Cmp2 Geometry Storyline

TheMathematicsoftheGeometryStrand ShapesandDesignsGrade6
Overview SummaryofInvestigation MathematicsBackground Polygon SortingShapes SymmetriesofShapes Tessellations AngleMeasures AnglesofaPolygon AnglesandParallelLines SumsoftheAnglesofPolygons InteriorAnglesofRegularPolygons ExteriorAnglesofRegularPolygons ExploringSideLengthsofPolygons ContentConnections
CoveringandSurroundingGrade6
Overview SummaryofInvestigation MathematicsBackground TheMeasurementProcess MeasuringPerimeterandArea AreaandPerimeterofRectangles ParenthesesandOrderofOperations AreaofTriangles AreaofParallelograms AreaandCircumferenceofCircles EstimatingPerimeterandAreasofIrregularFigures AccuracyandError RelationshipsBetweenShapesandSizeMaximumandMinimum FixedArea FixedPerimeter ContentConnections
TheMathematicsoftheGeometryStrand StretchingandShrinkingGrade7
Overview SummaryofInvestigation MathematicsBackground Similarity CreatingSimilarFigures RelationshipofAreaandPerimeterinSimilarFigures SimilarityofRectangles SimilarityTransformationsandCongruence ComparingAreainTwoSimilarFiguresUsingRepTiles EquivalentRatios SimilarityofTriangles AngleAngleAngleSimilarityforTriangles SolvingProblemsUsingSimilarFigures
ContentConnections
FillingandWrappingGrade7
Overview SummaryofInvestigation MathematicsBackground RectangularPrisms Cylinders RelationshipBetweenSurfaceAreaandFixedVolume Cones,Spheres,andRectangularPyramids RelationshipsBetweenSurfaceAreaandFixedVolume EffectsofChangingAttributesSimilarPrisms Measurement
ContentConnections
TheMathematicsoftheGeometryStrand LookingforPythagorasGrade8
Overview SummaryofInvestigation MathematicsBackground FindingAreaandDistance SquareRoots UsingSquarestoFindLengthsofSegments DevelopingandUsingthePythagoreanTheorem AProofofthePythagoreanTheorem UsingthePythagoreanTheorem TheConverseofthePythagoreanTheorem SpecialRightTriangles RationalandIrrationalNumbers ConvertingandRepeatingDecimalstoFractions Proofthat2IsIrrational SquareRootVersusDecimalApproximation NumberSystems ContentConnections
Kaleidoscopes,Hubcaps,andMirrorsGrade8
Overview SummaryofInvestigation MathematicsBackground TypesofSymmetry MakingSymmetricDesigns UsingToolstoInvestigateSymmetries o TransparentReflection o HingedMirrors o Findingperpendicularbisectors SymmetricTransformations CongruentFigures ReasoningFromSymmetryandCongruence CoordinateRulesforSymmetryTransformations CombiningTransformations ContentConnections
Back to Table of Contents
Shapes and Designs Grade 6
INTRODUCTION
Overview
Shapes and Designs is the first unit in the geometry strand. It develops students ability to recognize, display, analyze, measure, and reason about the shapes and visual patterns that are important features of our world. It builds on students elementary school exposure to simple shapes, as they begin analyzing the properties that make certain shapes special. The unit focuses on polygons and on the side and angle relationships of regular and irregular polygons (circles and other curves are explored in later units). In the Student Edition, the introduction develops the broad theme of the unit: out of all the shapes we use as basic components in buildings and art, some simple figures occur again and again because of properties that make them attractive and useful. The goal of Shapes and Designs is to have students discover and analyze many of the key properties of polygonal shapes that make them useful and attractive. As students become observant of the multitude of shapes that surround them and aware of the reasons that shapes are used for specific purposes, they will be amazed by the visual pleasure and practical insights their new knowledge provides. We suspect that teachers will share this eye-opening experience, finding new signs of beauty and structural significance in the things they see everyday. The approach to geometry in this unit is somewhat unique. First, the primary focus of the unit is on recognition of properties of shapes that have important practical and aesthetic implications, not on simple classification and naming of figures. While some attention is given to naming familiar figures, each investigation focuses on particular key properties of figures and the importance of those properties in applications. For example, students are periodically asked to identify differences between squares, rectangles that are not squares, and parallelograms that are not rectangles. We use a few special names for types of quadrilaterals (square, rectangle, and parallelogram) and triangles (isosceles, equilateral, and scalene). We frequently ask students to find and describe places where they see polygons of particular types and to puzzle over why those particular shapes are used.
Summary of Investigations
Investigation 1 Bees and Polygons
Students sort polygons by common properties and develop rotation and reflection symmetries of a shape. Students also explore which shapes will tile a plane.
Investigation 2 Polygons and Angles

This investigation introduces three basic ways of thinking about angles (turn, wedge, or rays) and the ideas behind angle measurement. It gives students practice in estimating angle measurements based on a right angle. An angle ruler is introduced, allowing more precise measurements. Students look at the consequences of making measurement errors. They also explore the angles formed by a transversal and parallel lines. This will help students to better understand parallelograms.
Investigation 3 Polygon Properties and Tiling

Investigation 3 develops angle sums of polygons. Students begin by measuring the angles of regular polygons and looking for patterns among the angle sums. As the number of sides of a polygon increases by one, the sum increases by 1808. The teacher demonstrates the sum of the angles of a triangle and the sum of the angles of a quadrilateral. In this investigation, geometric arguments are used to help students confirm their conjectures about angle sums. Students see that the sum of the angles of a polygon is based on the sum of the angles of a triangle. That is, a polygon is subdivided into triangles. Tiling is revisited and students use their knowledge about the measures of interior angles and angle sums of regular polygons to explain why some regular polygons tile and others do not. Two other ideas are also explored: (1) in a polygon the exterior angle and its corresponding interior angle sum to 1808 and (2) all the exterior angles of any polygon sum to 3608.
Unit Introduction
Investigation 4 Building Polygons

Investigation 4 looks at the condition on side lengths needed to form a triangle and then a quadrilateral. The last problem is a game using geoboards in which students change a quadrilateral by moving one or more vertices to form a new quadrilateral that fits a new set of criteria.
Mathematics Background
The development in Shapes and Designs is based on the van Hiele theory of geometry learning: we begin with recognition of shapes, then move to classification of shapes, and then to analysis of properties of those shapes. The overall development progresses from tactile and visual experiences to more general and abstract reasoning. We assume students have had prior exposure to the basic shapes and their names.
Polygons
In another sixth grade unit, Covering and Surrounding, the primary focus is on perimeter of the polygon and area of the polygonal region. Technically, when we talk about area we should say area of the rectangular region or triangular region, etc., but it has become common practice to say area of a rectangle. It is understood that this is the area of the interior of the rectangle. The distinction is important to note so that students do not go away with unintentional misconceptions from the work or discussion in class. These ideas will be addressed more directly in the student materials of Covering and Surrounding.
Sorting Shapes
There are several different, but equivalent, definitions of polygons. Each of them is a bit sophisticated. Students at this level need informal experiences with the concept of polygons before they see a more formal definition. At the beginning of this unit we say, A polygon is a collection of line segments put together in a special way. Students look at two sets of shapespolygons and nonpolygons. After studying these two sets, and answering the question, What properties does a shape need to be a polygon?, students develop a basic understanding of polygons that will continue to grow throughout the unit. An important distinction to keep in mind in this unit and other geometric units, is that a polygon consists of only the line segments (or sides) that make up the polygon. These line segments enclose a region (of the plane). This region is sometimes called the interior of the polygon or polygonal region. The points in the interior are not part of the polygon, and the points on the sides of the polygon are not part of the interior. We can also talk about the exterior region of a polygonthis is the set of points that are neither on the polygon nor in the interior of the polygon. The distinctions that hold for polygons and polygonal regions also hold for any closed plane figure, including circles.
Before exploring tessellations, students spend a little time on developing understanding of polygons. Students use the Shapes Set (a set of plastic polygons) to sort the shapes into categories or subsets with specific properties that they have in common. Some may sort by regular and nonregular polygons. A regular polygon is a polygon whose side lengths are all equal and whose interior angle measures are all equal. Students look at specific quadrilaterals and form an intuitive understanding of parallelograms and non-parallelograms from their prior knowledge of squares and rectangles. They also sort triangles by the length of their sidesconnecting with prior knowledge of scalene, isosceles, and equilateral triangles. Students use shapes to investigate which shapes will tile a surface. This is a beginning attempt to answer the question of why the bees use a hexagon as a shape of their honeycombs. For those shapes that do tile, students notice that the sides of the polygon must match and that the interior angles of a polygon must fit exactly around a point in the plane.
Shapes and Designs
Symmetries of Shapes
Students explore the symmetries of shapes, such as reflection (or line) symmetry and rotation (or turn) symmetry. Reflection symmetry is also called mirror symmetry, since the half of the figure on one side of the line looks like it is being reflected in a mirror. Rotation symmetry is also called turn symmetry, because you can turn the figure around its center point and produce the same image.
Reflection Symmetry
Throughout the unit students are encouraged to look for symmetries of a shape.
INTRODUCTION
Tessellations
The first big question presented in Shapes and Designs, to motivate analysis of polygons, is the problem of tiling or tessellating a flat surface. The key is that, among the regular polygons (polygons with all edges the same length and all angles the same measure), only equilateral triangles, squares, and regular hexagons will tile a plane.
triangles
hexagons
A polygon with reflection symmetry has two halves that are mirror images of each other. If the polygon is folded over the line of symmetry, the two halves of the polygon match exactly.
Rotation Symmetry
squares
There are other combinations of figures that can be used to tile a plane. Three are given below:
squares and triangles triangles and pentagons
All shapes have trivial rotation symmetry in the sense that they can be rotated 3608 and look the same as before the rotation. When we determine whether or not a shape has rotation symmetry we check for rotation symmetry for angles less than 3608. However the convention is that once we determine that a shape has rotation symmetry, when counting the rotation symmetries we include that trivial rotation as well. For example, the shape at the right has two rotation symmetries: 1808 and 3608. This convention works nicely because we can say that a square has four rotation symmetries, a regular pentagon has five rotation symmetries, and a regular hexagon has six rotation symmetries. A polygon with rotation symmetry can be turned around its center point less than a full turn and still look the same at certain angles of rotation.
squares and octagons
Unit Introduction
Some teachers use this opportunity to explain to students a short hand notation for describing the shapes and combinations of shapes used to tessellate. For example, to describe the tiling of squares one would write 4, 4, 4, 4 and for the triangles 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3. To describe the combination of shapes presented, you could write 4, 3, 3, 3, 4. The notation identifies the shape by its number of sides. It also tells the number of shapes, and the order in which the shapes surround a point. You could suggest that the class look for interesting tiling patterns in their homes or in school. Have them make a sketch of any designs they find. For regular polygons to tile a plane, the angle measure of an interior angle must be a factor of 360. So an equilateral triangle (608 angles), a square (908 angles), and a regular hexagon (1208 angles) are the only three regular polygons that can tile a plane. Copies of each of these will fit exactly around a point in a plane. There are eight combinations of regular polygons that will tile so that each vertex has exactly the same pattern of polygons. These are sometimes called semi-regular or Archimedean tessellations. (note the numbers in parentheses refer to the polygon by side number8 means a regular octagon, 6 means a regular hexagon, etc. and the order they appear around a vertex of the tiling): 2 octagons and 1 square (8-8-4) 1 square, 1 hexagon, and 1 dodecagon (4-6-12) 4 triangles and 1 hexagon (3-3-3-3-6) 3 triangles and 2 squares (4-3-4-3-3) 1 triangle, 2 squares and 1 hexagon (4-3-4-6) 1 triangle and 2 dodecagons (3-12-12) 3 triangles and 2 squares (4-3-3-3-4) 2 triangles and 2 hexagons (3-6-3-6) See page 72 for pictures of these arrangements. Note that there are two arrangements with triangles and squares, but depending on the arrangement they produce different tile patterns, so order is important. In addition, any triangle or quadrilateral will tile a plane as in these examples:
b a c b a c c a b c a b
d a c b ab c c d d ab d c ba
When one understands the important properties of simple polygons, one can create an abundance of aesthetically appealing tiling patterns, complete with artistic embellishments in the style of artist M. C. Escher. However, it is the discovery of what important properties of the figures make the tiling possible, not the tiling question itself, that is one of the foci of the unit.
Angle Measures
Students explore angles in depth. The shape of a polygon is linked to the measures of angles formed where its sides meet. (The sides or edges of an angle are also called rays. The vertex of an angle is the point where the two rays meet or intersect.) Work is done to relate angles to right angles, focusing on developing students estimation skills with angles. They use simple factors and multiples of 908 turns to develop estimations. That is, they use 308, 458, 608, 908, 1208, 1808, 2708, and 3608 as benchmarks to estimate angle size. Skills dealing with these benchmarks are further developed in a game called Four-In-a-Row. The need for more precision requires techniques for measuring angles. A new measuring tool, the goniometer or angle ruler, a tool used in the medical field for measuring angle of motion or the flexibility in body joints, such as knees is introduced.
center line
5
0
a a c b
a a c b a c
center line
c a
Shapes and Designs
This diagram illustrates why another method for measuring angles with the angle ruler, called the gripping method, gives the same results as placing the rivet over the vertex of the angle being measured. The overlap of the sides of the ruler forms a rhombus as you separate them.
Angles of a Polygon
Consistent with formal mathematical definitions, we refer to adjacent sides and adjacent angles of a polygon.
adjacent sides
INTRODUCTION
adjacent angles
CH
Some students may be familiar with another definition of adjacent angles for two angles that are not part of a polygon:
In a rhombus, opposite angles are equal. This means that the rhombus angle at the rivet and the opposite angle are equal. The angle opposite the rivet in the rhombus is also equal to the angle between the sides since they are vertical angles (i.e., angles formed by two intersecting lines). So, when you place a shape between the arms of the ruler, the angle at the rivet has the same measure as the angle between the arms. We use students intuitive knowledge of a right 1 angle to define a one-degree angle as 90 of a right angle (a 908 angle). Two important aspects of angles come into play in Problem 2.4 when students investigate the results of a measurement error that was made in the fatal flight of Amelia Earhart. The issue on the measure of an angle not being dependent of the lengths of the sides of the rays is a very important one. Students tend to have a hard time holding onto what is being measured when we measure an angle. Two things can cause confusion: the length of the rays and the distance between them. When we measure angles, we are measuring the opening or turn between the edges of the angle. The lengths of the two edges (rays) that form the angle do not affect the measure of the angle.
05
adjacent angles not in a polygon
With these students, you may prefer to use the alternate term consecutive angles when referring to adjacent angles in a polygon.
Angles and Parallel Lines
Students explore some interesting patterns among the angles created when a line cuts two or more parallel lines. Below is a pair of parallel lines that are cut by a third line. The line that intersects the parallel lines is called a transversal. As the transversal intersects the parallel lines, it creates several angles.
a c
b d e g f h
Angles a and e, angles b and f, angles c and g, and angles d and h are called corresponding angles. Angles d and e and angles c and f are alternate interior angles. Parallel lines cut by a transversal make equal corresponding angles and equal alternate interior angles. Two lines that intersect make two pairs of equal angles. In the diagram, angles b and c are equal, as are angles a
Unit Introduction
and d, e, and h, and f and g. These pairs of angles are called vertical angles. Angles b and d are supplementary angles. Their sum is 1808. At this point names are not stressedonly the relationship among angles. Students discover these relationships and others by looking at patterns. Parallelograms are defined early in the unit as quadrilaterals with opposite sides of the same length and opposite angles of the same measure. A parallelogram can also be defined as a quadrilateral with opposite sides parallel. Parallel lines help explain these and other special features of parallelograms such as that the sum of the measures of two adjacent angles is 1808. Students use these facts about angles formed by parallel lines and a transversal in an application problem to show that the sum of the angles of a triangle is 1808. In the picture below, if line l is parallel to line BC, then angles 1 and 4 are equal and angles 3 and 5 are equal. Since the sum of angles 1, 2, and 3 is 180, then by substitution the sum of angles 2, 4, and 5 is equal to 1808.
A 1 2 3
will form a 3608 angle or wrap around a point exactly once. A similar pattern holds for pentagons. The interior angles will form a 5408 angle or wrap around a point one and one-half complete turns. For a hexagon it is 7208 or two complete turns. Also, to find the sum of the interior angles of a polygon with sides greater than three, the polygon can be subdivided into triangles. The sum of the interior angles of a polygon is determined by the number of non-overlapping triangles in the polygon. See Step 2 for details. Step 2: Using triangles to find the angle sum of a polygon. Method 1subdividing polygons into triangles using diagonals Some students will use the number of triangles to determine the sum of the angles for other polygons. For example, they may notice that by subdividing a polygon into triangles they will find that for pentagons there are three triangles and for hexagons there are four triangles. See a subdivided quadrilateral and pentagon below.
4 B
5 C
Note that the sum of the angles of a triangle and other polygons is first looked at experimentally, as discussed in the next section.
Sums of the Angles of Polygons
Step 1: Finding the angle sum of a triangle.

