1

GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION OF FAILED PORTIONS OF IFE-IFEWARA, OGBAAGBA-IKIRE ILE AND EDE-IWO ROADS IN OSUN STATE, SOUTHWEST NIGERIA BY MAGBAGBEOLA, FIYINFOLUWA ADEOLU

AGY/ 07/ 0830

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED GEOLOGY, THE FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, AKURE IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY (B. TECH) DEGREE IN APPLIED GEOLOGY

August, 2011

CERTIFICATION
I hereby certify that this project was carried out by Mr. Fiyinfoluwa A. Magbagbeola (AGY/07/0830) of the Department of Applied geology, Federal University of Technology, Akure and that to the best of my knowledge has not been submitted elsewhere for the award of a degree.

---------------------------------------------Mr. J.O. Owoseni Project Supervisor

ABSTRACT
Failure of highway pavements is a common phenomenon on almost all major highways in Nigeria. A brief field investigation on different sections of the Ife-Ifewara, Ede-Iwo and Ikire IleOgbaagba roads in Osun State, South western Nigeria revealed that the road was strongly deformed by pavement rutting, pothole development and corrugation as a result of different factors deteriorating the highway structural section and its poor physical properties. The factors resulting in the failure of these roads were entirely geotechnical which was as a result of the negligence of the construction engineers. This report gives details on what geotechnical parameters resulted in the failing of these roads. Tests were carried out on two different failed sections and one stable section on each road to compare their geotechnical properties. Geotechnical tests carried out include Atterberg Limits, Natural Moisture Content, Linear Shrinkage, Particle Size Analysis, Permeability, Specific Gravity, Compaction, California Bearing Ratio, Unconfined compressive stresses and Triaxial shear Strength tests. Chemical compositions of Iron, Silica and Alumina were also determined. The tests revealed that the failed sections along the road linking Ife to Ifewara were as a result of their low resistance to shear stresses and high moisture content. The stable portion along this road is also highly susceptible to damage because of its high liquid limit, plastic limit and linear shrinkage. Along Ede-Iwo road, failure of the unstable parts was as a result of low resistance to shear stresses, high linear shrinkage values, their non plastic nature and their large amount of fines. The failed section along the road linking Ikire Ile to Ogbaagba was as a result of high amount of fines, high natural moisture content, unsuitable linear shrinkage values and low resistance to shear stresses.

The specific gravity and compaction values of the soils were suitable and could not be used in deciphering the reasons for the stability or instability of the roads.

TABLE OF CONTENTS Title Page ................................................................................................................................... I Certification .............................................................................................................................. II Abstract .................................................................................................................................. III Table of Contents..................................................................................................................... V List of Figures ......................................................................................................................... IX List of Tables ........................................................................................................................... X Dedication ............................................................................................................................... XI Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................ XII CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Road construction .............................................................................................................. 1 1.1.1 Road bed or Sub-bed .......................................................................................................... 2 1.1.2 Base Course or Sub- base ................................................................................................... 2 1.1.3 Wearing course .................................................................................................................. 2 1.2 Road Failure ...................................................................................................................... 4 1.2.1 Geological/ Lithological Aspect ......................................................................................... 4 1.2.2 Environmental/Drainage Factor ......................................................................................... 5 1.2.3 Secondary Factors.............................................................................................................. 6 1.2.4 Features of Pavement failure ............................................................................................ 7 1.3 Location............................................................................................................................. 9 1.4 Topography ....................................................................................................................... 9 1.5 Drainage .......................................................................................................................... 12 1.6 Vegetation ....................................................................................................................... 12 1.7 Climate ............................................................................................................................. 12 1.8 Geological setting ............................................................................................................. 13

1.9 Soil ................................................................................................................................... 13 1.10 Literature Review ........................................................................................................... 15 CHAPTER TWO 2.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS ...................................................................................... 17 2.1 Site Investigation and Sampling ........................................................................................ 17 2.2 Sample Treatment ............................................................................................................. 18 2.3 Location Description ......................................................................................................... 18 2.4 Laboratory analysis ........................................................................................................... 25 2.4.1 Natural moisture Content ................................................................................................. 25 2.4.2 Wet sieve analysis for Particle Grain Size ...................................................................... 26 2.4.3 Consistency Limit Tests ................................................................................................... 27 2.4.3.1 Plastic Limit.................................................................................................................. 27 2.4.3.2 Liquid Limit Test .......................................................................................................... 28 2.4.3.3 Plasticity Index ............................................................................................................. 29 2.4.3.4 Shrinkage Limit ............................................................................................................ 30 2.4.4 Specific Gravity ............................................................................................................... 31 2.4.5 Compaction Test ............................................................................................................. 32 2.4.5.1 Significance of Field Compaction ................................................................................. 32 2.4.6 California Bearing Ratio .................................................................................................. 35 2.4.6.1 Factors affecting CBR test results ................................................................................. 36 2.4.7 Triaxial Shear Strength .................................................................................................... 36 2.4.8 Permeability..................................................................................................................... 38 2.4.9 Unconfined Compressive Strength ................................................................................... 40 2.4.10 Chemical Analysis ......................................................................................................... 40

CHAPTER THREE 3.0 DATA PRESENTATION AND INVESTIGATION ........................................................... 42 3.1 Natural Moisture Content.................................................................................................... 42 3.2 Particle Grain Size Analysis ................................................................................................ 44 3.3 Atterberg Limits ................................................................................................................. 46 3.4 Specific Gravity ................................................................................................................. 48 3.5 Permeability ....................................................................................................................... 50 3.6 Linear Shrinkage ................................................................................................................ 52 3.7 Compaction ........................................................................................................................ 54 3.8 California Bearing Ratio ..................................................................................................... 54 3.9 Unconfined Compression Strength ...................................................................................... 54 3.10 Triaxial shear strength....................................................................................................... 55 3.11 chemical analysis .............................................................................................................. 56 CHAPTER FOUR 4.0 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ................................................................................. 58 4.1 Discussion .......................................................................................................................... 58 4.1.1 Ife Ifewara Road ........................................................................................................... 60 4.1.2 Ede Iwo Road ............................................................................................................... 62 4.1.3 Ikire Ile Ogbaagba Road ............................................................................................... 63 4.2 Conclusion.......................................................................................................................... 64 REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 66 Appendix I- Atterberg Limit Tests ............................................................................................ 69 Appendix II - Particle Size Analysis ......................................................................................... 78 Appendix III California Bearing Ratio .................................................................................. 85 Appendix IV Compaction Results .......................................................................................... 94 Appendix V - Unconfined Compressive Strength Test ............................................................ 103

Appendix VI - Triaxial Shear Strength Test ............................................................................ 112

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Types of Road Pavements ............................................................................................ 3 Figure 2: Topographic Map of Osun State covering Ife ........................................................... 10 Figure 3: Map of Osun State covering Ede and Ogbaagba ........................................................ 11 Figure 4: Geologic Map of Study area. .................................................................................... 14 Figure 5: Location Ife B1 along Ife-Ifewara road ...................................................................... 22 Figure 6: Location Ife B2 along Ife-Ifewara road ...................................................................... 22 Figure 7: Location Ife G1 along Ife-Ifewara road ...................................................................... 22 Figure 8: Location Ede B1 along Ede-Iwo road ........................................................................ 23 Figure 9: Location Ede B2 along Ede-Iwo road ........................................................................ 23 Figure 10: Location Ede G1 along Ede-Iwo road ...................................................................... 23 Figure 11: Location Ogba B1 along Ikire Ile-Ogbaagba road .................................................... 24 Figure 12: Location Ogba G1 along Ikire Ile-Ogbaagba road .................................................... 24

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LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Natural Moisture Content of the samples .................................................................... 43 Table 2: Particle Size Analysis Data ......................................................................................... 45 Table 3: Atterberg Limits of the various samples ...................................................................... 47 Table 4: Specific gravity data from the various samples ........................................................... 49 Table 5: Permeability data ....................................................................................................... 51 Table 6: Linear shrinkage results .............................................................................................. 53 Table7: Summary of the geotechnical properties and chemical compositions of the various samples ...................................................................................................................... 57 Table 8: Federal Government of Nigeria Standard Specifications For Pavement Design (Madedor, 1983) ......................................................................................................... 59 Table 9: Expected Specific Gravity Values ............................................................................... 59

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DEDICATION
This report is dedicated to the Lord Almighty, the provider of wisdom and knowledge. The report is also dedicated to my parents, Mr. & Mrs. Magbagbeola, for their immense support and encouragement financially and spiritually.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I give the Almighty God all my gratitude for His inestimable mercies upon me and for seeing me through my first degree program. I am grateful to my supervisor, Mr. J.O. Owoseni, for ensuring that I prepare a proper write-up in presenting this project. I am very grateful for his guidance towards the completion of the project. A big thank you goes to Mr. S.K. Alabi for guiding me through all laboratory procedures. To the Dean of the School of Earth and Mineral Sciences, Prof. J.A. Adekoya, the Head of Department of Applied Geology, Dr S.A Opeloye, Dr A.Y. Asiwaju- Bello, Dr. A.Y.B. Anifowose, Dr F.U. Ashidi, Dr G.O Jegede, Dr C.T. Okonkwo, Dr. P.S.Ola, Mr. A. Adetunji, Mr. S.O Olabode, Mr. M.O Adepoju, Mr. Adisa, Mrs. Ogunlabi, and all technologists, may God reward you bountifully. I appreciate my loving parents, Mr. and Mrs. Magbagbeola for their endless support towards the success of my chosen career. A big thank you goes to my siblings, Tolu, Ore, Ibukun and Bisola for their thoughtful gestures towards the success of my career. A heartfelt gratitude goes to the families of Evang. And Evang. Mrs. Ayo. Alagbe, Eng. Akinhanmi, my roommates, Yinka and Tolu and my friends, Seun Aro,, Toke, Saheed, Goodness, Gbolahan, Gbenga, David, Speaker,Bode and Layi.

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CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Road transport is the most widely used of all modes of transport in Nigeria. Recent development in Nigeria indicate that the future major investments within the transport sector will be on road construction and all other post construction activities to keep the road in good performance over a relatively long period of time A road stretch is regarded to have failed when a part or all the parts of the road surface or any part of the roads structural section or the entire road prism or pavement at any point along the highway is deformed or rendered unmotorable or partly motorable. The highway system is the primary mode for movement of passengers and freight in Nigeria (Arumala and Akpokodge 1987). When a road fails, it results into frequent motor accidents that may claim several lives and the loss of goods. Therefore, there is the need to investigate and carefully study the geotechnical causes of the sporadic failure of highway pavements in south western Nigeria (Jegede 1998, 1999).

