 Kariba-il Watar Juhan'im, 107 Kariba-ils of Zafar,109 Karikal,242 Karli,235 Kama, 105, 107 Karnak, 68 Karnul, 224 Karteia,147 149 Karun river, Karuvur, Karoura, 205, 208, 215 Karwar (see Chersonesus),202, 208 Kashgar, 186, 268, 269, 270, 272 Kashi Kashu, Kissioi, Khuzistan, Kachh, 134
=

Kan

115, 132, 142, 145, 148, 149, 159, 160, 161 Josephus,11, 59, 71, 102, 103, 159,
260 111 ]o-shai^ Jove, 132 Juba II, King

Kashmir,

168, 169, 171, 189,

257

of Mauretania, 10, 86, 149, 150 Judica,11, 102,"108

Kashta, 162 Kassites, 134, 175 Kasyapamata (see Caspapyra) Kasyapa Matanga, 275 Kataban, 63, 94, 96, 106, 132 Katan, El, 107, 150, 151 Katar, El, 150, 162, 163 Kathiawar, 10, 70, 167, 175, 176, 180
KaverT

Judaism, 107 Judges, Book

juice
of
sour

river,242

of, ](12, 131

grapes

(omphacium),

25,

75

176, 269 Julien, Stanislaus, 232 Juliopolis, JuliusCa?sar, 103 JuliusMaternus, 98 July, 27 Jumna river,167, 185 junks, 214, 246, 247, 248 111 Jupiter Ammon, Justin, 159, 189 172, 267 Justinian,
' Chaberis emporion), 251 Kachana, 187 Kachh (see Cutch), 160, 175, 180

254 Kavya, Kiratarjuniya, Kay, 116, 129, 142 Kayal, Coil, 237 Keane, A. H., 272 Kej, 162 kelek,126 Kemp, 273 Kennedy, 227 Kenrick, 70 (see Chera),204, Kerala,Keralaputra

215, 208

Kerman,

70

Kaber

kermes-berry,73 Kesmacoran, 162 Keti, 165

Ke-vaddha
229 Sulfa of Digfia, Kharachar, 186, 268 KharosthT 210 alphabet, Khartum, 57, 59 Khasia 194 Hills, Khenzer, 158 khesyt wood, 1 1 Khnumhotep II, 192
j

Kadalundi

(see TyndisI, 204

263

Kadapa, 224 Kadphises, 9, 166, 186, 187,

Kahtan, 107, 142 Kailas, sacred peak of, 272,

282

Kalat, 147
Kalhat, 147, 237 229, 242, xKalidasj,
Kalvana Kamar
'see 25 5

Khorassan, 170,
Khor ed

249

Calliena', 197
139

Bav,

Duan, 150 Khor Reiri,140 Khotan, 9, 186, 263, 268,

Khuzistan, 175 Khyber Pass, 190, Kielhom, F., 209
270

270

157 Kiinipfer,

Kanara, 80, 202, 2ll^ 204

268 K''iiu'ho\\',

Kandahar,
Kane

183

inipunoii, 116
236

Kanishka, 235, K:inkas, 257

kankiini'in (Indian

copal),80

Kilwa, 94 Kimberley, 118 King-chou (see Hu-nan), 263 Kings, Book of, 102, 123, 131, 160,
161, 175, 192,
193

310

Ivriuin,38, 42,

169

Manar, Gulf of, 148, 156, 210, 222,

230, 239, 241

Lydians, 132,
LyTie, R.
N.,

192 92

Maabar, 241, 248,

249

Maaden, 170 Macedonia, 123, 131, 161, 180 248 Xffichin, macir,25, 80, 81 Maciver, Dr. David Randall, 97 Mat-kinder,278
Madajjascar,88, 94, 101, 137, 252, 271 jnadarata^ 36, 153 Madhvamika, 180, 184 Madras, 220, 242, 244 Roman coins in, 220 Museum, Madura, Modiera, 211, 234, 238, 241 Mieotis, Lake, 48, 277, 278

Manchester, 257 Manchuria, 118 Mandagora, 43, 201 Mandalaka, 199 Mandara-giri(see Mandagora), 201 Mandavi, 91, 173 "Mandeville, Sir John," 155, 163,
215,
226

Manes, 166, 191 Mangalore, 203,

manganese,
68

205

Mangarouth (see Mangalore), 251 Manifold, 272 Manillas, the, 252

manna, 164

Maes,

Macedonian
270

silk-merchant,

Mansuriyah, 166 24 mantles,linen, double-fringed, Manu, Laws of, 71, 229, 256, 257,
264

269,

ma^luy 26 Maliabkarata, 174, 197, 236, 238, 253, 254, 257, 264, 281 MahanadT 152, 224, 253 rivei, 2 13 Ma/ia-zrii^i^a,

Manzi, 227 Mapharitis, Ma'afir,28, 30, 34, 106,

107,
Marallo
109 251

(Camara?),

yiarasid-al-lttita

', 144

Mahendragiri,237
ri\er,(see Mai.s Mahra, 62, 130, 139, 142, 146, maidens for the harem, 42 Mai^ river,39, 182
Miihi 148

243, 259, 267 malabathrum, 6, 44, 45, 47, 84, 89, 112, 216, 217, 256, 279, 281 method of preparation and sale,
48-9

Makalla, 117 Makran, 144, 150, 151, 162, 163 Makrizi, 142, 143 Malabar, 6, 81, 84, 88, 155, 201, 203, 2(14, 205, 208, 212, 213, 214, 217, 221, 226, 227, 228, 232, 241,

Maratha, 175, 202 Marbodeus, 171 Marcus Aurelius,70, 186 Mardi, 277 Marduk, 138 Mariaba, Marib, 4, 10, 97, 105, 107,
108, 109,
119

marigold.111
175, 210,
222,
Marinus of Txre, 228, 260, marjoram, 112 Mark, Gospel of, 114, 189
269

Markinda,
marten,
marura, 257

196

Martial,167
112 47.

