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Techniques
Unit Standard 242819
Motivate and build a team
Anthony Hill
Team Leader
Techniques
Unit Standard 242819
© Anthony Hill 2007
FutureManagers
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UNIT STANDARD
242819
Motivate and build a team
Unit Standard 242819
Specific Outcome 1
Explain the importance of
motivating a team
Assessment criteria
After completing this outcome, you should be able to explain:
• the reasons why motivation is important
• what the indicators of motivation are (according to theory and practice)
Why is it so important that the team leader inspires team members to work
enthusiastically?
Well, the overwhelming evidence is that sustainable success in the world of work is
dependant on how an organisation’s human resources are motivated to perform!
The best companies in the world:
• constantly measure the satisfaction of their people by means of attitude surveys
• reward the performance of their people by linking pay to performance
• promote their people from within whenever possible
• spend a high percentage of their payroll on the training & career development of
their people
In other words these top companies have taken specific actions that they believe
will result in ‘motivated’ employees who will want to put in more effort to help the
organisation successfully achieve its goals.
At the same time, there is also consistent evidence that successful organisations make
sure that they don’t invest money, effort and time in anything without achieving
a return on this investment. Therefore we can accept that these organisations are
confident that rewarding, promoting and developing their employees are appropriate
mechanisms to help them achieve desired results.
What leads to the confidence that top companies have that they are using the best
‘motivators’? It is simply that they believe that they are fulfilling individual needs by
providing a chosen range of ‘rewards’.
These rewards may be in the tangible form of money and benefits such as cars
(being paid for performance), or in the form of intrinsic feelings of achievement and
recognition (promotion), self-fulfilment (training & career development).
If you gain an understanding of the process of motivation, then you are in a much
better position to understand how to translate needs into motivators. This, in turn,
means that you, as the team leader, can, for example, link good communication and
positive feedback to more effective team performance.
A theorist by the name of Victor Vroom developed a model that does, in fact, link
needs (for example, “respect”) to a desired outcome (for example, “performance”).
This is illustrated in exhibit 1.
You are hoping that they will offer you a permanent job, because you have been
unemployed for the past six months.
The job requires you to generate a lot of activity reports on Excel spreadsheets. The
manager of the department where you are working is very fussy about accurate
reports being submitted on time.
You have heard that the last permanent person who was employed left because
she was unable to cope with the pressure. This concerns you because your Excel
computer skills are quite weak. In this scenario you have a low expectation
that putting more effort into your work will lead to the required standard of
performance.
When setting performance objectives and standards one of the key elements is that,
although they should be challenging, they should not be unrealistic. If this happens,
team members are likely to become de-motivated and give up. In other words their
expectation of meeting required standards will remain low as long as these standards
are unrealistically high!
The simplicity of this theory is of great value in helping us to understand the ‘process’
required to translate a ‘need’ into an action that will motivate team members.
Nearly sixty years ago, a psychologist by the name of Abraham Maslow hypothesized
that people only develop certain needs (that he termed higher-order needs) when other
(lower-order) needs have been satisfied. He subsequently developed a ‘hierarchy’ of
needs that has become the most widely known theory of motivation in the world.
Although criticised over the past few years, Maslow’s Hierarchy (illustrated in exhibit
2) still provides an excellent, user-friendly explanation of what motivates us.
Self-
actualisation
needs
(personal growth
& self-fulfilment)
Esteem needs
(self respect, autonomy,
recognition, status, prestige)
Social needs
(acceptance, feeling of belonging,
group affiliation)
Safety needs
(feeling of security, protection from harm)
Physiological needs
(hunger, thirst, sleep, shelter)
What this theory implies is that, although we may be motivated by a fairly wide variety
of needs, we won’t be motivated by ‘safety’ issues until our basic ‘physiological needs’
are satisfied, and being socially accepted doesn’t become a need unless our lower-order
needs for shelter and safety have been, and continue to be satisfied.
To ensure that we are completely clear about this in the world of work, let’s look at
another analogy.
Assume that you are 30 years of age and live in Gugulethu, Cape Town. You have
a family to support and are unemployed.
You get up at 5am every morning to go and stand outside the gates of a factory in
the hope of a casual job. What are your needs? Clearly your primary focus is to
‘put bread on the table’ for your family – you are driven by hunger and the need for
shelter.
Because the factory has urgent orders to produce, you are lucky enough to get a
casual job for three days a week for the next month. Your basic physiological needs
have been satisfied and your focus now is on ‘safety’ i.e. the security of a potential
permanent job. You work very diligently and are noticed by the foreman for your
accurate work, good timekeeping and positive attitude.
You continue to work hard and are eager to learn new skills. After six months the
foreman calls you into the office and informs you that you have been nominated
to attend a training course for team leaders. This fulfils your need for recognition
and status – after only six months you have been identified as having leadership
potential! You feel grateful to the organisation for giving you this opportunity and
are motivated to prove to them that their confidence is not misplaced by putting
even more effort into your work.
After another two years, you have been promoted, are on top of your job and have
started to study part-time. You have always wanted to do a degree in order to prove
to yourself that ‘you’ve got what it takes’. You don’t feel the need to prove anything
to other people - your needs now are for self-actualisation. You have moved to the
top of the hierarchy!
Imagine the university professor who has achieved everything she wishes to and
focuses very much on self-actualisation needs by conducting research that interests
her. Due to restructuring her post becomes redundant and she loses her job.
