Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Introduction
Transistors I.
Transistors are the most important semiconductor devices. They are used in
analog circuit as ampliers:
the input power of an amplier is smaller than its output power, the energy need for amplication is provided by the supply voltage, a transformer is not an amplier as the power at its terminals is equal (if the voltage is larger at the output then the current is smaller),
Introduction
Transistors II.
eld-eect transistor:
controlled by voltage, unipolar device.
Introduction
Both types are widely used. The npn transsistors operate faster, so they are more widespread.
The dierence in speed is due to the fact that in npn transistors the current is made up of electrons, while in pnp its made up of holes and electrons move faster than holes in semiconductors.
Introduction
Introduction
The currents and voltages of the two types are exactly the opposite.
Well discuss the npn transistors everything is the same in pnp transistors, only the directions are the opposite.
Introduction
The currents of the bipolar transistor comply to the KCL: IE = IC + IB The direction of the voltages is determined by the p-n junctions:
the emitter-base junction is assumed to be open, the collector-base junction is assumed to be closed.
Introduction
The gure shows a discrete transistor there is only one transistor in a package. The structure is planar: its width is much bigger than its depth (just as diodes).
Introduction
The collector is lightly doped and is n-type in npn transistors. The base is inside the collector, has an average doping and is p-type in npn transistors. The emitter is inside the base, it is highly doped and is n-type in npn transistors.
Introduction
In the leftmost gure the size of the chip is 0.5 0.5 0.3 mm. The collector terminal is the metal base that the chip is mounted onto. Golden wires connect the emitter and base to the leads of the package. The wires are connected to the the chip by thermocompression bonding. Small power transistors are packaged in plastic, power transistors are packaged in metal packages.
Introduction
The device is asymmetrical due to the inhomogeneous doping densisties. The densities are determined by the technology. The doping of the two p-n junctions is dierent.
Introduction
There are four operating modes determined by the direction of the two junctions currents. The most important is the normal active mode.
The operating modes normal active inverse active saturation cut-o B-E junction open closed open closed B-C junction closed open open closed
Introduction
n+ iC recombination
electrons holes
iB1 iB2
iE
C iC
B vBE iB vCB
The B-E junction is open, thus the majority charge carriers of the two sides are crossing the junction. The B-C junction is closed, there is a large eld in the space charge region, that forces minority charge carriers across the junction. The doping density of the emitter is much higher than that of the base thus electrons make up most of the B-E current.
Introduction
n+ iC recombination
electrons holes
iB1 iB2
iE
C iC
B vBE iB vCB
The electrons arriving in the base are forced away from the B-E junction by diusion. When they reach the proximity of the collector, they are drifted across the junction by the eld as they are minority carriers in the base. Although the B-C junction is closed, its current is large due to the large number of electrons that enter the base from the emitter, diuse towards the B-C junction and then drift over the reverse biased junction.
Introduction
n+ iC recombination
electrons holes
iB1 iB2
iE
C iC
B vBE iB vCB
The emitter emits charge carriers to the base, hence its name. The charge carriers in the base are collected by the collector. The narrower the base, the bigger the chances that electrons get through to the collector without recombining with holes. The collector current is almost equal to the emitter current: the dierence is the amount of electrons lost to recombination during their way across the base.
Introduction
n+ iC recombination
electrons holes
iB1 iB2
iE
C iC
B vBE iB vCB
The relationship between the emitter current and the collector current: IC = AN IE where AN is common base, normal active, DC current gain of the transistor (AN = 0.98 0.995). This operating mode is used for amplication.
Introduction
The collector current is proportional to the emitter current but the current gain is smaller than 1. The dierence between IE and IC is the small IB . By controlling IB , a large current gain can be obtained. In the common-emitter conguration the base current is the input and the collector current is the output.
Introduction
According to the KCL: IC = AN IE = AN (IC + IB ) AN IB = BN IB 1 AN BN is the common emitter, normal active, DC current gain, and BN = 50 200. IC = BN is larger than 1, thus this conguration amplies current. The N in the index is usually omitted: IC = B IB . In some textbooks A is denoted with and B with .
Introduction
When the transistor is operated as a switch, it switches between saturation and the cut-o region.
Introduction
Introduction
The input characteristic curve: depicts the relationship between the input quantities.
It resembles the diodes characteristic curve IB is an exponential function of VBE . This is due to the fact the there is a diode operating in the forward direction between the B and E terminals.
Output characteristic curves: depict the collector current as a function of the collector-emitter voltage and the base current (IB 4 > IB 3 > IB 2 > IB 1 ).
Introduction
Introduction
The transistor is in a common-emitter conguration. The base voltage is sinusoidal with an oset. The collector is connected to the supply voltage through a resistor. The output is the collector.
Introduction
The DC input voltage (VIN ) determines a base current (IB ) it can be found using the input characteristic curve. With the help of IB , the curve that holds the operating point can be chosen from the set of output characteristic curves. The exact OP is dened by the supply voltage and the resistor
as VCE also aects IC , though only slightly.
Introduction
The linear elements surrounding the transistor determine the load line. The intersection of the load line and the characteristic curve is the operating point. According to the KCL the load line is: VCC = RC IC + VCE IC = VCC VCE RC
Introduction
Introduction
As IE = IC + IB = (B + 1)IB and assuming that the B-E junction is ideal (IE = IE0 (exp (VBE /VT ) 1)): ib = IE 1 vin B + 1 VT
Introduction
ib = B ib
By substituting the equation of IC into the one describing the output voltage:
VC (t) = VCC IC 0 RC ic RC sin(t) = VCE 0 B ib RC sin(t) = B B IE IE VCE 0 RC vin sin(t) = VCE 0 RC vin sin(t) B + 1 VT B + 1 VT
AC gain 1
1 r e
Introduction
Introduction
Simplied calculation
Small-signal analysis is performed at the operating point. The characteristic equation is substituted with its tangent a linear equation. A small-signal model of the circuit is created which consists of linear elements only. Such a circuit describes the AC behavior only. The value of the elements in the circuit is determined by the operating point currents and voltages. The small-signal model is easy to calculate. It neglects the non-linearity of the characteristic equation, thus the results are not exactly accurate.
Introduction
as
IC = B IB
The B-E diode can be substituted with its dierential resistance: re = VBE /IE = VT /IE , but in this case the input resistance is re ( + 1).
The input resistance can be calculated as follows: VBE IB = VBE IE IE IB = VT IE ( + 1) = ( + 1) re
chain rule
Introduction
Introduction
The calculation:
The base current as a function of the input current:
ib = vin ( + 1) re
The negative sign shows that changes at the output occur in the opposite direction as at the input.