Masala, 106, 114, 115 Masai ia " Maisolia, Mausala),

252-3

Malacca, 227, 228, 241, 246, 259, 260

malachite,122
Malacca, 78, 84 MaLio, 25, 79, 80, 81, 83 260 Malay Peninsula, 201 Malaya-^nri (see Melizigara), Malavalani, 204, 234 Malchus (Malik), 11, 103 Male, 201, 251
Male and Female
144-6 Islands, 200

Mashonaland,
Masira
I

90 134

Mashii, land of,

14, 62, 119, Moseira,Sarapis), 126, 146, 147, 154, 163, 267 Maspero, G., 146
78 Massilia,

Massowa,

60, 99
247

mastich,112
Mas'udi, 66, 164,
masula boats
244

Malichas, 11, 29, 103,

(see Andhra
252

coinage),

Malik, 109 Malindi ( Melinde), 88 Malli,70 24, 42, 43, 73, mallow-cloth,
Maltzan, H.
Mah'an,
von,

Masulipatam, 196,
194

Matarem, 245 matib (see zennar), (baptismal cord),

139

119,

127

Maha-Iavana

(see Auranno-

b.u^l, 202 167, 187, 188, 197 (see Mambarus Nambanusi, Malwa,
198, 200

197,

Mathura, 184, 270 Matthew, Gospel of, 123 matting,280 Mauch, Carl, 96
Maurice,
139

311

Mauryu

Empire, 188, 195, 197, 204,

235, 236,
270

mimosa,

141

Minasa, 58, 107, 109, 115, 119, 125,

128

Mauza, 106 Mayr, 268 McCrindle, 20, 69, 72, 73, 85, 112,
151, 152, 178, 180, 183, 200, 201, 202, 216, 226, 242, 249, 252, 258, 259, 279 Mecca, 107, 252

Mechir, 234 Medes, empire of, 50-1, Media, 164, 170, 269

132

medicine. 111, 113, 169, 170, 172, 173, 178, 190, 192, 195, 213 Mediterranean,3, 4, 5, 77, 84, 101, 105, 112, 115, 126, 127, 128, 136, 138, 151, 158, 159, 168, 172, 176, 178, 193, 223, 230, 234, 264 Megasthenes, 212, 254, 255

Min"ans, 104, 105, 108 their language,104 Jauf,117 Mingti, 263, 275 Minibar (see Malabar), 215 Minnagara, 8, 37, 39, 165, 166, 180 Minos of Crete, 105 mint, 213 mirrors, 70, 220, 221 Mitra, Rajendralala, 220, 221, 224,
246, 253, 256

Mocha, 85, 106, 107, 14' mocrotUf 26, 81 Mogdishu (Makdashu, Magadoxo),
74, 88, 92

Meghna, 255 165 Mekong river, Melibar (seeMalabar), 273 190 melilote, Melinde, 179 43, Melizigara, Melizegyris, Memphis, 3
Menamah,
156 187

Mogul monarchs, 189 Mohammarah, 149 Mohammed, 7, 131

Mohammedan conquests, 63, 96, 98
200 travellers, Mokwanpur, 253

201

OTo/of^zn^

Menander, 42, 184, 185, Menilek, 67

Meninx, 156 Menon, Shanguni, 209

Padmanabha, 209, 212, 221 Mentuhotep IV, 121 Menuthias,28, 94

K. P.
mercury,

mallow cloth,73, 179 Mombasa, 94 24, 27, 72, 179 monach'e, Monfiyeh, 94 Mongolia, 253, 267, 272 monkeys, 113, 121, 230, 237 Monomotapa, Kingdom of, 97, 98 57, 64 Monophysite Christianity,
=

monsoon,

6, 145, 173, 230, 232, 233,

234

77, 7S, 137

passage
122 158 160

Mercury,

of, 136

Merka,'88
Merneptah,
Mernere, 91, 153,

Montu, 121 Monze, Cape, 161 Moon, Mountains of, 87, 88 country of, 88, 230
lake
men

Merodach-Baladan, 123, 149, Meroe, 10, 12, 15, 22, 56, 57, 58,
59, 60, 61,
132

of, 88 of, 88 (Wanyamuezi)

168, 192

moringa, 113
Morocco,

Cushite kings in, 60 Antiochia Merv ( see

Margiana ),

268,

269

Merzbacher, 272 Mesopotamia, 6, 58, 70, 157, 172,

176, 177,
269

Morse, H. B., 263 Morung, 253 Moscha, 35, 140, 143, Moselle, 77
Moses, 59,
171

146

Mosyllum, 10, 26, 63, 81, 82, 83,

85, 86, 101, 104,
218

Messalum, 114 metopion (oilof bitter almonds), 112 Meyer, Dr. Eduard, 60 Midian, 123 Midnapur, 257 87 country, Mijertain Miles, Gen. S. B., 145, 147, 148,
151, 230, 237 Miletus,123, 167

moto^ 26, 27 Island [Orine),23 Mountain

Mount Zion, 118 Movers, F. C, 71, 79, 15 8, 160 Mozambique, 143, 179 MrichchhakatikTi, the, 221, 223, 257 152 Mugheir, Muhammad Kazim, 259 Mukabber, El, 150 Mukharji, T. N., 258 mulberry, 76, 152, 263, 264 Mullah, the, 87 C, 19, 67, 70, 81, 84, 86, 106,, Miiller,

Milinda, Questionsof, 185 cloaks, 24 military milk, 123, 130, 192

Millburn, 84 178, 179 millets,

Milton, John,

143

107, 114, 115, 116, 143, 147,,

312 continued. Miiller, C, 151, 163, 171, 180, 181, 201, 202, 242 D. H., 97, 109 Miiller, Mundiis, 25, 26, 81
"

Nambanus Nammadus

(see Nahapana), 39, 175, 197, 198

river

(see Narbada), 30,

Way"
across

182

Naii-lu,or

"Northern

murrhine

(glass).(See

agate,

car-

nelian),24, 68, 193, 194,

Muscat

223

(Maskat), 80, 88, 91, 96,

139, 142, 143, 147, 151

with silk threads, musical instruments,

263

Turkestan, 268, 269, 270 Nan-shan (seeKuen-lun), 269 Nan-tau, 269 Napata, 12, 58, 59, 78 Naples, 77, 168 Narbada river (seeNammadus), 152,
153, 181, 182, 193 nard, 38, 111, 112, 169, 170, 188, 189, 191, 214, 217, 265
138 nature-worship, Naura, 44, 203, 204 Navarrete,55

muslins,3, 24, 31, 42, 43, 47, 165,

172, 202

Argaritic, 46, 242 Gangetic,47, 256-8 Mussel Harbor (Myos Hormos), 22, 29, 52, 101, 103 Muyiri-kotta (seeMuziris),205 Muza, 25, 28, 30, 33, 34, 94, 104,
106, 109, 114, 115, 116, 212,
233 233

Naville, 120,

218

Muziris,44, 128, 203, 204, 205, 208, Myozasus, 50 myrobalanus,112 mvrrh, 4, 25, 26, 31, 57, 62, 77, 78,
80, 86, 87, 102, 105, 112, 113, 114, 116, 120, 122, 123, 132, 139, 145, 164, 165, 169, 214, 217, 218, 236

