Climate Change Adaptation-Opportunities and Challenges From Two Communities in Ethiopia

Journal of Environment and Earth Science ISSN 2224-3216 !a"er# ISSN 222$-%&4' (nline# )ol. 3* No.
12* 2%13
www.iiste.org
Climate Change Adaptation: Opportunities and Challenges from Two Communities in Ethiopia
1 2 +aereg ,afere1* Jana (livier2* and +aarten Jordaan2 -orld )ision International +aereg.tafere/wvi.org0 mtafere/1ahoo.com0 mtafere2/gmail.com# 2niversit1 of South 3frica 4 2NIS3 5ana1/mwe6.co.7a0 5ordam/unisa.ac.7a# 8 E-mail of the corres"onding author9 +aereg.tafere/wvi.org0 or mtafere2/gmail.com
Abstract :limate change is real and is dis"ro"ortionatel1 affecting "oor communities in "oorer countries. :limate change drives climate e;tremes which manifest in the form of e;treme droughts in some areas and e;cessive "reci"itations in others. ,he nature of im"acts from climate e;tremes de"ends not onl1 on the intensities of the e;tremes themselves 6ut also on e;"osure and vulnera6ilit1 of communities. :ommunities in "oor countries are the most e;"osed to such e;tremities and are forced to 6ear a huge 6urden to ada"t to these e;tremes. 3s such* ada"tation to disasters is not new to these communities in a sense that the1 have 6een ada"ting to e;tremes even 6efore climate change 6ecame a concern. -hat is now new is the e;tent of e;"osure factors e;erting an everincreasing "ressure on livelihoods of alread1 destitute communities. 3s if their "overt1 was not enough* climate change e;tends the "lights 6e1ond "revious ada"tation ca"acities. ,hese communities and countries not onl1 have to tac<le clime-driven conse=uences* 6ut also other forms of disaster im"acts and "overt1 in general. >ow can these communities and countries deal with such intricatel1 related environmental management* disaster ris< reduction and overall "overt1 alleviation challenges all at the same time? 3 surve1 was carried out in communities with var1ing socio-cultural and environmental conditions in two different "arts of Ethio"ia to understand their "erce"tions on climate change and varia6ilit1* and their ca"acit1 to ada"t. Institutional su""ort levels "rovided to such disaster-"rone communities in terms of "olic1* technical and material from local governments and international organi7ations has also 6een reviewed. ,he results of various grou" discussions suggest that communit1 awareness on climate change im"acts is fairl1 good* 6ut commensurate action lags 6ehind for various reasons. ,he grou"s also identified o""ortunities* challenges and concerns. @ocal institutional su""ort is growing as manifested through* among other things* ratification and im"lementation of relevant international conventions* integrating climate change issues in develo"ment "rogramming* creating coordinating faculties* a""ortioning significant resources in im"ortant sectors such as agriculture* and creating "u6lic <nowledge* though with enough challenges and concerns. Aiven their current levels of human* financial* natural and socio-"olitical ca"ital* "oor communities in Ethio"ia and "erha"s other "oor countries in 3frica* are tac<ling their "art of the "ro6lem with the needed intentionalit1 and vigour. >owever* their resources and technical ca"acities are not enough to deal with the current levels of disasters* let alone with the "ro5ected increase of climate and weather im"acts. (n the other hand* the current level of glo6al ada"tation funding and technical su""ort for develo"ing countries is 6elow even conservative estimates. Noting the gravit1 of the "ro6lem and the level of "overt1 "revalent in the most climate affected areas* and e;isting difficulties in ada"tation* glo6al institutions need to ta<e the im"lementation of the alread1-agreed u"on international conventions for the reduction of A>A and ada"tation funding more seriousl1. ,he situation is alread1 dire for the "oor communities and countries and if A>A emissions continue una6ated even more resources will 6e needed in the future to res"ond to climate change im"acts. Keywords: 3da"tation* drought im"acts* environmental degradation* Ethio"ian highlands* famine* forests* "erce"tion 1. Introduction 1.1 Current Disaster Stresses 3frica is one of the most disaster-affected continents* mainl1 61 climate e;tremes. 3t least 6%B of Su6-Saharan 3frica SS3# is vulnera6le to drought and a6out 3%B is highl1 vulnera6le Censon and :la1* 1&&'#. In SS3 a6out 3$&*246*626 "eo"le were affected and a6out '2*3%$ died 6etween 1&'6 and 2%%$ due to drought IDE: 2%%6#. In East 3frica alone* severe droughts occurred over at least a "ortion of the region in 1&33-34* 1&3'-3&* 1&4&-$%* 1&$2* 1&6$* 1&6&* 1&F3-F6* 1&'% and in 1&'$ e.g. Easmusson* 1&'F9Alant7* 1&&4* :am"6ell* 1&&4# and most recentl1 in 1&'F* &1G&2* 1&&&G2%%%* 2%%2G2%%3* 2%%$* 2%%& e.g. Alant et al* 1&&F0 >astenrath et al 2%%F0 )iste et al* 2%12#. In addition* severe floods occurred in East 3frica in 1&61* 1&&4* and 1&&6G&F Cehera et al 1&&&0 Cirr<ett et al 1&&&#. Since the ma5or drought in 3frica in the 1&'%s* the num6er of undernourished "eo"le in eastern and southern 3frica has more than dou6led* and while rural develo"ment stagnated* rural "overt1 e;"anded during the 1&&%s Dun< et al* 2%%F#. In recent 1ears it has 6ecome clear that climate change is an inevita6le "rocess I!:: 3E$* 2%13# and Su6-Saharan 3frica* will 6e dis"ro"ortionatel1 im"acted not onl1 $2
Journal of Environment and Earth Science ISSN 2224-3216 !a"er# ISSN 222$-%&4' (nline# )ol. 3* No.12* 2%13
www.iiste.org
due to the result of "ro5ected warming and rainfall deficits* 6ut also 6ecause of the structural vulnera6ilit1 of the "o"ulation ,hom"son et al* 2%1%#. Ethio"ia is seen as one of the 3frican countries most vulnera6le to the im"acts of climate change* with limited ca"acit1 to co"e with short-term climatic shoc<s or ada"t to longer-term trends :onwa1 et al.* 2%%F#. ,he main documented drought-related disasters affecting Ethio"ia occurred in 1'''-&2* 1&$'* 1&6$-66* 1&F3-F4* 1&'4-'$* 1&'F* 1&&%-&1* 1&&&-2%%%* 2%%2-2%%3* and 2%%& N+S3* 1&&60 H!!3* 2%%3* ,afere* 2%110 )iste et al* 2%12#. Huring the last four decades* a num6er of severe droughts have caused e;tensive human and material loss in Ethio"ia* often covering the greater >orn of 3frica* in 1&6$* 1&F3* 1&'4* 1&'F* and 2%11 :am6erlin* 1&&6* )iste et al* 2%12#. In terms of the s"atial incidence of drought occurrence* -e66 and Craun 1&&4# indicated that most of the drought events were concentrated in two 6roader 7ones of the countr1. ,he first covers the central and north-eastern highlands* while the second area is com"rised of the crescent of low-l1ing agro-"astoral lands. ,hese areas cover a ma5or "art of the Ethio"ian highlands* which occu"1 44B of the total surface area of the countr1* and are affected 61 deforestation and degraded soils leading to recurrent food shortages. In s"ite of its relativel1 smaller si7e* the Ethio"ian highland is home to over &%B of the "eo"le and F$B of livestoc< and a6out '$B of the cro" lands are located in this area 3mede et al* 2%%1#. -ith climate change im"acts "ro5ected to worsen* "eo"le living in this "art of the countr1 might face an insurmounta6le challenge. +ore fre=uent droughts* increasing varia6ilit1* and areal e;"ansion of drought coverage continue to create an u"hill struggle to these su6sistence farmers. 1.2 Impacts of drought disasters Hisaster-related loss is increasing with devastating conse=uences on lives and livelihoods of "oor communities ISHE* 2%%$* I!:: 3E$* 2%13#* and is e;"ected to increase due to climate change and varia6ilit1 ,hom"son* 2%1%#. Hirect lin< 6etween the increasing h1dro-meteorological disasters and climate change is also almost certain I!:: 3E$* 2%13#. :limate change im"acts can erode economic* social* and human ca"ital. Economic im"acts of disasters can 6e categori7ed as direct* indirect and secondar1 effects -orld Can<* 2%%$#. Hirect losses im"l1 losses of assets damaged 61 the disasters* whereas indirect losses are the losses accrued while "roduction assets remain un"roductive due to damage or destruction. Huring disasters* 6oth direct and indirect losses accrue across the social* "roductive and infrastructure sectors. Even though re"orts availa6le on the costs of disasters are often related to direct costs associated with "h1sical destruction Censon and :la1* 1&&'#* disaster affected countries suffer from secondar1 effects that divert resources from mainstream develo"ment to relief* recover1* reha6ilitation and reconstruction of disaster damages. Ethio"ian economic and human cost of the most devastating droughts has not 6een com"uted* 6ut some data indicate drought 6eing a serious threat to the survival of its "o"ulace. Cetween the 1&F%s and '%s* most of the northern and eastern regions of the countr1 e;"erienced drought* which affected a6out 1$B of the total "o"ulation0 the im"act of su6se=uent droughts increased from the 1&&%s onwards* affecting a wider geogra"hical area and u" to 2%B of the "o"ulation IIEE and Save the :hildren* 2%%F#. 3s climate change im"acts de"end on e;"osure to disaster ris<s and vulnera6ilit1* on a social vulnera6ilit1 inde; S)I#* 3dger and )incent 2%%$# "ut Ethio"ia among the to" ten most vulnera6le countries in 3frica. :urrentl1* Ethio"ia is still an agrarian econom1 with a6out '$B of the em"lo1ment de"endent on agriculture* and a6out 41.6B of its AH! derived from it I+D* 2%11#. 3griculture is de"endent mainl1 on traditional s1stems and is largel1 rain-fed* which itself is highl1 varia6le and un"redicta6le due to climate change. Hes"ite Ethio"iaIs insignificant "er ca"ita A>A emission rates* researchers assert that the countr1 loses from 2 4 6B of its total "roduction due to climate change ever1 1ear I+D* 2%11#. ,his is higher than the "ro5ected economic cost of 1.$ 4 3 B of 3fricaIs AH! of climate change 61 2%3%* :lements* 2%%&#. In addition* studies de"ict "ositive correlation 6etween ma5or drought 1ears and AH! decline in the "eriod 6etween the 6eginning of 1&'%s and 2%%$ for e;am"le :onwa1 and Schi""er* 2%11#. ,his "icture 6eing a national level status* it does not necessaril1 re"resent the true "icture of the rural communities that are almost totall1 de"endent on agriculture* andGor are disaster "rone. -hen com"aring the AH! growth trend and the demogra"hic d1namics* a mismatch 6etween the two is evident fig. 2#. Hemogra"hic data indicates that Ethio"ia started the 2%th centur1 with a6out 11 million "eo"le. Si;t1 1ears later* in 1&6%* the figure had dou6led. 3fter another dou6ling 61 1&'F* the countr1Is "o"ulation was estimated at 44 million +o-E* 2%%4#. ,he latest estimate 2%12# "uts the total "o"ulation at '6*613*&'6 out of which '3B live in rural areas :S3* 2%12#. -hile the "o"ulation grows shar"l1* agricultural and total AH! increases steadil1 and varia6l1* showing at times significant decline corres"onding to drought 1ears.