2 3 2 1 3 1
Students use their knowledge of 1808 and 3608 to experiment with the interior angles of a polygon. Students use three copies of a triangle. Each vertex in the triangle is numbered 1, 2, or 3. Students can arrange the three angles of the triangle around a point. The three angles form a 1808 angle. This works for any triangle. A similar experiment is conducted for any quadrilateral. The four angles of a quadrilateral
8
Shapes and Designs
To reason about the angle sum in a polygon, you can triangulate the polygon: start at any vertex, and draw all the possible diagonals from that vertex. You can triangulate a square into two triangles, a pentagon into three triangles, a hexagon into four triangles, and so on. Each time the number of sides increases by one, the number of triangles increases by one, thus making a pattern: 3 sides give 1 triangle, 4 sides give 2 triangles, 5 sides give 3 triangles, 6 sides give 4 triangles, and so on. We can use symbols to state a rule for this pattern. If we let N represent the number of sides in a polygon, then (N - 2) represents the number of triangles we get by triangulating the polygon. If we multiply by 1808 for each triangle, we have the formula: (N - 2) 3 180 = the angle sum in an N-sided polygon. Note that this is true for both regular and irregular polygons.
formed. Again, the number of triangles is equal to the number of sides or vertices of the pentagon.
INTRODUCTION
180 180 180
180
180 180
180 180 180 180
180 180
180 180 180
180 180
180 180 180
180
Method 2subdividing polygons into triangles using a point in the interior of the polygon Another method that students may use is to draw all the line segments from a point within a polygon to each vertex. This method subdivides the polygon into N triangles. In a quadrilateral, four triangles are formed. The number of triangles is the same as the number of vertices or sides of the quadrilateral. In the pentagon, five triangles are
The sum of the angles of the four triangles in the quadrilateral is 1808 3 4. But this sum includes 3608 around the central point. Therefore, to find the sum of the interior angles of the quadrilateral, 3608 must be subtracted from the sum of the angles of the four triangles. The sum of the interior angles of the quadrilateral is 1808 3 (4) - 3608 = 3608. The sum of the angles of the five triangles formed in a pentagon is 1808 3 5. But this sum also includes 3608 around the central point. So, to find the sum of the interior angles of a pentagon, 3608 must be subtracted from the sum of the angles of the five triangles. The sum of the interior angles of the pentagon is 1808 3 (5) - 3608 = 540. We notice that the sum of the interior angles of a quadrilateral or pentagon is 1808 times the number of sides minus two. For the quadrilateral the sum is 1808 (4 - 2) and for a pentagon the sum is 1808 (5 - 2). This method works for any polygon. For a polygon with N sides, the sum of its interior angles is: 1808(N) - 3608 = 1808(N - 2). The data from the methods above are arranged in a table, and students form the following generalizations. (Figure 1)
Figure 1 Regular Polygon Triangle Square Pentagon Hexagon Heptagon Octagon Nonagon Decagon N sides Number of Sides 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 N Angle Sum 180 2(180) 360 3(180) 540 4(180) 720 5(180) 900 6(180) 1,080 7(180) 1,260 8(180) 1,440 (N 2)(180) Measure of Interior Angle 180 3 60 360 4 90 540 5 108 720 6 120 900 7 128.6 1,080 8 135 1,260 9 140 1,440 10 144 [(N 2)(180)] N
Unit Introduction
Interior Angles of Regular Polygons
If a polygon is regular, we can find the number of degrees in one of the angles by dividing the sum by the number of angles.
( N 2 2) 3 180 N
= the number of degrees in any
angle of a regular N-sided polygon. Students also notice that as the number of sides of a regular polygon increases, the measure for each interior angle also increasesit approaches 1808, which occurs as the shape of the polygon approaches that of a circle.
Exterior Angles of Regular Polygons
triangular shapes in bracing in buildings: once three edges have been fitted together, they form a stable figure. This side length result for triangles is called the Triangle Inequality Theorem. For example, if the side lengths are a, b, and c, then the sum of any two sides is greater than the third: a + b . c. b + c . a. c + a . b.
a c b
In a regular polygon of N sides the sum of the interior angles is (N - 2)1808. The measure of each angle is 1808 ( N 2 2) 180 N
. So the measure of each
corresponding exterior angle is

( N 2 2) 180 . N
The sum of N exterior angles = N c 180 2

( N 2 2) 180 d N
= 1808N - (N - 2)1808 = 1808N - 1808N + 3608 = 3608 Students arrive at this generalization by looking for patterns.
Exploring Side Lengths of Polygons
To make a quadrilateral, the sum of three side lengths must be greater than the fourth side length. If a quadrilateral can be built, different combinations of the side lengths will produce different-shaped quadrilaterals. Also by pushing on the vertex of a quadrilateral, the shape will change, thus producing different shapes with the same arrangement of side lengths. A quadrilateral can be distorted into many other quadrilateral shapes, and can undergo a total collapse much more easily than a triangle. However, when a diagonal is inserted to form two triangles, the quadrilateral becomes rigid. Three examples of quadrilaterals that have corresponding sides with the same length are below.
Students use polystrips to build triangles and quadrilaterals with given side lengths.
equal lengths
Students begin by considering the question of whether any three lengths will make a triangle. Students find that the sum of two side lengths of a triangle must be greater than the third side length. If the two side lengths equal the third side length, then the two smaller sides collapse or fit exactly on the third side and no triangle is formed. If the sum is smaller, then the two short sides collapse onto the third side, but do not fit exactly. If a triangle is possible, then there is exactly one triangle that can be built. This explains the rigidity of triangles and the extensive use of
10
Shapes and Designs
INTRODUCTION
Big Idea
Understanding parts of polygons and how parts of polygons are related
Prior Work
Developing mathematical reasoning by analyzing integers and data (Prime Time); developing shape recognition skills (elementary school) Developing classification skills through classifying integers (e.g., even, odd, abundant, deficient) and data (e.g., categorical or numerical) (Prime Time); developing shape recognition skills (elementary school) Exploring how 2-D shapes fit together (elementary school)
Future Work
Studying properties of 3-D cube figures (Ruins of Montarek 2004); exploring similarity of 2-D figures (Stretching and Shrinking); finding surface area and volume of 3-D figures (Filling and Wrapping)
Learning important properties of polygons that relate to the angles and sides of polygons
Learning important properties of rectangles, triangles, and parallelograms (Covering and Surrounding); studying properties of 3-D cube figures (Ruins of Montarek 2004); enlarging, shrinking, and distorting 2-D shapes (Stretching and Shrinking); learning properties of 3-D figures (Filling and Wrapping); learning and applying the Pythagorean Theorem (Looking for Pythagoras)
Creating tilings with polygons and determining the properties of shapes that can be used to tile a surface Exploring symmetries in squares, rectangles, parallelograms, and equilateral triangles Developing understanding and techniques for measuring angles
Understanding area as the exact number of square units needed to cover a 2-D figure (Covering and Surrounding); subdividing figures into similar figures (Stretching and Shrinking); connecting tessellations to isometries (Kaleidoscopes, Hubcaps, and Mirrors)
Exploring symmetry informally by looking at shapes of data sets (Data Distributions)
Exploring symmetry informally by looking at shapes of data sets (Data Distributions) Identifying symmetry in 3-D cubic figures (Ruins of Montarek 2004); connecting symmetry to isometries (Kaleidoscopes, Hubcaps, and Mirrors) Finding area and perimeter of 2-D figures (Covering and Surrounding)
Exploring measurement of line segments (elementary school)
Unit Introduction
11
Covering and Surrounding Grade 6
INTRODUCTION
Overview
Throughout history we find records of the importance of measurement. In fact, in the early development of mathematics, geometry was synonymous with measurement. Today we are surrounded by increasingly complex measures such as information-access rates, signal strength, and memory capacity. The overarching goal of this unit is to help students begin to understand what it means to measure. Students study two kinds of measurements: perimeter and area. Since students often have misconceptions about the effects of each of these measures on the other, it is critical to study them together and to probe their relationships. The problems in this unit are structured so that students can build deep understanding of what it means to measure area and what it means to measure perimeter. In the process, they develop strategies for measuring perimeter and area of both rectangular and nonrectangular shapes. As they discuss their strategies, students are supported in formulating rules for finding area and perimeter of rectangles, triangles, parallelograms, and circles. The name of this unit indicates the theme that binds the investigations together: covering (area) and surrounding (perimeter). A sub-theme running through the unit focuses on questions of what is the greatest and what is the least, since the notions of maximum and minimum are important throughout mathematics. You will recognize connections throughout the Covering and Surrounding unit to all the units preceding it in the grade 6 curriculum. The connections to factors and multiples and to fractions are especially strong.
Investigation 1 Designing Bumper Cars
This investigation introduces students to area and perimeter by asking them to create floor plans for bumper-car rides that are made from 1-metersquare floor tiles and 1-meter-long rail sections. The floor tiles and rail sections allow students to use counting as a way to find the area and perimeter of the plans. This investigation builds experience with analyzing what it means to measure area and perimeter and develops efficient strategies for finding area and perimeter of rectangles. In addition, students should begin to understand the difference between area and perimeter. They should be aware that shapes with the same area may not have the same perimeter. Similarly, shapes with the same perimeter may not have the same area. By the end of the investigation, students should be able to write rules for finding area and perimeter of a rectangle and be able to explain why these work.
Investigation 2 Changing Area, Changing Perimeter

In this investigation, students explore fixed area and fixed perimeter problems. These problems are sometimes referred to as maximum and minimum problems. Holding one variable constant to study how another variable changes is a powerful mathematical tool used to analyze a wide variety of problems. It also helps strengthen students understanding of area and perimeter and how they are related.
Unit Opener
Investigation 3 Measuring Triangles

In this investigation, students deepen their understanding of area and perimeter by finding the areas and perimeters of triangles. The primary goal is for students to develop, understand, and use the formula for finding the area of a triangle. Students also learn to identify the base and height on a triangle.
While this unit does not explicitly focus on the more global aspects of what it means to measure, it does lay the groundwork for teachers to raise issues that help students begin to see relationships and characteristics of all measurements.
The Measurement Process

The measurement process involves several key elements.
Investigation 4 Measuring Parallelograms