Nearchus, 162 Nebaioth, 60, 102 Nebuchadrezzar, 7 Necho, Pharaoh, 101

negroes,

97, 98, 194

"negro-land," 153, 158 Nehemiah, Book nf, 122 Nejran, 117 Nelcynda,i Neacyndi,Melkynda),44, 203, 205, 207, 208, 211, 215,
233, 234, 236, 237, 254, 256,
273

aromatic,113 113 Ausaritic, 113 collatitia,

113 cultivated, Dianitic, 113

114

Nellore, 248 Nepal, 151, 194, 253, 257, 272, 279,

281

Nergal, 134
Nero, 12, 14, 59, 109, 194, 204, 219,
220, 237

113 Erythraean, Gebanite, 113 Minsan, 113 113 odoraria, Sabasan,113 Sambracenian,113

Nerva,

220

Nicomedia, 220 Nicon, 27, 92 Niebuhr, Carsten,107, 130 Nile, 3, 4, 15, 16, 23,47, 51, 52, 56,
57, 58, 59, 60, 68, 75, 98, 99, 103, 117, 118, 120, 146, 153, 158, 213, 228, 230, 232, 265
sources,

stacte, 113,

Troglodytic,113 white, 113

myrrh-country,
112 iiivrtle, 57

Indian

knowledge of,230

Mysore, 152, 257,

259

Nlleshwar, 205 Nimrod, 134, 163

mysteries, Dionysiac,132
Nabatjean
80 TroglodytiE, Nabatasans, 11, 29, 51, 60, 80, 102,

103, 104, 109,

their

200

import duty, 29, 104

Nabatu, 60, 102 Xabonidus, 152, 227 Naga, 278 Nagar Parkar,166, 173 Kagarl, 180, 184 (seeserpents), 250, 281 nagas Nahapana (see Nambanus), 175, 198,
199, 200

Nahum, 58, 69 nails, 155, 156 Nalopatana ( Xelrynda), 251

Inscription, 123, 149 Nineveh, 127 170 Nisaea, Nishapur, 170 Stela of, 158 Nitocris, Nitran, Nitrias,Nitra ( see White Island), 203, 233 68 nitre, Nizam's dominions, 197 Noah, 76, 163 69 No-Amon, Noel, 268 Nogal Valley,219 nomads, 29, 30, 32 North India,152, 163, 187, 195, 197,
199, 210, 235, 238, 258, 263,
264

Nimrud

313

Nubia, 12, 15, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60,

61, 62,
134

Numbers,
Nundo

of, 78, 164 Dey, 201 Nyaiiza lakes,57, 87, 88, 99 Nyassa, Lake, 88, 99
Lai

Book

Oritas, Ori, 161, 162, 164, Ormes (see Hormus), 155 Orotal Dionysus, 132 orpiment,45, 191, 221 Orrhotha,251 Osiris, 76, 132, 133, 146 146 Osor-hapi(Serapis),
=

221

Oannes, 159 Obadlah, 102 Obal, 74, 149 Obollah (Apologus, Ubulu), 4, 74,
149 66 obsidian,

ostrich

Ostia, harbor-works at, feathers, 4, 57

220

Oudh,
oxen,

242

58, 158,

196

ocean-stream,
ocean,

92, 251, 277,

278

unexplored,29, 101 Ocelis, 25, 31, 32, 65, 83, 89, 107,
114, 115, 147,
233

ochre,red, 137 O'Connor, 279 Odoric, Friar,155, 208, 215, 249 Odras, 253 112 cenanthe, 4, 13, 122, 216 oil, ointments,13, 31, 42, 82, 110, 111,
112, 113, 114, 130, 169, 170, 189, 191, 192, 217, 239, 265 Old Testament, 237 75, 77 olive, olive oil, 24, 34, 75, 169, 177

Oxford, 153 169 ox-gall, Oxus river, 186, 268, 269, 277 OxyJracas,70 202 (see Casnitas), Oyster Rocks Ozene, 42, 187, 270 ozcenttis (see spikenard), 256 Pa-anch, Island of, 87, 133, 135, 162,
271

packs, 48,

281

Olok, 86 Olympia, Olympus,

Oman,

54 282

112, 129, 130, 142, 144, 145, 147, 148, 150, 151, 157, 161, 230, 237 Omana, 34, 129, 139, 140, 150 Omanites, 63, 140, 150 32, 36, 71, 150, 151, 153, Ommana, 160, 161, 164 150 river, Ommano, omphacium, 75, 76, 112

Omphale, 192 70 ondaniqite^ 115, 161, 178, Oneslcritus, onycha, 122

onvx

Pacorus,103 Pactyan land,189 Padasans (seeCannibals Purushada 254, 255 Paethana, 43, 195, 196, 199 pagoda, Buddhist: Abyssinian, 64 Chinese,274 Hindu, 65 Pahang, 259 235 Pahlavas, paint,221 Paithan,195, 196, 199, 200 Palajpatmas, 43, 201 47, 249 Palaisimundu, 71, 102, 122, 159 Palestine, 270 Palibothra (see Pataliputra), 241 Palk strait, Pallava dynasties, 167, 2;i4,244 35 palm-leaves, palm-oil, 29, 99 154 fiber,
:

249

trees, 130

stone, 3, 193, 194, 223, 225

opal,223 Ophiodes, 167 Ophir, 97, 151, 160, 161, 175, 260 supposed location in East Africa,
97

Palmyra, 4, 6, 101, 103 Pamirs, 166, 268, 269, 270, 273, Pamphile, 264 Panama, Bay of, 183
panax, 112

281

opium, 215 opobalsamum, 112 Opone, 27, 83, 87, 90, Oppert, 78, 177 Oppidum Saax, 62, 63 opsianstone, 23, 66 Bay of, 66
Ora, 161, 162 Orasa, 37, 161
oreichalch

135

Panchaia,87, 135, 136, 271 Panchao, 9, 11^166, 186, 263, 268 Pandaea (see Pandya), 238 Pandian kingdom (see Pandya: Pandion),44, 46, 211, 233 Pandian,J. B., 209 175. 200 Pandit BhagvanlalIndraji, 253 Pandava, 238, Pandu, Pandya, 195, 197, 204, 205, 207, 208,
211, 237, 238, 241, 242, 255,
281

69, (aurichalcum),

78

Orenburg, 171 Dionysiac,132-3 orgies,

Orissa, 253

Pangani,94 Panjab, 153, 166, 167, 170, 172, 183,

185, 187, Panna, 224
270

314

Pano, 27, 87,

61 panthers,

135

57, 113, pantherskins, Paphos, 123 Papica,39, 40, 181

papyrus, 111

121

Perim, 114, 115 Periplusof the Erythrasan Sea, 3, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 62,
63, 64, 65, 67, 68, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 76, 77, 78, 79, 83, 86, 89, 92, 94, 96, 97, 101, 103, 105, 106, 108, 109, 114, 115, 116, 117, 119, 121, 124, 128, 129, 130, 132, 135, 138, 140, 143, 144, 146, 147, 149, 15o, 152, 153, 154, 156, 160, 161, 165, 166, 167, 168, 170, 171, 172, 174, 176, 178, 179, 180, 181, 184, 185, 188, 189, 191, 194, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 204, 205, 207, 208, 209, 211, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 222, 226, 227, 228, 231, 232, 234, 236, 237, 238, 241, 242, 250, 252, 255, 258, 260, 261, 265, 266, 269, 270, 272, 274, 275, 278, 279, 282 date and authorship Periplus, of,7-36, 197-200, 290-3
articles of
284-8