1.1

Road Construction
Road, path established over land for the passage of vehicles, people, and animals. Roads provide dependable pathways for moving people and goods from one place to another. They range in quality from dirt paths to concrete-paved multilane highways. To support heavy vehicles moving at high speeds, a modern road is made up of several layers. Each layer helps the layers above it support the weight and pressure of moving traffic. Roads that carry more traffic at higher speeds, like highways, are built to stronger standards than roads that carry less traffic, such as rural collector roads. The number of layers in a road often depends on the intended use of the road, but generally roads have

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three distinct layers. From bottom to top, the layers are the roadbed or sub-grade, the base course or the sub-base, and the wearing course. 1.1.1 Roadbed or Sub-grade. The roadbed is the very bottom layer of a road. Natural soil is the most common roadbed material. The roadbed is shaped to make a smooth, level surface that will support the layers built over it. Engineers use bulldozers and other construction equipment to distribute soil evenly along the roadbed. If a road is planned through an area where the natural landscape is uneven, soil can be removed or filled in as needed to obtain a level surface. 1.1.2 Base course or Sub-base The base course rests directly on top of the roadbed and is often made up of compacted gravel. If the roadbed material itself is suitable, it may be treated, or stabilized, and used as the base. Soil can be stabilized by adding or mixing materials such as calcium chloride, bituminous material, lime, or Portland cement to the soil. For very inexpensive, light-traffic roads, stabilized soil alone can suffice as the finished road surface. Drain plastic pipes are usually installed within the base course to control rain and moisture drainage. Without adequate drainage, roads may buckle or collapse as water swells from the ground underneath. Some roads include a second base layer, called the top course, for extra support. 1.1.3 Wearing Course A roads top layer, which directly supports moving vehicles, is called the wearing course. It is made of a solid layer of pavement and is designed to be smooth and to withstand erosion from traffic and weather. Two main types of pavements are used bituminous or flexible pavement and concrete or rigid pavement. Bituminous pavement is

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cheaper and easier to construct, but it requires more maintenance. Concrete pavement lasts for a very long time with minimal upkeep but is much more expensive and timeconsuming to build.

Flexible Pavement

Rigid Pavement

Figure 1:Types of Road Pavement

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1.2

Road Failure Road pavement failure is a common phenomenon on almost all highways and local road is many parts of the world e.g. Nigeria. The causes of these highway pavement failures still remain the main focus of research in different research institutions at both national and international level. Highway pavement failures caused mainly by groundwater activities (groundwater ingress into the highway structural section) and poor soil physical properties. Factors commonly responsible for road failure include Change in Moisture level Changes in strength of the roadbed(due to action of traffic with time) Inadequate compaction Low pavement thickness Selection of poor materials for construction Environment condition of road alignment and carriage way Inadequate width of the road shoulder

The above given factors have been grouped under three major major factors. 1.2.1 Geological/Lithological Aspect Variation in textural and mineralogical composition of highway embankment and nature of the sub-grade can induce road failure. Different minerals respond to weathering processes differently, feldspar is easily weathered while quartz is highly resistance to weathering. Highway cut slope that is made up of pegmatite whose surface is not stabilized will be easily degraded by weathering, causing movement of weathered

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material, which may, with time seal up highway shoulder areas, as a result of the above given factors, various types of road failures have been recognized. Similarly, the mineralogical composition of granite, which is often used as road chippings for base or/and sub-base material often assist highway pavement failure. Its mineral contents are feldspar, quartz, biotite, muscovite, and hornblende. Biotite and muscovite are platy minerals which are easily weathered and erodible, particularly in humid environments. In a situation where the bulk of the granite is made up of biotite and muscovite (platy minerals which are easily weathered and eroded) this reduces the bearing strength of the granite chipping as road construction material because the density of vehicle traffic may cause highway made of such granite chippings to fail (Arumala and Akpokodje, 1987). This occurrence is common in highly trafficated highways. The geotechnical characteristics of the soil material have indicated substandard paring properties for many roads leading to poor performance of roads, for example cohesive soil material used for some roads have excess fine material for mechanically stable base course materials e.g. Nigeria specification value of fine materials is less than 15%. If it is about 30% - 40% it will be a contributory factor to the incidence of highway failure. 1.2.2 Environmental/Drainage Factor High rainfall, high topography, high water table, poor hydrological study of highway route and its immediate environment including lack of drainage facilities are responsible in part or whole for failure of highways. For example, high rainfall and high topography may combine to give high and fast rainfall run offs that are likely or that may facilitate and induce failure of road pavement . Presence of water in the lower layers of the road

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structure may cause highway pavement failure. Water ingress into lower layers of the road structure may weaken the base or sub-base layers. The presence of water in the road structure can be caused by high water table, springs or seepage and percolation through the surface. Ignorance of groundwater conditions resulting from poor hydrological studies of the roads immediate environments at pre-construction levels, as well as lack of adequate drainage facilities may also lead to highway pavement failure 1.2.3 Secondary Factors Other factors which are not strictly technical but essential anthropogenic include the rush put on contractors by the government whereby a contract awarded for three years duration is suddenly reduced to one year or even in some cases to nine months for political reasons; this seriously affects the quality and thoroughness of job done. Any type of defects may be expected from any job that is not thoroughly accomplished. Similarly, award of contracts to incompetent contractors as a result of kickbacks the offer is also part of humanly induced factors responsible for road failure in Nigeria. Often times, some of the incompetent contractors dilute binders (i.e. asphalt/bitumen). When this is done, the binders no longer bind adequately as they ought to and this may result in highway failure. Also, spilling of diesel oil (gear oil) and hydraulic oil from vehicle plying the road has been reported to weaken the wearing course of a road structure particularly when they drop on wearing course. Roots of plants growing into a road shoulder have been known to cause highway failure particularly when the roots extend to the lower layers of the road structure. All these result from the lack of routine clearing of vegetation along the immediate edges of the road.

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1.2.4 Features of Pavement Failure A. CRACKS: These are small openings or joints which develop on the surface of the highway pavement. The joints are usually displayed in different geometrical forms on the surfacing of the highway pavement. These different patterns have been used to distinguish the various cracks. Some of these include Alligator Cracks - These are cracks forming a series of small blocks similar to an alligator skin. This type of crack is believed to be caused by the failure of the subgrade or base as a result of saturation of the granular material with which the road is constructed. Edge Cracks- These usually appear as longitudinal cracks close to the edge of the pavement. This type of crack manifests in such a way that there is a depression of the pavement between the crack and the edge. Edge cracks are essentially products of inadequate shoulder support or failure of the lower layer of the road structure.(Arumala and Akpokodje, 1987). Joint Cracks- This type of cracks appear along the road beteen two lanes of paving. The main cause of this pavement defect can be attributed to generally poor bond between paving sequences due to improper compaction. Reflection Cracks This type is revealed by repetition or reflection of cracks in the old surface of pavement. This cause is similar to that of joint cracks described above. Shrinkage Cracks This type of cracks develops primarily on the surface of pavements constructed on an expansive or active sub-grade material which is sufficiently cohesive. B. CORRUGATION: These are uneven topography or at best, waves across the road which are not parallel to the centerline of the road. The main causes of this road defect

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can be attributed to types of traffic, their density and the soil type forming the subgrade layer of the road structure. It is also known that fast moving heavy vehicles on granular soils promote the most rapid formation of corrugations. In addition, lack of stability mix and dusty clippings can equally assist the developments of corrugations on road pavement. (Gidigasu, 1974). C. BLEEDING: This is the appearance of a shiny film of asphalt on the surface of the road. It may manifest in form of patches or lines. The main causes are the use of too much asphalt, wrong grade or type of asphalt, and user of dusty chippings. D. STRIPPING: This type of highway defect is associated with the loss of chippings in lines or stripes along the road parallel to the centerline of the road. This Type of pavement defect is caused by the following factors; bad chipping distribution over the roadway which might have emanated from faulty adjustment of nozzles of the distributor of chippings distribution equipment. E. POTHOLES: Potholes are major pavement defect. Morphologically, they are pot shaped holes that develop on the road surface. Potholes are caused by wheel loads of the vehicles trafficking the road and also by the ingress into already developed cracks which later help widen the primary cracks, (Chukweze, 1988; Jegede, 1995). F. PAVEMENT RUTTING: These are depressions or channels which develop on the pavement in the wheel tracks of vehicles on the roads. Chukweze (1988a) described pavement rutting as the destruction of the paved road as aresult of or by the continued deposition of erosional debris on the road. G. INCISION: This defect develops on the road pavement as a result of the undermining and destabilization of the pavement shoulder area by flowing water current. During

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this process, soil particles at the shoulder area are removed and washed away by water current.

1.3

Location
Three roads were investigated in various parts of Osun State. Samples were collected from three different portions along each road. Samples were collected from two, different failed portions and from an intact portion, all along the same road. Roads sampled are listed below. 1. Ife to Ifewara. 2. Ikire-Ile to Ogbaagba. 3. Ede to Iwo.

1.4

Topography
The land surface is generally undulating and descends from an altitude of over 450m in ljesa area to 150m and below in the southern parts of the state. Two main relief regions may be identified; the first is the inselberg landscape which is part of the Yoruba highlands, while the second is the coastal plain. Topographic maps of the study area are shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3.

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04 30 E 07 30 N
o I

04 45 E 07 30 N
o I

B2 G1 B1

07 25 N 04 30 E
o I o

07 25 N 04 45 E
I

Figure 2: Topographic Map of Osun State covering Ife (Extracted from Sheet 263. Scale: 1:50, 000)
LEGEND

Ife Ifewara Sampling points

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04 14 E 07 45 N
o I

04 24 E 07 45 N
o I

B1 B2 G1

G1

B2 07 40 N 04 14 E
o I o I

B1 07 40 N 04 24 E
o I o I

Figure 3: Topographic Map of Osun State covering Ede and Ogbaagba.(Extracted from Sheet 242. Scale: 1:50, 000)
LEGEND

Ikire Ile Ogbaagba Sampling Points

Ede Iwo Sampling Points

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1.5

Drainage
Many rivers, including the Osun River from which the state derives its name, have their source in the northern part of the state. The Osun River is perennial and its volume fluctuates with seasons. The river flows through a narrow valley throughout its course across basement complex rocks. Two dams, at Ede and Ire, provide water for the inhabitants of the state.

1.6

Vegetation
The state is covered by secondary forest and in the northern part, the derived Savannah mosaic predominates. Originally, virtually all parts of the state have a natural lowland tropical rain forest vegetation; but this has since given way to secondary forest re-growths. Among the reasons for this are fuel wood production, road construction, clay and sand quarrying and traditional farming practices.

1.7

Climate
The study area belongs to a tropical climatic province within the tropical rainforest region of south western Nigeria. This is a tropical climate with a dry and wet season in the year, the duration of each season in the year being strongly determined by the behaviour of the unstable movement of the tropical air masses. The climatic activities of the fontal earmarks are influenced by the climatic variations within major climatic regions. In the tropical climates, the dry season occurs between November and March while the wet season starts fro April to October. The mean annual rainfall ranges between 1500mm and 2000mm, with an average number of 90 wet days. The rainfall intensity usually has two peaks, one in early August and the other in mid-October, a

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little dry season occurring in between August and late September. This is referred to as the August drought. The temperature is relatively high throughout the year. The mean minimum temperature range from 190 C and 220C and the mean maximum temperature ranges from 320C and 350C.

1.8

Geological Setting
The state is underlain by metamorphic rocks of the basement complex, which outcrop over many parts. Rocks of the basement complex found here are schists, associated with quartzite ridges of the type found in llesa area. The metamorphic rocks are largely undifferentiated, but two specific rock groups may still be identified.

