Earthquakes and Seismic Recordings: Motivation

Motivation Seismology and Earths interior
Joachim Vogt
Jacobs University Bremen
Earthquakes cause seismic waves that propagate through and thus probe the Earths interior. What are the key mechanisms ? How are seismic data used to identify earthquake parameters ? The internal structure of our planet is modeled mainly on the basis of seismic recordings. How do seismic waves propagate in the Earths interior ? How can we reconstruct material parameters from seismic data ? Travel-time seismology cannot fully resolve the internal structure of the Earth. What other information can be used to constrain Earth models ? Which physical assumptions are appropriate ?
Course 210392 Earth and Planetary Physics Spring 2009
Joachim Vogt (Jacobs University Bremen)
Seismology and Earths interior
Course 210392, Spring 2009
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Overview
Part I: Earthquakes and seismic recordings Terminology, earthquake distribution, fault types Seismic measurements and focal mechanism reconstruction Part II: Seismic waves in the Earths interior Reection and refraction, seismic phases Travel-time curves and seismic velocity proles Part III: Modeling Earths internal structure Spectrum of free oscillations Mass, moment of inertia, Adams-Williamson equation Density, gravity, and pressure from reference Earth models
Seismology and Earths interior Part I
Earthquakes and seismic recordings
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Earthquake location terminology

Key terms:
Elastic rebound mechanism
Observatory
Hypocenter = focus : location in the ground (subsurface). Focal depth h: depth of hypocenter. Epicenter : associated surface point (projection).
! "
Hypocenter Epicenter
Epicentral distance or : distance of epicenter to seismological observatory (in km or degrees): = RE .

[(1) USGS] [(1) USGS]
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Fault types (1)

Terminology:
fault line strike north dip gravity
Fault types (2)
Fault line : intersection of fault plane and surface. Strike : angle between north and fault line. Dip : angle between surface and fault plane.
Normal fault Transform fault
The two blocks of rock can move vertically dip slip faults (= normal or thrust/reverse faults) horizontally strike slip faults (= transform or conservative or lateral faults), both, vertically and horizontally oblique slip faults.
Reverse fault Oblique slip fault
[(2) IRIS] Joachim Vogt (Jacobs University Bremen) Seismology and Earths interior Course 210392, Spring 2009 7 / 43 Joachim Vogt (Jacobs University Bremen) Seismology and Earths interior Course 210392, Spring 2009 8 / 43
Geographical distribution of earthquake foci (1)
Geographical distribution of earthquake foci (2)
Most earthquakes occur at mid-ocean ridges, ocean-continent boundaries, continental rift zones: earthquake activity is associated with plate tectonics. Distribution of earthquakes with depth 070 km: 85% of total seismic energy released in earthquakes. 70300 km: 12%. 300720 km: 3%. Earthquakes below 720 km have not been recorded.
[(3) Great Globe Gallery]
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Measures of earthquake strength

Mercalli scale = earthquake intensity. Measure of surface eects (damages to structures). Range I (felt by only a few) to XII (total destruction). Depends on epicentral distance, building materials, design of buildings, ground material. Not suited for seismological studies. Richter magnitude = local magnitude ML . Based on the logarithm of the amplitude A of seismic waves as read from seismograms of the same type at dierent locations. Initially (1935) used only for earthquakes in California. Moment magnitude MW . Function of displacement, area of the break, rock rigidity. Gives better estimate of energy, no saturation eects. Estimate of earthquake energy: E [Joule] = 104.8+1.5M .
Joachim Vogt (Jacobs University Bremen) Seismology and Earths interior Course 210392, Spring 2009 11 / 43
Richter magnitude scale

Invented by Richter and Gutenberg in 1935. Based on the logarithm of the amplitude A measured by a certain type of seismometers: ML = log10 A log10 A0 () . Problem: limitations of that particular instrument for ML > 6.8 (saturation eects). Variants: MB (uses body waves only) and MS (surface wave only).
log 10A
different earthquakes
log 10 A0 (!)
instrument sensitivity
log 10(100 km)

Joachim Vogt (Jacobs University Bremen) Seismology and Earths interior
log 10 !
Course 210392, Spring 2009 12 / 43
Seismic moment and moment magnitude scale

The moment magnitude MW (subscript W refers to work) is a measure of the total energy released by an earthquake. Like for ML , the scale is logarithmic. With M0 in units if 107 N m (ergs): MW = 2 log10 (M0 ) 10.7 . 3
Seismographs (seismometers)
Ground motions caused by seismic waves are recorded by seismographs. Measured is the relative displacement of the moving ground and a (heavy) mass (large inertia only loosely coupled to the ground).
The seismic moment M0 is dened as the product of the area A of the fault rupture, the average displacement U and the rock rigidity . Formula: M0 = A U . Typical values for : crust 32 GPa, mantle 75 GPa. Figure: U = D, A = L W .
[(4) USGS] Joachim Vogt (Jacobs University Bremen) Seismology and Earths interior Course 210392, Spring 2009 13 / 43 Joachim Vogt (Jacobs University Bremen) [(5) Earth Science Australia]
Displacement is a vector: three such instruments are needed.

