03 Tt2530eu02al 01 Optical Fibres

Optical Fibers Siemens
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Contents
1 Silica Glass 3
2 Refraction and Reflection 5
3 Numerical Aperture 15
4 Types of Fibers 21
4.1 Multi-mode Fibers with Step Index Profile 22
4.2 Multi-mode Fiber with Graded Index Profile 24
4.3 Single-mode Fiber (Step Index Profile) 26
5 Fiber Profiles 29
6 Fresnel Reflection 31
7 V Parameter 35
8 Technical Data for MM, SM and DS Fibers 39
8.1 G50/125 Multiple Modes - Fiber Data 40
8.2 Single-Mode Fibers - Fiber Data 42
8.3 Transmission Characteristics (at Room Temperature) 44
8.4 Mechanical Characteristics 45
8.5 Dispersion-Shifted Fibers 45
9 Attenuation 49
10 Dispersion 53
10.1 Mode Dispersion 56
10.2 Material Dispersion 60
10.3 Wave Guide Dispersion 62
10.4 Chromatic Dispersion 64
11 Bandwidth 67
Optical Fibers
Siemens Optical Fibers
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12 Mode Field Diameter 69
13 Cut Off Wavelength 73
14 Exercise 79
15 Solution 83
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1 Silica Glass
The material for fibers used in today's cables is exclusively silica glass.
The earth's crust consists of 26 % silicon.
Quartz appears in its pure crystalline form, as rock crystal for example. Silica glass,
on the other hand, is an amorphous, solidified, molten mass. It has no melting point,
but becomes increasingly soft at high temperatures and vaporizes without entering
the liquid state.
Quartz appears in its natural form as the chemical compound SiO
2
. As a product of
erosion (e.g. of granite), it appears mainly as sand; and in practically unlimited
quantities.
Quartz is therefore a raw material in almost unlimited supply.
To obtain high-purity silica glass, SiO
2
is gained by deposition in the gaseous state.
High-purity SiO
2
is manufactured by distillation from the highly volatile compound of
SiCl
4
and oxygen, releasing chlorine gas.
SiCl O
1700 C
SiO 2Cl
4 2 2 2

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2 Refraction and Reflection
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Refraction of light
Critical angle
Axis of incidence
Total reflection
Snellius' law of refraction
A beam of light meets a different, transparent medium at an angle.
A small part is reflected (angle of reflection = angle of incidence). A far greater part
enters the other medium. The angle of propagation of the beam changes at this point.
It is refracted.
This effect is called refraction of light.
Example A:
If the transition is from a dense material to a less dense material, the beam is
refracted away from the axis of incidence.
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Axis of incidence
Less dense (air) n
2
= 1.0
Dense (glass) n
1
= 1.5
>
=
Fig. 1
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Example B:
If the transition is from a less dense to a more dense material, the refraction is toward
the axis of incidence.
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Axis of incidence
Dense (glaass) n
2
= 1.5
Less dense (air)
n
1
= 1.0
>
=
Fig. 2
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According to the Snellian law, the sines of the angles = and > are inversely related
to the refraction factors n
1
and n
2
.
n
1
sin = = n
2
sin >
In fiber optics, only arrangement A can be used.
If the angle of incidence = in arrangement A becomes steeper and steeper, one
arrives at a situation where the beam of light is no longer refracted into the other
medium. It then runs in the boundary layer between the two media. An angle >
0
= 90
with sine "1" results. This special angle is called the critical angle (=
0
).
It follows that it can be calculated with: sin=
0
2
1
n
n
.
All angles which are steeper than the critical angle cause the beam to be reflected
into the denser medium.
Not only a small part is now reflected back, but rather the entire beam.
This means: total reflection takes place.
The critical angle is determined by the ratio of the refraction factors of the media.
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Example:
Axis of incidence
n
2
= 1.46
>
=
n
1
= 1.48

90
53 , 80
9865 , 0
48 , 1
46 , 1
sin
0
1
2
0
>
=
=
angle critical
n
n
Cladding glas
Core glas
Cladding glas
Fig. 3
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Exercise:
Determine the critical angle for a beam of light which runs from the more optically
dense medium water with the index of refraction n
1
= 1.333 into the optically less
dense medium air with the index of refraction n
2
= 1.
Note
If a beam of light enters a less dense medium from a more dense one, refraction is
away from the axis of incidence.
Total reflection is only possible under this condition.
Axis of incidence
n
2
= 1.46
>
=
n
1
= 1.48