In this investigation, students deepen their understanding of area and perimeter by finding the areas and perimeters of parallelograms. The primary goal is for students to develop, understand, and use procedures for finding areas and perimeters of parallelograms.
A phenomenon or object is chosen, and an

attribute that can be measured is identified. This could involve such disparate properties as height, mass, time, temperature, and capacity.
An appropriate unit of measurement is

selected. The unit depends on the kind of measure to be made and the degree of precision needed for the measure. Units of measurement include centimeters, angstroms, degrees, minutes, volts, and decibels. Instruments for measuring include rulers, calipers, scales, watches, ammeters, springs, and weights.
Investigation 5 Measuring Irregular Shapes and Circles

The first problem in the investigation looks at counting techniques for estimating areas and perimeters of non-regular shapes. These shapes often cannot be covered with whole square units. The counting techniques used to estimate areas and perimeters of non-regular shapes are powerful yet concrete. They let students see the power of formulas to solve some cases and the need to understand the concepts underlying area and perimeter to solve others. Appropriately, this problem pushes students to think about two ideas that are central to this unit: covering and surrounding. The last three problems in this investigation help students discover how diameter and radius of a circle are related to its circumference and area. These three problems lay the foundation for students to develop an understanding of the number p (pi), which represents the number of diameters needed to surround a circle and the number of radius squares (r 2) needed to cover a circle. Some students will have already seen the expressions C = pd (or C = 2pr) and A = pr 2 but do not understand what they mean.
The unit is used repeatedly to match the

attribute of the phenomenon or object in an appropriate way. This matching might be accomplished, for example, by covering, reaching the end of, surrounding, or filling the object.
The number of units is determined. The

number of units is the measure of the property of the phenomenon or object.
Measuring Perimeter and Area

Covering and Surrounding highlights two important kinds of measures (perimeter and area) that depend on different units and measurement processes. Counting is a natural and appropriate way for students to find area and perimeter, because measurement is counting. When we measure, we are counting the number of measurement units needed to match an attribute of an object. Measuring perimeter requires linear units. Measuring area requires square units. When finding the perimeter of a figure, students will often say they counted the number of squares along a side to find the length. Students need to be aware that perimeter is a linear measure. To measure the
Covering and Surrounding
perimeter you count (measure) the number of unit lengths that form the border of the figure. In the figure at the left below, the 12 square tiles border a 4 by 4 square. This is not the perimeter. Instead, the perimeter comprises 16 unit lengths, shown in the figure below.
1 1 12 11 10 9 8 2 3 4 5 6 7 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 Correct 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Area and Perimeter of Rectangles

In Investigation 1, students first explore area and perimeter of non-rectangular shapes. After building shapes with square tiles and computing the perimeter and area by counting the units, the students investigate rectangles displayed on a grid. Again they find that they can find the area by counting the number of squares enclosed by the rectangle and the perimeter by counting the number of linear units surrounding the rectangle. Students may have found that, once you have counted the grid squares in one row, you could multiply by the number of rows to find the total number of squares in the rectangle. In other words, you can find the area of a rectangle by multiplying the length by the width. For example, in this rectangle there are 5 squares in the first row and 7 rows in all. The area of the rectangle is 5 3 7 = 35 square units or in general, O 3 w.
INTRODUCTION
Incorrect
A strong emphasis on formulas that precedes understanding the methods may contribute to this confusion. While students can become adept at plugging numbers into formulas, they often have a hard time remembering which formula does what. This may be because they have an incomplete fundamental understanding of what the measurement is about and how the formula captures their more informal, intuitive computations. Many students think that area and perimeter are related in that one determines the other. They may think that all rectangles of a given area have the same perimeter or that all rectangles of a given perimeter have the same area. Alternatively, students may not see any distinction between area and perimeter, giving area answers for perimeter problems or vice versa. The investigations in Covering and Surrounding help students realize for themselves the inaccuracy of such notions and help them to analyze the distinctions between the two measures. In this unit, students work with tiles, transparent grids, grid paper, string, rulers, and other devices of their choice to develop a dynamic sense of covering and surrounding to find area and perimeter. Once students have an understanding of area and perimeter, they are ready to develop rules or formulas for finding area and perimeter in certain situations. This should be encouraged, but not forced too early. Some students need the help of a more hands-on approach to measuring for quite a while. The payoff for allowing students the time and opportunity to develop levels of abstraction with which they are comfortable is that, through these explorations, they make sense of perimeter and area in a lasting way.
Similarly, the perimeter is 2 (7 + 5) or 2 3 7 + 2 3 5 or in general, 2 (O + w) or 2O + 2w.
Parentheses and Order of Operations

The two equivalent forms for the perimeter of a rectangle provide an opportunity to discuss the role of parentheses in expressions and the order of operations. Parentheses indicate that the numbers in them need to be operated on first. In the perimeter formula, perimeter = (length + width) 3 2, the parentheses indicate that you need to add the length and width before you multiply by two. Students who are using a scientific calculator, or one that follows order of operations, need to be aware that they must enter the string correctly for it to give the correct answer. For example, for a rectangle with a length of 4 and a width of 3, if you enter the string of numbers and operations as 4 + 3 3 2, most calculators will automatically follow the order of operations and multiply 3 3 2 before adding the 4. If you want to
Unit Opener
add 4 + 3 first, either key in 4 + 3 and press equal to get the sum before keying in to multiply by 2, or use the parentheses keys and key in the following: ( 4 + 3 ) 3 2 = to find the perimeter.
Area of Triangles
In Investigation 3, students use what they have learned from finding the area and perimeter of a rectangle to find the area and perimeter of a triangle. Essentially any triangle can be thought of as half of a rectangle. If we surround a triangle with a rectangle in a particular way, two small triangles are formed, both of which are inside the rectangle and outside the triangle. These are triangles 1 and 4 in the diagram below.
smallest upright rectangle does not have an area equal to twice the triangle. In the first arrangement below, the rectangle and the obtuse triangle have the same base and height. In the second orientation, the base of the obtuse triangle is shorter than the base of the enclosing rectangle. (In Problem 3.2, students find that the area of a triangle is the same regardless of which side is chosen for the base.)
1 2 3
Referencing the grade 6 unit Shapes and Designs, students notice that the two triangles created by drawing in the height of the triangle (triangles 2 and 3 in the diagram) are congruent to the other two triangles in the rectangle (that is, triangles 1 and 2 are congruent, as are triangles 3 and 4 in the diagram). area of triangle 1 + area of triangle 2 + area of triangle 3 + area of triangle 4 = area of rectangle Since the areas of triangle 1 and triangle 2, as well as triangle 3 and triangle 4, are the same: 2(area of triangle 2) + 2(area of triangle 3) = area of rectangle Hence the area of the original triangle is b 3 h where b is the base of the triangle (or the length of the corresponding rectangle) and h is the height of the triangle (or the width of the rectangle). Obtuse triangles are reoriented because every obtuse triangle has one orientation where the
1 2
The formula for area of a triangle still holds for obtuse triangles, regardless of orientation. However, the approach modeled in Problem 3.1 does not demonstrate why this is so. Here is a proof of why the formula works for obtuse triangles: The following obtuse triangle has a base b and a height h. It is embedded in a rectangle. Note that the bottom side of the rectangle is made up of two parts, the base of the obtuse triangle and the base of a right triangle, which is x. From the preceding demonstrations, the area of a right triangle is known. So the length or base of the rectangle is b + x and its height is h.
bx
area of the area of the area of the obtuse = - two other rectangle triangle triangles = h(b + x) = = = =
h ( b 1 x) hx - 2 2 2h ( b 1 x) 2 h ( b 1 x) 2 hx 2 2hb 1 2hx 2 hb 2 hx 2 hx 2 hb 1 2hx 2 2hx 2 hb 2
Area of Parallelograms
The rule for area of a parallelogram is developed from students experience finding the area of triangles. This may be a different approach than the one you have used to develop a rule for area of a parallelogram. It is not uncommon to see the rule for area of a parallelogram developed out of the rule for area of a rectangle. When students informally explore ways to find the area of parallelograms, as they will in Problem 4.2, they often offer that they can cut the parallelogram and rearrange it into a rectangle. They can then use their rule for area of a rectangle to find the area of a parallelogram. This approach can be illustrated with this diagram:
by two, as they did when finding the area of a triangle. The area of a parallelogram is 1 2 3 ( 2 b 3 h), or just b 3 h. The height of a parallelogram is the perpendicular distance from the base to the side parallel to the base. As is the case with triangles, the height of a parallelogram depends on the side that is chosen for the base.
INTRODUCTION
height
base
While this method works for most parallelograms, and it should be accepted when students offer it as an informal strategy, it will not work with parallelograms oriented like this one:
Area and Circumference of Circles

In Investigation 5, the area of a circle is developed by finding the number of squares, whose side lengths equal the radius, that cover the circle. In the diagram, the circle is enclosed in a square. Two perpendicular diameters are drawn which makes four squares whose areas are r 2. The area of the circle is less than 4r 2. Then by either finding the number of radius squares that cover the circle or by counting the area outside the circle, but inside the larger square, the area of the circle is approximately 3 radius squares [p(r 3 r) or pr 2].
radius square (r 2 )
It is not possible to make one vertical cut and rearrange the pieces to form a rectangle. (Of course, one can reorient the parallelogram so that the longer side is the base. Then the rearrangement works.) But, every parallelogram can be divided into two congruent triangles by drawing one diagonal on the parallelogram, as shown:
In doing so, the length of the base and height of the parallelogram is the same length as the base and height of the triangle. From this students can see that they find the area of the parallelogram by multiplying the base and height, without dividing
Unit Opener
The circumference is found by counting the number of diameter lengths needed to surround the circle. The number is about 3. The circumference of a circle is pd.
In the following pictures, the object is measured first with centimeter squares and then with halfcentimeter squares.
Estimating Perimeter and Area of Irregular Figures

Finding an exact measurement for area and perimeter is not always possible or even necessary. However, there are methods that allow for more precise estimates. In the last investigation of the unit before finding the area and circumference of a circle, students will look at irregular shapes, using the context of lakes and shorelines, to explore ways to find reasonable estimates for perimeter and area. When estimating perimeter, students use a string to wrap around the picture of the lake and then measure the length of the string with the appropriate linear measure. A measure of length is always approximate. Once the unit of length has been selected, it can be subdivided to make more accurate measurements because there is less room for error in the approximation. For example, suppose you approximate the length of the segment measured with two scales below.
From the pictures you can see more of the tree is covered with whole units of half-centimeter squares, giving a better approximation for the answer.
Accuracy and Error

Measuring objects and comparing data from the whole class is an excellent way to help students begin to see that all measures are approximate. One can fine-tune measurements to get a degree of precision in a particular situation, but no matter how precise the instruments with which a measurement is made, error will always exist. The investigations in Covering and Surrounding primarily involve whole-number situations as students begin to develop methods for finding area and perimeter. But they will also encounter many situations with rational numbers. In addition, students are likely to need fractions or decimals when measuring real objects. Students, especially those uncomfortable with fractions or decimals, may try to round all measurements to whole numbers. You will need to encourage them to use fractions or decimals so that their measurements are more accurate. Measurement gives rise to proportional reasoning through measurement conversions, as encountered with the units in the tree example above. The familiarity of the situation can help students make sense of the relationships. Because they will be working with drawings that represent
Using the upper measurement scale, you find the length is approximately 4. Using the lower measurement scale, you approximate the length as 42. To measure the surface area of the lake, students select a corresponding square unit to cover the surface with. The number of units needed to cover the lake is the area. Just as with length, using smaller units for measuring area gives a more precise measurement.
1
real objects, students will encounter problems of scale. We have tried to keep these problems manageable by carefully selecting scales that make for easy transitions from the model to the real object. The investigations have a mix of metric and standard measures. Students will often be asked to estimate or to compare measurements. Comparing and estimating are important skills used in many kinds of quantitative situations, and they will help students develop skills in knowing whether an estimate is reasonable and appropriate, how to make estimates, and how to compare measurements in meaningful ways.
Fixed Area
Suppose the area of a rectangle is 24 square units and its dimensions are restricted to whole numbers. The rectangle with the least perimeter is the 4-by-6 rectangle. In the set of real numbers, the rectangle with the least perimeter is the square
INTRODUCTION
The Relationship Between Shape and SizeMaximum and Minimum