Seismology and Earths interior Course 210392, Spring 2009 14 / 43
Seismograms
Recordings of seismometers are called seismograms. Onsets of dierent types of waves are clearly distinguishable and yield travel time information (e.g., TS TP ).
Reconstruction of the focal mechanism
[(6) USGS]
The onsets are also called rst breaks, and the rst motion data (initial excursion up or down) allow to study the focal mechanism.
Joachim Vogt (Jacobs University Bremen) Seismology and Earths interior Course 210392, Spring 2009 15 / 43 Joachim Vogt (Jacobs University Bremen) Seismology and Earths interior
[(7) Wikipedia Commons, (8) USGS]
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Part I : Earthquakes and seismic recordings Summary
Seismology and Earths interior Part II
Important terminology Earthquake location: hypocenter (focus), focal depth, epicenter, epicentral distance. Source mechanisms and parameters: elastic rebound mechanism, fault type, fault geometry and motion. Earthquake strength: Richter magnitude and moment magnitude scale, denition of seismic moment. Measurement of ground motion caused by seismic waves: seismographs (seismometers), seismograms, rst breaks. Focal mechanism can be reconstructed from rst motion data.
Seismic waves in the Earths interior
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Wave propagation in inhomogeneous media

Seismic body waves (P -waves and S -waves) are solutions of the elastic wave equations in homogeneous media. Solutions in general inhomogeneous media can be obtained numerically. Geometrical optics (ray optics) approach to seismic wave propagation If the wavelengths are small compared with the inhomogeneity length scales of the medium LV = V /|V |, we can think of the seismic wave eld as a collection of rays. Rays may be curved, and the direction of the ray is given by the (local) wave vector k = k(r ). The rays are perpendicular to the wavefronts. Boundaries: abrupt changes in wave velocity lead to refraction and reection, and can be addressed through Snells law.
Refraction and reection, Snells law (1)
[(9) Brown & Musset]
Relationships between the directions of the incident and the refracted/reected beam (Snells law) can be derived from Huygens principle, Fermats principle, or continuity requirements for plane wave parameters at the interface.
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Refraction and reection, Snells law (2)

Reection: The same relationship holds if the beam is reected and a mode conversion takes place (e.g., from S -wave to P -wave):
1 2
refracted beam
Shadow zones and the core-mantle boundary

Fundamental seismological ndings: shadow zones. P -waves cannot be observed at epicentral distances between 100 and 140 because of refraction at the core-mantle boundary. VP in the core must be smaller than in the mantle. S -waves cannot be observed at epicentral distances 100 because they cannot propagate in the liquid outer core.
incident beam
v1 v2
sin r sin i = . Vi Vr
incident beam vi
reflected beam vr
Snells law of refraction: sin 1 sin 2 = . V1 V2
r
[(10) C. Ammon/PennState]
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Ray paths and wave travel times (1)

Layered medium: wave velocity V changes with depth z . Ray parameter: q = sin (z ) = const . V (z )
Ray paths and wave travel times (2)

Travel time T is a unique function of distance only if V is increasing with depth (dV /dz > 0). Low velocity zones where dV /dz < 0 create ambiguities in the ray path geometry: travel time T is no longer a unique function of distance .
[(11) Stein/Wysession]
Construct ray paths that end at epicentral distances . Travel time: T =

ray
ds . V
Inversion of travel-time curves refers to the problem of reconstructing the velocity prole V = V (z ) from the observed T = T (). In the language of inverse theory, the construction of T () from V (z ) is the associated forward problem.
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Travel time curve :

T = T () .
Observed travel time curves
Seismic phases
Nomenclature Travel time curves and seismogram recordings at three dierent locations can be used to locate an earthquake. Identify the onsets of S-waves and P-waves in the seismograms and nd the time dierence. Use the travel time curves to determine the distance. Draw circles around your seismic stations and get the earthquake source location (epicenter) as their intersection point.
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P,S: direct waves. PP, PS, SS: reection at the Earths surface. PKP, PKS: mantle (outer) core mantle. PcP, PcS: reection at the core-mantle boundary (CMB). PKIKP, PKJKP: mantle outer core inner core outer core mantle.
[(12) USGS]
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Inversion of travel-time curves (1)