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Journal of Environment and Earth Science ISSN 2224-3216 !a"er# ISSN 222$-%&4' %&4' (nline# )ol. 3* No.12* 2%13
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GDP trend 1980-2005

25,000.00 GDP Amount in Million Birr 20,000.00 15,000.00 10,000.00 5,000.00 0.00
19 80 /8 1 19 82 /8 3 19 84 /8 5 19 86 /8 7 19 88 /8 9 19 90 /9 1 19 92 /9 3 19 94 /9 5 19 96 /9 7 19 98 /9 9 20 00 /0 1 20 02 /0 3 20 04 /0 5
Year Agriculture Total GDP
Dig. 2 a#9 ,rends of agricultural and total AH! in Ethio"ia from 1&'% to 2%%$ Source9 Higital data ta<en from the ministr1 of Dinance and Economic Hevelo"ment#0 6# !o"ulation trend of Ethio"ia9 Hata source9 :S3 1&640 and d "ro5ections from the !o"ulation :ensus :ommission* 2%%4. 2% 1.3 Climate Change Adaptation :limate "olic1 has occu"ied centre stage since the Eio summit in 1&&2* followed 61 the J1oto "rotocol which introduced mandator1 emission reduction targets in 2%%$. Since then "olitical commitment to greenhouse gas A>A# reduction ction is growing* though emissions also continue to grow S"erling K :annon* 2%%F#. +itigation rather than ada"tation dominated the international "olitical agendas during the 1&&%s and earl1 2%%%s 3dger et al 2%%&#. -hile mitigation aims at reducing A>A emissions emissions "rimaril1 61 the rich countries in the west* ada"tation is in realit1 the res"onsi6ilit1 of those facing the im"acts of climate change mainl1 communities in "oor countries#. 3da"tation* sim"l1 defined* refers to Lthe "rocess of ad5ustment to actual actu or e;"ected climate and its effects* in order to moderate harm or e;"loit 6eneficial o""ortunities. In natural s1stems* the "rocess of ad5ustment to actual climate and its effects0 human intervention ma1 facilitate ad5ustment to e;"ected climateM I!::* 2%12#. 3s such* societies are not new to climatic changes and have 6een ada"ting throughout histor1* im"l1ing the e;istence of latent ada"tation ca"acit1 which is triggered when needed Curton et al 2%%6#. :ommunities are reasona6l1 ada"tive to environmental environmental changes occurring graduall1* and do so with their own means and initiatives. >owever* the magnitudes and intensities of current and future climatic changes are li<el1 to "ush "oor communities 6e1ond "ast levels of ada"tive ca"acities. ,he effects of climate limate change manifest in the form of more fre=uent and intense ENS( events leading to wides"read drought in some areas* devastating floods in other areas -are et al* 2%%$#* and increased tem"erature I!:: 3E$* 2%13#. Not onl1 is glo6al warming real I!!: 3E$* 2%13# 6ut 3frica and other develo"ing countries are the "rime victims of the "ro5ected changes Smith et al0 2%%3* 3hmed et al* 2%%&# 6ecause wides"read "overt1 in these countries limits ada"tation I!::* 2%12#. Dor these countries* efforts to ada"t to the changing climate are inse"ara6le "arts of the 6roader challenges of natural resources management* "overt1 reduction* and sustaina6le develo"ment Ca"na K +cAra1* 2%%&#. )arious forms of wea<nesses such as structural* technological and institutional cou"led with low asset 6ase due to e;treme "overt1 aggravate the vulnera6ilit1 of SS3 to climate change im"acts >assan* 2%1%#. In su6-Saharan su6 Saharan 3frica* socio-economic socio vulnera6ilit1 often coincides with 6io-"h1sical 6io "h1sical vulnera6ilit1 and a large "ro"ortion of the th "o"ulation the rural "oor# de"ends on climate-sensitive sensitive rain-fed rain fed agriculture for su6sistence income and has limited livelihood o"tions Eri<sen and NNss* 2%%3#. ,his is further confirmed 61 the -orld Eis< Ee"ort 2%11#* which "uts 26 countries in 3frica as ver1 highl1 vulnera6le while 14 others were ran<ed as highl1 vulnera6le. Darmer-level level ada"tation to drought and other climatic changes can 6e seen as com"rising two im"ortant elements. Dirst* ada"tation de"ends on farmerIs "erce"tion of the ris< factors factors 3dger et al* 2%%$# and the level of conviction that 6usiness as usual is not an o"tion. Secondl1* ada"tation de"ends on the o"tions availa6le* which in turn ma1 6e a function of several factors including economic status* education level* and other environmental envi endowments >assan* 2%%60 Heressa et al* 2%%&#. Effective ada"tation and disaster ris< management strategies and "ractices also de"end on a rigorous understanding of the dimensions of e;"osure and vulnera6ilit1. In addition* "roactive ada"tation calls for a sta6le "olitical s1stem and governance +agad7a* 2%%%#* and "ro"er financing of additional resources. ,hat is wh1 the 2ND::: has esta6lished clear resolution at Cali 2%%F 2ND:::* :(! 13# to Lim"rove ade=uate* "redicta6le and sustaina6le financing financing O and "rovision of new and additional resources for develo"ing countries.M :limate change "erce"tion on ris<s* and o""ortunities#* institutional su""ort* and financial ca"acit1 are <e1 areas to effectivel1 strengthen ada"tation ca"acities in "oor countries. tries. 2nfortunatel1* funding for ada"tation and disaster ris< reduction HEE# ma<es a small fraction of aid 6udget* is highl1 unsta6le* and highl1 concentrated in small middle income countries :D2* 2%130 :aravani* 2%13#.