The first group consists of the migmatite complex, including banded magmatic and auburn gneisses and pegmatites with outcrops in llesa and lfe Areas. Metasediments consisting of schists and quartzites, calcsilicates, metaconglomerates, amphibiolites and metamorphic iron beds make up the second group. They are found in two and lkire areas. Other parts of the state are underlain by undifferentiated metamorphic rocks

1.9

Soil
The soils belong to the highly ferruginous tropical red soils associated with basement complex rocks. As a result of the dense humid forest cover in the area, the soils are generally deep and of two types, namely, deep clayey soils formed on low smooth hill crests and upper slopes; and the more sandy, hill wash soils on the lower slopes.

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4 14.27 E
o I

4 26.27 E

4 38.27 E

4 50.27 E 7 54.15 N
o I

7 42.15 N

7 30.15 N

7 18.15 N

Porphyritic Granite Banded Gneiss Granite Gneiss Schist

Medium Grained Biotite gneiss Quartz Diorite Granodiorite Porphyroblastic Gneiss

Ife Sampling Points

Ede Sampling Points

Ogbaagba Sampling Points

SCALE

3.25 Km

Migmatite

Figure 4: Geologic Map of Study area

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1.10 Literature Review

Failure of highway is a common occurrence in Nigeria. Various reasons are known to induce highway pavement failure (Chukweze, 1988). However, the pertinent factors influencing failure of highway pavements cannot be controlled without evaluating the geotechnical properties of the soil materials used in construction of the roads. Jegede (1995) observed that the soil material properties at the failed sections of the road have usually not been thoroughly investigated. When the pavement has failed, maybe not completely, but in a major way, it is no longer able to absorb and transmit the wheel loading through the road fabric without causing a fairly rapid further deterioration of the pavement. He also stated that bath-tub condition which is developed as a result of the effect of ground water on pavement failures would widen primary cracks and redevelop into potholes which are a paramount defect feature.. Water that enters the road pavement from the surface must have a drainage path out. Once water has entered a road pavement., its damage is initially caused by hydraulic pressure that is, vehicles passing over the road pavement impacts considerable sudden pressure on the water; this pressure forces the water further into the road fabric and breaks it up. This process can be very rapid once it begins. Eventually, the water will descend to the sub-grade layer below the road pavement and weaken the layer thus lowering the CBR of the sub-grade which the road pavement was designed upon and deep seated failure of the road will begin. Although the road is paved to extend the life span, usability and has also been designed to last several years, cracks and potholes had often succeeded in destabilizing it (Jegede, 2000). This thesis shows results of studies of the engineering geological causes

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of the failure of the paved roads between Ife and Ifewara, Ede and Iwo as well as between Ikire-Ile and Ogbaagba, all in Osun State, South Western Nigeria.

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CHAPTER TWO
2.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS
The field work was carried out by traversing from one location to the other along the road using a vehicle. The topographic map of the area was used employed for direction and locating case study sites along the road. The study involved personal observation of the different rock, where available, as well as the various soil types. Locations where soil samples were collected were the failed portions of the roads where potholes and other features associated with road failures were present. Samples were collected from two different failed portions along the same road. A third sample was collected along the same roads where features of road failure were not present. The third sample was collected so that its engineering properties can be compared to that of those samples that failed. A GPS was used in locating the sampling points on the topographic map. Other equipments used in sampling include shovels, diggers, a digital camera, field notebook, cutlass and sampling bags.

2.1

Site investigation and Sampling

The research involved extensive road mapping, visual inspections in order to observe and map highway deficiencies such as cracks, potholes, failed areas within the highway structural section along the different roads selected.. the sampling points were located on maps using the GPS. Bulk disturbed samples were collected for laboratory analysis from one meter beneath the surface adjacent to the failed road sections. The samples were extracted

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using diggers and shovels and were preserved in polythene bags to reduce moisture loss and ensure good preservation en route to the lab. 2.2

Sample Treatment
Apart from storing the disturbed samples in polythene bags and labeling, some of the samples were air dried to ensure easy pulverization. This was done after the natural moisture content of the samples had been determined for each sample.

2.3

Location Description
B1 Failed Portion 1 B2 Failed Portion 2 G1 Good Portion 1 Ife Ifewara Road Ife B1- Figure 5 Attitude: E 004 36.782, N 07 28.174, 291m Failure Type: Potholes Sample Description: The soil is very sandy with minor amount of fine gravels. It is dark brown in colour and matrix supported. Ife B2-Figure 6 Attitude: E 004 34.732, N 07 28.779, 275m Failure Type: Potholes.
0 0 0 0

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Sample Description: Light brown in colour and is made up almost entirely of sand with some fine gravels. The soil is matrix supported. Ife G1- Figure 7 Attitude: E 004 35.782, N 07 28.426, 298m Failure Type: None. Sample Description: The soil here is matrix supported. It contains some gravels but it is essentially brown coloured sand. Ikire Ile Ogbaagba Road Ogba B1-Figure 8 Attitude: E 004 14.905, N 07 42.355, 287m Failure Type: Potholes. Sample Description: Light coloured gravelly sand with a medium to coarse grained texture. The soil is matrix supported. Ogba B2- Figure 9 Attitude: E 004 14.716, N 07 42.565, 292m Failure Type: Potholes Sample Description: Light brown coloured medium to coarse grained sand with some gravels. It is matrix supported.
0 0 0 0 0 0

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Ogba G1-Figure 10 Attitude: E 004 15.603, N 07 43.043, 311m Failure Type: None Sample Description: It is a dark brown coloured soil with a medium to coarse grained texture. It contains some gravel and is matrix supported. Ede Iwo Road Ede B1- Figure 11 Attitude: E 004 20.214, N 07 04.052, 292m Failure Type: Potholes Sample Description: It is a highly micaceous soil with a matrix supported fabric. Light brown to red coloured sand. It has a medium to coarse grained texture. Ede B2- Figure 12 Attitude: E 004 18.402, N 07 44.367, 286m Failure Type: Potholes Sample Description: It is a light brown coloured soil with a matrix supported texture. It is a medium to coarse grained sand with some gravel. Ede G1 Attitude: E 004 16.495, N 07 43.289, 290m
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

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Failure Type: None Sample Description: It is light brown in colour and matrix supported. It is fine to medium grained sand with minor gravel.

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Figure 5: Location Ife B1 along Ife-Ifewara road Figure 6: Location Ife B2 along Ife-Ifewara road

Figure 7: Location Ife G1 along Ife-Ifewara road

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Figure 8: Location Ede B1 along Ede-Iwo road

Figure 9: Location Ede B2 along Ede-Iwo road

Figure 10: Location Ede G1 along Ede-Iwo road

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Plate 7: Location Ogba B1 along Ikire Ile-Ogbaagba road

Plate 8: Location Ogba G1 along Ikire Ile-Ogbaagba road

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2.4

Laboratory Analysis
The laboratory tests carried out on soil samples collected includes natural moisture content, particle size analysis, specific gravity, Atterberg Limits, linear shrinkage, standard compaction, California Bearing Ratio (CBR), Shear Strength, Permeability and UCS. Chemical analysis was also carried out to determine the silica, alumina and Iron Oxide content of the soil. These mechanical tests were carried out in accordance with the procedures specified in BS 1377, 1975.

2.4.1 Natural Moisture Content This test was carried out to determine the water content of a soil sample as it was sampled in the field or at the moment of testing for the accurate determination of in-situ water content. The samples were kept in polythene bags to ensure that the samples did not lose any of its natural moisture content before the test was carried out. The samples were air dried immediately after determining its water content in preparation for other tests. APPARATUS Moisture content cans, Moisture content cans, electric weighing balance with a sensitivity of 0.01g, oven (24 hr at 105C 5C) , and soil samples. PROCEDURE An empty can of known mass (M1) is filled with a representative quality of the sample. The sample can with the wet sample is weighed (M2) and oven dried for 24hrs at 105oC. The can with the oven dried soil was taken out, allowed to cool and reweighed (M3). The mass of the dried sample is calculated from the mathematical expression;

38

Moisture Content, W% =

100

3 2 3 1

100

Where

M1 = Mass of Can M2 = Mass of Can + Wet Soil M3= Mass of Can + Oven Dry Soil

2.4.2

Wet Sieve Analysis for Particle Grain Size The wet sieving method covers the quantitative determination of the particle size distribution of the soil down to fine size. This test is aimed at determining the percentage distribution of various particles sizes. APPARATUS Set of sieves, weighing balance (sensitive to 0.01g), metal can, plastic containers and oven. PROCEDURE 200g of the soil sample was weighed (M1) for each sample. This was soaked in plastic container and covered with water. The sample was allowed to stand for 24hrs. The sample was washed gradually using 2mm, 425m and 63m sieve BS sieves. The soil passing through the 63m sieve was allowed to waste. The washing was continued until the water passing through the sieves was clean. The retained soil in the sieves were then tipped into the evaporation dish and dried in the oven at 105 oC for a day. The dried

39

sample was weighed (M2) and the mass of the washed particles (M3) was obtained by subtracting M2 from M1. Each of the sieves was weighed and stacked according to the size of 2mm sieve being on top and 63m at the bottom (including the pan); the stacked sieve was placed in a shaker which is mechanically operated. The washed soil was placed in the shaker which was allowed to shake for seven minutes. The shaker was stopped and the amount retained on each sieve was weighed with the sieve. The actual weight was obtained by subtracting the weight of the sieve from the sieve and the sample. Results are expressed as percentages of total materials passing each sieve and are plotted on the semi-log graph against sizes.

Percentage retained on each sieve =

100

The result of particle size analysis is of most value when used for classification. It is used as a means of quality control for soil materials. It helps in determining the size and percentage of coarse or fine materials needed to obtain a dense impermeable road pavement and can also be used to estimate the permeability of a soil. 2.4.3 Consistency Limit Tests The amount of water in a soil determines the state in which the soil will exist. Hence, consistency limits is that property of a soil, which is manifested by its resistance to flow. If water is added to a soil continuously, a limit will be reached when particles will slide past each other more easily. The behavior of soil is therefore related to the moisture content of the soil. These limits were defined by Atterberg are as follows.

40

Liquid limit: The boundary between the liquid and the plastic states. Plastic Limit: The boundary between the plastic and semi solid states. Shrinkage limit: The boundary between the semi solid and solid states .

2.4.3.1 Plastic Limit This is the water content at which the soil begins to crumble when rolled into a thread of 3mm size. It is the lowest moisture content at which the soil is plastic. APPARATUS Glass plate, moisture can, soil mixing equipment, spatula, plastic squeeze bottle, balance, sieve, pan and oven. PROCEDURE A small quantity of sample was taken from the soil sample passing through 425m sieve and was mixed thoroughly with water on a glass plate until it becomes homogenous and plastic enough to be shape into a ball. The soil was the rolled with a constant pressure, into thread of about 3mm in diameter between the finger and the glass plate until the heat of the hand had dried the soil sufficiently for slight cracks to appear on its surface. A representative sample was taken from the crumbling part for moisture content determination. The procedure was repeated to obtain two readings of which the average was taken as the plastic limit (PL) of the soil. 2.4.3.2 Liquid Limit Test Liquid limit is the water content at which the soil will flow under its own weight. This is carried out using the Cassagrande apparatus. It involves the measurement of the moisture content at a consistency such that the groove made in the soil paste closes.