Papyrus Harris,61, 77, 122, 158

Paralia, 46, 47, 234 ) (seePalaspatmae Paripatana Park, Mungo, 89, 90

,

201

Parker,

E,

H., 263

(see Hindu Paropanisus Paropanisene, 189 Kush), 42, Parsees,

127

Parsidae, 36, 161 163 Parsis, Parthia, 5, 6, 8, 14, 16, 63, 65, 70, 103, 117, 119, 127, 139, 140, 146, 147, 149, 150, 151, 161, 166, 171, 172, 184, 185, 187, 194, 198, 235, 269, 270, 276,
277

Parthian

list of, kings, chronological

110

Parthian princes, 37, 166, 167, 185,

190

trade

mentioned

in,

kings,112 251 Parti, Parur, Paravur (see Karuvur, 205, 208, 215 ris), 50-1 Pasargadae, Patala, 166, 232 (Patna),184, 185 Pataliputra
_

Muzi-

236,

258
71 Patras,

bibliography of, 17-21 distances in, 54-5 meaning of, 50 rulers mentioned in,294 text of, 22-49 205 Periyarriver, Persia, 14, 16, 32, 35, 37, 59, 70, 84, 96, 118, 123, 127, 147, 150,
153, 160, 161, 170, 172, 176, 183, 189, 191, 192, 223, 250, 251, 256, 264, 267 Persian Empire, 123, 213

and Lamu, 94 Patta, Manda Pausanias, 62, 71, 132, 143, 145, 146,
209

191 Pausias, 144 Pauthier, peacocks,61, 175 pearls, 6, 13, 36, 45, 46,47, 74, 123, 148, 151, 156, 164, 168, 210, 221, 222, 223, 224, 239, 240,

241, 249, 256

148 pearl-mussel, 239, 240, 241 -fisheries, Pegu, 252 Pei-lu, 268, 269, 270 P'ei-ikan (seeTian-shan),269 269 P'ei-tau, Peking, 272 Pemba, 94 Penner 241 river, Pepi II, 121 pepper, 6, 44, 45, 169, 192,195,202, 204, 205, 210, 211, 213, 214, 215, 216, 225, 227, 234, 241, 248, 250, 251, 251, 273 long,42, 142, 194, 195, 213 75 peratikos, perfume, 110, 111, 113, 114, 122, 124, 143, 169, 170, 190, 217,

Deccan, 248 China, 84 Persian Gulf, 3, 4, 14, 16, 35, 36, 50, 58, 71, 74, 77, 87, 101, 107, 136, 140, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 155, 159, 160, 162, 163, 164, 175, 191, 194,
to

embassy

the

sea-trade from

201, 209, 213, 221, 222, 230, 249, 251 Persians, 51, 63, 70, 112, 116, 132, 162, 213, 247, 250, 251, 252,
264 206 Perthes, Justus, Peshavfar, 183, 184 Petenikas,195 Petra,4, 6, 29, 101, 102, 103, 109, 128

in Chinese annals, 128 Romans at, 102 should be /a^a, "f/?7 ("fibers,"

leaf),

48, 281 102 Petrie, Flinders, Petronius, 12, 15, 59, 77, 194 Peucelaotis (seePoclais), 184, 270 PeutingerTables, 204, 206, 208
pewter,
78

233, 270

315

Pharaohs,3, 4, 120, 121, 162 59 Philic, 11 Philip, Philostratus of Lemnos, 69 Phoenicia, 68, 103, 160 Phoenicians, 3, 4, 68, 71, 77, 78, 83,
87, 97, 131, 132, 135, 147, 158, 159, 160, 164, 170, 210,'
229

Poppsea (Sabina), 14, 123, 237 (see Bacare),211, 212 225 porcelain,
Porakad 91 Porebandar, Port

Sudan, 60 Porphyry, 139 Portugal, 66, 227 Portuguese, 75, 81, 101, 202, 204,
212, 214, 215, 222, 241

around Africa,101 expedition phoenix,135-6, 158 phoinix,158 Phrygians,132 Piankhi,162 Piers Plo^wman^ 215 203 Pigeon Island (seeWhite Island), pigmies and cranes, 254 pine, 80, 111 263 Ping-chou (seeShan-si), Piram island (seeBasonesj,181 44, 202, 203, 204, 232, 233 pirates, 208 Pirmed Hills,

Porus, 69, 180 Prasum, 94 precious stones, 3, 4, 13, 105, 122, 123, 149, 168, 175, 221, 222, 223, 225, 227, 229, 249, 256,
257,
"sham
276

curiosities"

for Chinese

Pitalkhara caves,

195

277 trade, Prester John, 267 159 Priscian, R. T., 53, 246 Pritchett, 273 Prjevalski, Proverbs,Book of, 82 Psalms, Book of, 82

plate, gold and

264 Plates,

24, 26, 38 silver,

Psammetichus

(Psamtik) II, 58,

158

Pliny,' 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 61, 62,

66, 68, 69, 71, 72, 76, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 86, 90, 101, 105, 106, 108, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 118, 120, 123, 124, 126, 133, 135, 137, 138, 144, 145, 147, 149, 150, 151, 153, 156, 158, 160, 161, 164, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 178, 179, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 194, 195, 201, 203, 205, 208, 209, 212, 213, 214, 216, 217, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 226, 227, 232, 237, 238, 239, 240, 249, 253, 256, 258, 259, 260, 264, 265, 281 Plutarch, 123, 133, 146, 189

279 Pseudo-Callisthenes, Psygmus, 86 Ptah, 61 of the Hunts {Ptolemais Theron),22, 5 2, 60 Ptolemies, the, 4, 5, 22, 51, 59, 63, 68, 84, 89, 102, 103, 108, 135,

Ptolemais

167, 2(3

Ptolemy Euergetes, 60, 63, 82 Ptolemy Philadelphus, 51, 52, 60,68 Ptolemy (thegeographer),7, 55,94, 97, 101, 105, 106, 107, 116, 118, 129, 133, 140, 141, 143, 150, 162, 163, 175, 182, 188, 200, 201, 203, 205, 208, 211, 212, 228, 242, 249, 253, 256,
259, 260, 266, 269, 272, 273, 278, 279

41, 42, 183 Poclais, Poduca, 46, 242 Poen, 62, 159, 162 Pckomo language,in E. Africa,98 Pollux,71 Polo, Marco, 3, 66, 70, 84, 92, 99,
115, 120, 129, 135, 140, 143,

144, 145, 146, 154, 155, 157,

162, 214, 240, 273,
Polumbum

170, 173, 179, 202, 203, 221, 225, 227, 235, 237, 241, 247, 248, 249, 270,
281

(seeQuilon),215

pomegranite, 112 Pompeii, 169 Pompey the Great, 153, 194 of the Pomponius Mela, his map world, 100, 101, 252, 277, 281 Pondicherry (see Poduca), 242 Ponnani (see Tyndis), 284, 205 Pontus, 48