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Journal of Environment and Earth Science ISSN 2224-3216 !a"er# ISSN 222$-%&4' %&4' (nline# )ol. 3* No.12* 2%13
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. !esearch ob"ecti#es Hes"ite the fact that climate change ada"tation has 6een high on the glo6al agenda since the earl1 1&&%s* and that Ethio"ia has 6een e;"eriencing its im"acts* ada"tation research has 6een not 6een widel1 carried out. 3 ma5orit1 of those so far conducted focused on a com"onent of ada"tation or covered a smaller "ortion of the countr1 Jinfe. 1&&&0 ,adesse and Cela1* 2%%40 +e7e->aus<en* +e7e >aus<en* 2%%40 Jidane et al* 2%%60 Heressa et al* 2%%'0 Heressa et al* 2%%&0 :onwa1 and Schi""er* 2%110 +esfin* 2%110 (ates et al* 2%11* ,esso et e al* 2%12* -oldeamla< K Hawit* 2%11#. ,hese studies highlight some ada"tation o"tions and 6arriers inter alia lac< of information* financial limitations* inade=uate si7e of land* shortage of la6or and limited "otential for irrigation. >owever* onl1 a few assess institutional efforts to su""ort communit1Is ada"tation efforts. ,his research intends to enrich the climate change ada"tation discourses 61 filling some of the ga"s. ,he findings discussed in this "a"er are ta<en from a 6od1 of a much wider stud1 carried carried out to understand rainfall and environmental degradation "atterns* "erce"tions of disaster ris<s and ada"tive ca"acit1 of communities and institutions in Ethio"ia ,afere* 2%11#. It focuses on a "art of a much 6igger 6od1 of disaster im"acts "ro"elled ed 61 climate change. 3da"tation to disasters in general and to climate change in "articular is discussed under this to"ic. It is 6ased on a res"onse of two communities in Ethio"ia to =uestions related to "eo"lesI "erce"tion on disasters and their a6ilit1 to ada"t to these livelihood disru"tions. 3da"tation is one of the "reoccu"ations in the field of climate change and disaster ris< reduction. 3s such humanit1 has 6een ada"ting for generations to changing circumstance forced 61 natural or human 6eings* though th such forced human ad5ustments were not necessaril1 called ada"tation. -hat ma1 6e new these da1s is that the fre=uenc1 and intensit1 of the ris<s has increased and that vulnera6le communities are faced with increasing "ressure to do more. Cut* what can can "oor farming communities with no other s<ills* limited alternatives and connections do? It is essential to <now a6out the o""ortunities and challenges around ada"tation in such "oor rural communities. ,he o65ectives of this s"ecific "a"er can therefore 6e 6 summarised as9 to find out communit1Is level of "erce"tion on climate change im"acts* ris<s* and o""ortunities0 to stud1 communit1Is ca"acit1 to ada"t to the ever increasing disaster threats driven 61 climate change0 and what constraints* and challenges retard ada"tation in these communities to determine the roles of various local and international institutions* resource su""ort mechanisms and technological transfer mechanisms received 61 "oor communities. $. !esearch %ethodology 3.1 Location of the research area ,he research was conducted in ,igra1 Eastern 7one# and Southern Nations* Nationalities and !eo"lesI region SNN!#* Wolaita 7one of Ethio"ia. Eastern ,igra1 7one is located in the northern most "art of the countr1. ,he centre of the 7one is a6out '&% % Jm north of 3ddis 36a6a* the :a"ital of Ethio"ia* and 12% Jm from Mekelle* the ca"ital of ,igra1 regional state Dig. 1#. ,his "art of the countr1 is characteri7ed 61 s"arse and irregular rainfall* and is highl1 drought-"rone. "rone. 3verage annual rainfall and tem"erature of the area is $%%-6%% $%% mm and 1'P: res"ectivel1. ,he "attern of rainfall in an1 given 1ear is inconsistent. Eastern ,igra1 is found 6etween 13P4'I 4 14P%2I N and 3&P 34I 4 3&P4'I E with a to"ogra"h1 characteri7ed 61 stee" and rugged terrain and an altitudes ranging 6etween 1'%% to 31%% m.a.s.l. ,he eastern margin of this area 6orders the western margin of the Areat East 3frican Eift s1stem. ,he second stud1 area Wolaita 7one# is in the SNN! regional state* its centre Sodo# 6eing at a6out 42% <m < south of 3ddis 36a6a. ,he stud1 area covers a "ortion of the 7one located 6etween 6P 42I 4 6P $'I North and 3FP 4%I 4 3FP $4I East. 3nnual average rainfall in the highland and mid-highland highland areas of Wolaita 7one is a6out 13%% mm while the lowland areas is u" to 6%% mm or even less. Eainfall is 6imodal with the main rains falling in the June-Se"tem6er Se"tem6er and the short rains in De6ruar1 4 +arch. ,he short rains elg# are more varia6le and unrelia6le. Dailure of one or 6oth rains often leads to food insecurit1 in the area. 3verage dail1 tem"erature is 6etween 1$P: and 3%P:. @i<e the eastern "art of ,igra1* Wolaita 7one is also highl1 affected 61 drought. Dig. 19 location ma" of research areas In 6oth research areas* agriculture is the main sta1 of the $$
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"eo"le* though cereals "redominate in Eastern ,igra1 while root cro"s enset 4 false 6anana* sweet "otatoes* etc.# ma<e u" the main sta"le food in Wolaita. ,he si7e of the small-holding farms in these communities has continued to diminish and at "resent is on average a6out %.$ ha. ,he two 7ones were selected for the research due to their relevance. ,he "eo"le of the two stud1 areas e;"erienced 1ears of declining environmental =ualit1 forestr1* soil* water resources#. Cesides* these 7ones are drought "rone >urni* 1&&4# and as a result have 6een targets of the Hisaster !revention and !re"aredness 3genc1 of Ethio"ia H!!3# for food assistance "rograms H!!3* 2%%3#. 3 total of 264 "ersons 136 in Easter ,igra1 and 12' in Wolaita Qone# "artici"ated in 14 grou" discussions* of which 3%B and 22B were women from Eastern ,igra1 and -oliata 7ones* res"ectivel1. In Eastern ,igra1* three districts that 6order a natural forest Dess!a forest#* namel1 Ats"i#Wom"erta* S. $saeda#%m"a* and %nderta districts* were included in the stud1. In Wolaita 7one* the grou"s came from two districts* &um"o and Sodo# 'uria. Cefore the actual discussion started* the grou"s were guided to have a common understanding on what constitutes a forest and on the definitions of forest "rotection* environmental law* and civil conflict. In addition to the grou" discussions* follow-u" conversations were held with "rominent resource e;"erts and elders in these areas for verification "ur"oses. 3.2 Data collection and anal(sis 3 focus grou" discussion method was em"lo1ed in eastern ,igra1 and Wolita 7ones 6etween Jul1 and (cto6er 2%1%. ,he grou"s were made u" of farmers* traders* local administrators* and e;"erts in natural resources management. 3 =uestionnaire com"rising of 36 =uestions# was em"lo1ed to gain insight into the communit1Is "erce"tion on drought fre=uenc1 and environmental degradation "atterns. ,his "a"er does not cover all the =uestions* 6ut focuses onl1 on five relevant to the su65ect under discussion. ,he =uestions included9 1. :o"ing mechanisms9 a# In 1our o"inion* do 1ou thin< drought has increased* decreased or remained the same in the "ast fort1 1ears? 6# -hat did 1ou do to co"e with the drought im"acts? c# -hat else can 1ou do if the drought fre=uenc1 and their effects increase? 2. Cehavioral changes farming "ractices* and social characteristics if an1#9 a# -as there a change in 1our farming "ractices to co"e u" with the changes in climateG rainfall "atterns? 6# -hat t1"es of new methods of farming techni=ues have 1ou ado"ted land "re"aration0 farm in"uts0 im"roved seeds0 livestoc<* others#? c# Is there an1 change in9 i. :eremonies that re=uire foodGwater? ii. :onsum"tion "atterns? iii. :ulture of conservation of food and other resources? iv. >as there 6een a shift in the form of livelihoods "racticed? in the "ast from farming to trade* livestoc< raring* other#? 3. Institutional su""ort "olic1* technical and material su""ort#9 a# In 1our o"inion has government "olic1 matched* during these "eriods* the changing conte;ts to 6e su""orted 61 "olic1 anal1sis#? -h1 do 1ou thin< so? 6# -hat t1"e of informationGtechnical su""ort do 1ou get from outside the village from government line ministries* universities* NA(s* other international organi7ations# during drought times? c# >ow hel"ful are these su""orts? d# >ow did 1our communit1 res"ond to the su""ort rece"tion* "artici"ation and ado"tion#? e# -hat else do 1ou need to tac<le changing climate* 6ut do not get? 4. 3da"tation s"eed vis-R-vis drought recurrence a# >ow fast does 1our communit1 ado"t new methods? 6# Is it eas1 to shift to new techni=ues? -h1 do 1ou thin< so? ). -hat are the ma5or challenges affecting ada"tation? ,he =uestionnaires were administered during interviews to farmer grou"s of various ca"acities ver1 "oor and moderatel1 "oor#* and a modified version of the =uestionnaire was used with e;"erts from the local +inistr1 of 3griculture* and local administrators. 3dditional information from e;"erts was ca"tured during a two-da1 wor<sho" organi7ed in Mekelle to deli6erate on farmer managed natural resource reha6ilitation. ,his wor<sho" gathered e;"erts from the +inistr1 of 3griculture* and Natural Eesources* 3griculture research institutes* 2niversities* Non-Aovernmental (rgani7ations NA(s# wor<ing in the research area* and local leaders of three districts in Eastern ,igra1. It was necessar1 to o6tain se"arate feed6ac< from the farmers and technical grou"s so that cross-chec<ing could 6e "ossi6le. In order to lin< local level ada"tation efforts with institutional su""ort* a