90
53 , 80
9865 , 0
48 , 1
46 , 1
sin
0
1
2
0
>
=
=
angle critical
n
n
Cladding glas
Core glas
Cladding glas
Fig. 4
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3 Numerical Aperture
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Numerical Aperture
Angle of acceptance
The ratio of the refraction factor of the core glass n
1
to that of the surrounding
cladding glass n
2
(n
1
n
2
) determines the critical angle.
On the end surface of the optical fiber there is also a refraction due to the difference
in refraction factors between the air n
0
and the core glass n
1
. There, the transition
from a less dense medium to a denser one causes the beam to bend towards the
axis of incidence.
The angle under which the beam is accepted by the optical fiber (OF) is called the
acceptance angle - theta - (3
max
).
The sine of the acceptance angle is the numerical aperture (NA) of the OF.
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Cladding glass n
2
= 1.46
Core glass n
1
= 1.48
Axis of incedence
Air n
0
= 1.0
a.)
=
0
90-=
3
Fig. 5
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snellian law:
1
2
sin
sin
n
n
>
=
0
1
0
) 90 sin(
sin
n
n

3
= 1
2
sin
sin
0
0
n
n
>
=
0
0
) 90 sin( 1
sin
n
n =
3
1 sin
0
>
1
0
n
1
2
sin
0
n
n
=
) 90 sin( sin
0 1
= 3 n
0 1
cos sin = 3 n
2
0
2
0
2
1 cos sin = =
0
2
0
sin 1 cos = =
0
2
1
sin 1 sin = 3 n
) sin 1 ( sin
0
2 2
1
= 3 n
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
1
sin
n
n n
n

3
2
2
2
1
sin n n 3
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sin O
n n
n 1
2 2
1 48 1 46
2 2
, ,
sin O = 0.242
sin O = NA
NA = 0.24
O
24 , 0 sin arc
O 14
For larger NAs, the OF accepts more of the beam and the cone of light at the other
end is correspondingly wider.
However, a greater acceptance angle also results in greater dispersion effects. This
applies to all fibers, even single-mode OFs.
Typical values for NAs:
Single-mode fibers = 0.13 (= 7.47)
Multi-mode fibers = 0.20 (= 11.54)
The acceptance angle is in relation to the axis of incidence. To obtain the complete
cone angle, the acceptance angle must be multiplied by 2.
Example:
NA=0,13
Acceptance angel:
47 , 7 13 , 0 sin arc
Cone angel:
94 , 14 47 , 7 2 .
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4 Types of Fibers
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4.1 Multi-mode Fibers with Step Index Profile
The optical power of a light pulse is distributed over many (multi) modes. In multi-
mode fibers, the modes propagate by different paths. The rays travel by different
paths but all with the same velocity, and thus they have different transit times.
Therefore the length of the pulses increases with increasing fiber length.
This type of fiber is employed only for short distances (approx. 50 - 100 m) at low
data rates.
TT2530EU02AL_01
23
n
2
n
1
n
2
140 m
100 m
step index profile
input
P
opt
mode 1
mode 2
mode 3
output
t
Fig. 6
TT2530EU02AL_01
24
4.2 Multi-mode Fiber with Graded Index Profile
The graded index profile of the core is achieved by many layers of glass (more than
hundred), where each layer has its specific index of refraction (IOR).
These indices decrease gradually from the center toward the cladding.
Due to the continuous change of the IOR, the rays are refracted constantly when
crossing the borderline between the various layers.
The rays oscillating around the fiber axis still travel a longer path than the light rays
along the fiber axis; however, due to the lower refractive indices outside of the fiber
axis these rays travel correspondingly faster.
The result is that the delay time difference of the various rays disappears almost
completely.
Due to the difficult manufacturing process, the fiber is relatively expensive.
Therefore today it will not be employed for long distances.
Two types are standardized:
Type A with 50 m core dia. and 125 m cladding dia. (ITU-T Rec. G. 651)
Type B with 62.5 m core dia. and 125 m cladding dia.
(the larger diameter of this fiber increases the launching condition of this fiber
by 3 dB).
The relatively wide core diameter provides good (cheap) launching and receiving
conditions.
Thus the main application for these fibers are the local area networks (LAN). Where
short distances have to be bridged, but many patch panel have to be passed (that
means short, expensive, high-quality fiber and many low-cost transmitters and
receivers).
TT2530EU02AL_01
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
n
2
n
1
(r)
n
2
125 m
graded index profile
n
2
n
1
(r)n
2
n
2
50 m
Fig. 7
TT2530EU02AL_01
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4.3 Single-mode Fiber (Step Index Profile)
Even in high-quality graded index fibers, a certain delay time caused by the various
modes is still present. In order to reduce this effect, the number of modes has to be
reduced.
If the number of modes is to be decreased, i.e. the V number diminished, either the
core diameter 2a or the numerical aperture A
N
must be reduced, or the wavelength
of the light must be increased.
If the V number in an optical fiber with a step index profile (g = ) becomes smaller
than the constant V
c
= 2.405, then only a single mode, the fundamental mode
LP
01
, can propagate in the core. Such an optical fiber with only one mode is called a
single-mode fiber.
TT2530EU02AL_01
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
n
2
n
1
n
2
125 m
step profile index
n
2
n
1
n
2
n
2
9 m
n
1
Fig. 8
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5 Fiber Profiles
Single-mode OFs can be created with various profile structures.
Normal step index profile
simple-index
matched cladding
Steo index profile with lowered
refraction index in cladding
depressed cladding
1. Without dispersion shifting
2. With dispersions shifting
Normal step index profile
simple-index
matched cladding
triangular profile
Segmented profile with doubly
stepped refraction index in
cladding
double clad
3. With dispersion shifting
Segmented profile with quadruply
gestufter stepped refraction
index in cladding
quadruple clad
W profile
double clad
Fig. 9
TT2530EU02AL_01
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6 Fresnel Reflection
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Fresnel reflection
Reflection coefficient
When light enters one medium from another, a small part is reflected. This effect is
referred to as Fresnel reflection. The ratio of reflected to incoming power is
expressed by the reflection coefficient "r".
The reflection coefficient of the optical power can be calculated when the refraction
factors (n1 and n0) of both materials are.
r
n n
n n
=