41

APPARATUS Apparatus used include Cassagrande apparatus with its grooving tool, water, a glass plate, sample cans, weighing balance and oven.

PROCEDURE Some quantity of the sample was taken from the material passing through the 425m BS sieve. The sieved material is then put on the glass plate and mixed with water until a fine paste is formed. Some quantity of the paste is placed in the cup of the Cassagrande apparatus and leveled using the spatula. The grooving tool is then carefully used to make a groove through it. Blows are then applied to the material in the cup by winding the handle of the Cassagrande apparatus until the groove closes and corresponding number of blow is recorded. The test is done four times with more water added with each test to further increase its moisture content. Four moisture contents are determined by varying limit ranges on the number of blows and the average taken. A linear graph is then plotted on a semi graph paper, with the moisture content on the arithmetical scale and number of blows on the log scale. From this, the liquid limit is taken as the moisture content corresponding to the intersection of the linear graph with the 25 blows on the ordinate scale. 2.4.3.3 Plasticity Index The plasticity index of a sample is the mathematical difference between its liquid limit and plastic value. This is the average of moisture content over which the soil is plastic.

42

= 2.4.3.4 Shrinkage Limit The shrinkage limits is the water content that is just sufficient to fill the pores when the soil is at the minimum volume it will attain by over drying. It is a standard test for predicting the swelling characteristics of cohesive soils. The change in length of a bar sample of soil when dried from about its liquid limit expressed as a percentage of the initial length. APPARATUS A measuring ruler, brass mould, greases knives, drying oven temperature of about 1000C-1050C. PROCEDURE A paste of soil and water was prepared (using soil sieved with the 425m sieve); this was filled into the linear shrinkage tool (bras mould) of length 140mm, the inside of which has been initially rubbed with grease before filling up with the soil paste (to prevent the soil paste from adhering to the wall of the mould). The sample was air dried for about 20 minutes to avoid cracks. The soil was then oven dried for 24hrs at temperature of about 100 0C 105 0C shrinkage was calculated as a percentage of the original length of the specimen.
1

Linear shrinkage (L.S) =

100

Plasticity index can also be deduced from the linear shrinkage. It is given as

43

Plasticity index = 2.13 x Linear Shrinkage 2.4.4 Specific Gravity The specific gravity of a soil is defined as the ratio of the weight of the sample in air to the weight of the equivalent volume of water at the same temperature. This test necessitated the evaluation and identification of different soil types. Specific gravity can also be used in relating the weight of soil to its volume. APPARATUS The Pycnometer bottle (Glass jar), weighing balance, distilled water, soil samples. PROCEDURE The pycnometer method was used in the determination of the specific gravity of the soil samples collected; this method entails four steps which are explained thus: 1. A clean pycnometer (glass jar with lid) was weighed on an electronic balance and the weight recorded as M1. 2. Pre dried soil sample of an amount around 50g was placed in the pycnometer and from the combined mass of soil and pycnometer (with lid), M2 was determined. 3. The pycnometer containing the sample was the filled to approximately half way with water and was shaken vigorously for about 10 minutes in order to get rid of entrapped air. It was later filled to the brim and the exterior of the pycnometer was dried before the new weight, M3 was recorded. 4. After emptying, washing and drying, the pycnometer was refilled with water and the weight of the pycnometer (with lid) and water was taken as M4.

44

The specific gravity (Gs) of the sample was found by substituting the various figures obtained above into the specific gravity expression.
21 41 (32)

Gs =

Where

M1= Mass of glass jar + lid M2 = Mass of glass jar + lid + soil M3 = Mass of glass jar + lid + soil + water M4 = Mass of glass jar +lid + water only

Where M1, M2 and M3 are recorded masses, therefore specific gravity can be regarded as a measurement of density of a soil relative to that of water. Increase in specific gravity is associated with decrease in void ratio and increase in cohesive of soil sample. Sample gravity value may be used for identifying and evaluating soils and also aggregates used for pavement construction because specific gravity values can be easily correlated with mechanical strength of such materials. 2.4.5 Compaction Test Compaction test is carried out to determine the optimum moisture that should be added above which the soil bearing capacity will reduce. It helps therefore to determine the volume change of the soil in question as affected by moisture and the bearing strength. It is carried out basically to determine the dry density, wet density and moisture content of a soil at which optimum strength of the soil could be reached. Compaction leads to reduction in the air voids because the samples are packed very closely during the process. It reduces settlement, increase the stability of the soil and reduces the

45

tendency of the material to absorb water. The principle of modern compaction was developed by Proctor, who said that compaction is a function of four (4) variables: 1. 2. 3. 4. Dry density Water content (moisture) Compaction Soil type

Below are the standards for the BS compaction: BS Mould Mass of rammer = 2.5kg Height of drop = 12cm Number of layer = 3 Number of drops = 25

APPARATUS Compaction mould with base, plate and collar, compaction rammer, moisture cans, steel straight edge, large mixing pan and large spoon for dispensing soil, spatula and trowel, flat metal plate, water bottle and soil specimen (samples) PROCEDURE About 3000g of soil sample is weighed out from the bulk sample of soil; a specified percentage of water is measured with respect to the sample and mixed thoroughly. This sample is divided into three portions and put inside the mould. For every portion, it is rammed with the rammer 25 times (25 blows). It should be ensured

46

that the level of the soil sample in the mould is above the first mould i.e. it must reach the collar of the mould. When this has been done, the mould is now loosened and a file is used to level up the sample to the edge of the mould. The mould and the sample is then weighed and recorded. The sample is then removed from the mould and a small portion is collected into the moisture content can and put in the oven for drying. The soil was the broken up and appropriate percentage of water was added. The process was repeated as many times as possible with representative samples taken at each time until there is a drop in weight of the samples. CALCULATIONS Weight of mould = 1523.9 = M1 Length of mould 12.7cm = M2 Diameter of mould = 10.2cm Volume of mould = Compaction effort (g/cm3) = weight of rammer x number of layer x number of drops. Bulk density, e (g/cm3) =

2 1

Dry density (Ed) =

1+

1+ % 100

The moisture content and the dry density values where used in gravity the compaction curve from which the optimum moisture content and maximum dry density where then deduced. 2.4.5.1 Significance of Field Compaction Compaction is highly desirable for many reasons; the most ones are shared below:

47

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

To increase strength and bearing capacity of soil It increase the stability of soils It decrease future settlement It decrease permeability of the compacted soil It decrease the absorption and effect of weathering on soil It also brings about an increase in the dry density of the soil

2.4.6 California Bearing Ratio (CBR) The procedure for carrying out the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test is the same as that of the compaction test. The difference lies in the size of mould used which is the standard mould for California Bearing Ratio (CBR) and the rammer used. In this test, about 6000g of soil sample is used and a specified percentage of water is measured with respect to the sample. The sample is divided into five portions and put inside the mould. For every portion, it is rammed with the rammer 55times (55blows) and the whole process is carried only once per same sample APPARATUS CBR mould, CBR rammer, moisture cans, steel straight edge, large mixing pan and large spoon for dispensing soil, spatula and trowel, flat metal plate, water bottle and soil specimen (samples). PROCEDURE The California Bearing Ratio was carried out in accordance with BS 1377 (1975) procedure contemporaneously with compaction test. The mould containing the specimen with the top and bottom face exposed was placed on the lower plates of the CBR testing machine. Surcharge masses were placed on the specimen while the plunger and dial

48

gauges were set zero millimeters. The plunger was made to penetrate the specimen at a uniform rate of 1mm / min. The reading of the force was taken at intervals of 0.5mm. The plunger was then raised and the mould was removed and inverted so that the bottom face now becomes the top face and the whole process is repeated. After the penetration test was completed, samples were taken from penetrated surface of both ends for moisture content determination The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) values were calculated at 2.5mm and 5.0mm penetration respectively. The greater of the two values expressed in percentages, is usually considered as the recorded CBR of the soil.
2.5

CBR=

2.5

100

This calculation is also carried out for 5mm penetration. 2.4.6.1 Factors Affecting CBR Test Results 1. Methods of compaction i.e. whether a more uniformly compared mixture is obtain in the specimen. 2. Unit weight increase with strength. If care is not taken errors can be recorded. 3. The condition of materials at time of testing. 4. The desired CBR should be assessed to the compaction of road works. The selection of moisture content required an understanding of the way in which moisture moves within a soil. 2.4.7 Triaxial Shear Strength This experiment was carried out to determine the degree of resistance of the sample to shear stress. The test involves the measurement of the effective shear strength

49

parameters for cylindrical specimens of saturated soil which have been subjected to isotopic consolidation and then sheared in compression, under a constant confining pressure, by increasing the axial strain. APPARATUS Triaxial Test Machine with its accessories and a hollow cylindrical pipe, 3.956cm in diameter. PROCEDURE The sample is prepared by compressing the moist sample of the soil in a hollow cylindrical pipe, 3.965cm in diameter and with a height of about 7cm The sample is enclosed in a thin rubber membrane, which is sealed against the pedestal and the top cap on the sample by rubber O-rings. The sample is placed on the base plate of a triaxial cell. The removable cap of the cell is placed over the sample and the total triaxial cell is placed in the triaxial frame. The cell can be filled with (de-aired) water, and with the air regulator we can established the desired cell pressure. A piston, movable with little friction through a bush in the top cap of the triaxial cell, rests on the top cap of the sample. The upper end of the piston touches a dynamometer, consisting of a metal ring and a dial gauge, which measures the decrease in vertical diameter when a force is applied to the ring. The force is found by multiplying the dial gauge reading by a calibration constant. The triaxial frame has a stepper motor and screw jack assembly, which can provide a constant platen speed. This causes a compression of both dynamometer and sample. The rate at which the sample is compressed is depending on the kind test, and type of material to be tested. A dial gauge just below the dynamometer measures the settlement

50

of the sample. With a pressure transducer, the pore pressure can be measured. Chamber pressures used were 100KPa, 200KPa and 300KPa.

CACULATIONS
After executing three (3) test with different cell pressures 1 ,2 and 3, we can calculate the deviator stress (1-3) in kPa, given by; 1000 in Kpa, where P is the axial force in N.