It is important for students to explore how measurements are affected when an attribute such as area or perimeter is held constant. For example, some students hold the misconception that if you know the area of a shape, you can find the perimeter. Yet, for any given area you can make many different shapes with that area, all of which could have varying perimeters. For example, both a 1-by-9 and a 3-by-3 rectangle have an area of 9 square units. The 1-by-9 rectangle is long and thin, and it will have a larger perimeter than the 3-by-3 rectangle that is square in shape. The same is true when perimeter is held constant. For a given perimeter, there are many different areas that can be designed. Of the set of rectangles with a fixed area, the rectangle that is most shaped like a square has the least perimeter. With no restrictions specified, there is no rectangle that has a greatest perimeter because we always can divide the width in half and double the length, 2O 3 2 = Ow, to make the perimeter greater. Where O . w, 2(2O 1
w ) 2 w
whose side lengths are "24. This will be explored in the Looking for Pythagoras unit in eighth grade after they have been introduced to square roots and irrational numbers. If we allow our shape to be something other than a rectangle (and, in context, if we had flexible walls!), then the best design is a circle with radius of approximately 2.76 meters. The circumference (perimeter) of this circle is approximately 17.37 meters. When you are working with circles in Investigation 5 you might want to return to this problem and explore what happens to the perimeter when you use a circle with area of 24 square units instead of a rectangle.
Fixed Perimeter
Suppose the perimeter of a rectangle is 24 units and its dimensions are restricted to whole numbers. The rectangle that has the greatest area is the 6-by-6 rectangle. The 1-by-11 rectangle has the least area. If the dimensions are any real numbers, then there is no smallest area. For example, a 2-by-11 2 rectangle has an area of 2 3 2 = 4 = 3 5 4 square units, which is smaller than 11 square units. This process could continue infinitely. We could have a perimeter of 24 units with side lengths 4 by 114. The area would be 4 3 4 = 16, 13 which is 216 square units. The relationship between length and area has the shape of a parabola. This relationship will be revisited in the algebra unit, Frogs, Fleas, and Painted Cubes. In Investigation 2, and other places throughout the unit, students will have an opportunity to explore the relationship between shape and size. They will consider situations where area is held constant and perimeter varies as well as situations where perimeter is held constant and area varies. These investigations help develop understanding of area and perimeter. The relationship between size and shape will be revisited when students study volume and surface area in the seventh-grade unit Filling and Wrapping. This work also provides a foundation for future studies in calculus.
Unit Opener
1 1 1 45 45 1 1 1 23 23
. 2O 1 2w. Because 4O 1 w . 2O 1 2w,
the perimeter is greater than the perimeter of the original rectangle with dimensions O and w. If we restrict the dimensions to whole numbers, it would be the rectangle that is the longest. If the area is 9 square units, then the 1-by-9 rectangle has the greatest perimeter. But if the dimensions are not restricted to whole numbers, then a 2-by-18 rectangle has a greater perimeter and a 4-by-36 rectangle has an even greater perimeter.
1 1
Big Idea
Interpreting area as the number of square units needed to cover a two-dimensional shape
Prior Work
Making tessellations (Shapes and Designs)
Future Work
Studying relationships between three-dimensional models and two-dimensional representations of the models (Ruins of Montarek 2004); comparing areas of two-dimensional shapes to test for similarity (Stretching and Shrinking); finding surface area and volume of three-dimensional figures (Filling and Wrapping) Studying two-dimensional (surface area, square units) and three-dimensional (volume, cubic units) measures of figures (Filling and Wrapping)
Interpreting perimeter as the number of (linear) units needed to surround a twodimensional shape Developing strategies for finding the perimeter and area of irregular twodimensional shapes Studying the relationship between perimeter and area in rectangles Developing strategies and algorithms for finding the perimeter and area of rectangles, triangles, parallelograms, and circles
Side lengths of polygons (Shapes and Designs)
Performing operations with rational numbers; estimating sums of rational numbers (Prime Time, Bits and Pieces I, Bits and Pieces II) Effects of side lengths on shapes of polygons (Shapes and Designs)
Finding the area and side lengths of shapes on a coordinate grid (Looking for Pythagoras)
Studying the relationship between the dimensions and volume of a prism (Filling and Wrapping)
Performing operations with whole numbers and finding factor pairs of whole numbers (Prime Time); subdividing and comparing shapes (Shapes and Designs); collecting data and looking for and generalizing patterns (Prime Time, Shapes and Designs)
Developing and applying algorithms for performing decimal calculations (Bits and Pieces III); developing strategies and algorithms for finding the surface area and volume of prisms, cones, and spheres (Filling and Wrapping); developing the Pythagorean Theorem and other equations to model algebraic and geometric patterns (Thinking With Mathematical Models; Looking for Pythagoras; Growing, Growing, Growing; Frogs, Fleas, and Painted Cubes; Say It With Symbols; The Shapes of Algebra)
10
Stretching and Shrinking Grade 7
INTRODUCTION
Overview
Knowledge of similarity is important to the development of childrens understanding of the geometry in their environment. In their immediate environment and in their studies of natural and social sciences, students frequently encounter phenomena that require familiarity with the ideas of enlargement, scale factors, area growth, indirect measurement, and other similarity-related concepts. Similarity is an instance of proportionality. For example, if you increase the size of a diagram by 50%, then distances in the enlarged diagram are proportional to distances in the original diagram. Specifically, every distance in the enlargement is a constant multiple (1.5) of the corresponding distance in the original. It is generally understood that understanding proportional reasoning is an important stage in cognitive development. Students in the middle grades often experience difficulty with ideas of scale. They confuse adding situations with multiplying situations. Situations requiring comparison by addition or subtraction come first in students experience with mathematics and often dominate their thinking about any comparison situation, even those in which scale is the fundamental issue. For example, when considering the dimensions of a rectangle that began as 3 units by 5 units and was enlarged to a similar rectangle with a short side of 6 units, many students will say the long side is now 8 units rather than 10 units. They add 3 units to the 5 units rather than multiply the 5 units by 2, the scale factor. These students may struggle to build a useful conception that will help them distinguish between situations that call for addition and those that are multiplicative (calling for scaling up or down). The problems in this unit are designed to help students begin to accumulate the knowledge and experiences necessary to make these kinds of distinctions and to reason about scaling in geometry situations. The next unit, Comparing and Scaling, continues to develop these ideas in numerical, rather than geometric, contexts.
Investigation 1 Enlarging and Reducing Shapes
Similarity is introduced at an informal level. Students use their intuition about enlargements and reductions to answer questions. Students make drawings of similar figures using a pair of rubber bands. Then, they compare side lengths, angle measures, perimeters, and areas of the original and enlarged figures.
Investigation 2 Similar Figures

Students build a good working definition of similar in mathematical terms. They begin to see connections between geometry and algebra. Using the coordinate system, they draw several geometric figures. Some of the figures are similar to one another and others are not. They explore algebraic rules that cause images to change size and to move about the coordinate plane. They also compare angle measures and lengths of corresponding sides informally as they investigate transformations. Students find that for two figures to be similar corresponding angles must be congruent and corresponding sides must grow or shrink by the same factor.
Investigation 3 Similar Polygons

Students deepen their understanding of what it means for two figures to be similar. In addition, they explore the relationship between the areas of similar figures. The idea that area does not grow at the same rate as side length when a figure is enlarged is difficult for students to grasp. Through experiments with rep-tiles (shapes where copies are put together to make larger, similar figures), students explore the relationship between the areas of two similar figures. They also discover how triangles are special. These experiences help them build mental images to support their evolving ideas about the relationship between scale factor and area.
Unit Introduction
Investigation 4 Similarity and Ratios

Students use equivalent ratios to test if figures are similar. They compare ratios of the sides within rectangles (length to width of one rectangle and length to width of the other). Students learn that for non-rectangular shapes such as triangles, you need information about angle measures as well. They learn that between two similar figures, you can find the length of missing sides using either ratios or scale factors.
Through the activities in Stretching and Shrinking, students will grow to understand that the everyday use of a word and its mathematical use may be different. For us to determine definitively whether two figures are similar, similarity must have a precise mathematical definition.
Similarity
Two figures are similar if:
the measures of their corresponding angles are

equal
Investigation 5 Using Similar Triangles and Rectangles

Students apply their knowledge about similarity of triangles to real-world problems. They use the shadow and mirror methods to find the height of a tall object. They compare their data to decide which method gives more consistent results. They also use similar triangles to find the distance across a physical feature, such as a river. In each problem, they find that triangles are similar if their corresponding angles are equal. In the ACE, they use their knowledge about similar rectangles to make similar rectangles and to find missing measurements.
the lengths of their corresponding sides increase

by the same factor, called the scale factor. The two Figures A and B below are similar.
Figure A
The activities in the beginning of the unit elicit students first notions about similarity as two figures with the same shape. Students may have difficulty with the concept of similarity because of the way the word is used in everyday language family members are similar and houses are similar. The unit begins by having students informally explore what it means for two geometric figures to be similar. They create similar figures using rubber bands. Early on, they begin to see that some attributes of similar figures are the same while others are not. For example, corresponding angle measures appear to be the same, but corresponding side lengths are differentyet these differences are predictable. Students experiences with photocopiers enlarging or shrinking pictures provide another familiar context to begin the exploration of similar figures.
Figure B
The corresponding angle measures are equal. The side lengths from Figure A to Figure B grow by a factor of 1.5. Thus the scale factor from Figure A to Figure B is 1.5. (Figure A stretches, or is enlarged.) You can also say the scale factor from Figure B to Figure A is 1.5, or 3. (Figure B shrinks, or is reduced.)
Creating Similar Figures
1 2
The rubber-band stretcher introduced in Investigation 1 is a tool for physically producing a similarity transformation. It does not give precise results, but it is an effective way to introduce
Stretching and Shrinking
students to similarity transformations. More precision is gained in transformations using algebraic rules that specify how coordinates change. See Problem 1.2 in the Student Edition for instructions. In this unit, students make figures on a coordinate system and use algebraic rules to transform them into similar figures. For example, if the coordinates of a figure are multiplied by 2, the algebraic transformation is from (x, y) to (2x, 2y). In general, if the coordinates of a figure are (x, y), algebraic rules of the form (nx + a, ny + b) will transform it into a similar figure with a scale factor of n. These algebraic rules are called similarity transformations, which are not introduced as vocabulary in this unit. In the preceding figures, Figure B has been transformed from Figure A by the rule (1.5x, 1.5y).
Relationship of Area and Perimeter in Similar Figures
The scale factor from rectangle C to rectangle D is 2 because the length of each side of rectangle C multiplied by 2 gives the length of the corresponding side of rectangle D. The scale factor from rectangle D to rectangle C is 2 multiplied by 2 gives the length of the corresponding side of rectangle C. Rectangle E is not similar to rectangle C, because the lengths of corresponding sides do not increase by the same factor.
Similarity Transformations and Congruence
1 1
INTRODUCTION
because the length of each side of rectangle D
The perimeters of one rectangle A and rectangle B below are related by a scale factor of 2. The area increases by the square of the scale factor, or 4. This can be seen by dividing rectangle B into four rectangles (labeled A) congruent to rectangle A.
In general, algebraic rules of the form (nx, ny) are called similarity transformations, because they will transform a figure in the plane into a similar figure in the plane. If the figure described by the rule, (x, y), is compared to the figure described by the rule, (nx, ny), n is the scale factor from the original figure to the image. The scale factor from Figure A (x, y) to Figure B (2x, 2y) is 2. The scale factor from Figure A (x, y) to Figure C (3x, 3y) is 3. This is a special case where n = 1 in Figure A. If we compare two figures created by rules when n 1 in both figures, then the scale factor is not n. An example is Figure B (2x, 2y) and Figure C (3x, 3y). They are similar to each other. But the scale factor from B to C is 2 .
A (x,y) B (2x,2y)
3 2
B
A A A Similarity of Rectangles
C (3x,3y)
Since all of the angles in rectangles are right angles, you need only check the ratios of the lengths of corresponding sides. For example, rectangles C and D are similar, but neither is similar to rectangle E.
2 3
D C 10 6 20
12
E 20
Note that similarity is transitive. If Figure A is similar to Figure B and Figure B is similar to Figure C, then Figure A is similar to Figure C. In Problem 2.2, the students will see that adding to x and/or y moves the figure around on the grid, but does not affect its size. This means that a more general form of similarity transformations of this sort is (nx + a, ny + b). Rules of this form, where the coefficient of both x and y is 1 [such as (x + 3, y - 2)], move the figure around, but the figure
Unit Introduction
stays exactly the same shape and size (it is congruent to the original). Congruent is a term from the sixth-grade unit Shapes and Designs. Note that the scale factor between two congruent figures is 1. Therefore, congruent figures are also similar. There are other transformations in the plane that preserve congruence, such as flips and turns. These are studied in the eighth-grade unit Kaleidoscopes, Hubcaps, and Mirrors.
Comparing Area in Two Similar Figures Using Rep-Tiles
The following examples are also rep-tiles with a scale factor of 2 from the smaller shape to the larger shape.
B A C
It is generally surprising to students that if you apply a scale factor of 2 to a figure, the area becomes 4 times as large. One approach is to have students calculate the area of a figure and that of its image and compare the results. In the first two investigations, area is explored informally. In Investigation 3, we use rep-tiles to demonstrate that when you apply a scale factor of 2, it requires four copies of the original figure. In this case, you are really measuring area using the original figure as the unit, rather than square inches or square centimeters. If congruent copies of a shape can be put together to make a larger, similar shape, the original shape is called a rep-tile. It takes four congruent triangles to create a larger similar triangle with a scale factor of 2 or nine congruent triangles to create a larger similar triangle with a scale factor of 3. The large triangle below is made from four congruent copies of the smaller triangle. The scale factor from the original triangle to the larger triangle is 2. From the diagram it is fairly easy to see that corresponding angles have equal measures.
b a original b a c c c b a a b a c b c
A misconception that can arise is the idea that tiling is related to similarity. Figures that tile may not make a larger, similar figure. In addition, any figure can be transformed into a larger or smaller image, regardless of whether the figure can tile the plane. Rep-tiles are special because they make area comparisons easy.
Equivalent Ratios
In similar figures, there are several equivalent ratios. Some are formed by comparing lengths within a figure. Others are formed by comparing lengths between two figures. For the rectangles 10 below, the ratio of length to width is 6 or 1.6 for 20 rectangle P and 12 or 1.6 for rectangle R.
P 10
12
20
four copies
You can also look at the ratios of corresponding sides across two figures. In this situation it is width-to-width and length-to-length. The ratios are 6 and 10, respectively. These ratios are equivalent, and are also equivalent to 2, the scale factor. This second kind of ratio is not formally discussed in the unit, but students have used it informally when they divide corresponding side lengths between two similar figures to find the scale factor. This ratio also appears in an ACE.
12 20
The perimeter grows by a factor of 2 and the area grows by a scale factor of 2 3 2, or 4.
Similarity of Triangles
For polygons other than triangles, you must make sure that the lengths of corresponding sides increase by the same scale factor and that corresponding angle measures are equal when considering similarity. In Shapes and Designs, students explored an important property of trianglesangles determine a triangles shape. The property leads to the Angle-Angle-Angle Similarity Theorem for Triangles: If the measures of corresponding angles in two triangles are equal, then the two triangles are similar. For triangles you only have to check the angles to determine whether two triangles are similar. However, this fact about triangles is only hinted at in the unit. At this stage of their development of understanding of similarity, it is best if students operate with the general definition that applies to all polygons: Corresponding angle measures are equal and corresponding side lengths grow by the same scale factor. The next section explains this theorem.
Angle-Angle-Angle Similarity for Triangles
corresponding angles of another triangle then the two triangles are similar. This is known as the Angle-Angle-Angle Similarity Theorem. This is true only for triangles. Also, because you know that the angles of a triangle add to 180 you need only check two angles of a triangle in order to verify similarity. This unit presents an alternative test for similarity. If the corresponding angle measures are equal, then instead of checking the ratio between corresponding sides (the scale factor), you could check the ratios of sides within each figure. Given the two figures below, if GH = LM and FH = KM, then the figures are similar.
K F
FG KL GH LM
INTRODUCTION
Solving Problems Using Similar Figures
The line that connects the midpoints of two opposite sides of a triangle is parallel to the third side and its length is equal to half the length of the opposite side. The parallel lines create equal corresponding angles. Parallel lines also cut transversals into segments whose ratios are equal. In the following figure, segment DE is parallel to segment CB, so the ratios of the lengths A of the segments AD E to DC and the lengths of the segments AE to B EB are equal. AD AE D That is, = .
DC EB
Equivalent ratios can be used to solve interesting problems. For example, shadows can be thought of as sides of similar triangles because the sunlight hits the objects at the same angle. A building of unknown height and a meter stick, both of which are casting shadows, are shown below. To find the height of the building, you can use the scale factor between the lengths of the shadows. Since going from 0.25 to 10 involves a scale factor of 40, multiply the height of the meter stick by 40 to obtain the height of the building, 40 3 1 m =
x 1 40 m. You could also think of this as 10 = 0.25 . Finding the value of x that makes the ratios equivalent gives you the height of the building.
Not drawn to scale.
These facts can be used to show that if the corresponding angles of one triangle are congruent to the
C 10 m
1m 0.25 m
Unit Introduction
Big Idea
Enlarging and shrinking plane figures
Prior Work
Finding angle measures, lengths, and areas of plane geometric figures (Shapes and Designs; Covering and Surrounding) Developing and applying concepts of vertex, angle, angle measure, side, and side length (Shapes and Designs; Covering and Surrounding) Constructing two-dimensional shapes (Shapes and Designs); using symbols to communicate operations (Variables and Patterns); exploring symmetries of a figure (Shapes and Designs) Using factors and multiples (Prime Time); measuring two-dimensional figures (Covering and Surrounding); using ratios in fraction form (Bits and Pieces I; Bits and Pieces II); using maps (Variables and Patterns) Exploring properties of two-dimensional shapes; finding areas, perimeters, and side lengths of shapes (Shapes and Designs; Covering and Surrounding)
Future Work
Scaling quantities, objects, and shapes up and down (Comparing and Scaling; Filling and Wrapping)
Identifying the corresponding parts of similar figures
Analyzing how two-dimensional shapes are affected by different isometries; generating isometric transformations (Kaleidoscopes, Hubcaps, and Mirrors)
Describing and producing transformations of plane figures
Finding the equation of a line (Moving Straight Ahead); expressing linear relationships with symbols; determining whether linear expressions are equivalent (Say It With Symbols); writing directions for isometries in two dimensions (Kaleidoscopes, Hubcaps, and Mirrors)
Analyzing scale factors between figures; analyzing ratios within two figures; applying scale factors to solve two-dimensional geometric problems Applying properties of similar figures
Scaling and comparing figures and quantities (Comparing and Scaling); using slope to solve problems involving linear relationships (Moving Straight Ahead)
Exploring ratios and proportional relationships (Comparing and Scaling); developing the concept of slope (Moving Straight Ahead)
Filling and Wrapping Grade 7
INTRODUCTION
Overview
In Filling and Wrapping, students explore the surface areas and volumes of rectangular prisms and cylinders in depth. They look informally at how changing the scale of a box affects its surface area and volume. They also informally investigate other solidsincluding cones, spheres, and square pyramidsto develop volume relationships.
Investigation 1 Building Boxes
Students are introduced to the ideas of volume and surface area through the concepts of wrapping and filling, building on their knowledge of area and perimeter of two-dimensional figures from the Covering and Surrounding unit. Rectangular prisms are described by their dimensions: length, width, and height.
hexagonal prisms. They find the volume of any rectangular prism by determining how many unit cubes would fill the prism. They observe that the volume of a prism increases as the number of lateral sides increases. The volume of a cylinder is the area of the base (the number of unit cubes in the bottom layer) of the cylinder multiplied by its height (the number of layers). Surface area is informally looked at as the sum of the area of the bases (circles) and lateral side (rectangle). Prisms and cylinders come together as students design a rectangular box with the same volume as a given cylinder. They find the surface area of the box is greater than the surface area of the cylinder.
Investigation 4 Cones, Spheres, and Pyramids