Does her primary focus remain at the self-actualisation level? Highly unlikely! She
has to worry about earning an income to make a living. We are back to lower-order
physiological and safety needs as priorities.
Maslow’s hierarchy remains a valuable tool for managers in the world of work to
understand three key principles. These are:
• not all individuals are motivated by the same things
• personal circumstances have a powerful impact on individual needs
• the less organisations generalise about what motivates people and the more
they attempt to understand individual needs, the better they are able to 'inspire
employees to work enthusiastically'.
Performing Activity 1 will help you to understand how your needs tie in with this
theory.
1. Interesting work
2. Job security
4. A good salary
8. More responsibility
What are your highest needs? Add up your scores for each type of need. This should
give you an indication of where you are on the hierarchy.
Also known as the ‘two-factor theory’, this explains how to distinguish between those
factors that contribute to satisfaction in the world of work (the ‘motivators’) and those
that don’t necessarily motivate individual employees but have to remain in place to
avoid individuals becoming dissatisfied (the ‘hygiene factors’).
Frederick Herzberg conducted extensive research into what job factors led to
satisfaction and what factors created dissatisfaction. From this, he formulated a
scale (illustrated in exhibit 3) highlighting the difference between hygiene factors
(“dissatisfiers”) and motivators (“satisfiers”).
Let’s explore this further. What Herzberg suggests is that removing a ‘dissatisfier’ such
as “poor working conditions” will not increase employee motivation. In fact, it will be
difficult to rely on identified ‘motivators’ such as “work itself ” to create a motivated
workforce, if poor conditions continue to exist. In other words, hygiene factors
are an essential foundation for motivation to take place even though they don’t, in
themselves, motivate people at work.
Although Herzberg’s theory has also been criticised in regard to the validity of
his research design and results, it has made a couple of major contributions to
understanding the content of motivation.
The first of these has been to create awareness that money is not always the most
important motivator in the world of work. Achievement, recognition and opportunities
for personal growth are globally recognised as motivators and yet don’t automatically
mean more money is paid out to the individuals concerned.
Let’s use another analogy to ensure we understand this.
Assume that you are a team leader in a factory who has worked very hard to achieve
your performance targets over the past year.
Your boss calls you in and tells you that you have been awarded a fifteen percent increase in
salary. You feel great! You find out that the average increase has been six percent and that the
above average performers have been awarded between eight and ten percent.
Now you are really motivated – you feel like putting in a huge effort to show the organisation
just how much you appreciate your increase.
Three months later your new higher salary is what you expect to receive each month. It has
become a hygiene factor.
Two key descriptors have emerged to explain the types of rewards that motivate people
in the world of work.
Intrinsic rewards describe the feelings of self-fulfilment and enjoyment that the
individual employee gains from the job itself.
In response to this, many organisations have reviewed the content of jobs in order to
make them more stimulating and to provide opportunities for growth.
Extrinsic rewards describe the rewards gained from sources other than the job, such
as direct financial compensation and a feeling of ‘being part of ’ the organisation.
Extrinsic rewards can be split further into financial and non-financial rewards. There
is, for example, a difference between a salary (financial reward), and a large executive
office (non-financial status reward).
Exhibit 4 provides a model to explain the concepts of internal and external motivation
in the form of rewards. Here it can be clearly seen that intrinsic rewards, for example,
fit nicely into Maslow’s self-actualisation needs and the strongest motivators of
Herzberg’s model. Non-financial extrinsic rewards meet status needs and so on.
Rewards
• Opportunities for
personal growth
• Being given more
job responsibility
• Opportunity to
participate in
decisions affecting Financial Non-financial
the organisation
• Job Enrichment
Team roles can vary between members. Some team members are ‘goal achievers’,
others ‘team builders’ and others ‘power seekers’. These roles are based on the work
done by David McClelland and his associates who identified three basic needs that
they believed are manifested by individuals in the world of work.
The need for achievement (nAch): a desire to excel in comparison to others and to be
seen as successful.
The need for affiliation (nAff): a desire to have close relationships, feel accepted and
liked by others.
The need for power (nPow): a desire to make other people behave in a way that they
would not without this influence.
On the other hand, those individuals with a strong need for achievement will be
motivated by the opportunity to work autonomously and use their initiative.
The predominant mindset in the world of work over the past thirty to forty years has
been that nAch and nPow are what it’s all about. The employee who is individualistic,
competitive and displays a strong desire to ‘get ahead’ has been valued.
While this is still valid to a point, more and more successful organisations have
seen the value that genuine teamwork has added to achieving organisational goals.
Employees who has a high nAff, adds another dimension to a team. These individuals
are more likely to seek consensus and therefore help to ensure that all team members
support a decision. This, in turn, means that they are more motivated to implement it
successfully.
Recent research in the USA, has answered the key question of what motivates people
to work.
Use the next activity to establish the correct answer and to reinforce the learning from
these content theories.
Activity 2
Answer the question “What motivates people to work?” by ticking () the appropriate
box.
Of course the answer is ‘E’! This reinforces Herzberg’s contention of what are
‘motivators’ and what are ‘hygiene factors’.
As a team leader, you can be sure that, although we are all different as individuals,
team members will generally be motivated by recognition for good performance,
opportunities for personal growth, being empowered to take decisions and taking on
more interesting work.
In the workplace,
• Visual management will provide signs of possible de-motivation such as generally
higher levels of absenteeism, lower efficiency and an increase in quality problems.