We then calculate axial strain = Where L= vertical deformation of the specimen. We then calculate vertical load on the specimen. Calculate corrected area of the specimen, AC =

Where = AO is the initial cross-section

Ao =

2 4

Where D = diameter of cylindrical specimen. We then calculate the stress on the specimen, = 2.4.8 Permeability This test is to determine the rate of transmissivity of water within the soil sample. The falling head permeability test is used for measuring the permeability of soils of intermediate and low permeability (less than 0.0001 m/s). A relatively short sample is connected to a standpipe, which provides both the head of water and the means of measuring the quantity of water, flowing through the sample.
Load Ao

51

This test is not covered by British Standards, or by ASTM Standards. The procedure described below follows generally accepted practice. APPARATUS Two discs of wire gauze or porous material fitting inside the cell, plenty of water supply, measuring cylinders of 100 mL, 500mL, and 1000mL capacity, plastic funnel, a scoop, stopwatch readable to 1sec., burette of mL, a retort stand and a BS mould. PROCEDURE Gaps or cavities should be well packed with the fine matrix portion of the soil. The samples were pulverized and built up by filling the permeability mould gradually. I ensured that water always covered the soil sample. The mould was filled up with water and more samples were then added to a required level. A piece of fine wire gauze was placed on top of the sand and covered by the mould cover. The burette was then connected to the mould The burette was filled to a convenient height and the hydraulic head in across sample was measured. Later, the water was allowed to flow at the same time the stopwatch was started. The water flowed through the sample to a convenient level where the stopwatch was stopped. The final head obtained was recorded. The outflow was collected in a bucket. The burette was refill to the same height since it is constant, and the test was repeated till a constant time was achieved. CALCULATION K=
2.3

Where K = Permeability in cm/s Ho = Hydraulic head across sample at beginning of test

52

H1 = Hydraulic head across sample at the end of test L= sample length T =Elapse time of test 2.4.9 Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) This experiment determines the strength of a cylindrical moulded sample when it is subjected to an axial load. The essence of unconfined compressive strength is to determine the resistance suffered/offered by a particular soil to shear strength in an unconfined condition. Unconfined Compressive Strength = 2 X Shear Strength of a clay soil. APPARATUS A cylindrical pipe used as mould, a Proctor Compressor, cylindrical samples. PROCEDURE Place the cylindrical, moulded sample into the Proctor uniaxial Compressor. Set the timer and the compressor gauge, and then begin to rotate the compressor wheel clockwisely in accordance with the movement of the stop watch. Readings are taken every 30seconds until the sample begins to crumble. At that point it can no longer withstand any further shear stress. 2.4.10 Chemical Analysis Chemical analysis of the soils was carried out to determine the Silicon, Iron and Aluminum content of the soils. The result was gotten in form of oxides. APPARATUS Polypropylene volumetric flasks with 100ml capacity with a watch glass, fume cupboards, water bath, hot plate. Reagents used include Hydrofluoric acid (HF), 48%, Perchloric acid (HClO4), 70%, and Hydrochloric acid (HCl), 6M.

53

PROCEDURE 1.0g of each sample was weighed into different volumetric flasks after they had been thoroughly pulverized. The samples were made wet with a few drops of water and 10ml of HF and 10ml of HClO4 was added to each sample. The flask was covered with a watch glass and the solution was heated to about 225OC until the sample was fully oxidized and evaporated. The flask was then removed and allowed to cool after which 10ml of 6M HCL and 10ml of distilled water was added. The solution was then heated on a water bath and allowed to boil gently until the residue was completely dissolved. The solution was then filtered through a Whatman filter paper and diluted with distilled water to 100ml. The Silicon, Aluminum and Iron contents was then determined from the solution, using an Atomic Absorption Spectrometer.

54

CHAPTER THREE
3.0 DATA PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION
The results of geotechnical properties and major element composition of the sub- soil materials used in constructing the roads are given in Table 1. 3.1 Natural Moisture Content Determination of the natural moisture content of sub base materials goes a long way in highway construction. High natural moisture content in soil reduces its strength and workability. In Ife area, the failed portions have a fairly high moisture content of 12.16% and 8.745%. The good portion in Ife area has the highest moisture content of 21.197%. In Ede area, the failed portions have moisture contents of 14.818% and 4.668%. The good portion of Ede area has a moisture content of 4.737%. In Ogbaagba area, the failed portions have the highest moisture contents of 14.374% and 10.523% while the good portion along the road has a moisture content of 8.842%. From this data, the natural moisture content of a soil can not be used only to determining the suitability of a soil for engineering purposes as some of the good portions have high moisture contents and some of the failed portions have low moisture contents. Table 1 shows the moisture contents of the soils.

55

Table 1: Natural Moisture Content of the samples.

IFE-IFEWARA TESTS CODE SAMPLE 1 (g) 23.1 24.9 18.8 85.7 158.9 120.4 80.0 148.2 105.1 5.7 SAMPLE 2 (g) 18.8 26.0 12.2 119.5 168.0 79.6 106.9 156.5 68.9 12.6 SAMPLE 1 (g) 9.3 22.7 22.6 72.0 164.7 176.5 63.7 158.3 169.2 8.3 SAMPLE 2 (g) 10.2 22.8 23.5 80.2 165.6 188.6 71.4 159.3 181.5 8.8 SAMPLE 1 (g) 20.4 22.6 22.8 148.8 130.7 165.6 132.3 120.3 153.2 16.5 SAMPLE 2 (g) 25.0 22.7 22.6 145.5 146.9 170.8 130.7 135.2 159.6 14.8 EDE-IWO IKIRE ILE-OGBAAGBA

Mass of can M1 Mass of can M1 Mass of can M1 Mass of can + wet soil M2 Mass of can + wet soil M2 Mass of can + wet soil M2 Mass of can + Oven dry soil, M3 Mass of can + Oven dry soil, M3 Mass of can + Oven dry soil, M3 Mass of Moisture, M3M2 Mass of Moisture, M3M2 Mass of Moisture, M3M2 Mass of dry soil, M3M1 Mass of dry soil, M3M1 Mass of dry soil, M3M1 Moisture Content, 100 Moisture Content, 100 Moisture Content, 100

B1 B2 G1 B1 B2 G1 B1 B2 G1 B1

B2

10.5

11.5

6.4

6.3

10.4

11.7

G1

20.3

10.7

7.3

7.1

12.4

11.2

B1 B2 G1 B1 B2 G1 B1 B2 G1

56.9 123.3 86.3 10.018% 8.678% 23.523%

88.1 130.5 56.7 14.302% 8.812% 18.871%

54.4 135.6 146.6 15.257% 4.720% 4.980%

61.2 136.5 158.0 14.379% 4.615% 4.494%

111.9 97.7 130.4 14.745% 10.645% 9.509%

105.7 112.5 137.0 14.002% 10.4% 8.175%

Ave. Moisture Content, % Ave. Moisture Content, % Ave. Moisture Content, %

12.16% 8.745% 21.197%

14.818% 4.668% 4.737%

14.374% 10.523% 8.842%

56

3.2 Particle Grain Size Analysis Particle size analysis is essentially used in the classification and description of soils. The information obtained from the grain size analysis is used in determine the relative proportions of the various grain sizes present in the samples. Generally, a soil with a high percentage of fines is mostly not suitable for construction purposes as it is susceptible to volume change with time. Particle size curves are shown in appendix II. The percentage passing of each sample is presented in Table 2.

57

Table 2: Particle Size Analysis Data.

Percentage Passing
Sieve Sizes(mm) IFE B1 IFE B2 IFE G1 EDE B1 EDE B2 EDE G1 OGBA OGBA OGBA B1 B2 G1

4.750

84.7

90.7

75.4

66.9

87.8

84.2

77.4

94.2

85.2

2.360

77.0

86.0

63.2

50.4

81.7

76.2

66.1

91.4

77.8

1.180

72.1

76.3

56.2

37.8

75.4

66.8

58.9

82.7

67.5

0.850

69.7

70.0

53.6

33.8

70.5

61.0

56.3

74.7

61.3

0.425

60.0

51.6

47.3

28.2

52.3

46.4

49.8

68.9

47.4

0.300

49.9

40.4

43.0

25.6

41.6

38.0

45.4

54.5

39.3

0.150

30.0

25.8

34.2

20.7

25.1

22.7

36.4

46.7

26.0

0.075 <0.075

19.8 -

17.7 -

27.8 -

16.4 -

15.5 -

13.4 -

29.8 -

33.6 -

18.9 -

58

3.3 Atterberg Limits The consistency limits obtained provide a brief summary of the engineering properties of the soil (Cassagrande, 1947). The graphs or the Atterberg limits are presented in appendix I. The values of the Atterberg limit for the various soils are presented in Table 3. In Ife area, the liquid limits of the soils are fairly high with the liquid limit of the good portion of the road being higher than that of the failed portion. The failed portions in Ife area are not plastic while the good portion has a plastic limit of 36.7%. In Ede area, the soils are non plastic. One of the failed portions has a fairly high liquid limit of 41.2%. The other failed portion and the good portion have liquid limits of 23.5% and 22.1% respectively. In Ogbaagba, the failed portions have fairly high liquid limit of 41.1% and 34.3% with plastic limits of 22.1% and 7.1% respectively.

59

Table 3: Atterberg Limits of the various samples.

Sample Ife B1 Ife B2 Ife G1 Ede B1 Ede B2 Ede G1 Ogba B1 Ogba B2 Ogba G1

Liquid Limit Plastic Limit (%) (%) 25.8 24.8 46.7 41.2 23.5 22.1 41.1 34.3 35.9 Non Plastic Non Plastic 36.7 Non Plastic Non Plastic Non Plastic 22.1 7.7 2.42

Plasticity Index Non Plastic Non Plastic 10.0 Non Plastic Non Plastic Non Plastic 19.1 26.7 11.2

60

3.4 Specific Gravity The specific gravity results are very similar to that gotten by various workers in the basement complex of Nigeria. The high values are as a result of the heavy mineral content of the underlying basement rocks. High specific gravity values indicate high strength (Jegede, 1998). In Ife area, the specific gravity values range between 2.65 and 2.66. In Ede, the specific gravity value of 2.77 is because of its high mica content. In Ogbaagba area, the specific gravity values range between 2.64 and 2.66. On the basis of the gotten specific gravity values, the suitability of the soils for engineering purposes is okay. The specific gravity data is presented on Table 4.

61

IFE-IFEWARA TESTS
CODE
SAMPLE 1 (g) B1 B2 G1 B1 B2 G1 B1 B2 G1 B1 B2 G1 B1 B2 G1 B1 B2 G1 SAMPLE 2 (g)

EDE-IWO
SAMPLE 1 (g) SAMPLE 2 (g)

IKIRE ILE-OGBAAGBA
SAMPLE 1 (g) SAMPLE 2 (g)

Mass of Empty Pycnometer,M1 Mass of Empty Pycnometer,M1 Mass of Empty Pycnometer,M1 Mass of Pycnometer+Soil,M2 Mass of Pycnometer+Soil,M2 Mass of Pycnometer+Soil,M2 Mass of Pycnometer + Soil + Water,M3 Mass of Pycnometer + Soil + Water,M3 Mass of Pycnometer + Soil + Water,M3 Mass of Pycnometer + Water,M4 Mass of Pycnometer + Water,M4 Mass of Pycnometer + Water,M4 Specific Gravity, S.G Specific Gravity, S.G Specific Gravity, S.G Ave. Specific Gravity Ave. Specific Gravity

459.0 458.4 459.4 504.8 511.0 509.4 1286.3 1290.5 1289.2 1257.9 1257.8 1257.9 2.65 2.64 2.67 2.66 2.65 2.66

457.3 459.4 458.6 516.2 519.3 512.3 1294.8 1295.4 1291.2 1258.0 1258.0 1257.8 2.67 2.66 2.65

459.4 459.4 459.4 510.0 618.4 608.4 1290.2 1356.8 1350.8 1257.8 1257.7 1257.8 2.78 2.65 2.66 2.77 2.65 2.66

459.4 459.3 459.4 511.2 569.9 570.5 1290.8 1326.6 1364.9 1257.8 1257.8 1257.8 2.76 2.65 2.65

456.3 458.2 460.0 519.4 508.3 513.4 1297.5 1288.7 1291.6 1257.9 1257.6 1258.3 2.68 2.64 2.65 2.66 2.66 2.64

459.4 460.2 459.6 515.6 515.0 516.7 1292.8 1292.1 1292.3 1258.2 1257.8 1256.9 2.63 2.67 2.63

Ave. Specific Gravity

Table 4: Specific gravity data from the various samples.