Pudapatana (Poduca?), 251 Pukkalaoti (seePoclais), 184 242 Pulikat, pulse, 178 Pulumayi II, 195 Puni (Phoenicians), 87, 135 Punt Expedition, 52, 80, 143, 159, 228, 245, 271 Punt, Land of, 61, 73, 78, 82, 83, 86, 113, 121, 122, 135, 142, 143, 144, 153 Punt-people,62, 120, 218 reliefs, 120, 164, 218, 272 Travancore Purali (seeParalia, ) 234 Purali River, 105, 161 230, 236, Puranas, 198, 199, 200,^202,
,

253

Matsya, 199 yara Sanhiia,254, 255 Vayu, 199 Fishnu,174, 253, 254 199 Purindrasena,

316

purple,13, 36, 73, 156, 157 Tyrian, 145 Pushkala,238 Pushkalavati (see Porlai^), 183, 184,
238

realgar, 42, 45, 191, 192, 221 Rebmann and Ehrhardt,their

E. Africa, 88

map

of

Reclus, Elisee, 165, 166, 175, 182,

207

Put, 69
Islands and channel, 28, Pj-ralas Pyramids, 76, 261
94

Red

Bluff.;( see
234

Pyrrhon, Varkkallai),

Pyrrhon mountain, 46,

86 P"'thange!us,

234

red lead, 221 Red Men, 3, 51 Red Sea, 3, 5, 7, 8, 50, 51, 52, 57,

quartz, quartzose, 223, 224

88 Querimbo Islands, 215 137, quicksilver, Quilon, 211, 248

59,60, 66, 75, 88, 89, 99, 104, 105, 108, 116, 117, 146, 151, 167, 168, 169, 179, 183, 201, 223, 233, 234

Raamah, 105, 159, 161,

radix

162

RegioCinnamomifera, 83 Reichard,19 Reinaud, 155, 268

Rekem, 1112,128
the time of the of India at religions 235 Periplus,

ChinrE^

157

Sir Stamford,245 Raffles, Rafizah sect, 74

25, 32, 50, 126, 127 rafts, Raghu, 242 Raidan, 109, 119 2ill,215 Rajapur (see Melizigarai, 193 State of, Rajpipla, 75 Rajput pilots, Rajputana, 151, 223 Raksha Ravana, 226, 237, Rama, 230, 237, 242
249

Remusat,

272

Renonsari,179 112, 192, resin,

Retenu,
61

236

Ramanuja, 257 Ramayana, 174, 226, 230, 234, 236,

237, 238, 249, 250, 253, 257, 264, 281, 282 Rameses II, 122 Rameses III, 58, 61, 78, 122, 158

Book of, 13, 192 Revelation, Rhadamasans, 105 Rhadamanthus, 105 Rhambacia, 37, 105, 162, 163 Rhamna?, 105, 162, 163 Rhapta, 28, 94, 97 23, 73, 98 rhinoceros, rhinoceros-horn, 24, 29, 73, 276

Rhinocolura,

103

Rhodes,

111 98

Ramusio, Rann of Cutch, 135, 166, 173, 174 Rapson, E. J., 192, 200, 244 Ras Asir, 85 Ras Aswad, 92 Ras Binna, 86 Ras Chenarif, 86 Ras el Fil, or Filuk,85, 86 Ras el Hadd, 117, 118, 127, 147 Ras el Kelb, 129 Ra^ el Khvma, 91
17

Rhodesia, 96, 97, Rhone, 78

rhubarb,157 rice, 27, 34, 37, 39, 76, 104, 176,

178, 221, 256

Richard,263
Richthofen, F.
272 von,

268, 269, 270,

in E. Africa,98, 99 rift-valley, 106, 107, 116, 148, 170, Ritter, roads (inIndia),196, 253 from Arsinoe, 24 robes,

242

Ras Ras Ras Ras Ras Ras Ras Ras Ras Ras Ras Ras Ras

Kyi, 92 el Sair, 115

el

Rocher,
232

273

Fartak,117, 129, 133, 140, Hadadeh, 85 Hafun, 87

Hantara, 81, 82, Hasik, 129, 140, Khamzir, 81, 85
85 146

Rockhill,William WoodviUe, 273 Rogers, J. E. Thorold, 214 Rohri Hills, 174 list Roman Emperors, chronological of, 110; coins of, 220
Chinese
account

of, 275-7

Mirbat, 140 Musandum, 148, Nuh, 161

Ormara,
161

150

Risut,140

175 Rashtrika, Ratnagiri coast, 201, 215 Raven 116 Castle, Ravenna, Geographer of, 208 Rawlinson, 14

coinage,192, 193, 204, 276 in India,219, 220, 234 in Ceylon, compared with 252 Persian, "embassy" to China, 276 Empire, 12, 76, 77, 108, 151, 168, 169, 185, 187, 191, 214,
217, 228, 275

geographers,150, 77 republic,
senate, 103
,

277

219,

265

318

Saua, Sa'b, Save, 30, 107,

Saukira

233

sesamum,

178

Uay, 133

201 Savitri river,

Sawahil,160 Savce,Prof. A. H., 71, 165 13, 73, 214, 227 scarlet, equivalent of, 125 schoeni, measure, Schwanbeck, 115 Scylaxof Caryanda, 189 (see Cirrhadae), 253, Scyritae Scvrites,
266

islands, 44, 202 51, 192 Sesostris, Sewell,R., 209, 210 136 Seyffarth, Shabaka, 162 Shabwa (seeSabbatha)
Shafia sect, 74

Sesecrienae

Scvthia,8, 32, 37, 39, 42, 45, 146,

166, 190,
267

ScythianOcean

(Arctic),260
261

Scyths,165, 166, 257, 260, 267 228, 229, 245-7, 259, sea-trade, Seba, 162 Sebennyticmouth, 68 Sebni,121 Seine,77 166, 185 Seistan, Sela,102 149 Seleucidae, 184, 189 Seleucus,
169 Seleucus Callinicus, Seleucus II, 123

Shah-bandar,165 Shamash-Napishtjm, 135 Shams, the Sabaean sun-god, 133 Shans, the, 273, 275 263 Shan-si, sharks,145, 241 charms 241 against,
Shatt-el-Arab

river,149, 265
162

shawls,169, 257 Sheba, 105, 123,

Sheba, Queen of, 67, 123 sheep, 13, 30, 71, 149, 156, 176, 259,
267

Semele, 132
mountain, 36, Semites, 107, 176
Semiramis
148

Shehr, 129, 160 Shehri luban, 218 Sheikh Sa'id,115 shells, 224, 259 73 shellac, Shem, 107, 163
Shencottah Paa., 212
262

Semylla,43, 200 273 sendels, Senegal,89, 157

31 September,

Shen-si, 261, 27? Sherring,

Sheshonk

SeptimiusSeverus, 219 146 Ser, river, 163 island, Sera, 269 Sera Metropolis, Serendib,163, Serandip,

I (o- Shisnak),58 Shibam, 117, 119 Shinar,Chief of, 122 ships, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 35, 36, 37, 40, 41, 44, 45, 46, 75, 209,