Students compare the volumes of cones, cylinders, and spheres in an application. Students determine how many times the volume of the cone or sphere will fill the cylinder and then look for relationships among the three volumes. (Finding the surface areas of cones and spheres is not considered in this unit.) Students also compare the volume of a square pyramid to a cube.
Investigation 2 Designing Rectangular Boxes

Students continue their exploration of surface area and investigate its relationship to volume. The terms surface area and volume are introduced as vocabulary. By thinking about filling boxes in layers, students develop the formula for volume of a rectangular prism. The volume of a box is the number of blocks in the bottom layer multiplied by the number of layersthe area of the base times the height of the prism. (This strategy holds for all prisms.)
Investigation 5 Scaling Boxes

Students study the effects of changing the dimensions or the volume of a rectangular prism in the context of designing compost containers. They explore two central ideas: how to double the volume of a rectangular prism and examine how other measures change as a result, and the effects of applying scale factors to the dimensions of rectangular prisms. What effect does doubling (tripling, quadrupling, etc.) each dimension of a rectangular container have on its volume and surface area? Students apply their knowledge of similarity and scale factors to explore the relationships between a model of a cruise ship and the actual cruise ship. This last problem connects many of the ideas discussed in this unit.
Investigation 3 Prisms and Cylinders

Students compare the volumes and surface areas of a variety of prisms with regular bases and a common height. Students build prisms by folding several sheets of congruent rectangular paper into the shapes of triangular, rectangular, and
Unit Introduction
Rectangular Prisms
Students begin the unit by exploring the surface area of a rectangular box. The strategy for finding the surface area of a box is to determine the total area needed to wrap the container. Students create nets that can be folded into boxes. The area of the net becomes the surface area of the box.
Isometric drawings are another useful 2-dimensional representation of 3-dimensional objects. You may wish to have isometric dot paper available throughout the unit for students to use in making sketches of the 3-dimensional prism they create. The strategy for finding the volume of a rectangular box is to count the number of layers of unit cubes it takes to fill the container. The number of unit cubes in a layer is equal to the area of the baseone unit cube sits on each square unit in the base. The volume (the total number of unit cubes) of a rectangular prism is the area of its base (the number of unit cubes in the first layer) multiplied by its height (the total number of layers).
This provides a visual representation of surface area as a two-dimensional measure of a three-dimensional object. In the student edition, a rectangular prism is defined as a three-dimensional shape with six rectangular faces. Technically, this defines a right rectangular prism. An oblique rectangular prism also has opposite sides that are rectangles, but at least two opposite sides must be nonrectangular parallelograms.
one layer
five layers fill the box
The same layering strategy is used to generalize the method for finding the volume of any prism. The volume of any prism is the area of its base multiplied by its height.
Oblique rectangular prism
In this unit we only discuss right rectangular prisms. There is one ACE question on oblique rectangular prisms. The following figures are right rectangular prisms drawn on isometric dot paper.
Rectangular Prism Triangular Prism Hexagonal Prism
Filling and Wrapping
Students also informally compare the volume of two rectangular boxes by filling one box with rice or sand and then pouring the sand into the other rectangular box.
Cylinders
INTRODUCTION
The surface area and volume of a cylinder are developed in a similar way. Like a prism, a cylinder has two identical faces (circles). Also like a prism, a cylinder has a lateral surface that flattens to a rectangle. Students will notice all of these similarities. If they need language for the rectangle that is part of the net of both cylinders and prisms, feel free to introduce the term lateral surface. The term is not included in the student materials. Students cut and fold a net to form a cylinder. In the process, they find that the surface area of the cylinder is the area of the rectangle that forms the lateral surface plus the areas of the two circular ends.
Estimate the number of unit cubes in one layer.
And multiply by the number of layers.
Cones, Spheres, and Rectangular Pyramids
Students conduct an experiment to demonstrate the relationships among the volumes of a cylinder, a cone, and a sphere. If all three have the same radius and the same height (the height being equal to two radii), then it takes three cones full of sand to fill the cylinder, and one and a half spheres full of sand to fill the cylinder.
These relationships may also be expressed as follows: Cylinders can be thought of as circular prisms. In this case, it is easy to extend the techniques for measuring prisms to techniques for measuring cylinders. The volume of a cylinder is developed as the number of unit cubes in one layer (the area of the circular base) multiplied by the number of layers (the height) needed to fill the cylinder. Because the edge of the circular base intersects the unit cubes, students will have to estimate the number of cubes in the bottom layer. From the Covering and Surrounding unit, students know the formula for the area of a circle. They can apply this formula to find the area of the base of a cylinder. The area of the base is multiplied by the height to find the volume. The volume of a cylinder = pr 2h. Students investigate rectangular prisms with polygonal bases. If the prisms have the same heights, then as the number of sides of the polygonal base increases, the shape gets closer to a cylinder. volume of the cone = 3 of the volume of the cylinder or 3 p r 2h volume of the sphere = 3 of the volume of the cylinder or 3 p r 2(2r) or 4 3 pr 3 For cones and spheres, only the volume is studied. Surface area in these two cases is not considered here because the reasoning needed would take us too far afield. Formulas for these are sometimes considered within the context of high school geometry or calculus courses. The volume of a square pyramid is found in a similar way by comparing it to a square prism. This is easily generalized to finding the volume of a rectangular pyramid. If the base of the pyramid is a polygon, then as the number of sides of the polygon increases, the shape of the pyramid gets closer to a cone.
2 2 1 1
Unit Introduction
Relationship Between Surface Area and Fixed Volume
Students also investigate the effects of a change in dimension, surface area, or volume on the other attributes of a three-dimensional object. For example, if 24 unit cubes are arranged in a rectangular shape and packaged in a rectangular box, which arrangement of the cubes will require the least (the most) packaging material? By physically arranging the blocks and determining the surface area of each arrangement, students discover that a column of 24 cubes requires the most packaging, and the arrangement that is the most like a cube (2 by 3 by 4) requires the least amount of packaging. This is similar to ideas students have studied about plane figures: For a fixed area, the rectangle that is most like a square has the least perimeter of any rectangle with the same area. A similar relationship holds for a fixed surface area. The rectangular prism that is the most like a cube will have the greatest volume for a fixed surface area. In fact, it is not cube-ness that minimizes surface area, but sphere-ness. For a fixed volume, a sphere has the smallest surface area and, conversely for a fixed surface area, a sphere has the largest volume.
Effects of Changing Attributes Similar Prisms
double only one dimension of a rectangular box to double its volume. Students also look at the effects of doubling all three dimensions of a box. Making scale models of the original box and the new box helps students visualize the effect of the scale factor. Doubling each dimension of a rectangular prism increases the surface area by 2 3 2 = 4 times (a scale factor of 22) and volume by 2 3 2 3 2 = 8 times (a scale factor of 23). The surfaces of the two prisms are similar figures with a scale factor of 2 from the small prism to the large prism. This exploration connects back to ideas in the similarity unit, Stretching and Shrinking. When we describe a cylinder, we generally give only two dimensions: the height and the radius. The radius is constant in every direction, so we need not give a length radius and a width radius. Yet, when we change the radius, we change both the length and the width of the base. That is, we change two dimensions, not just one. In the ACE for Investigation 5, students investigate similar cylinders. At that point, students may need to discuss whether a cylinder is 2- or 3-dimensional in this sense.
Measurement
Through the context of designing an indoor compost box, students explore the effects that changing a boxs dimension have on the volume and surface area of the box. Given the dimensions of a compost box known to decompose a half pound of garbage per day, students investigate what size box would decompose one pound of garbage per day. They find that they need to
All measurements are approximations. In the work in this unit, this idea will become more apparent than usual. Students calculations of surface area and volume will often involve an approximation of the number p, and they will often use a calculated amount as a value in a subsequent calculation. Be aware that although students answers will often differ. The answers may reflect correct reasoning and correct mathematics.
Filling and Wrapping
INTRODUCTION
Big Idea
Interpreting volume as the number of unit cubes that fill a 3-dimensional figure
Prior Work
Interpreting area as the number of squares that cover a 2-dimensional figure (Covering and Surrounding); making minimal and maximal buildings (Ruins of Montarek 2004); studying relationships between 3-D models and 2-D representations of the models (Ruins of Montarek 2004) Interpreting perimeter as the number of linear units that surround a 2-dimensional figure (Covering and Surrounding); interpreting area as the number of squares that cover a 2-dimensional figure (Covering and Surrounding) Comparing areas and perimeters of different 2-dimensional figures (Covering and Surrounding)
Future Work
Interpreting surface area as the number of square units that cover or wrap the exterior of a 3-dimensional figure
Developing strategies for finding and comparing volumes and surface areas of different 3-dimensional figures Studying the relationships among the dimensions, surface area, and volume of prisms and cylinders Developing strategies and algorithms for finding the surface area and volume of prisms and cones, and the volume of cones and spheres
Studying the relationship between perimeter and area in rectangles (Covering and Surrounding)
Algebraically analyzing such relationships in geometric figures (Frogs, Fleas, and Painted Cubes) Using variables to represent a variety of relationships algebraically (Moving Straight Ahead; Frogs, Fleas, and Painted Cubes; Growing, Growing, Growing; Say It With Symbols)
Developing strategies and algorithms for finding the perimeter and area of rectangles, triangles, parallelograms, and circles (Covering and Surrounding)
Studying the effects of applying scale factor to the dimensions of a prism to its volume and surface area
Enlarging, shrinking, and distorting 2-D figures (Stretching and Shrinking); scaling quantities up and down using ratios and proportions (Comparing and Scaling)
Unit Introduction
Looking for Pythagoras Grade 8
INTRODUCTION
Overview
In Looking for Pythagoras, students explore two important ideas: the Pythagorean Theorem and square roots. They also review and make connections among the concepts of area, distance, and irrational numbers. Students begin the unit by finding the distance between points on a coordinate grid. They learn that the positive square root of a number is the side length of a square whose area is that number. Then, students discover the Pythagorean relationship through an exploration of squares drawn on the sides of a right triangle. In the last investigation of the unit, students apply the Pythagorean Theorem to a variety of problems.
Investigation 3 The Pythagorean Theorem