62

3.5

Permeability The coefficient of permeability, K is the rate of flow of water per unit cross-sectional area per unit hydraulic gradient. The results of the falling head permeability test are presented on Table 5. In Ife area, the hydraulic conductivity is fairly high in the sub grade of the failed portions while the good portion has a hydraulic conductivity of 410 -3 m/sec. In Ede, the sub grade materials have closely ranging hydraulic conductivity values. In Ogbaagba, the sub grade of the good portion has higher hydraulic conductivities than those of the failed portions

63

Ife - Ifewara
Sample Tests Initial Height, Ho 80 (cm) Final Height, H1 (cm)
70 80 80 80

Ikire Ile Ogbaagba

Ife G1 Ogba B1 Obga B2 Ogba G1 Ede B1

Ede - Iwo
Ede B1 Ede G1

Ife B1

Ife B2

80

80

80

80

80

70

70

70

70

70

70

70

70

Change in Time, 16 8 T (seconds) Hydraulic 0.098 0.180 conductivity (cm/sec) Table 5: Permeability data.

32.5 0.040

38.5 0.046

45 0.040

10 0.034

34 0.041

39 0.035

45.5 0.156

64

3.6

Linear Shrinkage The linear shrinkage is useful in geographical areas where soil undergoes volume change when passing through the wet and dry cycles. Generally, the lower the shrinkage limit, the lower the potentials of the soil settling (Jegede, 1997). The shrinkage and amount of swelling depends on the initial moisture of the soil. The linear shrinkage for any subgrade material must not exceed eight as that is the limit for inactive, non expansive soils. The linear shrinkage data is presented on Table 6. In Ife area, the linear shrinkage fell below 8 for the failed portions but was above 8 for the good portion of the road. A failed portion in Ede area has a linear shrinkage value greater than eight. In Ogbaagba, a failed portion also has a linear shrinkage value greater than eight. Sub-grade soils with linear shrinkage values greater than eight are active and will probably result in the failure of any engineering structure placed on it.

65

Table 6: Linear shrinkage results.

IFE-IFEWARA TESTS Initial Length, Lo Initial Length, Lo Initial Length, Lo Final Length, L1 Final Length, L1 Final Length, L1 Linear Shrinkage, ( )100 Linear Shrinkage, ( )100 Linear Shrinkage, ( )100
CODE
B1 B2 G1 B1 B2 G1

EDE-IWO

IKIRE ILEOGBAAGBA
14.0cm 14.0cm 14.0cm

14.0cm 14.0cm 14.0cm

14.0cm 14.0cm 14.0cm

13.5cm 13.6cm 12.3cm

12.8cm 13.4cm 13.3cm

12.2cm 13.0cm 12.8cm

B1

3
B2

8.6 4 4

13 7 8.6

3
G1

13

66

3.7 Compaction The compaction curves generally show high maximum dry densities at low optimum moisture contents. Suitable sub-grade soils show this property. In Ede, the good portion shows a high maximum dry density value of 2010 Kg/m3 at a low optimum moisture content of 10.2% compared to the failed sections of the road, the good portion at Ede possesses better compaction properties than the others. In Ogbaagba, the three sub-grade materials posses suitable compaction properties. The compaction data and curves are presented in appendix IV. A summary of the maximum dry densities and the optimum moisture content of each location is presented on Table 7. 3.8 California Bearing Ratio. The California Bearing Ratio, CBR, was developed to assess the strength of soils when subjected to pressure by the Proctor machine. According to the Federal Government of Nigerias road construction specification, a suitable sub-grade must have an unsoaked CBR value greater than 80%. None of the sub-grade soils tested showed the suitable CBR value although the good portions of Ogbaagba and Ede have fairly high values. Some of the failed portions also possess slightly high CBR values. A summary of the CBR values is presented in Table 7. The CBR curves are located in appendix III. 3.9 Unconfined Compression Strength This test determines the shear strength of a soil at its optimum moisture content when it is subjected to shear strength from only one direction. Since the stress on a road pavement is unidirectional, i.e. from the top only, the UCS test is very important in road

67

pavement construction. This determines the shear strain in the sub-grade soil. The shear strength is equal to half of the compressive strength of the soil The results from the test shows that the shear strains of the failed portions are significantly lower than the shear strain of the good road portions. In Ife, the good portion shows a unconfined compressive strength of 54.88kPa, compared to 27.0 kPa and 28.16kPa of the failed portions. In Ede, the unconfined compressive strength is 36.44kPa, higher than those of the failed portions. The UCS curves are presented in appendix V. A summary of the unconfined compressive strengths is presented in Table 7. 3.10 Triaxial Shear Strength Triaxial shear strength tests determine the shear strength of a soil when subjected to shear stresses from the three axial directions. This test is usually carried out at least three times with three different shear stress values. This test is carried out on cylindrical samples of the soil at its optimum moisture content. The good portion in Ife area shows high shear strengths of 37.5kPa and is more resistant to shear stresses than the failed portions which have shear strength values of 18.2kPa and 22.4kPa. The good portion in Ogbaagba also shows a higher resistance to shear stresses than the failed portions. The triaxial shear strength curves are presented in appendix VI. A summary of the triaxial shear strength values is given in Table 7.

68

3.11 Chemical Analysis The percentage composition of three of the major elements, Iron, Aluminum and Silicon, was determined. This was carried out by studying digested samples of each soil under a Bulk Scientific Model 210vp Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS). The amount of Silica present determines how much sand is present while Alumina present determines the clay content of the soil. The Silica is a product of weathering of silicate minerals while the Alumina is a product of the weathering of aluminous minerals, commonly feldspars, which breaks down to form clay. The amount of clay determines, to an extent, the cohesiveness of the soil particles. The iron is a product of weathering of ferromagnesian minerals such as olivine. The presence of iron in a soil gives the soil a red coloration. The presence of iron increases the strength of a soil. Table 7 gives a summary of the major mineral composition of the sub-grade soil samples.

69

Table7: Summary of the geotechnical properties and chemical compositions of the various samples.
Sample Location Natural Moisture Content % Liquid Limit % Plastic Limit % Plasticity Index % Linear Shrinkage Specific Gravity Compaction MDD Kg/m3 OMC % CBR UCS (kPa)

Perme ability
cm/sec

Chemical Analysis (%)

Particle Size Analysis Fines,% Grains,%

Shear Strength (kPa)

IFE B1 IFE B2 IFE G1 EDE B1 EDE B2 EDE G1 OGBA B1 OGBA B2 OGBA G1

12.16 8.745 21.197 14.818 4.668 4.737 14.374 10.523 8.842

25.8 24.8 46.7 41.2 23.5 22.1 41.1 34.3 35.9

NOT PLASTIC NOT PLASTIC

NOT PLASTIC NOT PLASTIC

3 3 13 8.6 4 4 13 7 8.6

2.66 2.65 2.66 2.77 2.65 2.66 2.66 2.66 2.64

1875 1925 1730 1685 1920 2010 1680 1800 1710

13.8 12.8 15 13.8 10.2 10.2 13.6 15.4 17.6

62 63 43 50 64 66 44 40 56

27.04 28.16 54.88 32.50 27.88 43.82 36.44 79.66 43.04

0.098 0.18 0.040 0.046 0.040 0.034 0.041 0.035 0.156

SiO2 11.16 22.65 16.20

Al2O3 9.43 19.33 13.47

Fe2O3 37.55 51.58 41.20

19.79 17.66 27.88 16.35 15.5 13.43 27.79 33.63 18.93

80.21 82.34 72.12 83.65 84.5 86.57 70.21 66.37 81.07

18.22 22.4 37.5 25.2 20.6 32.8 29.5 49.6 31.6

36.7
NOT PLASTIC NOT PLASTIC NOT PLASTIC

10.0
NOT PLASTIC NOT PLASTIC NOT PLASTIC

4.58

3.36

11.61

13.77

11.34

37.10

18.06

15.73

42.28

22.1 7.7 24.2

19.1 26.7 11.7

28.29

27.14

67.00

8.24

6.81

18.96

9.25

7.95

28.09

70

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 4.1 Discussion
The tests carried out on the sub-grade soils samples were natural moisture content, specific gravity, particle size analysis, permeability, Atterberg limit tests, linear shrinkage, compaction, California bearing ratio, unconfined compression strength, Triaxial shear strength test and chemical analysis. The geotechnical tests were carried out according to the British Standard 1377 (BS 1377) of 1975. The tests were carried out to determine the geotechnical causes of road failure along three major roads in Osun state. The samples were collected from a depth of 1m beneath the surface. This was to ensure that the sub-grade material collected was actually the in situ soil material and not the soil brought to the site by the engineers. The Nigerian Standard Specification for Road Pavement Design by Madedor in 1983and the expected specific gravity values are expressesd in Table 8 and Table 9 respectively and were used in interpreting the samples.

71

Table 8: Federal Government of Nigeria Standard Specifications For Pavement Design (Madedor, 1983) Parameter Percentage fines Liquid Limit (%) Plasticity Index (%) Linear Shrinkage (%) Not greater than 15 Not greater than 30 Not greater than 12 Not greater than 8 Unsoaked must be greater than 80 while soaked must be greater CBR than 30. Values for Sub-grade

Table 9: Expected Specific Gravity Values Types of Soil Sand Silty sand Inorganic clay Soils with mica or iron Organic soils Specific Gravity 2.65 2.67 2.67 2.70 2.70 2.80 2.75 3.00 < 2.00

4.1.1 Ife Ifewara Road

72

The natural moisture content in the samples falls between 12.16% and 21.197% with the good portion having the highest moisture content. Location Ife G1 has a moisture content of 21.197%. Location s Ife B1 and Ife B2 have moisture contents of 12.16% and 8.745% respectively. Although the natural moisture content of the soil can not be used independently to prove the cause of road failure, it still affects the soil strength and quality. The most suitable materials for sub-grade must have low moisture content. The high moisture content could be due to recent rainfall in the area, as the samples were collected during the rainy season. On the basis of Atterberg limits, it was found out that the soil beneath the failed portion were not plastic indicating that the soil lacked clay particles. The presence of clay usually aids the cohesive properties of the soils. Non plastic soils contain very minimal clay particles. The liquid limit of the failed portion is low as compared to that of the stable portion. The limit for the plasticity index of any tropical soil should be less than 25 for it to be suitable for use as sub-grade (Medina, 1963). The Federal Government of Nigerias standard specification for pavement design states that the plasticity index for sub-grade materials must be less than 12. The absence of plasticity under the failed portions contributed to the instability of the road. The linear shrinkage of the failed portions is less than 8% as explained by Madedor (1983) which is good for sub-grade soils. The specific gravity values range between 2.65 and 2.66. The high values are as a result of the presence of heavy minerals in the underlying basement rocks. This property does not point out the cause of road instability. The Nigerian standards indicate that the percentage fines present in the sub-grade must be less than 15. The percentage fines in all the samples from this road are greater than 15%.