+
|
\
|
1 0
1 0
2
.
TT2530EU02AL_01
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n1 = (glass) = 1.46
n
0
= (air) = 1.0
P
0
-inc. Optical power; P
r
+reflected optical power; P
1
-transmitted optical power
P
0
P
r
P
r
P
1
Fig. 10
Example:
0 . 1 :
0
n air
46 . 1 :
1
n coreglass
035 . 0 18699 . 0
0 . 1 46 . 1
0 . 1 46 . 1
2
2
2
0 1
0 1
= = |
\
|
+
=
|
|
\
|
+
=
n n
n n
r
r = 0035
r = 35%
TT2530EU02AL_01
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A end surface therefore reflects 3.5% of the supplied optical power. A mechanical
connection has 2 end surfaces. The reflection therefore occurs twice. So the total
loss from reflection is 2 x 3.5% = 7%.
The reflected power (Pr) - the energy loss at the connection point - can be calculated
with the following equation:
0.15dB =
0.035 1
1
10log
Reflection 1
1
10log Pr
We are dealing with two end surfaces. So this 0.15 dB occurs twice.
The Fresnellian loss at a mechanical connection point is therefore
approx. 0.3 dB.
TT2530EU02AL_01
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7 V Parameter
TT2530EU02AL_01
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1. V parameter
2. Structural parameter
3. Number of modes capable of propagation in a fiber
The V parameter or structural parameter is a dimensionless quantity which is used
to calculate the number of modes carried in the core of an OF, among other things.
The core of a fiber has a particular geometric size.
Depending on this size, a particular number of modes are capable of propagating in
the fiber.
The V parameter is determined by:
1. the core diameter of the fiber (d)
2. the numerical aperture (NA)
3. the operating wavelength ( )
F NA d
V

The number of modes (N) can be determined:

For graded index profiles:
4
2
V
N
For step index profiles:
2
2
V
N .
It is therefore an approximation. For lower values (with SM fibers), the inaccuracy
becomes clearly visible.
TT2530EU02AL_01
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Example:
A graded-index fiber with a core diameter d = 50 m and a NA= 0.2 is to be
operated at a wavelength of i = 1 m.
How many modes are capable of propagation in this fiber?
4 . 31
1
2 . 0 50
V

m
m NA d
F
N
V
4
31.4
4
247
2 2

Approximately 247 modes are capable of propagation in this fiber. Such a fiber is
therefore called a multi-mode fiber.
To obtain a single-mode fiber, one must reduce the number of modes by reducing
the V parameter. To do this,
a) the core diameter must be reduced,
b) the numerical aperture must be reduced, or
c) the wavelength must be increased.
If the value of the structural parameter becomes less than 2.405, only a single mode,
the basic mode LP
01
, is capable of propagation.
TT2530EU02AL_01
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Example:
A fiber with a core diameter d = 9 m and a numerical aperture of 0.11 is to be
operated at a wavelength of i = 1.3 m.
How large is the V parameter of this fiber?
9 2.3
3 . 1
11 . 0 9
V

m
m NA d
F
The V parameter of this fiber is 2.39 (< 2.405).
Under these conditions, the fiber is a single-mode fiber.
85 . 2
2
39 . 2
2
2 2