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government "olic1 anal1sis was conducted through literature review* and discussions with government officials* and relevant technical e;"erts. >owever* this research does not intend to 6e e;haustive in its "olic1 anal1sis 6oth at countr1 and glo6al level* 6ut to set the floor for more discussion on the "rogress made to su""ort communit1 level ada"tation efforts 61 national governments and international institutions. ,he findings discussed 6elow are those agreed u" on 61 the ma5orit1 of the grou"s. :ontested o"inions 61 mem6ers of res"ondent grou"s were cross-chec<ed against e;isting literature* or using further discussions with e;"erts in the relevant disci"lines and with am"le wor< e;"erience in the stud1 areas. Some of those that were not su""orted 61 the ma5orit1 of the grou"s have 6een discussed under challenges. &. 'indings *.1 Communit( a+areness of disasters, "eha-iours and coping mechanisms ,he res"onses from the discussion grou"s on communit1 awareness levels* corres"onding attitudinal and 6ehavioural e;"ressions as manifested in the form of co"ing mechanisms and ada"tation res"onses are descri6ed as follows9 3ccording to res"ondent grou"s* '%-&$B of the farmers residing in the research areas had ade=uate understandings of drought ris<s* their e;"osure and vulnera6ilit1 as well as their roles. 3fter 1&'4G'$* the fre=uenc1 of droughts increased with droughts occurring in consecutive seasons andGor 1ears* rainfall varia6ilit1 is greater* and a shift to late start and earl1 cessations in rainfall are common. ,he res"ondent grou"s noted that un-timeliness and varia6ilit1 of rainfall are more difficult to deal with. 3nother im"ortant finding from the grou" discussion* is what was descri6ed as "artial rainfall coverage of farmlands i.e. toda1Is rain covers onl1 a "ortion of a village at one go* leaving some "arts without the much needed showers. ,his im"lies that a denser distri6ution of rain gauges is re=uired to identif1 differences in the s"atial e;tent of rain events. Cefore the 1&'4G$ drought* attested res"ondents* a ma5or rain event would cover a large area at once. >owever* the grou"Is res"onse to the drought trend was not 6ased on scientific data anal1sis 6ut on o6servations on the length of the rain1 season* cro" "erformance which is not solel1 de"endent on rainfall# and h1drological "atters rivers K s"rings dr1ing fast* and groundwater "erformance#. Notwithstanding the de6ate on the drought "atterns* other factors such as caseloads due to "o"ulation growth* and thinning of soil thic<ness due to erosion ma1 6e e;acer6ating the drought effects. Ees"ondent grou"s also highlighted the relationshi"s 6etween drought or inade=uate rainfall# and "est infestation. Sears of less rainfall are also characterised 61 "est infestation which affects the little left in the field. 3s climate challenge ada"tation efforts* farmers acce"t new farming techni=ues and soil and water conservation measures* "ractice water harvesting for small-scale irrigation* use of drought resistant cro"s* e;"ansion of agro-forestr1* vegeta6le gardening* off-farm activities* and small 6usinesses. 3ll households are not affected in the same wa1 at the same time9 those with no land or small andGor marginal lands* the elderl1* those with 6ig famil1 si7e* and women headed households e;haust their stoc< during the first 3-6 months after harvest. Arou"s asserted that the ma5orit1 of households struggle to co"e 6e1ond si; months during seasons of drought. ,he communit1Is overall co"ing ca"acit1 has decreased over the "ast man1 1ears. ,he main co"ing mechanisms include sales of animal assets* sales of trees* la6our wor< in towns and seasonal migration to areas of em"lo1ment -estern ,igra1* and -on5i#* resorting to use of enset as sole food -olaita# and eles in eastern ,igra1 a form of cactus fruit#. -hen ever1 other effort fails to "rovide the means* "eo"le resort to food aid andGor wild trees. @ivestoc< "la1 an im"ortant role in co"ing with climate change im"acts. >owever* the1 are also affected 61 the ma5or droughts. Damilies with large herds of animals and inade=uate "asture during the dr1 season ha1 is the "rinci"al sources of "asture* which in turn is de"endent on cro" "erformance# send their herds to the lowland areas. Hiseases "revalent in the low-land areas affect 6oth livestoc< and the accom"an1ing humans* which at times "rove to 6e fatal. +an1 1ears of e;"osure to drought effects com"elled communities in these areas to change some of their social 6ehaviours. (verall wasteful social functions such as holida1 cele6rations and feasts to remem6er the dead have reduced in num6er. Cefore 1&'4G'$* such festivities were man1 and length1* which consumed a significant "ortion of their food resources. ,he num6er of "eo"le invited for such festivities has also 6een reduced* limiting guests to onl1 close famil1 mem6ers* the clerg1 and neigh6ours. Ees"ondent grou"s also indicated the changes introduced in eating ha6its9 the t1"e of cereals used to "roduce en.era a 6ig flat 6read normall1 "roduced from indigenous cereal called ,eff %ragrostis teff##* and its thic<ness has decreased over the 1ears. Nowada1s* %n.era is "re"ared from a mi;ture of cereals such as mai7e* sorghum* and wheat 6ecause ,eff is more e;"ensive* less "roductive and la6our intensive com"ared to other cereals. >owever* farmers indicated that in times of good $F
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harvest* some of the old traditions still tend to recur. !rior to 1&'4G'$* with the e;ce"tion of short-term season la6our movements during harvest* few "eo"le moved awa1 from their "lace of 6irth on a "ermanent 6asis. ,hose forced to go to resettlement areas during the 1&'4G'$ cam"aign 61 the communist government* were the first to move en mass. ,he "rogram was ill-"lanned* forced and staged 61 the government* and thus was neither "o"ular nor successful. In recent 1ears* however* 1oungsters with no ade=uate land or other s<ills have started to leave their areas in search of em"lo1ment and 6etter life. Ees"ondents affirmed that the1 <now at least one famil1 whose children have resettled elsewhere in the countr1* as well as in neigh6ouring countries including the +iddle East and South 3frica. Ees"ondent grou"s in Wolaita indicated that the 1oung generation farmers =uic<l1 switch to off-farm activities rather than tr1ing new farming methods as the1 find farming ver1 la6orious. ,his ma1 rather suggest that the 1outh desires to discontinue the la6orious farming "ractices as a "rofession if other o"tions were availa6le. ,his could 6e an o""ortunit1 to reduce "ressure on land. Cut the 1outh who sta1 in the farming are =uic< to tr1 new technolog1 which affirms earlier findings 61 ,adesse and Cela1 2%%4#. -ith regards to the future* farmers in the res"ondent grou"s were ho"eful for the future due to the im"lementation of conservation activities* the regeneration of lost forests when closed and "ro"erl1 managed* increased "roductivit1 due to intensive farming using fertili7er com"lemented 61 increased food "rices* and the governmentIs focus on "overt1 eradication. >owever* the natural resource 6ase of their villages and the su""ort level from national and international governments are so minimal that climate change continues to "ose real threats to the most "oor in those ris<-"rone communities. *.2 Institutional support to drought#prone communities /national 0 International1 ,he international legal framewor< for climate change agenda emanates from the 2N Dramewor< for :limate :hange 2ND::#* the J1oto !rotocol and su6se=uent :onference of !arties :(!s#. Institutional su""ort to climate change-affected communities can var1 from enacting relevant "olic1 instruments to facilitate disaster ris< reduction* creating access to technolog1* material* financial and technical su""orts. In Ethio"ia* a "redominantl1 agrarian su6sistence econom1* "olicies related to "overt1 alleviation* natural resources management and environmental "rotection* and "romotion of alternative forms of livelihoods are relevant to climate change ada"tation. Ethio"iaIs lead government agenc1 for climate change is the Environmental !rotection 3uthorit1 E!3#* which is res"onsi6le for the coordination of national ada"tation and mitigation activities. ,hese findings cover institutional 6ases for climate change related mandates* the role of E!3 and current levels of su""ort s1stems from other governments* the international communit1 and the limitations thereof. (verall* the Ethio"ian "olic1 environment has 6een in su""ort of glo6al climate-related "olic1 instruments e;"ressed through ratification of ma5or 2N conventions and declarations. Ethio"ia* a signator1 to 2ND::: and its various instruments* attem"ted over the "ast 1ears to im"lement the "rovisions of the :(!s. In order to com"l1 with the conventions* Ethio"ia carried out a vulnera6ilit1 assessment 6ased on which "riorities were outlined. ,his was followed 61 "romulgations of various legislatives* glo6al declarations and conventions. ,he climate change ada"tation "rogram of action N3!3#* Ciodiversit1 :onservation 3ct DHEE* "roclamation T12%G1&'#* water resources management DHEE* "roclamation T1&FG2%%%#* environmental "ollution control DHEE* "roclamation T3%%G2%%2# the esta6lishment of the -ildlife :onservation and Hevelo"ment 3uthorit1 DHEE* "roclamation T$F$G2%%'#* the :onservation Strateg1 E!3* 1&&F#* the forest develo"ment* conservation and utili7ation "roclamation "roclamation T$42G2%%F#* and the recent :limate Eesilient Areen Econom1 :EAE# are among some of these instruments. ,he E!3* conducts reviews of com"liance and delivers re"orts on "rogress. ,his then calls for integration and s1nerg1 for effectiveness. >owever* with the we6 of institutions su""osed to 6e involved in the im"lementation* monitoring and regulation "rocesses* and the "resence of various legal and strategic "lans which in one wa1 or another concerns the same treaties* coordination cannot 6e an eas1 adventure. ,he lac< of a se"arate unit em"owered to follow u" the coordination of the efforts and the rather ad-hoc nature of the arrangement is 6ound to test the s1stems. Ethio"iaIs investments in agriculture and food securit1 endeavours were inade=uate "rior to 1&&1. Since 1&&1* however* some "rogress has 6een made in refocusing on the livelihoods of the ma5orit1 of the "eo"le. (ne such effort is the !overt1 Eeduction !lan* and the com"liance to the 2%%3 +a"uto declaration of the 3frican 2nion which resolved* among other things* to allocate at least 1%B of national 6udget for agriculture. Ethio"ia is among the few countries that a""ortioned more than 1%B of its 6udget to agriculture - a6out 1FB in 2%%$* and 1&B in 2%11 32G23 +a"uto declaration on agriculture and food securit1* 2%%30 :a"ital* ,uesda1 2 3"ril 2%13#. 3s "art of redressing "overt1 $'