• Team review meetings will indicate directly how motivated team members are
by the nature of their questions and responses. Complaints about performance
standards being too difficult to achieve will be indicators that team members have
a low level of expectancy and are thus not highly motivated to achieve standards.
• Formal performance appraisal Interviews will provide a useful opportunity for
team members to focus on their own development needs. Asking for company
support to study for a course in management, is an indicator of motivation to
succeed.
The best indicator that you will ever have that a particular set of ‘motivators’ is
working will be continuous improvement in performance.
That is why gaining the commitment of team members to achieving plans, targets and
standards are so important; and why the most successful organisations in the world
spend so much time and effort in doing things that they believe will motivate their
employees!
There is, however, an important way of establishing whether or not team members are
motivated without having to wait until after a performance review period to find out
that targets have not been achieved due to low levels of motivation. ASK THEM!
This is not as simple as it appears. If, for example, team members feel that it is your
poor communication, as the team leader, that is the problem – then they are highly
unlikely to tell you that! If, on the other hand, it is a company policy on leave that is
the problem, then you will not be able to do much about it other than report it to your
boss.
The solution is to conduct an attitude survey. We saw earlier that top companies
constantly measure the satisfaction of their people by means of attitude surveys. By
doing so, they are able to see what is working and what is not and whether or not it
supports the achievement of organisational goals.
If surveys start to indicate that employees feel communication and trust are breaking
down and people are working as individuals instead of as teams, management are able
to take action.
Financial Compensation
Training
Advancement Opportunities
Teamwork
Empowerment
Communication
From this survey it is evident that employees view the organisation in question as
one that pays well, trains its employees and is committed to quality and excellence.
However, they obviously believe that teamwork and communication need to be
improved and are hinting that greater empowerment could facilitate this.
The organisation that is willing to subject itself to this honest feedback from its own
employees and, most importantly to act on it can only grow to become an organisation
that successfully links their motivation to achieving improved performance.
1. Introduction
In other words it is no use having ‘motivated’ employees going in the wrong direction!
It is therefore critical to build a motivated and effective team. The first step in building
an effective team is to understand how competent the Team Leader and team members
are.
2. Individual competence
Competence comprises abilities, knowledge, skills as well as the personality, values
and attitudes of individuals. Reviewing each of these components in turn will help us
to understand this important concept.
2.1.1 Ability
2.1.2 Knowledge
2.1.3 Skills
2.1.4 Personality
2.1.5 Values
Personal values mean that we have taken a decision that a certain way of behaving is
preferable to another.
Once again, the influence of our family, friends and culture during our formative years
plays a powerful role in developing these values.
Although not as enduring as values, attitudes are similar in that they are normally
developed through the influence of important people in our lives and are manifested
in how we interact with other people.
Let’s look at a real life analogy to illustrate how each of these components contributes
to becoming competent.
Becoming Competent
Assume that you have just turned 18 and want to get your Driver’s Licence.
Firstly you need the inherent ability to drive a car. In other words you have good
vision, a certain level of co-ordination between arms and legs and an understanding
of what is required to drive the car. However, this alone will not make you competent
to drive a car on the road.
You also need to acquire knowledge. For example, you have to understand what will
happen if the brakes are applied to bring the car to a halt while leaving the car in gear.
(Of course you know that the car will stall!)
You also need to know what the meaning of the various road signs are. This, as we
know, will initially be in the form of a Learner’s Licence where you have to prove a
certain level of knowledge before being allowed out onto the road.
Once on the road, you have to, by means of tuition and practice, acquire the skill to
not only drive the car but also to drive it safely in traffic according to the rules of the
road.
However, even if you have the inherent ability, have learnt the required theory and
have demonstrated during a series of driving lessons that you have acquired the
necessary skill, it is still possible to fail the driving test and therefore not obtain a
licence – the symbol of competence.
There are many examples of people who fail a driving test because they panic and then
make errors or forget to perform key actions (such as using the rear view mirror).
The reasons for getting into a panic or making mistakes will likely be a result of
certain personality traits such as a lack of confidence or the inability to use initiative
in a difficult traffic situation.
Finally, what if, after trying and failing a number of times, you are offered the
opportunity to ‘buy’ a licence? You feel offended by this offer and refuse in spite
of your desire to gain a licence. We can accept that this is because of your values of
honesty and integrity.
From an organisation’s perspective, if you cannot obtain a licence, you will obviously
not be considered sufficiently competent to be appointed as a driver (nor to any
occupation requiring this competence).
Fortunately there is always the opportunity for you to match other competencies that
you do possess with the needs of an organisation – a case of ‘different strokes for
different folks’!
As important as our physical differences are, organisations are much more interested
in our other characteristics of personality, values, attitudes, abilities, knowledge and
skills that together add up to our potential to make a contribution to their success. In
other words, what is important to the organisation is the individual competence levels
of the team leader and team members. Let’s explore this further.
All human beings have inherent but different potential to learn and grow. The potential
that lies within each one of us, provides us with our unique foundation for personal
growth and advancement in life.
Understanding and using this potential provides us with the opportunity to make
our contribution to any family, social circle, society and organisation of which we are
part. Knowing this simple truth is one thing - to harness our potential to achieve our
dreams is another!
“Our deepest fear is not that we are inadequate. Our deepest fear is that we are powerful
beyond measure! It is our light, not our darkness, that most frightens us.