210, 212, 213, 230

249

Seres, 70, 76, 146, 171, 172, 179, 209, 265, 266, 267, 269
146 Seria, 267 Serica (seealso Sarikol),

serichatum, 112

Andhra, 243-5 Arabian, 28, 44, 106, 128, 227 Carthaginian, 279, 280 Dravidian, 46, 227 46, 227, 273 Eastern, Egyptian, 51, 52 from the north (Bengal), 46,242,
255, 272

skins, 38, 171 265 tissues, 223 serpentine, serpents, 37, 38, 43, 44, 131-3, 138,
Seric

145, 165, 236

of cinnamon, guardians of of
132 226

Greek, 43 244-5 Gujarati, Hadramaut, 127 Hebrew, 260 Hindu, 27, 107, 115, 128, 201,
229

diamonds,225,

frankincense, 128,

131-2

of medicinal waters, 132 of pepper, 215, 216 of various gums, in the Indian Ocean 132

Malabar, 227, 243-5 and Malay, Burmese

246-7 244 Persian, Persian Gulf, 154-6, 227 Roman, 78, 227 ship's head, 230-1 29, 38, 41 shipwrecks,

Chinese,

(see gracz),

37, 44, 165 of Abyssiniandynasty, progenitor

133

serpent-worship, 131, 236, 237,

241, 279
souls of the dead, 131
131 tree-spirits, winged, 131 oil, 27, 35, 39, 176,

type used
52-3

by author

of

Periplus,

sesame

177

Shea, 75 Siam, 227, 252, 279 237 Sibal, Sibor,251

319

76, 168 Sicily, Sicyon,191 Sidon, 158, 159, 160, 265 159 Sidonia, Sielediba (seeCeylon, Sinhala-dvipa) 249, 250, 251, 252 201, 232 Sigerus(see Melizigara), Sikkim, 151, 188, 253, 272, 279, 280,
,

snakes Socotra

(seeserpents), 34, 44 4, 62, 63, (see Dioscorida), 133, 135, 129, 76, 87, 119, 137, 138, 139, 144, 162, 163,
272

237, 271, 88, 97 Sofala,

281

trade,250, 267, 279, 280, 281 263 Si-ling, silk, 13, 146, 172, 179, 196, 214,
silent

theory,98 Sofala-Ophir Sohar, 151 Soli (seeChola), 241, 249 Solomon, 58, 61, 67, 97, 147, 151,
160, 176,
260

259, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 274, 281

tasar, 264
silk

Ophir voyages of, 97, 260 Song of, 82, 123, 193 of Africa, 52, 58, 60, Somali coast
61, 62, 63, 74, 75, 77, 79, 80, 81, 83, 88, 89, 106, 112, 118, 120, 124, 137, 145, 172, 178, 182, 217, 218, 219, 228, 271
258 Son river, Sonargaon,Suvarnagrama, 255 Sonmiani Bay, 161 197 (seeSuppara), Sopara in Ceylon, merchant Sopater,Roman

wild, 276 42,45, 48, 171, 172, 191, cloth, 194, 222, 250, 251, 257, 263,

264, 265, 270, 273, 276 silk, raw, 48, 263, 264 172, 263, 268, 269, 275 silk-route, silkworm, 76, 263, 266, 275
eggs

of, brought
267

to

tinople, Constan-

silk yarn,

38, 48, 172, 264, 270 13, 24, 25, 26,31, 33, 42, 61, silver,
69, 77, 78, 102, 122, 175, 191, 192, 214, 219, 227, 249, 252,

251-2

Sopatma, 46, 242 Sophir (see Suppara)

South South

259, 273, 276 St.,214 Silvester, Simpson, William, 159 Sins, 266, 273 Sinbad the Sailor, 156, 225 Sind,Sindu, 172, 248, 251 sindon,165, 172 Singan-fu,11, 261, 262, 268, 270,
272, 274, 279
to, from Singapore,246 road

America, 138 Arabia, 6, 9, 11, 14, 51, 52, 58, 61, 62, 63, 75, 76, 77, 80,
107, 108, 112, 87, 94, 97, 106,120, 127, 129, 140, 141, 142, 145, 147, 148, 154, 159, 160, 161, 162, 218, 228, 267, 271

61 South Countries, Horn Southern (Notii Cerai, South

Lo-yang,

262

Cape Guardafui),86 152, 162, 167, 171, 187, India, 195, 205, 208, 209, 210, 213,
216, 220, 221, 227, 230, 235, 237, 239, 241, 243, 244, 259,
261

Singhala(see Ceylon),255, 273 singingboys,42 235, 239, 241, 250, 267 Sinhalese, Sinim, the, 264, 266 272, 279 Sining-fu, Sinthus river, 37, 38, 165 187 Siprariver, 155 Siraf, 190 Sirangala, 226, 230, 237, 249, 257 Sita, 282 SIta-quest, Siva, 138, 187, 201, 208, 235, 238, 254, 281 Siva Satakami, 199 203 Sivajl, 32, 257, 263 skins, 38 seric, 25, 27, 29, 33, 34, 36, 58, 13, slaves, 74, 88, 91, 96, 161, 191 Smith, Vincent A., 166, 180, 183,
184, 189, 198, 200, 204, 205, 209, 210, 235, 238, 242 Smith, W. Robertson, 119, 130, 132,
236
216 snails,

coinageof, 221, 243-5 Spain,68, 70, 77, 78, 190

spartum.
111 149 Spasinus, Speck, 268 Speke, Lieut. J. H., 87, 96, 230 3, 4, 6, 25, 26, 105, 115, 121, spices, 122, 123, 124, 149, 157, 169, 211, 214, 218, 237, 273 and Cape of, 26, 33, Spices,Market 45, 82, 85, 86 42, 45, 112, 170, 188, 189, spikenard, 217, 251, 273 Gangetic,47, 222, 256 222 spinel, spondylium, 216 sponge, 74

Sprenger,Aloys, 105, 107, 114, 116, 148, 164

Sramanas,
Buddhist
missionaries
to

China, 275 188 SravastI,

320
stacte

31, 112, fGebanite-Minaean),

122 use,
surement, mea-

113, 114, various units in Roman stadia, and equivalents in modem

54-5 in Persian schoeni, 125

Stanford, 270
:"Tatues, 66

steel, 24, 70, 71, 172, 225 steering, method of, 230, 231, 232,
247

Syagrus dates,158 239 Sylla, 200 Symulla (see Semylla), 159 Syncellus, Syrastrene, 39, 40, 175, 176 277 Syr Daria (seeJaxartes), Syria,5, 58, 61, 71, 76, 77, 87, 102, 108, 111, 122, 123, 128, 131, 138, 149, 158, 184, 213, 264,
270, 275
208 SyrianChristians,

M. A., 268, 269, 270, 272 Stein, 62, 140, 145 StephanusByzantius, 192 stimmi, stibnite, 270 Stieler, Stiffe, Capt. A. W., 155 stones, transparent, 45, 47, 222 Stone Tower, the (see Tashkurghan),