73

The permeability value of the stable portion is lower than that of the unstable portions. The stable portion holds more water than the unstable portions. This property indicates the presence of fine grains which aids cohesiveness. The inability of the failed portions to hold water indicates that they are granular with lesser amounts of fine particles, thus reducing their cohesiveness. The compaction curves indicate a maximum dry density ranging from 1730 Kg/m3 to 1925 Kg/m3 with optimum moisture contents of 12.8% to 15%. This did not indicate the cause of the failure of the pavement. The soils contain high amounts of Iron but contain small amounts of Silica and Alumina. The presence of Iron increases the strength of the soil. The silica commonly forms the sand grains in the soil while the alumina is present within the clays. The low values of Alumina show that clay particles are not abundant in the soil, thus reducing its cohesiveness. The soaked CBR values met with Nigerias standard of being greater than 30. The unconfined and triaxial shear strength of the soils are higher in the stable portion of the road than in the unstable potions. The sub-grade of the failed portions probably failed as a result of shear stresses applied by heavy duty vehicles over time. The stable road portions had higher resistance to shear stresses than the failed road portions. The failure of these roads was as a result of high shear strains which caused the road to collapse.

74

4.1.2 Ede Iwo Road Both failed and stable soil samples are non plastic which is not suitable for sub-grade materials. Ede B1 has a very high liquid limit which goes against the standard for subgrade materials in Nigeria which must be less than 30. The stable portion of the road has a liquid limit of 22.1% which is suitable for a sub-grade material. Sample Ede B1 has a linear shrinkage value of 8.6% which exceeds the standard of 8%, thereby making it unsuitable as a sub-grade material. Soils with a linear shrinkage value above 8% are considered active and susceptible to volume change. Ede B2 and Ede G1 both have shrinkage values of 4% which is suitable. The stable portion has a very low permeability of 3.410-3 m/s and therefore retains more water within its structure, making it suitable for use in road pavement construction. It also contains a small value of percentage fines which matches the Nigerian standard of less than 15. Percentage fines greater than 15 are present in the failed portions. A high percentage of fines indicate that the soil is susceptible to volume change, usually shrinkage. This is observed in the linear shrinkage values of the failed portions. The specific gravities of the soils match the expected values for in situ soils produced by the weathering of parts of the south western basement complex. Ede B1 has a high specific gravity of 2.77 because of the abundance of mica within its matrix. The iron content of the stable portions is in fairly high proportions, making the soil have high strength as indicated by the triaxial tests and UCS results. The compaction values show high maximum dry densities at low optimum moisture contents. The stable sample, Ede G1, has a very high maximum dry density value of

75

2010Kg/m3 at a low optimum moisture content of 10.2%, making it a suitable sub-grade material based on this parameter. The CBR values are above the Nigerian standard of being greater than 30 for soaked CBR tests making them suitable for use as sub-grade materials. The UCS value for the stable portion, Ede G1, is higher than that of the failed portions making it a more suitable material for use as sub-grade. This high UCS value makes it less susceptible to damage by shear stresses at its optimum moisture content. The triaxial shear strength also shows higher values than those of the failed portions and is expected to be stable longer than the sub-grades under the failed broad portions. 4.1.3 Ikire Ile - Ogbaagba The failed portions along the road exhibit high natural moisture contents, higher than the natural moisture content in the stable portion. The liquid limit of the soils exceeds the Nigerian Sub-grade standards for liquid limit. The failed portion exhibits a high plastic limit, compared to the plastic limit of the stable pavement. The high plastic limit indicates a low amount of clay particles. The plastic limits of Ede B2 and Ede G1 fall within the range of limit of sub-grade plastic limit according to Nigerian standards. The plasticity index of the stable portion falls within the range of suitability for use as sub-grade material although its linear shrinkage classifies it as an active soil and may collapse after some time due to volume change. The specific gravity values fall within expected ranges. The compaction results show high maximum dry densities at low optimum moisture contents. The soils would not fail if they ae properly compacted before using them as sub-grade. The CBR value of the stable portion is higher than in the unstable portions although they are all suitable according to the

76

Nigerian Pavement design specification. The percentage fines in the samples exceed the nations standards but the stable portion has a far lower percentage of fines than in the failed portions. This probably contributed to its lasting strength. The amount of fines in the failed portions is too high to aid stability. Sample Ogba B2 has a very high amount of fines and exhibits fairly low permeability, and major element compositions. Although it exhibits high resistance to shear stress, it fails rapidly when compacted. Ogba B1 failed because of its very low resistance to shear stresses, high amount of fines and its susceptibility to volume change.

4.2 Conclusion
Based on the laboratory analysis of the disturbed soil samples collected from the various roads, I have been able to deduce some of the geotechnical causes for the failure of some of the roads. Apart from the negligence of the contractors, some properties of the subgrade materials also contributed immensely to the failure of some of these roads. Location Ife B1 failed because of its low resistance to shear stresses. The road failed probably because of high density of heavy vehicle movement over it. This is probably the cause of failure in Ife B2 too. Their other geotechnical properties are suitable except for their UCS and Triaxial Test values which indicate that the soils are quick to fail when subjected to shear stresses. Ife G1 has high resistance to shear stresses but a high percentage pf fines, high liquid limits and an unsuitable linear shrinkage value of 13. Although the road seems stable presently, the road is highly susceptible to rutting with time because of the active nature of the sub-grade.

77

Location Ede B1 has a linear shrinkage value of 8.6 making it slightly susceptible to volume change which will eventually lead to pavement failure. The soil also has a very high moisture content of 14.82%. its percentage fines exceed the Nigerian standards. Its has a slightly low resistance to Unconfined Compressive stresses. Location Ede B2 has a lower resistance to shear stresses than Ede B1 and was probably the cause of its failure as heavy vehicles passed over it with time. Ede G1 will last for a long time as all its parameters meet up with the Nigerian Pavement Design Specifications. It also possesses a relatively high resistance to compressive stresses. Location Ogba B1 has very high natural moisture content, possibly retained by its high percentage of fines which is mostly clayey as indicated by its high composition of Alumina and Iron. The soil is active, as indicated by its linear shrinkage value of 13 and highly susceptible to volume change. Ogba B2 has a very high amount of fines, making it an unsuitable choice for sub-grade and was probably the cause of its failure, coupled with its fairly high moisture content. Ogba G1 is susceptible to volume change as indicated by its linear shrinkage value of 8.6.

78

REFERENCES
AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING MATERIALS (1979): Annual book of American Society for Testing and materials standards. ARUMALA, J.O. AND AKPOKODJE, E.G. (1987). Soil properties and pavement performance in the Niger Delta Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, London. Vol. 20. 287 296pp. BBRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION (1975). Methods of Testing Soils for Civil Engineering Purposes British Standard, 1924. CASSAGRANDE, A. (1974). Classification and identification of Soils American society of Civil Engineers, 783 811pp. CHUKWEZE, H.O (1988). Pavement Failures caused by Soil Erosion Proceedings, International Conference on Case histories in Geotechnical Engineering. St Louis, 393 935pp. GIDIGASU, M.D. (1973). Review of identification of problems in lateritic soils in Highway engineering. Transport Research Board. Washington. 96 111pp. JEGEDE, G. (1995), Soils Erosion effect on Highway Pavement Failures in Iloda locality, South western Nigeria. Proceedings UNESCO-MAB regional training workshop, Akure, Nigeria. 319 322pp. JEGEDE, G. (1999): The effect of groundwater and soil properties on highway pavement failure at Ayewa locality along Ikere Ado Ekiti Stretch of the F209 Highway, South Western Nigeria. The Journal of Techno Science. Vol.3. 41- 43pp.

79

JEGEDE, G AND OGUNTUASHE, A.M. (2000): Investigation of Erosion Induced pavement failure along f209 highway at Itaogbolu, south western Nigeris FUTA FEET . Vol. 2, No 1. 3034pp MADEDOR, A.O. (1983).Pavement Design Guidelines and the Practice for different geological areas in Nigeria. 290 297pp. MICROSOFT ENCARTA ENCYCLOPEDIA (2009). 12th Edition: Road Pavements.

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APPENDICES

81

APPENDIX I ATTERBERG LIMIT TESTS

82

83

84

85

86

87

88

89

90

APPENDIX II PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

APPENDIX III CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO

98

99

100

101

102

103

104

105

106

APPENDIX IV COMPACTION TESTS

107

108

109

110

111

112

113

114

115

APPENDIX V UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST IFE B1

Deformation dial: 1 unit = 0.01 mm Deformation dial reading 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 Load Dial (units) 0 0.5 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.3 1.1 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.2 Sample deformation (mm) 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 0.00000 0.00375 0.00751 0.01126 0.01502 0.01877 0.02252 0.02628 0.03003 0.03378 0.03754 0.04129 0.04505 0.04880 0.000 0.375 0.751 1.126 1.502 1.877 2.252 2.628 3.003 3.378 3.754 4.129 4.505 4.880 1.0000 0.9962 0.9925 0.9887 0.9850 0.9812 0.9775 0.9737 0.9700 0.9662 0.9625 0.9587 0.9550 0.9512 unit strain % Strain Load dial: 1 unit = Corrected area,A (cm2) 12.291 12.338 12.384 12.431 12.479 12.527 12.575 12.623 12.672 12.721 12.771 12.821 12.871 12.922 Total load on sample (kg) 0.00 1.19 1.90 2.38 2.86 3.33 3.57 3.57 3.09 2.62 2.14 1.67 1.19 0.48 2.3800 kg Sample stress, kPa 0.00 9.46 15.08 18.77 22.44 26.09 27.84 27.73 23.94 20.18 16.45 12.74 9.07 3.61

1-

116

IFE B2

Deformation dial reading 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200

Load Dial (units) 0 0.5 1 1.5 1.5 1.2 0.8 0.5 0.3

Sample deformation (mm) 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00

unit strain 0.00000 0.00379 0.00758 0.01136 0.01515 0.01894 0.02273 0.02652 0.03030

% Strain

1-

Corrected area,A (cm2)

Total load on sample (kg) 0.00 1.19 2.38 3.57 3.57 2.86 1.90 1.19 0.71

Sample stress, kPa 0.00 9.46 18.84 28.16 28.05 22.35 14.85 9.24 5.52

0.000 0.379 0.758 1.136 1.515 1.894 2.273 2.652 3.030

1.0000 0.9962 0.9924 0.9886 0.9848 0.9811 0.9773 0.9735 0.9697

12.291 12.338 12.385 12.433 12.481 12.529 12.577 12.626 12.676

117

IFE G1

Deformation dial reading 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375