V
N
The result shows that two polarization modes oscillating rectangular to each other
propagate in the single mode fiber. This two polarization modes are named and
handled as a single mode.
TT2530EU02AL_01
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8 Technical Data for MM, SM and DS Fibers
TT2530EU02AL_01
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8.1 G50/125 Multiple Modes - Fiber Data
Dimensions and tolerances
Material
Transmission characteristics
G 50/125 product line for operation at wavelengths around 1300 nm
Application as transmission element for telecommunications, video and data
transmission as well as in LANs.
Norms
Multi-mode fibers are described in the following:
DIN VDE 0888
CCITT/ITU Rec. G651
IEC 793-2
8.1. Core glass
8.1. Material
doped silica glass SiO
2
(silica)
Refraction index at 1300 nm 1.4469
8.1. Dimensions and tolerances
Core diameter
50 m 3 m
Concentricy tolerance (middle point position) between
core and cladding
3 m
3 m
Rotundity tolerance 3 m
8.1. Refraction index
Reduces parabolically towards the outside
TT2530EU02AL_01
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8.1. Cladding glass
8.1. Material
Silica glass SiO2 (silica) Deformation point approx. 2000
Cladding diameter
Rotundity tolerance
125 m 3 m
2,5 m
8.1. Coating
8.1. Material
Interlaced urethane acrylate (two layers)
Refraction index Approx. 1.52
Diameter
Coloration (not done until fibers reach
cable factory)
Nitro dyes (with solvent) - Herkula
250 m
8.1. Transmission characteristics (at room
temperature)
Fiber type F = 1300 nm
highest attenuation value
lowest bandwidth value
Numerical aperture
G 50/125 0,7 F 1200
0.7 dB/km
1200 MHz at 1 km
0.20 0.02
8.1. Mechanical characteristics
All fibers are subjected to a tensile
strength test.
The tensile load is 5 N for a time of 1
second.
If the time is shortened or extended, the
tensile load decreases correspondingly.
TT2530EU02AL_01
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8.2 Single-Mode Fibers - Fiber Data
Mechanical data
E 9/125 product line for operation at wavelengths around 1300 nm and 1550 nm
Norms
Single-mode fibers are divided into the norms:
DIN VDE 0888
CCITT/ITU Rec. 652
IEC 793-2
8.2. Core glass
8.2. Material
silica glass SiO
2
doped with germanium dioxide GeO
2
Deformation point approx. 100 -200 less than that of the cladding
glass ~ 1800 - 1900
Refraction index: 1300nm = 1.4469
1500nm = 1.4446
1600nm = 1.4434
The refraction factor in the core is 0.3 % higher than in the cladding glass.
TT2530EU02AL_01
43
For single-mode fibers, the field diameter is given instead of
the core diameter.
The field diameter is larger than the actual core diameter - for
1300 nm, approx.
A core diameter of 8.5 m gives, at 1300 nm, for example, a
field diameter of 9.5 m (specification in data sheet 9.3 0.5
m). A core diameter of 8.5 m gives, at 1500 nm, for
example, a field diameter of 11.3 m (specification in data
sheet 10.5 1.0 m).
The concentricity tolerance (middle point position) between
the field and the cladding is less than or equal to 1 m.
10 - 12 %
8.2. Cladding glass
8.2. Material
Silica SiO
2
Deformation point approx. 2000
Refraction index: 0.3 % less than in the core
The cladding diameter is
the rotundity tolerance is
125 m 2 m
2.5 m
8.2. Coating
8.2. Material
Interlaced urethane acrylate (two layers)
Refraction index approx.
1.52
Diameter
Coloration (not done until fibers reach cable factory)
Nitro dyes (with solvent)
Herkula
250 m
TT2530EU02AL_01
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8.3 Transmission Characteristics (at Room
Temperature)
Fiber Typ F=1300m E 9/125 0.36 F 3.5
E 9/125 0.45 F 3.5
Attenuation coefficient at 1310 nm
Highest value for fibers in cable
(deviation < 0.1 dB)
0.36 dB/km
0.45 dB/km
Dispersion in range from 1285 to 1330 nm
3.5
km nm
ps
5
km nm
ps
Threshold wavelength
c
(fiber) 1170 nm to 1330 nm
cc
(fiber in cable) 1270 nm
Numerical Aperture 0.13
Fiber Typ H=1500 nm E 9/125 0.21 H 18
E 9/125 0.27 H 18
Attenuation coefficient at 1300 nm
Highest value for fibers in cable
0.21 dB/km
0.27 dB/km
Dispersion in the 1550 nm range
km nm
ps
18
km nm
ps
18
c
(fiber) 1170 nm to 1330 nm
cc
(fiber in cable) 1270 nm
Numerical Aperture 0.13
Fibers from lines 1 and 2 are also available for both wavelengths, e.g. E 9/125 0.36 F
3.5 + 0.221 H18.
TT2530EU02AL_01
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8.4 Mechanical Characteristics
All fibers are subjected to a tensile strength test. The tensile load is 8 N for a time of
1 second.
If the time is shortened or extended, the tensile load decreases correspondingly.
8.5 Dispersion-Shifted Fibers
Mechanical data
Norm
CCITT/ITU Rec. G 653
8.3. Core glass
8.3. Material
group refraction index at 1300 nm 1.4760
The field diameter according to CCITT/ITU is 8.1 m 0.65 m
Core/cladding offset 1.0 m
8.3. Cladding glass
8.3. Material
Cladding glass diameter 125 m 2.0 m
Core/cladding offset 1.0 m
Eccentricity of the cladding < 2 % defined as 1 100
min.cladding diameter
max. cladding diameter
TT2530EU02AL_01
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8.3. Coating
8.3. CJPC3 Acrylate coating
Coating diameter
Roundness > 0.70
250 mm 15 mm
Dry stripping force 3.0 N (0.67 lb.)
Wet stripping force <(14 days storage in 65 water) 1.9 N (0.42 lb.)
8.3. Transmission characteristics
Attenuation constant
(irregularities must not be greater than 0.1 dB at any
point)
Twist immunity
100 winds around a 75 mm spindle at 1550 nm must
not increase attenuation by more than 0.5 dB.
With 1 wind around a 32 mm spindle at 1550 nm, the
attenuation must not increase by more than > 0.5 dB.
Wavelength-dependent attenuation
The attenuation for the wavelength range between
1525 nm and 1575 nm must not exceed the
attenuation value at 1550 nm by more than 0.05
dB/km.
0.25 dB/km at 1550
nm
Dispersion 2.7 ps/nm x km
Fiber threshold wavelength (lc) 1120 ( ) 1350 nm
Threshold wavelength in cable (lcc) < 1250 nm
Numerical aperture 0,17
Fiber type E 8/125 0.25 H 2.7
TT2530EU02AL_01
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8.3. Behavior under the influence of the environment
Testing criteria Attenuation caused
Temperature dependency 0.03 dB/km
Temperature/humidity cycles
- 10 C to 85 C and 4% to 98% rel. humidity 0.10 dB/km
Storage in water at 23 C 0.05 dB/km
Storage in water at 85 C 0.05 dB/km
TT2530EU02AL_01
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TT2530EU02AL_01
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9 Attenuation
TT2530EU02AL_01
50
Absorption
Diffusion
Rayleigh diffusion
Attenuation coefficient
Absorption bands
Attenuation
Attenuation is the loss of power between two points (unit: dB)