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issues and reducing e;"osure to disasters* Ethio"ia im"lemented two "hases of "overt1 reduction "rogram and the third ones is on "rogress I+D* 2%11#. ,he first !overt1 Eeduction Strateg1 !a"er !ES!# of the countr1 was termed as Sustaina6le Hevelo"ment and !overt1 Eeduction !rogram SH!E!# which was im"lemented from 2%%2 to2%%$. ,he second !ES!* im"lemented from 2%%6 until 2%1% -was <nown as the !lan for 3ccelerated and Sustained Hevelo"ment to End !overt1 !3SHE!# and had more or less the same mandate. ,he third "overt1 reduction "rogram* was called the Arowth and ,ransformation !lan A,!# covers the "eriod 2%1% 4 2%1$. 2nder these "rograms* agriculture remained the ma5or focus and interventions have 6een recommended for drought-"rone and food insecure regions. ,he fact that Ethio"ia is one of the fastest growing economies in the world ,he Economist* 2%13# ma1 6e indicative that its agriculture is reviving* though sustaining such growth ma1 "rove challenging. @and tenure "olicies have 6een argua6l1 the most contested in "u6lic de6ates over the "ast two decades. ,he current government* almost immediatel1 after ta<ing "ower in 1&&1* issued a land "olic1 which maintained land as "u6lic "ro"ert1* 6ut li6erali7ed the use of it 61 allowing transfer to <in and renting of 6oth land and la6our. ,he right to rent K to transfer to <in* and the on-going rural land certification "rocess su""orted 61 state level legislations mar<edl1 differentiates the current "olic1 from the old though its effectiveness to create incentives is 1et to 6e studied. Hue to "resumed disincentives to invest in land - and the insecurit1 that it can created - significant redistri6utions have not ta<en "lace since the 1&&F "roclamation was issued. ,he few e;ce"tions include the redistri6ution in the 3mhara Eegional state which was carried out in 1&&6G&F. Such redistri6utions have since 6een discouraged. >owever* there are small forms of land redistri6utions still "racticed such as in the case of death of a land owner without eligi6le heirs* and where the land owner has 6een a6sent for more than two 1ears >aile et al* 2%%$#. ,he de6ate on land holding s1stem notwithstanding* a countr1-wide land use master "lan needs to 6e "ut in "lace 6ased on which future decision ma<ing will 6e made. @i<e land* water resources are "u6lic goods and "roclamation num6er 1&FG2%%% covers Lall water resources that e;ist in Ethio"ia.M ,his raises some concerns in that individuals and entities do not have incentives to use water efficientl1. -ith "ro5ected water scarcit1 due to climate change* some significant ga"s in the "olic1 such as lac< of "rovisions for water utili7ation modalities in times of stress needs to addressed. ,he conventional wa1 of dealing with scarcit1 is through understanding and discussions 6etween water users* 6ut such mechanisms need to 6e su""orted 61 acce"ta6le "rocedures as traditional use can stir conflict due to scarcit1. 3nother <e1 "olic1 issue concerns the management of communal lands and forest resources. Natural resources management in "ost-modern Ethio"ia relied on traditional management s1stems and communit1 level arrangements. It is* therefore* safe to sa1 that lac< of uniform natural resource management codes might have contri6uted to locali7ed discretionar1 use* which de"ended on locall1 "erceived needs. ,he current and su6se=uent governments live in a time where climate change and varia6ilit1 have 6ecome a "rime "reoccu"ation of humanit1. No dou6t* the government has the most daunting res"onsi6ilities of assuring 6etter livelihoods to their rural communities while at the same time safeguarding the environment. In this regard* three environmental "olic1 instruments have 6een enacted within a short "eriod of time namel1 the 1&&4 Dorestr1 @aw* the 1&&F Environmental !rotection !olic1* and the 2%%F Dorest Hevelo"ment* !rotection and 2tili7ation "olic1. >owever* clear im"lementation structures and s1stems lac< at grassroots level. ,he national Earl1 -arning S1stem E-S# was "ut in "lace in order to "rovide timel1 and accurate earl1 warning information to decision ma<ers* the international communit1 and the "u6lic. ,he National Earl1 -arning S1stem draws information from government and NA(s in their res"ective o"erational areas. Nonetheless* its efficac1 is largel1 measured 61 its contri6ution to deter disaster im"acts. ,o this end* res"ondents and e;"erts in the field have identified several challenges. !erha"s the single most im"ortant shortcoming in the E-S is the lac< of information management s1stems each agenc1 <ee"s res"ective data* 6ut there is no centrali7ed information des< that gathers* anal1ses and disseminates information#. (ther challenges include lac< of institutional ca"acit1 to anal1se the realities at district level* "oor infrastructure and communications s1stems for real-time information sharing and lac< of coordination of the various 6odies. ,he federal agencies com"lain a6out receiving inflated im"act figures from districts e;"ressed in the form of 6eneficiar1 num6ers# while the districts critici7e the regional and federal agencies on withholding im"ortant disaster information until it is too late. Hue to "olitical reasons or antici"ated negative im"lications on the general "u6lic such as food "rice hi<es* and "olitical o""osition#* the magnitude of a "otential disaster is not immediatel1 revealed to the media and the "u6lic. ,he inherent uncertainties of the science of forecasting in the field of meteorolog1 also contri6ute to lac< of confidence 4 erroneous forecasts of one season or 1ear ma1 lead to negligence 61 $&
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farmers to ta<e warnings seriousl1 in su6se=uent seasons. Drom the field visits made to the research areas* the economic and environmental dis"arities 6etween various districts were evident. Some communities have transformed themselves and their environments 6etter than others* even those located ad5acent to each other. It was o6served that strong and committed local leaders* who are themselves converts and activel1 "ractice what the1 "reach* made a difference to the whole communit1. ,he 6est e;am"le is the strength and determination of the chairman of A"reha Ats"eha localit1 in Eastern ,igra1 AG+ichael Aide1 or locall1 <nown as LA"a &a+iM 4 literall1 translated as Lfather of fire 4 ver1 active.M In less than five 1ears* A"a &a+i has converted almost the whole village to im"lementing environmental management "ractices. ,he1 have a6out 4%%% ha of closure areas "rotected and used 61 the communit1* and groundwater use for irrigation has increased due to water harvesting techni=ues develo"ed 61 the communit1. Druits once un<nown to the area are now availa6le for consum"tion and for the mar<et. In his own words* A"a &a+i descri6ed the situation as LI was a6le to imagine the o"tions availa6le for the communit1 4 to change the environment or leave the area* and I did not want to leave the area where I had 6uilt m1 life around.M 3s "art of the international su""ort* car6on trading is 6eing "romoted as a tool to "romote climate change mitigation car6on se=uestration# through Eeduction of Emissions from Heforestation and Hegradation EEHH#. -orld )ision Ethio"ia* a non-governmental organi7ation* in "artnershi" with 2NH! are im"lementing a EEHH "ro5ect in &umo area of Wolaita. 