We ask ourselves, who am I to be brilliant, gorgeous, talented and fabulous? Actually
who are you not to be? You are a child of God. Your playing small doesn’t serve the world.
There is nothing enlightened about shrinking so that other people won’t feel insecure
around you.
We are born to manifest the glory of God that is within us. It’s not just in some of us; it’s
in EVERYONE!”
Quoted by Nelson Mandela: 1994 Inaugural Speech (Thinkexist.com)
As with the earlier analogy of learning to drive a car, the individual competence
required by an organisation comprises an appropriate combination of the willingness
and motivation to perform required tasks and activities, as well as the ability,
knowledge and skill to do so.
Activity 3
Assume that you are the Regional Sales Manager for the Chocolot range of
confectionery. Prioritise the competencies you require in your Sales Representatives on
a scale of 1 – 5, where 1 = not important, 2 = sometimes required, 3 = useful,
4 = important and 5 = essential. Try not to rate more than four competencies as
5 (essential). Circle your choices.
Competence Rating
1 2 3 4 5
Selling Skills
Analytical Ability
Time Management
Decisiveness
Planning
Organising
Product Knowledge
Negotiation Skills
Empathy
Assertiveness
Verbal Communication
Mental Alertness
The point of this exercise is to illustrate the principle that the competence of the
team leader as well as those of team members MUST be linked to the competencies
required by the job in question.
This ‘reality check’ helps you to build on your personal strengths and to work on
appropriate development areas.
The previous example of the introverted computer programmer reinforces this point.
There is very little value in trying to develop an outgoing, social personality because
it is valued in sales people. A much better investment will be to develop logical
reasoning skills to add more value in the programmer’s domain of expertise.
The next activity will help you to gain a better understanding of this by identifying
your own strengths and development areas.
My Personal Strengths
Examples Add your own:
• good at studying 1.
3.
• outgoing personality
4.
• creative energy
5.
• speak three languages
6.
• leadership skills developed at 7.
school
8.
9.
My Development Needs
Examples Add your own:
3.
• poor with financial data
4.
• no clear career goals
5.
• tendency to make decisions
6.
too quickly
7.
8.
9.
Of course, if you went to the trouble to get feedback from friends or family members,
this will add value to this important learning, which will clarify what strengths you
can build on or what development areas you can successfully work on.
Earlier we also saw that personality is part of what makes up individual competence.
The fact that many successful organisations require job applicants to undergo
psychological assessments before employing them is an indicator of its importance.
However, personality is part of our core being – not a skill that we can learn or that is
likely to change with a new level of knowledge.
The good news is that, while we cannot change our inherent personality, there is
one particular area of behaviour that can be developed in a positive way. This is the
concept of locus of control.
A process of feedback and self-reflection is needed (that we shall cover later), but
the first step is to understand this very important concept in order to assist an
organisation to achieve sustainable success.
Many organisations find themselves with employees at all levels who appear to have
everything that it takes to be successful, yet never seem to get ahead. You can ask the
following question of yourself as well as members of a workplace team.
1. a. Many of the unhappy things in people’s lives are due to bad luck
b. The misfortunes that people have result from their own mistakes
2. a. A person’s value often goes unnoticed no matter how hard he or she tries
b. In the long run, people get the respect that they deserve
3. a. You cannot be come an effective leader if you don’t get the right breaks in life
b. If you are competent but don’t become a leader, it’s because you didn’t take
advantage of your opportunities
5. a. In the long run, the bad things that happen to us are balanced by the good ones
b. Most misfortune is due to a lack of competence, ignorance or just pure laziness
To score this questionnaire, award yourself 1 point for all the a’s circled, and 3 points
for all the b’s circled. If you have a score of 5 – 7, you are likely to have an external
locus of control and if you score between 13 – 15, you are likely to have a strong
internal locus of control. A score from 8 – 12 indicates a balance between an internal
and external locus of control.
NB: Remember, this is NOT a psychological ‘test’ – merely an exercise to help you
understand this concept better!
You should note that immediate reflection and feedback on performance ensures:
• short-term action plans for improving performance are developed
• motivation is maintained
You should also remember that, to be really effective, reflection and feedback should
follow a formal process. Making an appointment with your lecturer to review your
academic results, is much more effective than asking questions after lectures!
The same principle applies in the workplace. A formal performance appraisal will
focus the attention of both parties and ensure that the process is serious and is more
likely to lead to practical action. If you are performing poorly, then obtaining feedback
on what the reasons are is the first step in improving your performance. If it is due to a
lack of competence, the solution could be training and development.
An example could be the inability to lead team meetings and thus ineffectively
If it is that your competency profile is not suitable for the job in question, then it may
be an opportunity to develop plans for a change in career direction. If, on the other
hand, you are performing well, positive feedback will reinforce your good performance
as you become motivated by this recognition.
Whatever, the action, formal performance appraisal and feedback is one of the
most powerful tools available in the world of work to help you develop a better
understanding of yourself and your level of competence. It is one of the best
motivators we know!
If you place yourself in the position of a Team Leader who has to keep a team of
diverse people motivated and focused, you need to have as much knowledge of
individual team members as possible in order to build an effective team. The simplest
and most accessible way of gaining this knowledge is to utilise the practical workplace
tools already in place.
Although the focus of visual management is primarily on the team, this tool also
covers important individual issues such as skills.