dB
Power P
Power P
log 10 = a
out 2
in 1
It consists of diffusion and absorption losses.

Diffusion
Diffusion is caused by density fluctuations (non-homgenities).
Absorption
Losses due to absorption are caused by foreign substances (impurities) in the silica
glass.
The degree of impurity is indicated in PPM (parts per million) or PPB (parts per
billion).
For example: 1 PPM Cu at 800 nm several hundred dB/km attenuation
1 PPM OH at 880 nm 0.1 dB/km
at 950 nm 1 dB/km
at 1240 nm 1.7 dB/km
at 1390 nm 35 dB/km
Absorption is particularly in specific wavelengths. One refers to absorption bands.
The fiber loss is dependent on the operating wavelength. It is therefore important to
measure the fiber loss spectrally (as a function of the wavelength).
TT2530EU02AL_01
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
6
4
2
1
600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Wavelength
Attentuation
Fig. 11
TT2530EU02AL_01
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Attenuation coefficient
This coefficient describes the fiber loss in relation to the length (unit: dB/km).

dB/km
Power P
Power P
log
L
10
out 2
in 1
=
Rayleigh diffusion
Rayleigh diffusion is the material-related diffusion of the glass.
The diffusion loss decreases with increasing wavelength to the fourth power of i.
and influences o.
=
1
4
.
TT2530EU02AL_01
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10 Dispersion
TT2530EU02AL_01
54
Dispersion types
Mode dispersion only with multi-mode fibers
Material dispersion with multi-mode and single-mode fibers
Optical fiber dispersion with single-mode fibers
Chromatic dispersion is the effect of material and optical fiber dispersion
The word comes from the Latin "dispersus", which means "spread-out, widened".
The term was first used to describe the process which takes place when white
sunlight is separated in a prism.
"Dispersion" was then used for the wavelength dependence of the refraction index of
the glass.
Today, the term is used for all effects which are responsible for delay differences,
pulse broadening and pulse distortion.
The pulse distortion AT in ps, caused by dispersion, is determined as follows:
L M T , , 2
M(i)= chromatic dispersion
ps
nm km
Ai= spectral half power width
L= length of the OF in km
Example:M(i)= 3.5
ps
nm km
Ai = 5 nm
L = 25 km
Solution:AT =
3.5
ps
nm km
5nm 25km