3s one of the first "ro5ect of its <ind in the countr1* it faced its own share of challenges. Some e;"erts close to this "ro5ect e;"ressed their concern on the whole a""roach of the car6on trading due to com"lications in the accounting "rocess com"utation of the amount of car6on se=uestrated#* the amount "aid "er ton of car6on se=uestrated* and the "rocess of getting funding for such "ro5ects. *.3 Adaptation speed -is#2#-is drought recurrence -ith regards to the timing of ada"tation* !aavola and 3dger 2%%2# identified three ada"tation res"onses9 "roactive* reactive and inaction "ost"oning res"onses#. ,he t1"es of ada"tive res"onses currentl1 6eing e;ercised at communit1 levels are "rimaril1 reactive andGor unsolicited inaction 6ecause of not <nowing what to do or lac< of o"tions#. ,hese <inds of res"onses are li<el1 to "rove neither timel1 nor efficient. >ow =uic<l1 farmers change their attitudes and 6ehaviours in res"onse to changing situations is another im"ortant as"ect of ada"tation which deserves further e;"loration. :hanges related to climate and the environment have occurred ra"idl1 and it is necessar1 to investigate the farmerIs a6ilit1 to catch-u" ada"tation s"eed#. Uuestions related to this matter were therefore "osed to the res"ondent grou"s* the res"onses of which are hereafter given. ,raditional communities define themselves 61 their culture* language* religion* and their overall worldview and actions are 6uilt around their traditions. It is therefore e;cessivel1 difficult to e;"ect fast changes in attitudes. Even if the realities had changed a long time ago* "eo"le still stic< to old ha6its. Ees"ondents* while recogni7ing an overall e;treme difficult1 to shift to new ideas and ha6its* recogni7ed that 6usiness as usual is not an1more an o"tion. :hea"er methods and technologies* es"eciall1 those the farmers can associate with "ast e;"eriences* or where ade=uate demonstration has 6een made* are acce"ted with relative ease. (f all the "ro6lems* the high cost of new technologies was mentioned as a ma5or o6stacle for ada"tation. In the research areas* communities are normall1 encouraged* at times coerced* to ado"t new technologies 6ut the "rice of introduction ma1 6e "rohi6itivel1 e;"ensive. In one localit1 $seada %m"a district#* informants cited an e;"ensive 6eehive im"orted from central Ethio"ia was offered for sale to farmers on credit. ,he1 did not understand wh1 such La "iece of woodM could not have 6een "roduced locall1* which might have lowered the "rice significantl1. It is evident that with "ro"er training and orientation* the unem"lo1ed 1oungsters could have manufactured the desired 6eehives which could have lowered the "rice for the 6eneficiaries and at the same time create 5o6s for the local 1outh. -hen as<ed what motivates farmers to ado"t new technologies* a""roaches or ideas* res"ondent grou"s une=uivocall1 affirmed that the success of fellow farmers in their localities* was the most im"ortant. ,he1 trust life changes of "eers com"ared to discourses of e;"erts* or even stories of success in far-off communities. !erha"s the most im"ortant factor that ham"ered the s"eed of ada"tation is fear of failure as "oor farmers do not want to ta<e too much of ris<#. ,he amount of financial return that farmers antici"ate determines the level of acce"tance of an1 new technolog1. +ore often than not* a few farmers dared to volunteer for a "ilot "ro5ect* after which - de"ending on whether or not success was shown - the ma5orit1 will follow. Dor e;am"le* the mem6ers of the coo"eratives for the natural regeneration "ro5ects in Wolaita* or the groundwater users at A"reha Ats"eha district in Eastern ,igra1 were few in num6er at conce"tion. 3fter a few 1ears of im"lementation and 6eing cogni7ant of the 6enefits thereof* man1 more 5oined these grou"s. ,hat is wh1 "ro"er research* demonstration and "iloting* 6ased on local 6%
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conte;ts are re=uired 6efore full scale im"lementation of initiatives. Even though overall countr1wide strategies ma1 6e necessar1 for guidance* no single a""roach will 6e a""ro"riate in a countr1 as culturall1 diverse and agro-economicall1 varia6le as Ethio"ia. *.* Ma.or challenges facing adaptation Ees"ondents in almost all grou"s agreed that the ma5or challenges for ada"tation are9 lac< of alternative livelihoods that emanate from overall "overt1* socio-cultural 6arriers* lac< of "ro"er and timel1 information* lac< of ade=uate sensiti7ation and demonstration* and fear of failure and the ris< that accom"anies it. ,he "oorest are more reluctant to tr1 new technologies* andGor a""roaches due to fear of failure. Drom the "olic1 anal1sis stand"oint* federal-level "olic1 formulation and "romulgation is "ro6a6l1 not the ma5or 6ottlenec< as* 61 and large* relevant international "olic1 instruments have 6een enacted. >owever* climate change can 6e a difficult issue for national governments to tac<le as it involves multi"le actors 6oth within a countr1 and internationall1 6ecause it calls for the involvement of all sectors and ministries* while considering "rivate* "u6lic andGor international sta<eholder interests Schi""er* 2%%Fa#. Some of the challenges include9 3nal1sis of government "olicies indicates that lac< of organi7ational sta6ilit1 within the res"onsi6le government faculties is one issue of concern. -hile the 6od1 res"onsi6le for climate change* the Environmental !rotection 3uthorit1 E!3#* remained an inde"endent authorit1 at federal level* the regional 6ureaus of environmental "rotection have 6een "laced under numerous authorities9 originall1 it fell under the Cureau of 3griculture0 then it 6ecame a regional E!3 6ureau0 it was then "ut under the +inistr1 of 3griculture0 6ut recentl1 merged with @and 3dministration. Since Jul1 2%13* the E!3Is mandate has e;tended and grown to 6ecome the +inistr1 of Dorest and Environment !rotection +oDE!#. -hether or not the grassroots level arrangement will change to reflect the federal-level change is not 1et clear. ,his has discouraged "rofessionals in the regional states* ma<ing them feel unneeded and second-rate com"ared to their colleagues in other disci"lines. ,he tas< is huge* touching almost ever1 ma5or disci"line and re=uiring e;ce"tional coordination mechanisms. ,he lac< of continuit1 and the continuous re"ositioning to different im"lementing offices ma1 6e "erceived as a disregard 61 the government of a glo6all1 im"ortant issue. ,he governing 6od1 of disaster management has also undergone a series of changes. ,he first 6od1 of this t1"e* the Eelief and Eeha6ilitation :ommission EE:#* was esta6lished in 1&F$ following the 1&F3GF4 famine. In 1&&$* it was re"laced 61 the Hisaster !revention and !re"aredness :ommission H!!:# with a shift in its mandate to include "revention and "re"aredness* as its name im"lies* 6ut was largel1 "reoccu"ied with disaster res"onse measures* es"eciall1 during ma5or drought seasons. ,he H!!: emerged as a result of the new governmentIs National !olic1 on Hisaster !revention and +anagement N!H!+# issued in 1&&3. H!!: was renamed as H!!3 3uthorit1 instead of :ommission#* and now falls under the +inistr1 of 3griculture. Since its esta6lishment* the H!!: acted as a coordinating 6od1 for disaster management es"eciall1 emergenc1 relief and reha6ilitation activities in the countr1. 3s a countr1 e;"osed to "otential manmade and natural disasters* Ethio"ia needs to have a sound and sta6le institution that can coordinate not onl1 res"onse to disasters* 6ut also to organi7e disaster "revention and mitigation "rograms. -ith the "otential threats of climate change and varia6ilit1* such a strong institution e=ui""ed with technical ca"acit1 6ased on lessons learned from the countr1Is "ast histor1* is indis"ensa6le. -hile the efforts made 61 the government in terms of "olic1 su""ort are a""recia6le* in some areas* communities witnessed to"-down* and =uota-6ased a""roaches that resulted in lac< of ownershi" and even resentment towards such new initiatives. ,his has created a dee"-rooted lac< of trust in introducing new technologies and s1stems. ,hat is wh1* while farmerIs "erce"tion of the climate ris<s are ade=uate* commensurate action 61 farmers to em6race new initiatives designed to strengthen co"ing mechanisms seems to 6e 6elow e;"ectations. Even worse* failed initiatives are not well documented and reasons for failure not de6ated* which in turn leads to lac< of faith in new ones. Coth failures and successes need to 6e "ro"erl1 documented for future access. Ees"ondents in man1 villages showed hesitation 6ecause of failed initiatives that were introduced without "ro"er stud1* demonstration and "iloting. Success will continue to suffer if the im"lementing entities are not involved and if lessons learned do not inform future initiatives and "ro5ects. (ne of the challenges that the res"ondent grou"s raised time and again was the ga" 6etween awareness creation and action. ,he e;"ert grou"s as well as the farmer grou"s agreed that a considera6le amount of time la"ses 6etween awareness creation "rograms and their im"lementations. (ften* it ta<es a num6er of demonstrations on willing farmerIs lands 6efore new technologies* in"uts* or services are acce"ted 61 farmers. Information from focus grou"s as well as o6servation in most of the drought-"rone highlands revealed geogra"h1 as one of the challenges. -hile a reasona6le num6er of water sources are availa6le from 61
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surface and groundwater sources* the rugged to"ogra"h1 ma<es irrigation almost im"ossi6le* or e;cessivel1 costl1* there61 rendering them 6e1ond the reach of the "oor communities. 3s "art of environmental reha6ilitation and reforestation* countless trees have 6een "lanted in the research areas. ,he a""roaches widel1 "racticed in the countr1 have 6een through tree "lantation* mainl1 involving e;otic trees* 6ut also indigenous s"ecies. (ver the "ast fort1 1ears* millions* and "ro6a6l1 6illions of trees must have 6een "lanted in communal and "rivate lands. >owever* there is little evidence to 5ustif1 the costs e;"ended in cash and in la6our* and the continuation of such enter"rise. Economicall1 im"ortant trees such as eucal1"tus "lanted around homesteads and "rivate woodlots remain to 6e the most successful. (n the other hand* enclosures "rotected from animal and human interferences have regenerated fast* cost less* and are sustaina6le as the tree s"ecies have* over man1 1ears* ada"ted to each uni=ue environment. In degraded areas with limited annual "reci"itation* investment should favour those "ractices that have "roved effective such as natural regeneration than tree "lanting that has "roved less successful. Ees"ondents also raised the issue of timeliness as an im"ortant element that can facilitate or hinder ada"tation "rocesses. 3gricultural in"uts for e;am"le miss the critical "lanting time as the1 sometimes arrive too late. In drought-"rone areas* missing an im"ortant "lanting date can 6e detrimental to cro" "roductivit1. 