The Wiechert-Herglotz-Bateman procedure is one method to reconstruct the velocity prole V (r) from the travel time curve T (). Here we work in spherical geometry, and r is the radial distance from the Earths center. The ray parameter for spherically stratied media is given by r0 r sin (r) p = = const = V (r) V0 where r0 and V0 are the distance and the velocity at the apex of the path. Dierentiate the travel time curve to get the ray parameter: p = dT . d
Inversion of travel-time curves (2)
v(r) (v( ),r0 ()) 0
Now that r0 () and p() are known, compute the velocity at the apex V0 = V (r0 ) = r0 ()/p(). Draw pairs of values (r0 , V0 ) into a diagram to obtain the velocity prole with radial distance.
r
Other inversion methods exist, see e.g. the textbook of Bullen and Bolt. Seismic tomography of the Earths interior: fully three-dimensional inversion of seismological observations.
This means that the ratio r0 /V0 can be directly determined from the data. The radial distance r0 can be found through an integral transform: r0 () = RE exp
arcosh
0
p( ) p()
.
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Velocity proles according to PREM (Preliminary Reference Earth Model) Sharp changes at the surface, the core-mantle boundary, and between the inner and outer core: dierent chemical compositions and phase changes. Gradual changes throughout the inner core, the outer core, and the lower mantle: compression of material due to pressure increase. Upper mantle and transition zone: changes in mineralogy magnesium silicates (Mg Si O3 ) in dierent phases (olivine, spinel, perovskite, . . . ).
[(10) C. Ammon/PennState]
Seismic tomography (1)
How is the density prole (r) obtained ?

Course 210392, Spring 2009 29 / 43 Joachim Vogt (Jacobs University Bremen) Seismology and Earths interior
[(12) Su et al., JGR 1994]
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Seismic tomography (2)
Part II : Seismic waves in the Earths interior Summary

The ray approximation allows to study seismic wave propagation in the inhomogeneous interior of the Earth. Rays are smoothly curved where the wavelengths are small compared to the inhomogeneity length scale. Directional changes at sharp boundaries are described by Snells law. Travel-time curves give the propagation time T as a function of epicentral distance . Inversion of travel-time curves is the procedure that reconstructs the wave velocity proles VP (r) and VS (r) from the observed T (). The wave velocity proles reveal the shell structure of the Earths interior: inner core, outer core, lower mantle, upper mantle, and crust. Upper mantle variations are due to changes in mineralogy. Seismic tomography shows lateral variations in the Earths interior.
[(12) Su et al., JGR 1994]
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Seismology and Earths interior Part III
Free oscillations of the solid Earth

Large earthquakes excite free oscillations (eigen-oscillations) of the whole Earth.
Modeling Earths internal structure
Two types: spheroidal oscillations m n S , and torsional oscillations n T m . Spectrum of observed free oscillation frequencies allows to constrain Earth models.
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Observed Earths free oscillation spectrum
Integral density constraints

Total mass M and moment of inertia I of a spherically symmetric planet:
R
M = 4
0
(r) r2 dr ,
R
8 I= 3 Moment of inertia ratio: I/M R2 .
(r) r4 dr .
0
Mass M is derived from gravity measurements. Moment of inertia can be determined from observations of the Earths non-ideal rotation (precession). Model density proles = (r) must be consistent with the observed values M = 5.97 1024 kg and I/M R2 = 0.331.
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Adams-Williamson procedure
The Adams-Williamson procedure models the radial distribution of the mass density (r) on the basis of the observed wave velocity proles VP (r) and VS (r). Assumptions: hydrostatic equilibrium, state variables (p and ) change adiabatically with depth, density variations only through compression (no changes in chemical composition or phase). Numerical integration of the system of equations:
Derivation of the Adams-Williamson equation

Adiabatic variations of pressure, mass density, and volume are related through dp = K dV d = K V = 4 2 2 VP VS 3 d
where K is the bulk modulus, and VP , VS are the seismic velocities. Combine with the hydrostatic equilibrium condition dp = g dr to yield d =
2 VP
dp g = 2 2 2 dr . VP (4/3)VS (4/3)VS
r
For a spherically symmetric mass distribution, the gravity can be written as g = g (r) = GM (r) 4G = r2 r2 (r ) r 2 dr
0
d GM = 2 2 (4/3)V 2 , dr r VP S dM = 4 r2 . dr
where G denotes the gravitational constant. We nally obtain the Adams-Williamson equation d 4G (r) = 2 2 (4/3)V 2 dr r VP S
(r )r 2 dr .
0
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Proles of density, pressure, and gravity