Taba;, 26, 27, 86

tabu 145 (on frankincense gatherers), Tacitus,219, 265 Tagara, 43, 196 269 Taghdumbash valley, Taharka, 78, 162 Ta'is, 107 Taka, 140 Takakusu, 213, 275 Taksha, 238 Takshasila (seeTaxila),183, 238 tamala (see malabathrum, cinnamon),

269, 281

33,37,42, 112, 127, 128, 214, 216, 276 Strabo, 7, 16, 52, 51, 68, 69, 77, 78, si, 86, 101, 102, r03,105, 108, 114, 116, 118, 145, 146, 149, 157, 159, 161, 162, 167, 176, 177, 178, 184, 189, 217, 249, 254, 255, 259, 277, 278
storax, straits (of Bab-el-Mandeb), 52 of Malacca, 127

216, 279,

281

(see TamraTamalipti (ro-"20-//-/0 272 lipti), tamarisk,165 Tamil fsee Damirica),176, 197, 204,
205, 207, 208, 209, 211

Streubel, 19 Stuck, 18, 259

st)mmata^
sty rax, 131 buakin, 66 112

Sudan, 56, 6U, 61, 74, 99 253 Sitdras^

78 Suetonius,

Tamra-lipti(Tamluk), 249, 255 Tamrapami river (see Taprobane, Tambapanni), 237, 249, 255 Tana River, 98 Tanais river (Don), 277, 278 Tanganyika, 88, 99
Tanjore,
242

Suez, 52,
Gulf
sugar,

68

tannin,80
Tanutamon,
276

of,273

stela of, 78

90

!u-ho (see

storax), 128, 180 Suklatirtha,

Sumatra, 127, 138, 252

Taprobane (Tamra-pami, Dinpa-RS-uana), 47, 239, 249, 250, 251,

252
182 Tapti river, Tarentum, 219 Tarim 268 river, Tartars,185, 186, 261, 262, 263, 268 Tashkend, 269 Tashkurghan, 269, 281 for Roman Ta-ts^in (Chinese name Syria), 128, 275, 276, 277
routes

sumpter-mules,31
Sundara Satakami

(see Sandares 1,198,

199, 200
269 Sungaria, Sunium, Cape, 190 162, 163, 211 sun-worship, 43, 175, Suppara (Shurparaka), 147

197

Sur, 91, Surashtra, 174, 176, 184, 185, 188, 197, 199 Surat, 176, 179, 182, 183, 237 river (Satlaj), Sutlej 174, 180, 272 suwat river,184 in E. Africa, 98, Sivahili language,
129

to, 276, 277

Tavemier, 168, 170, 171, 172, 179,

192, 196, 212, 215, 216, 222, 223, 224, 225, 252, 256, 259,
281

(cyperusj, 31, 111, 112 wood, 13 Swiss lake-dwellers, 76 swords, 24, 70 Fartakl, 33, 34, Syagrus (see Ras
sweet sweet

rush

129, 133, 139,

232

Taxila,69, 185, 270 Taylor, Dr., 243, 254, 255, 256 teakwood, 36, 152, 201 Tehama, 107 Tehenu, 61 Tell-el-Amarna 78 tablets, 221 Tellicherry, Telugu, 197, 204 Ter (Thair) (seeTagara), 196

321

112 terebinth, Teredon, 149 Terek Pass,268 textile industry, 196, 256-8 270 Thaguri, 269, Thames, 6 Thana, 155 Tharbis, 59 Tharshish,61 Thebais, 103 Thebes, 3, 52, 58, 6:, 68, 120, 121, 122

sea-trade of, 246

topaz, 37, 42, 44, 167-8, 222, 223

treaty of, 55 Tordesillas, Torr, Cecil, 248 Torrend, Rev. J., S. J., his theory of the

history of

E.

African

98 dialects,

22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, tortoice-shell, 28,29, 31, 35, 45, 47, 48, 73, 126, 136, 137, 227, 259, 276
223 tourmaline,

Tozer, 92, 268,

trade
-

278

(seeHsen-wi), 273 Theophrastus,71, 82, 118, 132, 171,

Theinni

winds, navigation dependent

upon, 53

177, 178, 179, 192, Thina;,48, 261, 269, 273,

Thina

213 274

trappa^a,

(seeThis), 260 Thomas, Acts of,185 This, Land of, 11, 48, 183, 261-3,
266, 279

Trajan, 101, 103, 102,109,187,219,220 40, 182, 245 Travancore, 80, 152, 172, 194, 204, 205, 211, 212, 213, 234 tree-blood (frankincense legend),128, 164^ 145, 130-3_,

Thoth,
Thothmes

31

III,158
One

Thousand Nights and 225

Night, The,

61 throw-sticks, Thurston, E., 220 thyinewood, 192 Tiamat, 138 Tian-shan mountains, 261, 268,

269

T'iao-chih,
Tiastenos

277

(seeChashtana),188

Tiberius,11, 103, 204, 219, 220, 265 Tibet, 82, 84, 89, 172, 222, 258, 263,
269, 272, 273, 279, 281 Tibetans, 253, 266, 278, 279 Tibeto-Burman, 254, 255, 278

gold of, 258-9

trade-route
across, 272

in serpent form, 131 tree-spirits, tears, 33, 164 worship,236, 279 75, 179, 265, 266 tree-wool, Trichinopoly,241, 242 Trivandrum, 234 Troglodytes,58, 83 212 Tropina, Tripontari, Tsengu, country of (Japanese Ency92 clopsedia), Tsiemo, 268 Ts'in, 11, 261-3 Ts'in Chi Hwangti, 261 Ts'i, 261 Tsor, 147 (seePamirs^, 269 Tsung-ling Tsybikoff,273 Tubba ibn Hassan, 107

Tibullus,191, 255 40, 41, 183 tides, (seeYunnan), 273 (seeIndia),276 43, 261, 277 tigers, III,102, 118,123,149, Tiglath-pileser
Tien Tien-chu
160

Tulu, 204, 205 25 tunics, Tunis, 168

Turanian-Hamitic system, 163 Turanian trade,172
race, 253
273 turbit, Turfan, 268

Tigre, 57, 62, 63, 149 Tigris,river, 149, 156, 205 4, timber, Timna, 107 tin,33, 42, 45, 77-9, 127, 156, 190,
193, 217, 220, 221 Tinnevelly,211, 212, 234
191 tinsel, Tipperah, 259 Tirur,234 Titianus (see Maes), 269 Titus, 11, 102, 103, 220 tobacco, 105 tobe, Somali, 72 toga, Roman, 72 Togarum, 43, 201

121

Turiasso,

70

Turkestan,8, 11, 172, 176, 183, 223, 235, 257, 263, 265, 269, 272,
273, 274 269, 272, 274, 275 trade-routes, Turks, 172, 184, 185, 266 Turkharas, 257 turmeric,112 80 turpentine, 38, 170, 223 turquoise, Tuticorin,215, 237 Tybis, 234 Tylor, E., 236 Tylos, 71 Tyndis, 44, 203, 204, 205, 208 Tyre, 129, 147, 153, 156, 158, 159, 213, 264