AT = 437.5 ps
TT2530EU02AL_01
55
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P
0
P
1
P
2
t
Fig. 12
TT2530EU02AL_01
56
10.1 Mode Dispersion
Mode dispersion
Differences in delay
In multi-mode fibers, the energy of the light pulse is divided among all the modes.
The signal is not completely transmitted until all the modes have arrived at the
receiver.
TT2530EU02AL_01
57
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2
1
4
3
1
2
3
4
1 2 3 4
Fig. 13
TT2530EU02AL_01
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A short light impulse is sent through an OF with a step index profile.
Core diameter d = 50 m
Refraction index in core n
1
= 1.48
Refraction index in cladding n
2
= 1.46
Operating wavelength i = 850 nm = 0.85 m
From this, one obtains:
NA = n n
1
2
2
2
= 0.24 (13.9)
the V parameter
V = 44
0,850
0.24 50 NA d
F
.
The number of modes can now be determined 484
4
44
4
2 2

V
N
This means that 484 modes capable of propagation are present in this fiber.
The energy of the light pulse is divided among these 484 modes, which all run
through the fiber at different angles. The speed is the same for all
c
c
n
300.000km/ s
1.48
202.703km/ s
1
0
1

However, due to the difference in distances, the transit time of the outer paths is
longer than that of the core ray.
Not until all 484 modes have arrived at the end of the fiber is the signal transmission
finished and a new impulse can be transmitted.
The duration of the transmission pulse is significantly shorter compared to the sum of
all received pulses.
The difference is called the transit time difference.
The effect which is caused by the different paths of the modes is called mode
dispersion.
As fiber lengths increase, transit time differences increase, limiting the length of the
transmission path.
TT2530EU02AL_01
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TT2530EU02AL_01
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10.2 Material Dispersion
Material dispersion M
0
( )
Group velocity
Dispersion zero point
Material dispersion is caused by the wavelength dependence of the refraction
index n of the core glass. This dependence is expressed with M
0
( ).
The material dispersion is a material-dependent quantity. By doping the core glass,
one can change it slightly within strict limits, thereby influencing the zero point.
Material dispersion is effective both in multi-mode and single-mode fibers.
However, in multi-mode fibers the mode dispersion is far greater. Light pulses
propagate in an OF with the group velocity c
c
n
g
g
.
The group refraction index (n
g
) and therefore the propagation velocity c
g
of the core
glass is wavelength-dependent.
The spectral width (Ai) of a light source includes several wavelengths.
The portions of the light (the individual wavelengths) of Ai therefore propagate at
various speeds within the core glass.
The measure for the change in the group refraction index n
g
for the various
wavelengths of Ai is the material dispersion M
0
.
The material dispersion M
0
is usually indicated in
ps
nm km
.
The group refraction index n
g
for silica glass has its minimum in the range of the 1300
nm wavelength.
Therefore, the material dispersion is also at a minimum at 1300 nm.
The material dispersion M
0
(i) becomes infinitesimally small at 1300 nm.
TT2530EU02AL_01
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n
1
(
i
)
i
v
1
i
v
2
Fig. 14
TT2530EU02AL_01
62
10.3 Wave Guide Dispersion
Above the cut off wavelength i
c
, only one mode - the basic mode LP
01
- is capable
of propagation in the fiber.
Single-mode fibers are best operated with larger wavelengths (threshold
wavelength!).
Larger wavelengths have more energy than shorter ones.
The light energy spreads out of the core glass area into the cladding glass.
Due to their greater energy, larger wavelengths penetrate farther into the
cladding glass.
The optical fiber dispersion value is therefore also greater at larger wavelengths.
A part of the basic mode is directed into the cladding glass.
The difference in refraction indices between the core glass and the cladding glass
causes different propagation velocities. However, a balanced average results.
The basic mode therefore propagates faster on the whole.
Optical fiber dispersion therefore causes a negative "pulse prolongation". This
negative effect counters the positive material dispersion.
TT2530EU02AL_01
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i