Students develop and explore the Pythagorean Theorem. They then investigate a geometric puzzle that verifies the theorem, and they use the theorem to find the distance between two points on a grid. In the last problem, they explore and apply the converse of the Pythagorean Theorem.
Investigation 4 Using the Pythagorean Theorem

For students to appreciate the mathematical power of the Pythagorean Theorem, they need to encounter situations that can be illuminated by the theorem. Students explore an interesting pattern among right triangles, apply the Pythagorean Theorem to find distances on a baseball diamond, investigate properties of 30-60-90 triangles, and find missing lengths and angle measures of a triangle composed of smaller triangles.
Investigation 1 Coordinate Grids
Students review coordinate grids as they analyze a map in which streets are laid out on a grid. They make the connection between the coordinates of two points and the driving distance between them. This sets the stage for finding the distance between two points on a grid without measuring. Students investigate geometric figures on coordinate grids. Given two vertices, they find other vertices that define a square, a non-square rectangle, a right triangle, and a non-rectangular parallelogram. And, they calculate areas of several figures drawn on a dot grid.
Students work in this unit develops an important relationship connecting geometry and algebra: the Pythagorean Theorem. The presentation of ideas reflects the historical development of the concept of irrational numbers. Early Greek mathematicians searched for ratios of integers to represent side lengths of squares with certain given areas such as 2 square units. The square root of 2 is an irrational number, which means that it cannot be written as a ratio of two integers.
Finding Area and Distance
Investigation 2 Squaring Off

Students explore the relationship between the area of a square drawn on a dot grid and the length of its sides. This provides an introduction to the concept of square root. They find the distance between two points by analyzing the line segment between them: they draw a square using the segment as one side, find the area of the square, and then find the positive square root of that area. Students find areas of plane figures drawn on dot grids. This reviews some concepts developed in the grade 6 unit Covering and Surrounding. One common method for calculating the area of a figure is to subdivide it and add the areas of the component shapes. A second common method is to enclose the shape in a rectangle and subtract the areas of the shapes that lie outside the figure
Unit Introduction
from the area of the rectangle. Below, the area of the shape is found with each method.
Square Roots
2 1 2 1
If the area of a square is known, its side length is easy to determine: it is the number whose square is the area. The fact that some of these lengths are not whole numbers prompts the introduction
Subdivide to find the area: 22116 2 21 2
12
Enclose in a square to find the area: 1 16 (4 2 2 1 2 12 ) 6
In Investigation 2, students draw squares with as many different areas as possible on a 5 dot-by-5 dot grid. There are eight possible squares, four upright and four tilted.
1 4
16
"8, and "10. Because the grid is a centimeter grid, students can estimate the values of the square roots by measuring these lengths with a ruler. By making these ruler estimates and comparing them to estimates obtained by computing square roots on a calculator, students develop a sense of these numbers and begin to realize that they cannot be expressed as terminating or repeating decimals. Students also develop benchmarks for estimating square roots. For example, "5 is between 2 and 3 because 4 5 9, and since 5 is closer to 4 than 9, we estimate that "5 is closer to 2 than 3. Students might try 2.25. But 2.252 = 5.06. So, "5 is between 2 and 2.25, but closer to 2.25. They might try 2.24 to get 2.242 = 5.0176, which is closer. This method can be continued until the desired accuracy is obtained. Students also estimate square roots with a number line ruler, which helps them to develop a sense of the size of the irrational numbers such as "3, "5, and "7. One way to locate "2 on the number line is as follows: The square below has an area of 2 square units. The length of a side of this square is "2 units. If we draw a number line as shown, and use a compass to mark off a segment with the same length as a side of the square, we can see that the segment is about 1.4 units long.
of the " symbol. The lengths of the sides of the preceding squares (in units) are 1, 2, 3, 4, "2, "5,
2 5
3 2 1
Using Squares to Find Lengths of Segments 8 10
Finding the areas of squares leads students to a method for finding the distance between two dots. The distance between two dots on a dot grid is the length of the line segment connecting them. To find this length, students can draw a square with
Looking for Pythagoras
the segment as one side. The distance between the two dots is the square root of the area of the square. To use this method to find all the different lengths of line segments that can be drawn on a 5 dot-by-5 dot grid, the grid must be extended to fit the squares associated with those lengths. For example, the bold line segment below is the side of a square (shaded) with an area of 25 square units, so the segment has length "25 units, or 5 units.
4 3 4 3
INTRODUCTION
16
3 To draw the square with the given side length, many students will use an up and over or down and over method to go from one point to the next. For example, to get from the lower endpoint of the segment above to the other endpoint, you go up 4 units and right 3 units. These endpoints are two vertices of the square. To get the third vertex, go right 4 units and down 3. To get the fourth, go down 4 units and to the left 3. In this way, they are developing intuition about the Pythagorean Theorem. Developing and Using the Pythagorean Theorem
The observation that the square on the hypotenuse has an area equal to the sum of the areas of the squares on the legs leads students to the Pythagorean Theorem: If a and b are the lengths of the legs of a right triangle and c is the length of the hypotenuse, then a2 + b2 = c2.
c2
a2
a2 b 2 c 2
b2
Once students are comfortable with finding the length of a segment by thinking of it as the side of a square, they investigate the patterns among the areas of the three squares that can be drawn on the sides of a right triangle.
A theorem is a general mathematical statement that has been proven true. Over 300 different proofs have been given for the Pythagorean Theorem. It is regarded as one of the most important developments in mathematics because it allows us to link ideas of number to ideas of space.
Unit Introduction
A Proof of the Pythagorean Theorem
Students solve a puzzle that gives a geometric proof of the Pythagorean Theorem. The puzzle pieces consist of eight congruent right triangles and three squares.
Once the shapes are arranged, you can reason as follows:
The areas of the frames are equal. They are

squares with side lengths of a 1 b.
Each frame contains four identical right

triangles. The other shapes are squares with area a2, b2, and c 2.
If the four right triangles are removed from