For example, the team leader is able to observe the progress on individual skills
development and take the required action, whether it is counselling, coaching or
sending the team member in question for training. One of the certainties is that team
members are likely to be motivated to perform better by the attention given.
Team review meetings can be extremely effective in providing a foundation for action.
Exhibit 6 illustrates how a team leader can utilise this tool to better understand team
member competence and then take appropriate action.
Because the focus of the meeting is one of reviewing past performance, exploring what
can be done to rectify problems and devise plans and actions to make improvements,
it highlights individual competence.
If, for example, an operator is consistently making more errors than other team
members performing the same function, it will come out in the meeting.
The Meeting Agenda covers: The Team Leader is able to see from
• past performance performance data where the operator is
• future objectives not achieving standard and then decide
• who is responsible for action together on action to be taken e.g.
• due dates training followed by coaching.
As with the team leader, receiving formal performance appraisal feedback on how they
have contributed as individuals to the overall team performance, will lead to improved
performance. Whether it is poor performance that needs to be rectified or excellent
performance that should be reinforced, the appraisal and feedback loop is one of the
best workplace tools available for identifying, and then acting on the development
needs as well as the strengths of team members.
However, this is not something that should just be left to each individual to complete.
Firstly, not all team members may have the understanding or skills to do this
important exercise properly. Secondly, it needs to be placed in the context of the work
situation. Therefore it is a process that should be facilitated by a competent facilitator
(e.g. by someone from the Training Department of an organisation or by an external
consultant).
The personal ‘SWOT analysis’ provides a foundation for individual learning but, if left
there, adds little value to the team.
Activity 6
Step 1: Working on your OWN, review your ‘SWOT’ Analysis and then write down
selected strengths and development areas in the spaces provided.
Step 2: Alongside each of these write in the actions you need to undertake in order to
help you with the journey of personal and team growth.
Step 3: In a Team of NO MORE THAN SIX PEOPLE, share your strength or
development need and intended actions. Please note that it is very important that you
use the full sentence in describing what you are going to stop, start or continue.
Step 4: Complete your sharing and then ask other team members for feedback and
contract with them for support to achieve your objectives.
NB: In this activity you may share as much OR as little as you wish. You are NOT
obliged to share personal information that you don’t want to – it is your right not to do
so. However, experience has shown this to be a very meaningful and valuable exercise.
I need to start
Examples of ‘Stop – start – continue are:
• “I need to continue showing concern for my friends and colleagues and being a
good listener”.
• “I need to stop procrastinating before taking important but difficult decisions”.
• “I need to start asking for help when I can’t solve a problem, instead of battling on
my own because I’m too proud to admit I need help”.
Once this understanding is in place, it can be utilised to identify the relevant needs
for:
• skills training - where performance is below standard
• formal education - to equip people with relevant knowledge
• on-the-job development - where promotion opportunities exist
Assessment criteria
After completing this outcome, you should be able to apply:
• relevant theories of motivation, providing practical examples
• the elements of group dynamics, according to theory and practice
1. Introduction
We have already covered a number of theories that explain why motivation is so
important to an organisation. Maslow’s hierarchy, Herzberg’s two factor theory and
McClelland’s nAch – nAff theory have clarified what ‘needs’ will trigger the motivation
to perform.
However, the theory that has best explained the application of motivation in practice
has been Vroom’s expectancy theory, which clarifies how the realities of the workplace
impact on needs.
Two organisational behaviour researchers, Lyman Porter and Ed Lawler III, extended
the boundaries of Vroom’s model. The best way to explain this expectancy theory is to
review exhibit 7.
(A) Satisfaction
Value of the reward
(D)
(Valence) Abilities
and Traits
(G)
Intrinsic rewards
(C) (F)
Effort Performance
(H)
Extrinsic rewards
(B)
Perception that (E)
effort will lead to the Role
probability of reward (I)
Perceptions Perceived
(Expectancy
& Equity
Instrumentality)
However, Porter and Lawler explained that, even if the motivational force is high and
thus the individual is prepared to put in a lot of effort, this doesn’t automatically lead
to the desired result from an organisation’s perspective. Effective performance is ALSO
dependent on the individual’s abilities and personality traits (i.e. his or her level of
competence) indicated by capsule (D).
They also explained that, even if individual employees are willing and able, they might
not put everything into a particular task if it is not perceived to be their role in the
organisation (capsule E). For example, team members may not take certain decisions
that could enhance performance because they perceive that they don’t have the
authority to do so.
(I) indicates that, even if the rewards are valued, individuals are not likely to remain
motivated if they perceive that there is unfairness in the reward for performance.
Take the example of a performance bonus where the team member concerned believes
that he or she has contributed the most to achieving the performance objective. If the
other team members receive exactly the same bonus, it might create a perception of
inequity and reduce the individual’s level of motivation.
Finally, capsule (J) indicates that all these factors have contributed to fulfilling a need.
The individual is satisfied.
An interesting point here is that if this process leads to a high level of satisfaction, then
it is likely to increase the original levels of valence and instrumentality.
Capsule (I) in Porter and Lawler’s model leads directly to another relevant process
theory. A psychologist by the name of J. Stacey Adams explored the fact that people at
work do not operate in a vacuum.
The whole theme of this course is that individual employees function within the context
of a team, within a department, within an organisation. This context provides constant
opportunities for individuals to compare their own performance with that of others.
Within this context, should any team member believe that his or her level of effort
and productivity is superior to that of other team members, it will clearly lead to an
expectation of superior rewards!