i

2
r
r
Fig. 15
TT2530EU02AL_01
64
10.4 Chromatic Dispersion
Chromatic dispersion M ( )
Zero point of the dispersion
"Chromatic dispersion" refers to the sum of the effects of material dispersion plus
optical fiber dispersion.
Chromatic dispersion is designated with M (i).
M (i)
Chromatic dispersion
=
=
M
0
(i)
Material dispersion
+
+
M
1
(i)
Wave guide dispersion
The wavelength at which chromatic dispersion disappears is called the zero point of
the dispersion.
TT2530EU02AL_01
65
Dispersion
nmxkm
ps
1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600
Wellenleiterdispersion
waveguide dispersion
Chromatische
Dispersion
Total chromatic
dispersion
Materialdispersion
Material dispersion
+20
+10
0
-10
-20
SMF Einmodenfaser 28 Chromatische Dispersion
Single Mode Fiber Chromatic dispersion
Fig. 16
TT2530EU02AL_01
66
TT2530EU02AL_01
67
11 Bandwidth
TT2530EU02AL_01
68
Bandwidth
Bandwidth length product
Length exponent C CC C
Dispersion effects (mode dispersion and material dispersion) prolong the
transmission pulses. With a i 850 nm LED with a large spectral half power width, the
material dispersion is greater. With i 1300 nm LED with a narrow spectral half power
width, the mode dispersion is greater.
The pulse prolongation increases with increasing route length. As the route becomes
longer, a point is reached where flawless recognition of the pulses is no longer
guarantied. This is the point at which either the transmission route or the
transmission frequency must be reduced.
Bandwidth is the frequency at which the total transmission function of an OF falls to
half of its value at the frequency zero. The attenuation of the light signal has
increased by 3 dB. The bandwidth of a OF decreases approximately proportionally to
its length. The bandwidth/length product is often specified as an indication of quality.
Bandwidth/length product (MHz x km) = band width of an OF in MHz at 1 km
b
1
= B
1
x L
1
L
1
=L
C
The bandwidth does not decrease linearly when several lengths of cable are
connected. One calculates with the so-called length exponent "C CC C". Its value lies
between 0.6 and 1.0. It can be calculated with the experimental value 0.8.
Example:
A 34-Mbit system has a system bandwidth of 50 MHz
L = 25 km
i = 1300 nm
The required bandwidth/length product must be determined.
b
1
= B
1
x L
1
= 50 MHz x 25
0,8
= 657 MHz x km
At the operating wavelength i = 1300 nm, the bandwidth/length product is divided
into steps of 200 MHz x km. (600 - 800 - 1000 - 1200 MHz x km).
Therefore an OF with a bandwidth/length product of 800 MHz x km is required for our
example of 657 MHz x km.
TT2530EU02AL_01
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12 Mode Field Diameter
TT2530EU02AL_01
70
Field diameter
Mode field radius
Field radius
With single-mode fibers, the energy of the basic mode partially penetrates into the
cladding glass. The penetration depth and therefore the intensity distribution is
determined by:
the numerical aperture
the operating wavelength
the geometric core diameter
The light distribution of the basic mode for SM fibers plays an essential role in the
evaluation of coupling, twisting, and splicing losses. This is why the field diameter
rather than the core diameter is indicated for single-mode fibers.
Only fibers with the same field diameter may be connected to each other.
The field diameter is defined as 2w
0
w
0
designates the radius at which the radial field amplitude falls to the 1/e-tuple (~
37% because e = 2.71828) of its maximum value at the OF axis (r = 0). The field
diameter depends on the wavelength. It increases as the wavelength increases. The
field radius w
0
, in relation to the core radius is only a function of the structural
parameter V, which is dependent on the wavelength i and the numerical aperture NA
in the following way:
NA
d
V
F .
TT2530EU02AL_01
71
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
100
%
80
60
40
20
0
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 m 10
1
e
Light transmission
Distance travelled
Fig. 17
TT2530EU02AL_01
72
For single-mode OFs, there is a simple approximation for the structural parameter
range 1.6 < V < 2.6 which does a good job of showing the relation between the field
radius w
0
, the core radius a and the structural parameter.
Example:
A single-mode OF with a step index profile and a core diameter d = 8.5 m and a
threshold wavelength i
c
= 1255 (V
c
= 2.405) has a field diameter 2w
0
at the
wavelengths i = 1300 nm and 1550 nm:
2
0
26
2

w
V
c c
a
,
i = 1300 nm: m 9.5 m 8.5

1255nm 2.405
1300nm 2.6
w 2
0

i = 1550 nm: m 11.3 m 8.5
1255nm 2.405
1550nm 2.6
w 2
0

The field diameter is larger than the core diameter
(for 1300 nm, approx. 10 - 12%).
The core diameter 8.5 m, for example at 1300 nm, gives a field diameter of
9.5 m (9.3 m 0.5 m according to data sheet).
The core diameter 8.5 m, for example at 1550 nm, gives a field diameter of
11.3 m (10.5 m 1.0 m according to data sheet).
TT2530EU02AL_01
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13 Cut Off Wavelength
TT2530EU02AL_01
74
Single-mode fibers
Cut-off wavelength
c
Basic mode LP
01
Many modes are always capable of propagation in a fiber with a step index profile.
The number of modes decreases as the operating wavelength increases. For
operations, it is important to know at which wavelength only the basic mode is
carried in the OF. "Threshold wavelength" refers to the lowest operating wavelength
at which only one mode (the basic mode) is capable of propagation.
If the V parameter is less than 2.405, only one mode is capable of propagation.
Only then does the fiber become a single-mode fiber!
F NA d
V