each frame, the area remaining in the two frames must be equal. That is, the sum of the areas of the squares in one frame must equal the area of the square in the other frame. Geometrically, the diagram shows that if the lengths of the legs of a right triangle are a and b, and the length of the hypotenuse is c, then a2 + b2 = c2. You can make similar puzzle pieces starting with any right triangle and then arrange the shapes in the same way. Therefore, this statement is true for any right triangle. In later courses, students may see this geometric argument presented algebraically. The sum of the areas of the two squares and the four triangles in the left frame equals the sum of the areas of the square and the four triangles in the right frame:
ab ab a2 + b2 + 4 Q 2 R = c2 + 4 Q 2 R a2 + b2 = c2
Puzzle frames
Puzzle pieces
The side lengths of the squares are the lengths of the three triangle sides.
To solve the puzzle, students must arrange the pieces to fit into two square puzzle frames. Students arrangements of the 11 shapes may differ slightly, but all arrangements lead to the same conclusion. One possible arrangement is shown below. The sides lengths of the right triangle have been labeled a, b, and c.
a c a
a2
The Pythagorean Theorem has many applications that connect the concepts of line segment lengths, squares, and right angles.
Using the Pythagorean Theorem to Find Lengths
Students use the Pythagorean Theorem to find the distance between two dots on a dot grid. The length of a horizontal or vertical line segment drawn on a dot grid can be found by counting the units directly. If the segment is not vertical or horizontal, it is always possible to treat it as the
c
b2 b b
c2
hypotenuse of a right triangle with vertical and horizontal legs. The length of the hypotenuseand thus the distance between the dotscan then be found with the Pythagorean Theorem. In high school, students will see the following formula for finding the distance between two points, (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) in the plane: d = " (x1 2 x2) 2 1 ( y1 2 y2) 2 This is simply the Pythagorean Theorem where a = x1 - x2 (the horizontal distance between two points), b = y1 - y2 (the vertical distance between two points), and c = d. To find the length of line segment AB below, draw a right triangle with segment AB as the hypotenuse. Calculate the areas of the squares on the legs of the triangle (4 square units each), add these areas (8 square units, which is the area of the square drawn on the hypotenuse), and take the square root. The length of AB is"8 units.
A 4 B
The Converse of the Pythagorean Theorem
Students are asked to explain why their conjecture is true. One explanation is: Suppose we know that Triangle 1 has sides a, b, and c, that satisfy the relationship a2 + b2 = c2. Suppose Triangle 2 has sides a, b, and d and we know that Triangle 2 is a right triangle with leg lengths of a and b. Then a2 + b2 = d2. From the first statement we know that a2 + b2 = c2. Logically, this gives us that c2 = d2, and, therefore, c = d (because they must both be positive numbers). Now Triangle 1 and Triangle 2 have the same three measures for their sides. In Shapes and Designs, students learned that once you know all three sides of a triangle, it is uniquely identified. They will investigate this idea more formally when they study congruence of triangles in Hubcaps, Kaleidoscopes, and Mirrors. So these two triangles are identical, right-angled triangles. In other words it is impossible for a triangle whose sides fit the relationship a2 + b2 = c2 to not be a right-angled triangle. An interesting byproduct of the converse of the Pythagorean Theorem is the concept of Pythagorean triples, sets of numbers that satisfy the relationship a2 + b2 = c2. Students discover that finding Pythagorean triples means finding two square numbers whose sum is also a square number. Multiples of one triple will generate countless others. For example, once you establish that 3-4-5 is a Pythagorean triple, you know that 6-8-10, 9-12-15, and so on, are also Pythagorean triples.
Special Right Triangles
INTRODUCTION
The converse of a statement of the form If p then q is If q then p. The converse of the Pythagorean Theorem states: If a, b, and c are the lengths of the sides of a triangle and a2 + b2 = c2, then the triangle is a right triangle. The converse of a true statement is not always true. However, the converse of the Pythagorean Theorem is true and can be used to show that a given triangle is a right triangle. For example, if you know the side lengths of a triangle are 6 in., 8 in., and 10 in., then because 62 + 82 = 102, you can conclude that the triangle is a right triangle. Students do not formally prove the converse of the Pythagorean Theorem in this unit. Rather, they build triangles with a variety of different side lengths and determine whether they are right triangles. Based on their findings, they conjecture that triangles whose side lengths satisfy a2 + b2 = c2 are right triangles.
In Investigation 4, students learn about 30-60-90 triangles by starting with an equilateral triangle (a 60-60-60 triangle). They use the line of symmetry to show the reflection line forms two congruent 30-60-90 triangles. For each of these triangles, they deduce that the leg opposite the 308 angle is half the length of the side of the original triangle. They then use the Pythagorean Theorem to find the length of the other leg. The Pythagorean Theorem can be used to show some special relationships among side lengths of 30-60-90 triangles (that is, triangles with 308, 608, and 908 angles).
Unit Introduction
Suppose the hypotenuse of a 30-60-90 triangle has length c. The length of the side opposite the 30 angle must be half this length, or Using the Pythagorean Theorem, the square of the length of the longer leg is c2 - 4 , or 4 . So, its length
2
c . 2
c3 2
30
60
c 2
fraction involves solving an equation. To convert 12.312312. . . to a fraction, for example, call the unknown fraction N. Thus, N = 12.312312. . . . Multiply both sides of the equation by 1,000 (the power of 10 that moves a complete repeating group to the left of the decimal point), which gives 1,000N = 12,312.312312. . . . Then, subtract the first equation from the second, which gives 999N = 12,300. Therefore, N = 999 , or 12999. The decimal equivalents of fractions with denominators of 9, 99, 999, and so on, display interesting patterns that can be used to write repeating decimals as fractions. For example, all decimals with a repeating part of one digit, such as 0.111 . . . and 0.222 . . . , can be written as a fraction with 9 in the denominator and the repeated digit in the numerator, such as 9 and 9. Decimals with a repeating part of two digits, such as 0.010101 . . . and 0.121212 . . . , can be written as a fraction with 99 in the denominator and the repeated digits in the numerator, such as 99 and 99.
Proof that
1 12 1 2 12,300 312
c2
3c2
is "3c 4 , or 2 . Students also explore isosceles right triangles (45-45-90 triangles), and find that the length of the hypotenuse is always the length of one of the
c"3
"2a2 = a"2.
legs times "2. If the length of each leg is a then, by the Pythagorean Theorem, the square of the length of the hypotenuse must be a2 + a2, or 2a2. Therefore, the length of the hypotenuse is
a2
a Rational and Irrational Numbers
In high school, students may prove that "2 is not a rational number. Its irrationality can be proved in an interesting waya proof by contradiction. The proof is given here for the teachers information. positive integers p and q such that "2 = q . So, "2q = p. Squaring both sides gives 2q2 = p2. From the Prime Time unit students learned that all square numbers have an odd number of factors. The reason is that factors of a number come in pairs. In a square number the factors in one of the pairs must be equal, which makes the number of factors for a square number odd. This means that if p and q are positive integers, then p2 and q2 each have an odd number of factors. Since p2 = 2q2, p2 has the same number of factors as 2q2. But 2q2 has an even number of factors (The factor 2 plus the odd number of factors of q2.) This is a contradiction. Therefore, p and q cannot exist
p
2 Is Irrational
When we examine patterns in the decimal representations of fractions, or rational numbers, we find that the decimals either terminate or repeat. For example, 5 is equal to 0.2 (a terminating decimal) and 3 is equal to 0.33333. . . (a repeating decimal). Numbers such as "2, "3 , and "5 cannot be expressed as repeating or terminating decimals. Students create line segments with these lengths.
1 1
Assume "2 is rational. Then, there exist
For example, "2 is the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle whose legs have length 1. They then locate the lengths on a number line. This procedure helps students to estimate the size of these irrational numbers.
Converting Repeating Decimals to Fractions
with these properties and "2 must be irrational.
Because all repeating decimals are rational numbers, they can be represented as fractions. It is not always obvious, though, what fraction is equivalent to a given repeating decimal. One method for converting a repeating decimal to a
8
Square Root Versus Decimal Approximation
Problems involving the Pythagorean Theorem often result in square roots that are irrational numbers. Students at this level are often reluctant
to leave numbers in a square root form. For
example, rather than give an exact answer of "3, they give a decimal approximation, such as 1.732. Some students are not comfortable thinking about square roots as numbers. Although it is important to know the approximate size of an answer, especially in a practical problem, it is sometimes better to give an exact answer, and this often means using square root form. For example, in the study of 30-60-90 triangles, Here, "3 is much easier to remember than a multi-digit decimal approximation, and the expression using the square root gives the exact result. Similarly, in a right triangle, if the hypotenuse has a length of 9 units and one leg has a length of 8 units, then the length of the other leg
length of leg opposite the 608 angle length of the hypotenuse
some idea of where they fit on the number line or between what two rational numbers they occur.
INTRODUCTION
Number Systems
5 2
"3
is "81 2 64 = "17 units. This answer is exact, while the calculator answer, 4.123105626, is an approximation. This is not to say that all answers should be left in square root formcontext needs to be considered. Heights of buildings are more easily comprehended in whole-number or decimal form, even if that form does not give the precise answer. Students should be encouraged to leave an answer in square root form when there is no practical reason to express it as a decimal approximation. The hope is that all students will become comfortable with square roots as numbers in contexts where expressing an answer as a square root is appropriate. In this unit, we want students to have a sense of square roots as numbers and
New number systems are created when a problem arises that cannot be answered within the system currently in use, or when inconsistencies arise that can be taken care of only by expanding the domain of numbers in the system. The historical discoveries of new number systems in response to needs are reflected in the number sets students use in grades K12. Elementary students begin with the counting numbers, also called natural numbers. Then, zero is added to the system to create the set of whole numbers. Later, students learn that negative numbers are needed to give meaning in certain contexts, such as temperature. Now they have the number system called the integers. In elementary and middle school, students learn about fractions and situations in which fractions are useful, as in many division problems. Students number world has been expanded to the set of rational numbers. In this unit, students encounter contexts in which the need for irrational numbers arises. Specifically, they need irrational numbers to express the exact lengths of tilted segments on a grid. The set of rational numbers and the set of irrational numbers compose the set of real numbers. The diagram in Figure 1 is one way to represent these sets of numbers.
Figure 1
Real numbers
Rational numbers Integers Whole numbers Counting numbers Irrational numbers
Unit Introduction
Big Idea
Calculating the distance between two points in the plane
Prior Work
Measuring lengths (Shapes and Designs; Covering and Surrounding); working with coordinates (Variables and Patterns; Moving Straight Ahead; Thinking With Mathematical Models) Measuring areas of polygons and irregular figures (Bits and Pieces I; Covering and Surrounding) and surface areas of three-dimensional shapes (Filling and Wrapping) Applying the formula for area of a square (Covering and Surrounding)
Future Work
Finding midpoints of line segments (Kaleidoscopes, Hubcaps, and Mirrors)
Finding areas of figures drawn on a coordinate grid with whole-number vertices
Studying transformations and symmetries of plane figures (Kaleidoscopes, Hubcaps, and Mirrors)
Understanding square roots as lengths of sides of squares Understanding the Pythagorean Theorem and how it relates the areas of the squares on the sides of a right triangle
Looking for patterns in square numbers (Frogs, Fleas, and Painted Cubes); looking for patterns in exponents (Growing, Growing, Growing)
Formulating, reading, and interpreting symbolic rules (Variables and Patterns; Moving Straight Ahead; Thinking With Mathematical Models; Covering and Surrounding); working with the triangle inequality (Shapes and Designs) Solving problems in geometric and algebraic contexts (Shapes and Designs; Moving Straight Ahead; Thinking With Mathematical Models; Covering and Surrounding) Understanding fractions and decimals (Bits and Pieces I, II, and III) Representing fractions as decimals and decimals as fractions (Bits and Pieces I, II, and III)
Formulating and using symbolic rules and the syntax for manipulating symbols (Frogs, Fleas, and Painted Cubes; Say It With Symbols; Shapes of Algebra)
Using the Pythagorean Theorem to solve problems
Solving geometric and algebraic problems (Growing, Growing, Growing; Frogs, Fleas, and Painted Cubes; Say It With Symbols; Kaleidoscopes, Hubcaps, and Mirrors)
Investigating rational numbers written as decimals Understanding irrational numbers as non-terminating, non-repeating decimals Understanding slope relationships of perpendicular and parallel lines
Exploring sampling and approximations (Growing, Growing, Growing; Samples and Populations; Frogs, Fleas, and Painted Cubes) Solving quadratic equations (Growing, Growing, Growing; Frogs, Fleas, and Painted Cubes; Say It With Symbols)
Finding slopes of lines and investigating parallel lines (Variables and Patterns; Moving Straight Ahead)
Investigating symmetry (Kaleidoscopes, Hubcaps, and Mirrors); finding the equation of a circle (Shapes of Algebra)
10
Kaleidoscopes, Hubcaps, and Mirrors Grade 8
INTRODUCTION
Overview
Students often have an intuitive understanding of symmetry. They recognize that a design is symmetric if some part of it is repeated in a regular pattern. Though students begin recognizing symmetric figures at an early age, the understanding needed to confirm symmetry and to construct figures with given symmetries requires greater sophistication. Kaleidoscopes, Hubcaps, and Mirrors, the last geometry and measurement unit in the Connected Mathematics 2 curriculum, helps students to refine their knowledge of symmetry and use it to make mathematical arguments. Symmetry is commonly described in terms of transformations. Symmetry transformations, or rigid motions, include reflections, rotations, and translations. They produce congruent figures, as opposed to similar figures discussed in the grade 7 unit Stretching and Shrinking. Similarity transformations change the size of a figure while preserving its shape (unless the scale factor is 1 : 1). In contrast, symmetry transformations preserve both angle measures and side lengths, resulting in an image that is congruent to the original figure. The purpose of this unit is to stimulate and sharpen students awareness of symmetry, congruence, their connections, and to begin to develop their understanding of the underlying mathematics. Students will explore congruence, symmetry, and transformations in greater depth in future mathematics classes.
Investigation 2 Symmetry Transformations

Students are challenged to describe the motions involved in constructing symmetric designs. They explore the relationships between figures and their images under reflections, rotations, and translations. They use their findings to write precise rules for finding images under each type of transformation.
Investigation 3 Exploring Congruence

This investigation emphasizes the connection between symmetry, transformations, and congruence. Students use their intuitions about what figures or parts of figures appear to be congruent. Then they use symmetry arguments to verify their intuition. The Side-Angle-Side, Angle-Side-Angle, and Side-Side-Side congruence conditions emerge from this investigation. Parts of the problem will reveal to students that congruence of quadrilaterals requires more information (in general 5 pieces of side and angle information suffice, but no less).
Investigation 4 Applying Congruence and Symmetry

Students are given some opportunities to reason with congruence conditions from Investigation 3 and symmetry arguments to establish congruence, and to use corresponding parts of congruent triangles to draw conclusions about side and angle measurements not available in the original data. Students also are asked to reason informally to conclusions about parallelograms and other figures. For example, if a quadrilateral has rotation symmetry, the quadrilateral must be a parallelogram, or the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other, and so on. This experience gives students an informal introduction to arguments like those they will use more extensively in high school geometry, without formal axiomatic reasoning.
Investigation 1 Three Types of Symmetry
Students are introduced to reflection, rotation, and translation symmetry. They identify the symmetries in several designs and make designs with given symmetries. Students are also introduced to tools and procedures for testing for symmetry and making symmetric figures. The goal is to heighten sensitivity to various forms of symmetry and to develop geometric techniques for testing and drawing symmetric figures.
Unit Introduction
Investigation 5 Transforming Coordinates

Students work with figures drawn on a coordinate grid. By writing computer commands for making figures and their images under various transformations, students develop rules for locating the image of a general point (x, y) under a particular reflection, rotation, or translation, and use these rules to locate images under combinations of transformations.
In this unit, students study symmetry, symmetry transformations, and their connections to congruence. They learn to recognize and make designs with symmetry, and they learn to describe mathematically the transformations that lead to symmetric designs. They explore the concept and consequences of congruence of two figures by looking for symmetry transformations that will map one figure exactly onto the other.
Types of Symmetry
A design has rotation symmetry if a rotation other than a full turn about a point maps the figure onto itself. The design below has rotation symmetry because a rotation of 120 or 240 about point P will match each point on each flag with a corresponding point on another flag. Point P is referred to as the center of rotation. The angle of rotation for this design is 120, the smallest angle through which the design can be rotated to match with the original design. The image of each point is the same distance from the center P; and the original point, center P, and image point always form a 120 angle.
In the first investigation, students learn to recognize designs with symmetry and to identify lines of symmetry, centers and angles of rotation, and directions and distances of translations. A design has reflection symmetry, also called mirror symmetry, if a reflection in a line maps the figure exactly onto itself. The letter A has reflection symmetry because a reflection in the vertical line through the vertex will match each point on the left half with a point on the right half and vice versa. The vertical line is the line of symmetry for this design. The image, or corresponding point, of each point on one side of the line of symmetry is the same distance from the line of symmetry as the original point.
A design has translation symmetry if a translation, or slide, maps the figure onto itself. The figure below is part of a translation-symmetric design. If this design continued in both directions, a slide of 1 inch to the right or left would match each point of each flag in the design with a corresponding point on another flag. (Figure 1) Distances between corresponding points are all the same.
Figure 1
Kaleidoscopes, Hubcaps, and Mirrors
Making Symmetric Designs Once students learn to recognize symmetry in given designs, they make their own symmetric designs. Students may use reflecting devices, tracing paper, and angle rulers or protractors to help them construct such designs.
A design with reflection symmetry can be

made by starting with a basic figure and then drawing the reflection of the figure in a line. The original and its reflection image make a design with reflection symmetry.
image while simultaneously looking at the rest of the object through the transparent plastic. This helps the user to match the reflected image with the part of the design behind the plastic. When the two halves match, the line of symmetry can be identified by drawing a line segment along the bottom edge of the plastic.
INTRODUCTION
A design with rotation symmetry can be made

by starting with a basic figure and making n 1 copies of the figure, where each copy 360 is rotated n degrees about a center point starting from the previous copy. The original and its n 1 rotation images make a design that has rotation symmetry.
A figure with translation symmetry can be

made by making copies of a basic figure, so that each copy is the same distance and same direction from the previous copy. The figure and its translation images make a design with translation symmetry. Students are being asked to develop two separate but related skills. The first is to recognize symmetries within a given design. The second is to make designs with one or more specified symmetries starting with an original figure (which may not, in itself, have any symmetries). Thus, it is important to give students experience both in analyzing existing designs to identify their symmetries, and also to give them experience using symmetry transformations to make designs that have symmetry.
Using Tools to Investigate Symmetries
Hinged Mirrors
Using two mirrors, you can demonstrate the patterns made by reflections in a hinged mirror. You might allow students to experiment with the mirrors during this investigation.
1. Place the two mirrors at an angle facing each
other. Tape the mirrors together so that they can be opened as if hinged.
2. Draw a dark line on a piece of paper. 3. Stand the mirrors on the line, positioned so
that an equilateral triangle is formed by the reflections in the mirrors with the part of the line between the mirrors as one side of the triangle.
There are a number of tools available that can help students visualize and describe symmetries. This section includes information about these tools and suggests some ways of using the tools.
Transparent Reflection
When using a mirror to test for reflection symmetry, it is hard to check the details of a design. It may be difficult to determine whether a reflected image matches the design behind the mirror exactly, since that part of the design is not visible. Transparent reflection tools, such as Image Reflectors allow the viewer to see a reflected
4. Reposition the mirrors by opening or closing
the hinge to show a square, a pentagon, and so on.