If, for example, the employee in question is awarded precisely the same salary increase
as the other team members, then this individual is likely to perceive that there is a
lack of equity. In other words, the individual believes that the ratio of the outcome
(the salary increase) to the input (his/her effort and productivity) in relation to that
received by the other employees should be greater in his or her case.
Learner Tip
In the world of work some individuals and organisations tend to use the word ‘goal’
when referring to future measurable results that they wish to achieve. Others prefer
the term ‘objective’. Keep reminding yourself that these are essentially the same thing
and may be used interchangeably.
For the sake of clarity it is sometimes useful to use the term ‘goal’ when focusing on
the long-term and ‘objective’ when focusing on the short-term.
2.3.2 Reinforcement
A very well known behaviourist by the name of B.F. Skinner, focused on what is
termed ‘operant conditioning’ to explain behaviour in the world of work. This, in
essence, means that learning takes place as a result of behaviour.
If, for example, a team member behaves in a certain way (e.g. submitting accurate
reports on time) and is rewarded for this behaviour (e.g. a higher performance
evaluation), then it is likely that this behaviour will be repeated - the behaviour is
‘reinforced’!
The implication for team leaders and an organisation wanting to motivate their
employees is to positively reinforce desired behaviour.
Reinforcement is not, however, restricted to a ‘positive’ approach. The theory indicates
that we can also be motivated by negative reinforcement. This occurs when an
undesirable situation is removed in response to desired behaviour on the part of the
individual.
An example would be a team member having a written warning for late-coming and
then not coming late for the next three months. The reinforcement here would be
to remove the disciplinary action from the employee’s personal record. The desired
behaviour is good time keeping – the reinforcement is the removal of the negative
warning.
Finally there are the concepts of extinction and punishment. These mechanisms are
used when undesirable behaviour persists. The first requires the removal of reward
(e.g. not responding to jokes in bad taste will lead to the joke teller no longer having a
receptive audience).
There are a number of strategies that are implemented with the specific goal in mind
of achieving just this. We shall focus on two:
• Making the job more meaningful by means of job redesign and
• Incorporating theoretical concepts into performance management
Motivation theory will be very difficult to apply in the world of work if individual jobs
are poorly designed or are so rigidly defined that they prevent individual employees
from using their initiative to complete tasks in a more effective way. Therefore the
focus today is often on how to redesign jobs in order to motivate employees.
The efficacy of this approach is based on the principle that jobs should increasingly be
designed to improve employee satisfaction and thus motivate them to work smarter!
These approaches reinforce the principle that effective motivation of employees needs
well-designed jobs.
It remains one of the single most powerful tools available to an organisation wishing
to gain strong employee commitment.
The more that high performing employees feel they are fairly rewarded for their
performance the more likely they are to remain content within the organisation.
Equally, a good system will ensure that non-performers are not rewarded (and are thus
more likely to move out!)
It also addresses the principles of equity theory in that individuals are more likely to
accept why they are being rewarded within a system that insists on formal feedback
and rewards measurable performance.
ALL employees – no matter what level of seniority want to know how they are
performing in relation to standards set and relative to other employees. It addresses
the need we all have for self-esteem.
You should note that in the early stages of team development, each member is likely to
have concerns, fears and aspirations (forming). Also, that conflict is likely to arise as
individual differences are manifested in behaviour (storming).
This is where leadership qualities are needed – to manage the behavioural dynamics
within the team that influence team effectiveness. This means building on individual
diversity instead of expecting that everyone agrees with each other and accepting
that conflict is natural without allowing disruptive, ‘power-seeking’ individuals to
negatively influence the team.
One of the most important tasks that you as the team leader must undertake is to
gain a good understanding of the individuals who make up your team. The more you
understand – the more you can adapt your approach to leading these individuals in a
team situation.
Yet values are a powerful factor influencing the way individuals behave in the world
of work. They often provide the critical foundation that individuals use to decide
whether or not they are willing to ‘go the extra mile’ in helping their team and their
organisation to achieve goals.
If an individual does not believe in the same values as the organisation, they are less
likely to apply their abilities, knowledge and skill to the same extent – leading to a
lower level of performance.
However many values team members may have, some are consistently more important
than others - these are core values. It is these beliefs that most individuals will not
give up under any circumstances. Let’s make sure that you clearly understand this very
important concept by performing the next activity.
1. 11.
2. 12.
3. 13.
4. 14.
5. 15.
6. 16.
7. 17.
8. 18.
9. 19.
10. 20.
These are the rules that I live by - the 'things' that I shall not violate either to achieve
short-term success or when I am confronted with difficult decisions. These are the
‘rules’ that I value now and will live by even when circumstances become difficult.
My Core Personal Values
Core Values
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
One of the ways to do this is to take the time and effort to establish SHARED VALUES
in your team. Because it is such a personal issue, it is also a process that should be
facilitated by a competent facilitator, i.e. the Training Department or an external
consultant.
Often managers decide to implement an idea that will help the organisation achieve its
objectives but are then dismayed that employee reaction is not positive. This may be
due to individual differences or it may be due to group issues that are not taken into
consideration.
Let’s take the example of Youth Day, June 16th falling on a Wednesday.
A production manager may decide that it is totally unproductive to run the factory for
2 days of a 5 day shift, stop production for 1 day and then start up again for the last 2
days of the week. The manager is probably correct.