Load Dial (units) 0 0.1 0.5 0.7 1 1.5 1.8 2 2.5 2.8 3 3 2.5 2 1 0.5

Sample deformation (mm) 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50 3.75

unit strain 0.00000 0.00366 0.00732 0.01098 0.01464 0.01830 0.02196 0.02562 0.02928 0.03294 0.03660 0.04026 0.04392 0.04758 0.05124 0.05490

% Strain

1-

Corrected area,A (cm2)

Total load on sample (kg) 0.00 0.24 1.19 1.67 2.38 3.57 4.28 4.76 5.95 6.66 7.14 7.14 5.95 4.76 2.38 1.19

Sample stress, kPa 0.00 1.89 9.42 13.15 18.71 27.96 33.43 37.00 46.08 51.42 54.88 54.67 45.39 36.17 18.02 8.97

0.000 0.366 0.732 1.098 1.464 1.830 2.196 2.562 2.928 3.294 3.660 4.026 4.392 4.758 5.124 5.490

1.0000 0.9963 0.9927 0.9890 0.9854 0.9817 0.9780 0.9744 0.9707 0.9671 0.9634 0.9597 0.9561 0.9524 0.9488 0.9451

12.291 12.337 12.382 12.428 12.474 12.521 12.567 12.615 12.662 12.710 12.758 12.807 12.856 12.906 12.955 13.006

118

EDE B1
Deformation dial reading 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400 425 450 475 500 525 550 Load Dial (units) 0 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.8 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.7 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.1 1 1 Sample deformation (mm) 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50 3.75 4.00 4.25 4.50 4.75 5.00 5.25 5.50 0.00000 0.00379 0.00758 0.01136 0.01515 0.01894 0.02273 0.02652 0.03030 0.03409 0.03788 0.04167 0.04545 0.04924 0.05303 0.05682 0.06061 0.06439 0.06818 0.07197 0.07576 0.07955 0.08333 0.000 0.379 0.758 1.136 1.515 1.894 2.273 2.652 3.030 3.409 3.788 4.167 4.545 4.924 5.303 5.682 6.061 6.439 6.818 7.197 7.576 7.955 8.333 1.0000 0.9962 0.9924 0.9886 0.9848 0.9811 0.9773 0.9735 0.9697 0.9659 0.9621 0.9583 0.9545 0.9508 0.9470 0.9432 0.9394 0.9356 0.9318 0.9280 0.9242 0.9205 0.9167 unit strain % Strain 1- Corrected area,A (cm2) 12.291 12.338 12.385 12.433 12.481 12.529 12.577 12.626 12.676 12.725 12.775 12.826 12.877 12.928 12.980 13.032 13.084 13.137 13.191 13.245 13.299 13.354 13.409 Total load on sample (kg) 0.00 0.48 0.95 1.19 1.67 1.90 2.38 2.62 2.86 3.09 3.33 3.57 4.05 4.28 4.28 4.28 3.81 3.57 3.33 3.09 2.62 2.38 2.38 Sample stress, kPa 0.00 3.78 7.54 9.39 13.09 14.90 18.56 20.33 22.10 23.84 25.58 27.30 30.81 32.50 32.37 32.24 28.54 26.65 24.77 22.91 19.31 17.48 17.41

119

EDE B2

Deformation dial reading 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225

Load Dial (units) 0 0.2 0.5 0.7 1 1.5 1.5 1 0.8 0.5

Sample deformation (mm) 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25

unit strain 0.00000 0.00359 0.00718 0.01078 0.01437 0.01796 0.02155 0.02514 0.02874 0.03233

% Strain

1-

Corrected area,A (cm2)

Total load on sample (kg) 0.00 0.48 1.19 1.67 2.38 3.57 3.57 2.38 1.90 1.19

Sample stress, kPa 0.00 3.78 9.43 13.15 18.72 27.97 27.87 18.51 14.75 9.19

0.000 0.359 0.718 1.078 1.437 1.796 2.155 2.514 2.874 3.233

1.0000 0.9964 0.9928 0.9892 0.9856 0.9820 0.9784 0.9749 0.9713 0.9677

12.291 12.336 12.380 12.425 12.471 12.516 12.562 12.608 12.655 12.702

120

EDE G1

Deformation dial reading 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350

Load Dial (units) 0 0.5 0.7 1 1.2 1.5 2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.5 2.3 2 1.6 1.2

Sample deformation (mm) 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50

unit strain 0.00000 0.00362 0.00725 0.01087 0.01449 0.01812 0.02174 0.02536 0.02899 0.03261 0.03623 0.03986 0.04348 0.04710 0.05072

% Strain

1-

Corrected area,A (cm2)

Total load on sample (kg) 0.00 1.19 1.67 2.38 2.86 3.57 4.76 5.47 5.71 5.95 5.95 5.47 4.76 3.81 2.86

Sample stress, kPa 0.00 9.46 13.20 18.78 22.46 27.97 37.15 42.57 44.25 45.92 45.75 41.93 36.33 28.95 21.63

0.000 0.362 0.725 1.087 1.449 1.812 2.174 2.536 2.899 3.261 3.623 3.986 4.348 4.710 5.072

1.0000 0.9964 0.9928 0.9891 0.9855 0.9819 0.9783 0.9746 0.9710 0.9674 0.9638 0.9601 0.9565 0.9529 0.9493

12.291 12.336 12.381 12.427 12.472 12.518 12.565 12.611 12.658 12.706 12.754 12.802 12.850 12.899 12.948

121

OGBA B1

Deformation dial reading 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350

Load Dial (units) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 1.9 2 2 1.8 1.5

Sample deformation (mm) 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50

unit strain 0.00000 0.00370 0.00740 0.01109 0.01479 0.01849 0.02219 0.02589 0.02959 0.03328 0.03698 0.04068 0.04438 0.04808 0.05178

% Strain

1-

Corrected area,A (cm2)

Total load on sample (kg) 0.00 0.48 0.95 1.43 1.90 2.38 2.86 3.33 3.81 4.28 4.52 4.76 4.76 4.28 3.57

Sample stress, kPa 0.00 3.78 7.54 11.27 14.97 18.64 22.28 25.90 29.48 33.04 34.74 36.43 36.29 32.54 27.01

0.000 0.370 0.740 1.109 1.479 1.849 2.219 2.589 2.959 3.328 3.698 4.068 4.438 4.808 5.178

1.0000 0.9963 0.9926 0.9889 0.9852 0.9815 0.9778 0.9741 0.9704 0.9667 0.9630 0.9593 0.9556 0.9519 0.9482

12.291 12.337 12.383 12.429 12.476 12.523 12.570 12.618 12.666 12.715 12.763 12.813 12.862 12.912 12.963

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OGBA B2
Deformation dial reading 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400 425 450 475 500 525 550 575 600 625 650 Load Dial (units) 0 0.5 0.8 1 1.2 1.5 1.8 2 2.3 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.4 3.7 3.9 4.1 4.3 4.5 4.5 4.2 3.8 3.5 3.2 3 2.7 2.5 Sample deformation (mm) 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50 3.75 4.00 4.25 4.50 4.75 5.00 5.25 5.50 5.75 6.00 6.25 6.50 0.00000 0.00387 0.00774 0.01161 0.01548 0.01935 0.02322 0.02709 0.03096 0.03483 0.03870 0.04257 0.04644 0.05031 0.05418 0.05805 0.06192 0.06579 0.06966 0.07353 0.07740 0.08127 0.08514 0.08901 0.09288 0.09675 0.10062 0.000 0.387 0.774 1.161 1.548 1.935 2.322 2.709 3.096 3.483 3.870 4.257 4.644 5.031 5.418 5.805 6.192 6.579 6.966 7.353 7.740 8.127 8.514 8.901 9.288 9.675 10.062 1.0000 0.9961 0.9923 0.9884 0.9845 0.9807 0.9768 0.9729 0.9690 0.9652 0.9613 0.9574 0.9536 0.9497 0.9458 0.9420 0.9381 0.9342 0.9303 0.9265 0.9226 0.9187 0.9149 0.9110 0.9071 0.9033 0.8994 unit strain % Strain 1- Corrected area,A (cm2) 12.291 12.339 12.387 12.436 12.485 12.534 12.584 12.634 12.684 12.735 12.786 12.838 12.890 12.943 12.996 13.049 13.103 13.157 13.212 13.267 13.323 13.379 13.435 13.492 13.550 13.608 13.667 Total load on sample (kg) 0.00 1.19 1.90 2.38 2.86 3.57 4.28 4.76 5.47 6.19 6.66 7.14 7.62 8.09 8.81 9.28 9.76 10.23 10.71 10.71 10.00 9.04 8.33 7.62 7.14 6.43 5.95 Sample stress, kPa 0.00 9.46 15.07 18.77 22.43 27.93 33.39 36.95 42.32 47.65 51.11 54.54 57.94 61.31 66.45 69.76 73.03 76.28 79.50 79.17 73.58 66.29 60.80 55.36 51.68 46.31 42.70

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OGBA G1

Deformation dial reading 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400 425 450

Load Dial (units) 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.8 1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.3 2.5 2.5 2.5 2 1.6

Sample deformation (mm) 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50 3.75 4.00 4.25 4.50

unit strain 0.00000 0.00366 0.00732 0.01098 0.01464 0.01830 0.02196 0.02562 0.02928 0.03294 0.03660 0.04026 0.04392 0.04758 0.05124 0.05490 0.05857 0.06223 0.06589

% Strain

1-

Corrected area,A (cm2)

Total load on sample (kg) 0.00 0.24 0.48 0.71 0.95 1.19 1.90 2.38 3.09 3.57 4.05 4.52 5.24 5.47 5.95 5.95 5.95 4.76 3.81

Sample stress, kPa 0.00 1.89 3.77 5.63 7.48 9.32 14.86 18.50 23.96 27.54 31.10 34.63 39.94 41.60 45.04 44.87 44.69 35.61 28.38

0.000 0.366 0.732 1.098 1.464 1.830 2.196 2.562 2.928 3.294 3.660 4.026 4.392 4.758 5.124 5.490 5.857 6.223 6.589

1.0000 0.9963 0.9927 0.9890 0.9854 0.9817 0.9780 0.9744 0.9707 0.9671 0.9634 0.9597 0.9561 0.9524 0.9488 0.9451 0.9414 0.9378 0.9341

12.291 12.337 12.382 12.428 12.474 12.521 12.567 12.615 12.662 12.710 12.758 12.807 12.856 12.906 12.955 13.006 13.056 13.107 13.158

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APPENDIX VI TRIAXIAL SHEAR STRENGHT TEST Ife B1

125

Ife B1

126

Ife B1

127

Ife B1

128

Ife B2

129

Ife B2

130

Ife B2

131

Ife B2

132

Ife G1

133

Ife G1

134

Ife G1

135

Ife G1

136

Ede B1

137

Ede B1

138

Ede B1

139

Ede B1

140

Ede B2

141

Ede B2

142

Ede B2

143

Ede B2

144

Ede G1

145

Ede G1

146

Ede G1

147

Ede G1

148

Ogba B1

149

Ogba B1

150

Ogba B1

151

Ogba B1

152

Ogba B2

153

Ogba B2

154

Ogba B2

155

Ogba B2

156

Ogba G1

157

Ogba G1

158

Ogba G1

159

Ogba G1

160