5. Look for the lines of symmetry in each
reflected image.
Unit Introduction
6. Place an object or draw a design between the
line on the paper and the two faces of the mirrors; for example:
mirror
mirror line object or design
Now set the mirrors to show an equilateral triangle, a square, a pentagon, and so on, and observe the reflected images. It is a nice extension to measure the angle between the mirrors for each polygon, make a table of the data, and generalize the angle needed to make an n-sided polygon by observing the pattern in the table. From the data below, it is evident that the angle of the mirrors necessary to produce an n-sided polygon is n .
Angles Needed to Make n-Sized Polygons Number of Sides 3 4 5 6 Finding Perpendicular Bisectors Angle of Mirrors 120 90 72 60
3608
Draw the line connecting the points of intersection of the arcs. We can show that this line is the perpendicular bisector of AAr. Note that the intersection points of the arcs, X and Y, are equidistant from A and A9, that is, AX = ArX = AY = ArY. We have a rhombus and its diagonals. From their explorations students know that the diagonal of a rhombus is an axis of symmetry; thus, XY is a line of symmetry. Because XY is a line of symmetry we know that the distance from A to the line of symmetry is the same as the distance from A9 to the line of symmetry, and the line of symmetry is perpendicular to AAr. Thus XY is also the perpendicular bisector of AAr. (An alternative way of making a convincing argument would be to rely on showing there are four congruent triangles, which would allow us to deduce that AZ = ArZ and &AZX = &A9ZX. Since these angles are supplementary adjacent angles they must be right angles.) Students can find the midpoint of AAr using several informal methods:
measuring to find the midpoint folding the line segment in half marking the length of the segment on a strip
of paper and folding the strip of paper in half using a transparent reflection tool
reflection tool When A is matched with A, the reflection A tool is on the midpoint
To find the perpendicular bisector of the line segment connecting A to A9 using a straightedge and compass, set the compass on point A to draw an arc that extends a bit beyond the midpoint of AA9. Using that setting, draw an intersecting arc from point A9.
x
After locating the midpoint, students can use a square corner, an angle ruler, or a protractor to draw a perpendicular line through the midpoint. The idea of a perpendicular bisector is useful when students try to find an unknown center of rotation.
Symmetry Transformations
Z A A
The concepts of symmetry are used as the starting point for the study of symmetry transformations, also called distance-preserving transformations or rigid motions. These transformationsreflections, rotations, and translationsrelate points to image points so that the distance between any two original points is equal to the distance between their images. The informal language used to specify these transformations is slides, flips, and turns. Some
children will have used this language and will have had informal experiences with these transformations in the elementary grades. In this unit, students examine figures and their images under reflections, rotations, and translations by measuring key distances and angles. They use their findings to determine how they can specify a particular transformation so that another person could perform it exactly. Students learn that a reflection can be specified by giving the line of reflection. They learn that under a reflection in a line l the point A and its image point A9 lie on a line that is perpendicular to the line of symmetry and are equidistant from the line of symmetry.
A B B A
images, such as &BPB9, all have measures equal to the angle of turn.
INTRODUCTION
B P
A translation can be specified by giving the length and direction of the slide. This can be done by drawing an arrow with the appropriate length and direction. Students find that if you draw the segments connecting points to their images, for example, CC9, the segments will be parallel and all the same length. The length is equal to the magnitude of the translation.
C
A rotation can be specified by giving the center of rotation and the angle of the turn. In this unit, the direction of the rotation is assumed to be counterclockwise unless a clockwise turn is specified. For example, a 72 rotation about a point P is a counterclockwise turn of 72 with P as the center of the rotation. Students learn that a point B and its image point B9 are equidistant from the center of the rotation P. They see that the image of a point under a rotation travels on the arc of a circle and that the set of circles on which the image points of the figure travel are concentric circles with P as their center. They also find that the angles formed by the points on the original figure and their corresponding rotation
This work helps students to realize that any transformation of a figure is essentially a transformation of the entire plane. For every point in a plane, a transformation locates an image point. And it is not uncommon to focus on the effect of a transformation on a particular figure. This unit attempts to give mathematically precise descriptions of transformations while accommodating students natural instinct to visualize the figures moving. Thus, in many cases, students are asked to study a figure and its image without considering the effect of the transformation on other points. However, the moved figure is always referred to as the image of the original, and the vertices of the image are often labeled with primes or double primes to indicate that they are indeed different points.
Unit Introduction
An interesting question is, For which transformations are there points that remain fixed? These are called fixed points. The image of each such point is simply the point itself. For a reflection, the points on the line of reflection are fixed points. For a rotation the only fixed point is the center of rotation. For a translation, all points have images with new locations, so there are no fixed points.
Congruent Figures
three sidesenough to know that two triangles are congruent.

Reasoning From Symmetry and Congruence
The discussion of distance-preserving transformations leads naturally to the idea of congruence. Two figures are congruent if they have the same size and shape. Intuitively, this means that you could move one figure exactly on top of the other by a combination of symmetry transformations (rigid motions). In the language of transformations, two figures are congruent if there is a combination of distance-preserving transformations (symmetry transformations) that maps one figure onto the other. Several problems ask students to explore this fundamental relationship among geometric figures. The question of proving whether two figures are congruent is explored informally from a different direction as well. A major question asked is what minimum set of equal measures of corresponding sides and/or angles will guarantee that two triangles are congruent. In the unit, students meet these ideas in an exploratory game situation where there is a payoff for finding the least set of measures needed to confirm congruence. It is likely that students will discover the angle congruence theorems that are usually taught and proved in high school geometry Side-Side-Side, Side-Angle-Side, and Angle-Side-Angle. This engagement with the ideas in an informal way will help make the more proof oriented approach of high school geometry more understandable. They should also find that Angle-Angle-Angle and Side-Side-Angle do not guarantee congruence. Angle, angle, angle guarantees similarity, same shape, but not same size. With Side-Side-Angle, in some cases there are two possibilities, so you cannot know for certain that you have congruence. In a right triangle, with the right angle and any two corresponding sides given you can use the Pythagorean Theorem to find the third side. This gives you two sides and the included angle, or
Symmetry and congruence give us ways of reasoning about figures that allow conclusions to be drawn about relationships of line segments and angles within the figures. For example, suppose that line AM is a line of reflection symmetry for triangle ABC; the measure of &CAM is 37; the measure of CB = 6; and the measure of AM = 4.
A 37 4 C M 6 B
As a consequence of the line symmetry, you can say that
C is the reflection of B. A is the reflection image of A. M is the reflection image of M. Segment CA is the reflection image of segment
BA, which means they have equal lengths.
Segment CM is the reflection image of BM,

so each has measure 3.
AM is the reflection image of AM. So &AMC &AMB; thus each angle

meaures 90.
&CAM &BAM, so each angle measures 37. So &C &B, and each angle must measure
180 - (90 + 37) = 53. In the grade 6 unit Shapes and Designs, students explored the angles made by a transversal cutting a pair of parallel lines. For some of the reasoning problems in this unit, students will probably need to use ideas of vertical angles, supplemental angles, and alternate interior angles from Shapes and Designs. For
example, in the diagram below, L1 and L2 are given parallel lines and we know the measure of two angles. (We are not given that L3 and L4 are parallel.) L3 L4
a 120 b c 60 e g f h L2 L1
Coordinate Rules for Symmetry Transformations
In the final investigation of the unit, we look at transformations of figures on a coordinate plane. Students also write rules for describing reflections of figures drawn on a coordinate grid. Such rules tell how to find the image of a general point (x, y) under a reflection. For example, a reflection in the y-axis matches (x, y) to (-x, y); a reflection in the x-axis matches (x, y) to (x, -y); and a reflection in the line y = x matches (x, y) to (y, x).
y yx A x 4 2 A O 2 4 2 A 4
INTRODUCTION
4 A 2
From this we can find the measures of angles a, b, c, e, f, g, and h. &b = 1208 because vertical angles are equal. &f = 1208 because alternate interior angles are equal. &g = &f = 1208 because vertical angles are equal. &a is supplementary to 1208 and, therefore, is 608. This means that &c, &e, and &h are all 608 using vertical angles and alternate interior angles. We can then go on to say that L3 and L4 must be parallel because we know that alternate interior angles are congruent, &e and the angle marked as 60. The relationships among parallel lines and their respective transversals can help especially when reasoning about parallelograms. For example, in the parallelogram shown below we know, by definition, that there are two pairs of parallel lines and transversals. This relationship results in several pairs of congruent angles.
A9 is the image of A under a reflection in the y-axis. A0 is the image of A under a reflection in the x-axis. A- is the image of A under a reflection in the line y x.
As with reflections, students learn to specify certain rotations by giving rules for locating the image of a general point (x, y). For example, a rotation of 90 about the origin matches the point (x, y) to the image point (-y, x), and a rotation of 180 about the origin matches (x, y) to (-x, -y).
A 4 2 x 4 2 O A 2 4 2 4 y
A9 is the image of A under a 90 rotation about the origin. A0 is the image of A under a 180 rotation about the origin.
This prior reasoning from parallel lines cut by a transversal combined with congruence and symmetry culminate in Shapes and Designs, Investigation 4.3. Here students are asked to think about what is given in a quadrilateral and to draw conclusions about whether or not the shape is a parallelogram.
Unit Introduction
A translation can also be specified by giving a rule for locating the image of a general point (x, y). For example, a vertical translation of 3 units up matches point (x, y) to (x, y + 3), and a horizontal translation of 3 units to the right matches (x, y) to (x + 3, y). A translation along an oblique line can be specified by considering the vertical and horizontal components of the slide. For example, a translation in the direction of the line y = x, two units right and two units up, matches (x, y) to (x + 2, y + 2). A translation of 2 units to the right and 4 units down matches (x, y) to (x + 2, y - 4).
y A A A
Combining Transformations
In very informal ways, students explore combinations of transformations. In a few instances in the ACE extensions, students are asked to try to describe a single transformation that will give the same result as a given combination. For example, reflecting a figure in a line and then reflecting the image in a parallel line has the same result as translating the figure in a direction perpendicular to the reflection lines for a distance equal to twice that between the lines.
line 1 line 2 A A
4 2 4 2 O 2 4
A A x 2 4 A C
C C B B B
A9 is the image of A under a translation of 3 units up. A0 is the image of A under a translation of 3 units to the right. A- is the image of A under a translation of 2 units to the right and 4 units down. A-9 is the image of A under a translation in the direction of the line y x, 2 units right and 2 units up.
Reflecting a figure in a line and then reflecting the image in an intersecting line has the same result as rotating the original figure about the intersection point of the lines for an angle equal to twice that formed by the reflection lines. Notice that reflecting the triangle ABC in line 1 and then reflecting the image A9B9C9 in line 2 does NOT give the same result as reflecting triangle ABC in line 2 first and then reflecting the image in line 1.
line 1 line 2 A A C B C I C B B A
Students revisit this idea in the project when they explore combinations of transformations that map a geometric figure onto itself. In this instance, the figure used is an equilateral triangle.
10
INTRODUCTION
Big Idea
Recognizing symmetry in designs Determining the design element that has been reflected, rotated, or translated to produce a design with symmetry Making designs with reflection, rotation, or translation symmetries
Prior Work
Recognizing and completing mirror reflections (Shapes and Designs) Recognizing and completing designs with rotation symmetry (Shapes and Designs) Rotating cube buildings (Ruins of Montarek, 2004) Recognizing, analyzing, and producing tessellations (Shapes and Designs) Looking for regularity and using patterns to make predictions (all Connected Mathematics units) Relating similarity transformations to the concept of similarity (Stretching and Shrinking)
Future Work
Recognizing symmetry in graphs of functions (high school) Applying the ideas of symmetry to other subjects, such as graphic design and architecture (high school)
Looking for patterns that can be used to predict attributes of designs Relating rigid motions to the concept of symmetry Relating rigid motions to the congruence of figures Using symmetry and congruence to reason about figures
Making inferences and predictions based on observation and proving predictions (high school)
Describing symmetry in graphs, such as graphs of quadratic functions, periodic functions, and power functions (high school)
Performing and analyzing similarity transformations (Stretching and Shrinking)
Finding equations for circles and points on circles (The Shapes of Algebra) Reasoning about congruence theorems in geometry (high school) Using matrices to represent transformations (high school)
Describing rigid motions in words and with coordinate rules
Describing similarity transformations in words and with coordinate rules (Stretching and Shrinking)
Unit Introduction
11

Cmp2 Geometry Storyline

Încărcat de

Informații document

Descriere originală:

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Cmp2 Geometry Storyline

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

TheMathematicsoftheGeometryStrand ShapesandDesignsGrade6

Back to Table of Contents

Shapes and Designs Grade 6

Investigation 2 Polygons and Angles

Investigation 3 Polygon Properties and Tiling

Back to Table of Contents

Shapes and Designs Grade 6

Investigation 4 Building Polygons

Shapes and Designs

Back to Table of Contents

Shapes and Designs Grade 6

squares and octagons

Back to Table of Contents

Shapes and Designs Grade 6

Shapes and Designs

Back to Table of Contents

Shapes and Designs Grade 6

adjacent angles not in a polygon

Back to Table of Contents

Shapes and Designs Grade 6

Step 1: Finding the angle sum of a triangle.

Back to Table of Contents

Shapes and Designs Grade 6

180 180 180

180 180 180 180

180 180 180

180 180 180

Back to Table of Contents

Shapes and Designs Grade 6

Interior Angles of Regular Polygons

= the number of degrees in any

. So the measure of each

corresponding exterior angle is

The sum of N exterior angles = N c 180 2

Shapes and Designs

Back to Table of Contents

Shapes and Designs Grade 6

Exploring symmetry informally by looking at shapes of data sets (Data Distributions)

Exploring measurement of line segments (elementary school)

Back to Table of Contents

Covering and Surrounding Grade 6

Investigation 2 Changing Area, Changing Perimeter

Back to Table of Contents

Covering and Surrounding Grade 6

Investigation 3 Measuring Triangles

The Measurement Process

Investigation 4 Measuring Parallelograms

A phenomenon or object is chosen, and an

An appropriate unit of measurement is

Investigation 5 Measuring Irregular Shapes and Circles

The unit is used repeatedly to match the

The number of units is determined. The

Measuring Perimeter and Area

Covering and Surrounding

Back to Table of Contents

Covering and Surrounding Grade 6

Area and Perimeter of Rectangles

Similarly, the perimeter is 2 (7 + 5) or 2 3 7 + 2 3 5 or in general, 2 (O + w) or 2O + 2w.

Parentheses and Order of Operations

Back to Table of Contents

Covering and Surrounding Grade 6

Covering and Surrounding

Back to Table of Contents