Tokar,

60

Tokwina, 84, Tonkin, 246

85

250, 273 Tzinista,

322

Ubulu

Apolo^s, (Obollah,

Obal),

tium), Vizadrog, Vijayadurga (see Byzan201

74, 149 Uganda, 57 (seeOzena), UjjenI,UjjayinI Ujjain,

10, 65, 187, 188, 199, 236
149 river, 170, 171, 223 ultramarine, 258 U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 230 Unya-muizi, Upanishad, Katha, 236 Argaru), 241, 242 Uraiyur(see 132 Urania, Uru, 162 Urumtsi,268 Ushas,229 ushu-wood, 123, 128 Usuu, 128 Uthek, 121 132 Uth!rat= Osiris, U2al,115 Uknu 241 river, Vaigai 250 clan, Vaisya 241 Valiyarriver, den Berg, L. Van
145

Vogiie, Melchior de, 103 Voltumus, 68 66 votive offerings, 142 vulture, Waddell, 273 Wadi Dirbat, 140 ed Dawasir, 149, 150, 160 Wadi Wady el Araba, 101 Wadi er Rumma, 160 Wadi Hadramaut, 116, 117, 119 Wadi Maifa, 116 Wady Musa, 101, 102 Wadi Rakhiya, 119 Wadi Rekot, 118
Wadi Wadi Wahind

Tyin, 148, 237 Yabrin, 150, 160

174 canal, 248 135

Wassaf,
water.
Waters

111 of

Death,

W.

C,

119, 127,

Watt, 73, 76, 80, 81, 83, 84, 99, 148, 151, 152, 153, 164, 169, 172, 176, 177, 178, 188, 193, 194, 215, 222, 224, 256, 259,
264

Vanji,205
Varkkallai
235

Pyrrhon), 234, (seeBalita,

Wa-wat, Weber,
Wei

57,

121

weasel,257
108, 109,
119 261 river,

263 varnish, Varthema, 212

Varuna,
Vasco da

229

Gama,
130

227

Vaughn,

Wei, 261 Wellhausen, 143 119, 137, 139, 143, 145, "Wellsted,
2S1 \Vestem Western

J'cJas,229, 235, 257,

148, 162

Vengurla Rocks

(seeSesecriena; ), 202
214

70, Venice,Venetians, Venus, 123 73, 192, 215 vermilion,

Ghats, 196 India, 152, 153, 172, 192,

197, 230,
271

12, 13, 220 Vespasian, 3, Vespucci, 55 13, 31, 104, 214 vessels, Victoria Nyanza, 87, 88, Vignoli,215 Vijaya,249 224 Vijayanagar,

230

155, 162 whale-fishery, wheat, 13, 27, 28, 31, 33, 34,35, 37, 39, 45, 76, 127, 176, 178, 221 White 44, 203 Island, White Village {Leuk'eKomi), 29,
101

Whitman, Walt,
Wild-Flesh-Eaters 56

183

22, {Agriop/iagi)
,

Vikkar,_165

188 Vikramaditya of Ujjain,

Vikramapura, Bikrampur, 255 II, 197, 235 Vilivayakura Vincent, 8, 18, 19, 84, 94, 104, 108,
144, 148, 169, 171, 179, 181, 201, 202, 216, 259, 272 Vindhya mountains, 188, 197, 201,
224

vine,34, 75, 76, 77 HI, 240 vinegar, Vinukonda, 196 76, 87, 123, 125, 135, 153, Virgil,
216, 226, 266, 271

Wilde, Oscar, 69 Wilford, Lieut.,88, 230, 254, 259 Willis,Bailey,262 Wilmot, A., 97 Wilson, 209 "Wilson,C. R., 200 winds, Indian Etesian, 38, 45 45 Hippalus, wine, 13, 24, 28, 31, 33, 36, 37, 38, 42, 45, 77, 111, 112, 122, 127,
151, 157, 158, 164, 190, 191,
192

Vishnu, 138, 235, 238, 253

78 Vitellius,

Vivien de Saint- Martin, 81

Arabian, 42, Calenian,77 Falemian, 77

77

323

wine

"

continued
77

Yule, 24, 42,

77 77

Col.

Henry, 123,
203, 242,
268 269

66,
155,

70,

80,

84, 170, 237,

Italian, 24, Laodicean, Statanian,

of of of of of of of of

92,
77

144, 205,

157,
235,

202, 241,

234,
272

248,

Damascus, dates, Greece,

77 77

Yiimenhsien,

Yiimen-kivan,
Yunnan,
77 Za Za 273

raisins, 76, 191 Spain and Gaul, Surrentum,

the the Roman Seine
77

Adp-aba, Agba, Awtet,

Beesi
67 67

67

republic,
and 118

77
77

Za

Moselle,

Zabaesi
Za

Bazen, Angaba,

9,

67 67

Witwatersrand, wood-oil, wolves, wool,

woolen
261

248

71,

72,

76,
257

157,

257

67 Demahe, Zafar (see Saphar) 67 Zagdur,

Za

cloth,
277

Za

Hakale,
75

9, 10,

66,

67

ITu-i,
Xerxes,

Zaire,
264 112 Za Za

Zakawasya xylo-balsamimi, Yakin, Yam, Yangtse Yarab, Yarkand,

yarn, 61

b'Axum,
67 67 67

67

Les, 67 Makeda, Malis, Masenh,

Za the

Sea-country
123,
269
165 149

(see

Bit-

Za

Yakin), Yang-knjjan^ Yarub,

Zambesi

River,
88,
139,

98,

99

Zanzibair

(see Menuthias),
92,
with treaty
67 67

10, 16, 75, 101,

94,
230

96,

99,

115,

river,
268,
107 266 235

173,

107, 269,

142
270

trade

India, of,
55

99

Zaragoza,
Za Za

42

Senatu,

Yashhab, Yates,

Sutuwa,
214

Zayton,
Zazebass

Yavanas,
Yellow
268

Besedo,
Book

67

River

(see
160

Hoang-ho),

263,

Zechariah,
Zeila

of,

159

(see

Avalites), maieb),
islands

66,
139

73,

74,

75

Yemama, Yemen,

El,
103, 115,

zennclr

(see

51, 77, 104, 117, 142,

80,

89,

91,

101, 108, 130,

102,

Zenobian 144-6

(see

Genaba),

35,

106, 119, 147,

276

107, 129,
154

109, 132,
Zeus,

132
97

i40,
Yen-hsi

Zimbabwe, zinc,
69

period,
107

Yerim,
Yuan

Zoscales,
273 200

9, 10, 23, 63,

18
60 108

64,

66

Younghusband, Chwang,
263

Zosimiadon,
Zula Zul

(Adulis), Kamain, 105,

Yu-chou,
Yudhisthira,

257

Zwemer,

119,

143,

148,

156

Yueh-chi,
186,

8, 9, 187,

165,
263

166,

167,

185,