A communication is then sent out to employees stating that the factory will run on the
16th, that everyone will be paid double time in accordance with legislation and that a
long weekend will be given at an appropriate time. The reaction of a large part of the
workforce is negative and the manager cannot understand why until someone explains
the historical significance of June 16 to many South Africans.
Understanding issues such as these makes it so much easier for team leaders to ensure
successful teamwork.
Learner Tip
Negative reaction may surface in many forms. In the workplace it is often manifested
in increased absenteeism and grievances, lack of motivation, sabotage of processes and
job resignations. If we ‘scratch the surface’ we will probably find that some of the likely
reasons are:
• uncertainty - leading to fear that could be real or imaginary. In many instances,
the office 'grapevine' is overloaded with rumours that increase employee feelings
of uncertainty and insecurity.
For example, the introduction of new technology may cause some individuals
to feel that their expertise is being threatened. This will create fear and result in
resistance to the new technology.
• fear that jobs will be lost or changed, resulting in possible retrenchment and loss
of income (for example, improved technology has often caused people to become
redundant).
• disruption to relationships - where informal relationships which develop in the
team can be disrupted or destroyed by changes in technology, products, markets
and people.
• perceived loss of power – where people who are comfortable with their position of
power may resent new ideas and often pretend to support them, but actually work
hard to ensure they don’t happen.
• inertia – where group members know that they need to change but are too
comfortable with the current status.
• building trust - if team members trust the team leader, they are less likely to be
threatened by any proposed changes.
• communicating consistently and openly to reduce incorrect perceptions and
ambiguity. Even bad news is accepted more readily when it is presented as a clear
message giving the facts.
• involving team members in the decision. Employees will not resist decisions that
they ‘own’.
• explaining the benefits of the idea. Team members are far more likely to accept
a new idea if they can see how they will benefit from it – for example, increased
autonomy in the job.
Activity 8
Think of the high school you attended or a club that you belong to.
What are practical examples of symbols, slogans, and common words or phrases used
that provide an ‘identity’ for the school or club?
Organisations use these symbols, slogans and common words in their formal
documentation such as advertisements, policy manuals, induction programmes and
training manuals.
However, the underlying beliefs and values behind these symbols, slogans and phrases
that are open to employees of the organisation are like the tip of an ice berg.
Below the water there are normally a host of other values and dynamics which
sometimes have the most influence. These 'unwritten rules' can either prevent an
organisation from achieving its objectives or can alternatively be the real building-
block of a high performance culture. Exhibit 12 illustrates this crucial concept.
Explicit
beliefs and
rules etc
-------------------------------------------------------------------- water level
Any team in any organisation will fail unless it is supported by a strong, healthy
culture.
Setting objectives, empowering teams to take decisions and providing them with
immediate feedback do not, on their own, lead to implementation. You saw that
translating excellent plans and high levels of commitment into action required a
formal team review meeting in which the most important output is always the action
plan that specifies who is responsible for what actions and by when.
Activity 8
How did you find this activity? In any action plan there is always a sequence of actions
to be taken by relevant people. If you look forward to Activity 9, you will see that by
week 7 not all the deadlines have been met. As part of the monitoring process, you should
complete step 2 of the activity.
Monitoring is more than just measuring actual progress and comparing it to required
due dates. It encompasses regular reviews using the original action plan as the
standard.
Irrespective of the reasons for the problem, it is no good just hoping for the best. It
is also not a good idea to merely adjust the timing schedule. The venues need to be
rebooked and may not be available for a while.
In this case the schedule requires amendment.
Activity 10
You also saw that the strongest influence on the effectiveness of the process is the
behavioural dynamics within the team. By utilising the positive dynamics of goal-
achievement roles (e.g. information seekers, energisers) and team-building roles (e.g.
harmonisers, expediters), the process becomes more effective.
How do you, as a team leader identify these roles in the first place? The answer is by
observing people at work.
One of the best opportunities to do this is, is during the team review meetings.
The key is to observe which team members are adding value by:
• providing new ideas on how to move ahead
• finding information needed to solve the problem
• helping resolve conflict
• stopping dominant individuals from taking over discussions
and which team members are disrupting the process by:
• stopping new ideas with continual negative reactions
• focusing more on their contribution than on achieving team goals
Of course, as the team leader, it is your responsibility to lead the meeting and you
have to focus your attention on the meeting agenda and the information being
communicated. However, you will find that one of the most powerful tools to assist
you with observation in the world of work is the simple task of MAKING NOTES!
This is what many human resource practitioners refer to as ‘recording critical incidents’
and consists simply of making notes about specific comments and actions as you
observe them happening.
You don’t have to record every word or action but you should write down sufficient
information that you need for the feedback you have to give to individual team
members as well as to the team as a whole.
The reason that these are called ‘critical incidents’, is that they are specific incidents
that provide critical information to the team leader when providing feedback.
Here you have a clear example of the point that you want to make during a feedback
session.
To get back to the interaction of individuals working in a team, the meeting is an
obvious opportunity to observe behaviour dynamics. There are, however, other ways
of ‘observing’ behaviour. The next activity will be of help to you in understanding
group dynamics that is not something you see taking place in front of you.
Activity 11
Step 1: On your own, review the Visual Management System example overleaf.
Step 3: In a team of 4 to 7 people, discuss the group dynamics you have ‘observed’ by
reviewing the information made available by the system.