Density: 45 g/cm3 in the mantle, 1013 g/cm3 in the core. Gravity: 10 m/s2 throughout the mantle, linear decrease in the core. Pressure: smooth prole at the CMB, 4 Mbar in the center.
Part III : Modeling Earths internal structure Summary
Travel-time seismology yields the radial velocity proles of the two types of seismic body waves. Since VP and VS depend on three material parameters (bulk modulus, shear modulus, and density), further information is necessary to model the Earths interior. Free oscillations of the whole Earth. Integral density constraints: total mass and moment of inertia. Adams-Williamson equation for chemically homogeneous regions. Results are summarized in reference models, e.g., the PREM. Gravity g 10 m/s2 throughout the mantle. Values in the central core: 13 g/cm3 , P 4 Mbar.
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Figure references
(1) The sketch and the photograph were taken from the web site http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/nca/1906/18april/reid.php maintained by the US Geological Survey (USGS). The photograph is from the Steinbrugge Collection of the UC Berkeley Earthquake Engineering Research Center (26 July 2007). (2) Fault motion animation web page maintained by IRIS (Incorporated Research Institutions in Seismology) http://www.iris.edu/gifs/animations/faults.htm (26 July 2007). (3) Image credit: http://www.staff.amu.edu.pl/~zbzw/glob/glob34f.htm, The Great Globe Gallery (26 July 2007). (4) Image le seismogenic.gif from the USGS Visual Glossary (3 March 2009), see http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learning/glossary/images/seismogenic.gif . (5) Image seismograph.gif from Earth Science Australia (3 March 2009) at http://earthsci.org/education/teacher/basicgeol/earthq/seismograph.gif . (6) Sample seismogram taken from the public outreach web page Teleseisms of the US Geological Survey USGS (26 July 2007), see http://quake.usgs.gov/recent/helicorders/Examples/teleseism.html (7) Image les Focal mechanism 01.jpg, Focal mechanism 02.jpg, and Focal mechanism 03.jpg from Wikipedia Commons: http://en.wikipedia.org/ (3 March 2009). (8) Image le beachball.gif the web site of the US Geological Survey (USGS) at http://quake.usgs.gov/recenteqs/beachball.html (3 March 2009).
Figure references (continued)

(9) Figures from the textbook The Inaccessible Earth by G.C. Brown and A.E. Musset (Allen & Unwin, 1981). (10) Figure les p rays.gif and prem.gif from the web site of the course SLU EAS-A 193 An Introduction to Earthquakes & Earthquake Hazards by Charles Ammon, Pennsylvania State University (6 March 2009). See http://eqseis.geosc.psu.edu/~cammon/HTML/Classes/IntroQuakes/Notes/ . (11) Figures from the textbook An Introduction to Seismology, Earthquakes, and Earth Structure (Blackwell Publishing) by Seth Stein and Michael Wysession. The gures are available in electronic format from the web page http://epscx.wustl.edu/seismology/book/ (6 March 2009). (12) Image le ttgraph.gif from the web site of the US Geological Survey (USGS) at http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/travel times/ttgraph.html (6 March 2009). (13) The maps show variations in seismic shear-wave speed with respect to the value of the PREM at 100 km depth and at 2,880 km depth, just above the core mantle boundary Model S12 WM13, from W.-J. Su, R. L. Woodward and A. M. Dziewonski, Degree-12 Model of Shear Velocity Heterogeneity in the Mantle, Journal of Geophysical Research, vol. 99(4) 4945-4980, 1994. The gures hrv0100km.gif and hrv2880km.gif were downloaded from the web site of the course SLU EAS-A 193 An Introduction to Earthquakes & Earthquake Hazards by Charles Ammon, Pennsylvania State University. See http://eqseis.geosc.psu.edu/ cammon/HTML/Classes/IntroQuakes/Notes/ (6 March 2009).
Further reading
Stein, Seth, and Michael Wysession, An Introduction to Seismology, Earthquakes, and Earth Structure, Blackwell Publishing, 2003. Bullen, K. E. und B. A. Bolt, An introduction to the theory of seismology, Cambridge University Press, 1985. Telford, W. M., L. P. Geldart und R. E. Sheri, Applied Geophysics, Cambridge University Press, 1990. Brown, G. C., und A. E. Musset, The inaccessible Earth, Allen & Unwin, 1981. Fowler, C. M. R., The solid Earth, Cambridge University Press, 1990.
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Motivation Seismology and Earths interior

Course 210392 Earth and Planetary Physics Spring 2009

Joachim Vogt (Jacobs University Bremen)

Seismology and Earths interior

Course 210392, Spring 2009

Joachim Vogt (Jacobs University Bremen)

Seismology and Earths interior

Course 210392, Spring 2009

Seismology and Earths interior Part I