3""arentl1* farmers wait for the right time 6efore or after an im"ortant rain1 da1# for "lanting. (ne of the authors was a6le to witness what differences such timings can ma<e on cro" standing differences in lands la1ing side 61 side. (ne da1 late can 6e too late. In such a circumstance* desired in"uts should 6e availa6le on time so that farmers use them when the1 are re=uired. Even though lac< of financial ca"ital is one of the 6ottlenec<s for alternative sources of income* for which micro-credit is the solution* the authors found most of the communities in Eastern ,igra1 were war1 of micro-credit. Ees"ondents thought that microcredit had made so man1 farmers inde6ted due to drought. ,he1 ta<e loans from the micro-credit institutions* 6ut farmers in ,igra1 e;"ressed their reservations in widel1 using these services. 3 government hand is seen as intimidating due to affiliation of the micro-finance institutions with the regional states. If una6le to re"a1* mainl1 due to drought or other e;ternal factors* government agents force users to either sell their availa6le assets and re"a1 or go to "rison. >igh interest rates were another reason res"ondents indicated as to wh1 the1 cannot re"a1 on time DI:* 2%1%#. ,his seems to scare awa1 others from getting the loan services. ,his can 6e a serious im"ediment if a solution is not sought* as little can 6e done without access to ca"ital. ,he issue of Lde"endenc1 s1ndromeM came u" on several occasions during the field visit* es"eciall1 61 the e;"ert grou"s. 3s a result* it was necessar1 to e;"lore what was meant 61 de"endenc1 and what the res"ondents noticed among the farming communit1 to 5ustif1 the use of the word. Even though there was no consensus 61 all res"ondent grou"s on man1 as"ects of the conce"t* the1 suggested that farmers often desire to o"t for the easiest wa1 of survival when drought hits their areas demanding the local administration for food aid or for other forms of free assistance#. In good seasons* however* res"ondents did not witness reluctance from the farmerIs side to "re"are land* to cultivate or harvest* neither has the communit1 6een o6served to rel1 com"letel1 on relief aid. >owever minimal the im"act ma1 seem* this ma<es ada"tation o"tions less attractive to communities. In mi;ed farming conte;ts* the choice of which cro" to 6e farmed is not onl1 6ased on food "references and grain "roductivit1 rates* 6ut also on the suita6ilit1 of the cro" residues for animal feed* energ1 source* and soil fertilit1 contri6utions 3mede and Helve* 2%%6#. ,his com"licates the "rocess of cro" selection since the most "roductive cro"s ma1 not necessaril1 6e the ones with the most "otential use for animal feed and energ1 sources. Darm households are often caught u" in this dilemma. Darmers in some villages for e;am"le $saeda %m"a district# indicated that some varieties of 6arle1 and wheat are no longer 6eing "lanted in the area due to defaulting to short maturing varieties#* thus affecting genetic diversit1. (f course ada"ting to changing climate calls for em6racing new drought resistant varieties* this in turn ma1 lead to changes of food ha6its and other cultural modifications. >owever* im"lications of loss of 6iodiversit1 need to 6e studied with long-term and 6roader a""lications in mind. S1stematic studies and documentations lac< in almost all ministries including the agricultural research institutions. -hen as<ed if the1 have s1stematic data a6out im"ortant inventories or indicative trends towards achieving goals* almost all line ministries asserted lac< of them. Such institutions are "ac<ed with o"erational activities leaving little or no room for long-term investment in research and documentation of lessons learned. +eaningful ada"tation costs mone1 and calls for the latest technologies. It is estimated that develo"ing countries will re=uire 6illions of dollars to im"lement ada"tation measures to reduce vulnera6ilit1 to climate change. ,hough the "ro5ected annual re=uirements for ada"tation 61 2%3% is V3% to V1%% 6illion 62
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-HE* 2%1%#* current levels of financing fall far short of estimated needs with total climate finance for develo"ing countries estimated at V1% 6illion "er 1ear. 3t countr1 level* ada"tation funding is so minimal e;ce"t for a handful EEHH "ro5ects im"lemented through 2NH!. !re"aration of EEHH readiness "ro"osal has started in 2%1% and the 6udget assigned until 2%14 is less than 2SV1$ million DHEE* 2%11#. Cesides* even though EEHH aims to use the :limate Eesilient Areen Econom1 strateg1 to channel future funding* how such funds will 6e directed to those in need* whether or not this will 6e additional funding* and the funding "rocess itself is not 1et <nown. (n the other hand the climate im"acts cannot wait for the 6ureaucrac1 to ta<e its natural course. ( Conclusions and !ecommendations ,he stud1 highlighted man1 facts9 communit1 awareness on climate change effects* the "rogress made 61 the government to mainstream climate change issues in the overall develo"ment "lanning and the ga"s thereof0 the im"ortance of leadershi" at all levels es"eciall1 at communit1 level#0 communit1 ca"acit1 to co"e with the ra"idl1 changing climatic situations ada"tive ca"acit1#0 and the overall o""ortunities and challenges of ada"tation. Some recommendations have 6een identified under some im"ortant themes9 Awareness9 communities in disaster-"rone areas have ade=uate <nowledge a6out the ris<s involved* what the1 are e;"ected to do to survive the recurrent threats* and the nature of e;"ected su""ort from government institutions. >owever* there is a ga" 6etween cognition and action commensurate to climate change im"acts. ,wo =uestions ma1 6e raised here9 were the awareness creation activities ade=uate* s1stematic* and "rogressive which involved all social institutions0 and were the awareness creation schemes effective to the e;tent that the1 aimed at change of attitudes and actions? -hatever the answer to these =uestions ma1 6e* it is evident that more needs to 6e done. 3wareness creation can 6e a long "rocess* es"eciall1 when "eo"le have witnessed failures from ill-studied former "ro5ects* or if some have 6ecome inde6ted due to resorting to new technolog1 that failed to deliver "romised 6enefits. (ne cannot overem"hasi7e the need for careful selection* stud1 and demonstration of new technologies 6efore the1 can 6e introduced as ada"tation instruments. 3 series of failures can in the end lead to lac< of trust 61 farmers and resistance to change. )i#ersity of li#elihood choices9 recommended alternative livelihood activities such as off-farm activities which are themselves de"endent on rainfall could not serve their "ur"oses. 3ctivities such as 6ee<ee"ing* livestoc< fattening* and vegeta6le growing fail to su""ort communities during drought 1ears as the1 themselves are significantl1 affected 61 the lac< or shortage of rainfall 36e6e K !us<ar* 2%11#. Dor e;am"le* hone1 "roduction decreased 61 a6out 4%B in drought 1ears in the eastern "art of ,igra1 communication with the ,igra1 Cureau of 3griculture#. Docusing on 6oosting agriculture "roductivit1 and intensification alone does not necessaril1 guarantee farmers a 6etter life if such endeavours still de"end on rainfall. >ence* ada"tation o"tions need to 6e real alternatives which are less affected 61 the same disaster ris<s. In addition* increased investment in research and technolog1 to identif1 new "roductive means* and financing irrigation schemes can have lasting ada"tive im"acts. ,hough initiall1 e;"ensive* such schemes have the ca"acit1 to cur6 the c1clical drought "atterns. Ethio"iaIs histor1 has 6een defined mainl1 61 socio-economic and "olitical activities that ta<e "lace in the highland areas for e;am"le densel1 "o"ulated* ma5orit1 of farmlands* "olitical "ower#. Aiven the current challenges faced in the highlands* e;"loring wa1s to ta" into the resources of the vast uncultivated lowlands is inevita6le. Incentivising voluntar1 resettlement ma1 6e a good o"tion to ease the "ressure on the highland areas. Darmers in res"ondent grou"s did not seem to favour resettlement* mainl1 due to the stereot1"e develo"ed su6se=uent to the forced resettlement "rogram of the 1&'4G'$* 6ut also on cultural grounds. Nonetheless* more needs to 6e done to encourage 1oung families in the highland areas to resettle in the s"arsel1 "o"ulated lowlands. Carbon se*uestration programs9 EEHH* when im"lemented need to 6e underta<en in line with an overall countr1-wide master "lan 6ased on which small-scale reforestation "ro5ects can 6e im"lemented. Eandom EEHH "ro5ects ma1 give wa1 to Llea<ages transferring of deforestation to other non-EEHH areas#.M 3s such* the "rime o65ective of EEHH 6eing car6on se=uestration and the funding source e;ternal* it ma1 also fail to "rioriti7e "rinci"al dividends to local communities. (ther challenges include according to "ersonal communication with the car6on "ro5ect staff# difficulties in 6aseline esta6lishment* monitoring and verifications* and the com"licated s1stems em"lo1ed 61 the car6on 6u1er in this case the -orld Can<# to account for the car6on ca"ital WharvestedI from such "ro5ects. If the com"ensation of EEHH "ro5ect is not commensurate to the efforts "ut together to manage such "ro5ects* communities can easil1 6e discouraged from "ursuing these o65ectives. +ocal leadership9 visionar1 and ins"iring local leadershi" that is committed to 6ring changes in their communities are vital. :ommunities with such t1"es of leaders have "erformed much 6etter than those who lac< them. ,ew technology-approach9 the t1"es of new technologies introduced need to 6e a""ro"riate* and timel1. :ost im"lications* whether or not such introduction followed demonstrations using fast ada"ters has significant 6earing on the ada"tation rate and s"eed.