50
Standard
40
30
20
10
1 2 3 4 5 6
Weeks
If you have struggled with this activity, please consult your lecturer. The information
provided is based on a real life situation and is a manifestation of a ‘message’ that the
team of warehouse employees is giving to management.
What is important is that the ‘observation’ of team dynamics in the workplace is not
restricted to the process of directly watching people perform daily tasks.
2. Providing feedback to team members based on
observation
2.1 Feedback Steps
Feedback should follow a formal process, which ensures that team members have their
attention focused on learning from the feedback and thus improving performance.
The specific steps were to:
1. review the purpose of the discussion
2. reflect on actual performance compared to standard
3. seek reasons for variances
4. discuss problems preventing the team from meeting standards
5. develop future action plans to rectify poor performance or to enhance previous
good performance
Mager and Pipe developed a model over 30 years ago that provides a very useful
framework for giving feedback to team members. Following this model ensures
that the team leader not only provides feedback but also takes responsibility for the
development of team members. The ‘actions’ on the action plan are not always the
responsibility of the individual team members – the team leader is also responsible for
making sure that required outcomes are achieved!
Describe
Performance
Discrepancy
No
Ignore Important?
Yes
Yes Skills
Deficiency
No
No Used to Yes
Performance
do it?
punished?
Arrange Remove
Yes punishment
Formal
Training
Non-
No performance Yes
Used often
rewarded?
Yes Used
often?
Arrange
Arrange
consequences
practice
Yes No
Performance
matters?
Arrange
feedback
Arrange
positive
consequences
Yes
Obstacles?
Remove
obstacles
To ensure that we are completely clear about this in the world of work, let’s look at
another analogy.
You have received a number of complaints from clients about how ineffective some
of the Call Centre Operators are in handling their queries.
The first question that the Model requires you to ask is the following:
“Is the performance discrepancy important?” If some of the complaints were to do
with problems such as unavailability of certain new models in their area, it is not
something that your team members can do anything about other than explain the
reasons given by the company. This is not important in how the service levels of the
team are maintained and so may be ignored.
The next issue is the critical one of “is it a lack of knowledge, skill or ability OR rather
a behavioural problem e.g. a bad attitude?”
To determine if it is a skills deficiency, you could ask the question “could the team
member perform the task/function if his/her life depended on it?” Obviously if the
answer is NO (e.g. a new product range has been launched and the operator hasn’t
been for product knowledge training) – then there is a skills problem that needs to
be addressed by means of appropriate training!
However the model also requires you to ask “did the employee know how to perform
the function in the past?”. If, for example, the problem has to do with not providing
the client with the correct procedure for activating international roaming, then the
answer is YES. In this case perhaps the team member has forgotten some of the tasks
because it is not a frequent query, so the best solution is to arrange practice rather
than spending money on comprehensive re-training. If the employee gets these
questions frequently, then further performance feedback is appropriate before just
rushing off to train.
To determine if it is a behaviour problem, then the model requires you to not just
jump to the conclusion that it is an ‘attitude’ problem, but rather to ask the question
“if the performance problem was not due to a lack of skill, could there be reasons other
than a poor attitude?”
Many managers in the world of work see ‘training’ or alternatively ‘taking disciplinary
action’ as simple solutions to improve performance. Providing continuous feedback
on a formal, structured basis ensures that the team leader maintains motivation by
focusing on the real issues and addressing these (not necessarily by means of training)
and utilising the opportunity to gain valuable inputs from team members.
If you believe that feedback is a motivator in its own right, then you have understood
both this expression and the information on motivation provided in this unit
standard.
Giving team members feedback provides a signal that says; ‘you and the work that you
do are both important enough for me to take the time to provide feedback on how I
view your contribution’.
If, however, this feedback is not specific – then it will be limited in reinforcing good
performance or improving poor performance.
You may remember that exhibit 4 identified a number of ‘rewards’ – both intrinsic and
extrinsic. All of these can be utilised to provide team members with recognition for
their achievements. Exhibit 14 provides a list of actions that can be used to recognise
team members who have contributed to the team.
Recognition
Non-financial Financial
You can step into many organisations and find photos and rolls of honour recognising
the ‘Employee of the Year’ and ‘Best Newcomer’ etc. that have stopped being used
more than 3 years ago! Once a formal way of recognising employees has been
introduced, it must be maintained and updated with fresh ideas to make it effective.
Within a team context, one of the most powerful forms of recognition is awarding
extra time off on full pay to those team members who have made an extra
contribution. This is not as simplistic as it may sound. Formally announcing at the
Thursday morning team review meeting that Zoleka will be able to leave work at
12h00 on Friday because of her specific contribution to meeting the debt collection
targets for this month is a really meaningful ‘reward’.
She will be able to do things on Friday that would normally have taken up part of her
week-end, and which is now free for her to plan social activities. The benefits to the
organisation of having a highly-motivated employee working hard to achieve team
targets far outweighs the ‘cost’ of paying her for a few hours when not present at work.
2. The best companies in the world do the following in order to keep their people
motivated:
a)
b)
c)
d)
5. Herzberg, on the other hand, felt that although some factors were
, others were only h factors. He felt that most
of the successful motivators are I such as recognition and
personal growth.
8. Competence comprises:
a. A
b. S
c. K
d. P
e. V and,
f. A
14. A team leader can really build a team by reducing resistance. This can be done
by:
building t
communicating c and o
involving t m in decisions