Examples:
Given: d = 50 m d = 8.5 m
i = 1.3 m i = 1.3 m
NA = 0.2 NA = 0.113
V = 24.16 V = 2.32
TT2530EU02AL_01
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TT2530EU02AL_01
76
One must distinguish between:
Threshold wavelength for fibers outside of cables i
c
= 1170...1315 nm
and Fibers in cables or in maxibundles i
cc
= 1250 nm
It is best to indicate the value for fibers in cables, because this is indicative for use in
cables.
If the fiber is operated at operating wavelengths less than the cut off wavelength,
the fiber is "multi-mode".
Measurement procedure
One measures the optical power spectrally using a 2 m long, straight (bend radius
greater than 140 mm) piece of fiber. One then carries out the same measurement
with a bend of 30 mm.
One then calculates the attenuation caused by the bend as a function of the
wavelength and records it in a diagram. Several clearly defined attenuation peaks
with steep flanks toward the greater wavelengths result.
These flanks mark the cut off wavelengths of the lower modes.
The cut off wavelength is then the wavelength at which the flank of the peak with the
longest wave is less than the value 0.1 dB.
TT2530EU02AL_01
77
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1400 nm
0
=1230 nm
1600 1200 1000 800 600
=
20.0
dB
10.0
5.0
2.0
1.0
0.5
0.2
0.1
Fig. 18
TT2530EU02AL_01
78
Example:
Determine the cut off wavelength for a fiber with the core diameter d =9 m and the
numerical aperture NA = 0.11.
The structural parameter V
c
for the cut off wavelength is 2.405.
m NA
v
d
NA d
F F
F
293 , 1
405 , 2
11 , 0 5 , 9
V
This means that above the wavelength 1293 nm, the fiber is a single-mode fiber.
The wavelength at which the fiber becomes a single-mode fiber is called c
.
The
term cut-off wavelength is also used for the threshold wavelength.
One must distinguish between: cut off wavelength for the fibers
i
and Fibers in cables or in maxibundles i
cc
= 1250 nm
It is best to indicate the value for fibers in cables, because this is indicative for use in
cables.
If the fiber is operated at operating wavelengths less than the cut off wavelength, the
fiber is "multi-mode".
Measurement procedure:
One measures the optical power spectrally using a 2 m long, straight (bend radius
greater than 140 mm) piece of fiber. One then carries out the same measurement
with a bend of 30 mm. One then calculates the attenuation caused by the bend as a
function of the wavelength and records it in a diagram. Several clearly defined
attenuation peaks with steep flanks toward the greater wavelengths result. These
flanks mark the cut off wavelengths of the lower modes. The cut off wavelength is
then the wavelength at which the flank of the peak with the longest wave is less than
the value 0.1 dB.
TT2530EU02AL_01
79
14 Exercise
TT2530EU02AL_01
80
TT2530EU02AL_01
81
Exercise
1. How does the speed of light change in glass with the refraction index 1.5?
2. What does the term "fiber profile" mean?
3. Explain the term "step index profile".
4. Explain the construction of a graded index fiber.
5. What do "NA" and "A
N
0.245" mean?
6. What does "transmission window" mean?
7. Name the types of dispersion
a) which exist in multi-mode fibers:
b) which exist in single-mode fibers:
TT2530EU02AL_01
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TT2530EU02AL_01
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15 Solution
TT2530EU02AL_01
84
TT2530EU02AL_01
85
Solution
1. The speed of light is slower by a factor of 1.5.
c
c
n
300,000 km/ s
1.5
200,000 km s
1
0
1
/
2. "Fiber profile" refers to the course of the refraction index within the fiber
3. A fiber has a step index fiber when the refraction indices of the core and the
cladding glass differ by a clear step.
4. Graded index fibers are fibers in which the refraction index decreases
continuously (usually parabolically) from the fiber axis to the cladding.
5. NA and AN stand for numerical aperture.
The NA is the sine of the angle of acceptance.
0.245 is the sine of 14.18.
6. Transmission window refers to the ranges of the course of the spectral
attenuation curve where the curve shows a minimum of attenuation
a)
a)
a)
1. Window at 850 nm
2. Window at 1300 nm
3. Window at 1550 nm
7. a) Mode dispersion
Material dispersion
b) Material dispersion
Optical fiber dispersion
Chromatic dispersion
TT2530EU02AL_01
86

03 Tt2530eu02al 01 Optical Fibres

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03 Tt2530eu02al 01 Optical Fibres

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Optical Fibers Siemens

The number of modes (N) can be determined:

It consists of diffusion and absorption losses.

i = 1300 nm: m 9.5 m 8.5

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