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Coordination of go#ernment efforts: "oor communities and countries fighting climate change im"acts re=uire integrated a""roaches where various institutions of the government wor< in a well-coordinated and s1nergi7ed fashion to ma<e 6est use of the meagre resources at their dis"osal0 as well as manage su""ort from international institutions. 3da"tation needs "ro"er inter"la1 of structural* financial* s1stemic and technical ca"acities at all levels. ,he various "olicies related to climate change are im"lemented 61 various government faculties and a coordinating 6od1* instead of ad-hoc arrangements can reduce confusion* save resources* and encourages donors. )isaster ris. management9 a significant "art of the two communities have de"ended on aid since the 1&'4G'$ famine* which according to some had eroded self-confidence. Ethio"ia relied on e;ternal relief aid for far too long. It is time the countr1 designs a sustaina6le disaster management fund. ,he government ma1 need to ado"t a different a""roach to disaster management* such as the following9 o ,he government raises emergenc1 funds from the "u6lic and "rivate sector* not onl1 in times of crisis* 6ut as a continuous "rocess so that the countr1 can have ade=uate internal ca"acit1 to res"ond without e;ternal assistance. Such funds ma1 6e used for HEE andGor reinvested in financial institutions in good times so that the fund does not sit idle* there61 losing its value over the 1ears. ,his ma1 re=uire some "olic1 su""ort to introduce an additional ta; structure sa1 1-2B# designated solel1 for this "ur"ose. o In times of drought disasters* the government* instead of food aid* facilitates "rovision of cash loans to those affected so that the1 can "urchase what the1 need. ,he government uses emergenc1 funds for loan guarantees so that farmers can ta<e the re=uired loans from local microfinance institutions andGor local formal 6an<s. ,his "resumes eas1 access to mar<ets and availa6ilit1 of ade=uate infrastructure and s1stems in the affected areas in order to "revent local "rice hi<es. It also re=uires a cultural change from the farmersI side to ta<e res"onsi6ilities into their own hands instead of holding the government hostage in times of crisis. o -hile the safet1 net "rogram can serve tem"oraril1* the countr1 needs a social securit1 fund "ension# s1stem that covers all citi7ens. ,his ma1 seem easier said than done* 6ecause it entails several action items that need to 6e ta<en to include all ca"a6le citi7ens in the ta; "a1er list. >owever* other o"tions will "er"etuate de"endenc1 on e;ternal assistance* which the countr1 needs to avoid if it desires to attain self-sufficienc1 and to regain "olitical inde"endence. International support9 climate change interacts with climate varia6ilit1 and non-climatic stresses. ,hus* ada"tation methods* and technologies need to address the com6ined im"acts of ris<s. :limate change is glo6al and it re=uires glo6al action. 2nfortunatel1* international su""ort to com6at climate change is minimal. -ithout such su""ort* "oor communities do not have variet1 of menus to switch to in case one fails to deliver the desired result. ,heir lives are ver1 much attached to natural resources and the t1"es of activities the1 are accustomed to are ver1 limited. Dor local governments* due to limited 6udget* the "ressure on meeting current demands outweighs long-term environmental and develo"ment gains. ,his in turn hinders long-term investment* thus entangling such countries in a vicious circle. Dor these reasons* "oor countries need to o6tain su""ort from relevant international organs to address climate change issues that are 6e1ond their ca"acit1. ,his does not onl1 refer to the launching of swift glo6al mitigative measures to restore Wnormalc1I of the climate d1namics* 6ut also the financial* technical and technological transfers so that "oor countries can deal with the immediate and future challenges. >owever* the current level of glo6al ada"tation funding for develo"ing countries is 6elow even conservative estimates Ca"na K +cAra1* 2%%'#. If federal governmentIs ada"tation ca"acities are wea< due to "overt1* lac< of ca"ital* technolog1* and e;"ertise* the communit1 level ada"tation suffers li<ewise. Needless to sa1* climate change im"acts are of glo6al concern* and glo6al challenges call for glo6al action. Ac.nowledgement -e would li<e to than< -orld )ision Ethio"ia and the staff in +e<elle and >awassa who facilitated the grou" meetings* and meetings with the local government authorities. (ur s"ecial than<s goes to >GSelassie Hesta* and Seshinegus 3damseged who facilitated the field tri"s0 3ssefa ,ufu for "roviding im"ortant information* and Cerhanu +e<onnen who su""orted in "re"aring the location ma". (ur s"ecial than<s also goes to the grou" mem6ers and e;"erts who devoted their time during the discussion da1s. !eferences 36e6e -.* and !us<ar E. 2%11. LCee Jee"ing su6sector :hallenges and :onstraints in 3ts6i--om6erta district of Eastern Qone* ,igra1 Eegion* Ethio"ia.M Journal of 3griculture E;tension F Eural Hevelo"ment. )ol. 3 1# !" '-12# 32G23* +a"uto Heclaration on 3griculture and Dood Securit1. 2%%3. LHeclaration on 3griculture and Dood Securit1 in 3frica.M 3ssem6l1 G32GHecl. F II#. 3dger* -. N* and )incent J. 2%%$. L2ncertaint1 in 3da"tive :a"acit1.M :. E. Aeosciences 33F* Elsevier. !". 3&&-41%
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3hmed S. 3* Hiffen6augh N.S. and ->ertel ,. 2%%&. L:limate volatilit1 dee"ens "overt1 vulnera6ilit1 in develo"ing countries.M Environmental Eesearch @etters* !1-'. Ca"na +.* and +cAgra1 >. 2%%'. LDinancing 3da"tation9 (""ortunities for Innovation and E;"erimentation.M -orld Eesources Institute conference "a"er#. !". 1-16. Cehera* S. J.* Jrishnan E* and Samagata* ,. 1&&&. L2nusual ocean-atmos"here conditions in the tro"ical Indian (cean during 1&&4.M Aeo"h1s. Ees. @ett.* 26* 3%%143%%4. Censon :. and :la1 E. 1&&'. L,he Im"act of Hrought on Su6-Saharan 3frican Economies9 3 "reliminar1 E;amination.M -orld Can< ,echnical !a"er No. 4%1. ,he -orld Can<. -ashington H:. !" 1-12. Cir<ett* :.* E. +urtugudde* and E. 3llan* 1&&&. LIndian (cean climate event 6rings floods to East 3fricaIs la<es and the Sudd +arsh.M Aeo"h1s. Ees. @ett.* 26* 1%3141%34. Curton* I.* Hiringer* E.* and Smith* J. 2%%6. L3da"tation to :limate :hange9 International !olic1 ("tions.M !ew :entre on Alo6al :limate :hange. 3rlington* 2S3. !". 1-2'. :am6erlin !. 1&&F. LEainfall 3nomalies in the Source Eegion of the Nile and ,heir :onnection with the Indian +onsoon.M 3merican +eteorological Societ1. )ol. 1%. !". 13'%-13&2. :am"6ell H. 1&&4. . L,he Hr1 Eegions of Jen1aM in Hrought Dollows the !lough9 :ultivating +arginal 3reas Edited 61 Alant7* +.>.#. :am6ridge 2niversit1 !ress* !". FF 4 '&. :aravani* J. K 3. 2%13. Dinancing HEE9 L3 2% 1ear stor1 of International 3id* Alo6al Dacilit1 for Hisaster Eis< Eeduction.M (verseas Hevelo"ment Institute (HI#* 2<* !". 1-6%. :lements* E. 2%%&. L,he Economic :ost of :limate :hange in 3frica.M !an-3frican :limate Justice 3lliance* !. 1-2$. :limate Dinance 2"date :D2#. 2%13. L:limate Dinance ,hematic Criefing9 3da"tation Dinance.M :limate Dinance Dundamentals* 3* (HI. :onwa1 and Schi""er* 2%11. L3da"tation to climate change in 3frica9 :hallenges and o""ortunities identified from Ethio"ia.M Alo6al Environmental :hange 21* !". 22F423F :onwa1* H.* Schi""er @.* Sesuf* +.* Jassie +.* !ersechino 3.* and Je6ede* C. 2%%F. LEeducing vulnera6ilit1 in Ethio"ia9 addressing the issues of climate change9 Integration of results from !hase I.M Norwich9 (verseas Hevelo"ment Arou"* 2niversit1 of East 3nglia. Heressa* ,.* >assan* Eingler*E.* 3lemu ,* Sesuf* +.. 2%%&. LHeterminants of farmersI choice of ada"tation methods to climate change in the Nile Casin of Ethio"ia.M Alo6al Environmental :hange 1& 2%%&# 24'42$$. Heressa* ,.* >assan* E.* Eingler* :. 2%%'. L+easuring Ethio"ian DarmersI )ulnera6ilit1 to :limate :hange 3cross Eegional States.M ID!EI Hiscussion !a"er %%'%6* Environment and !roduction ,echnolog1 Hivision. !" 1-32. Hisaster !revention and !re"aredness 3genc1 H!!3#. 2%%3. LDood Su""l1 !ros"ect in 2%%39 Earl1 -arning S1stem Ee"ort.M H!!3* 3ddis 36a6a* Ethio"ia. !". 1-6. ,he Economist. 2%13. L3fricaIs >o"eful Economies.M ,he Economist* +arch 12* 2%13. Dederal Hemocratic Ee"u6lic of Ethio"ia DHEE#. 2%11. LDorest :ar6on !artnershi" Dacilit1 D:!D#9 Eeadiness !re"aration !ro"osla E-!!#. DHEE* 1-2$. E!3 Environmental !rotection 3uthorit1#. 1&&F. L:onservation Strateg1 of Ethio"ia.M E!3* 3ddis 36a6a. Deinstein International :enter. 2%1%. LInstitutional 3ssessment Ee"ort9 ,saeda 3m6a -oreda* Eastern ,igra1* Ethio"ia.M Eesearch !rogram on @ivelihood :hange (ver ,ime. !". 1-31. Dun< :* Hettinger +.H.* +ichaelsen J.:.* )erdin J.!.* Crown +.E.* Carlow +.* and >oell 3. 2%%F. L-arming of the Indian (cean threatens eastern and southern 3frican food securit1 6ut could 6e mitigated 61 agricultural develo"ment.M ,he National 3cadem1 of Sciences of the 2S3. )ol. 1%$* No. 32* !".11%'1 4 11%'6. Alant7 +. >* Cetsill +.* and :randall* <. 1&&F. LDood Securit1 in Southern 3frica9 3ssessing the 2se and )alue of ENS( Information.M National :entre for 3tmos"heric Eesearch 4 Environment and Societal Im"act Arou"* !". 1-'. Alant7* +. >. 1&&4. L,he -est 3frican SahelM in Hrought Dollows the !lough9 :ultivating +arginal 3reas Edited 61 Alant7* +.>.#. :am6ridge 2niversit1 !ress* !". 31 4 $F. >ail* +* -itten -* 36raha J* Dissha S* Je6ede 3* Jassa A* and Eeda A. 2%%$. L@and Eegistration in ,igra1* Northern Ethio"ia.M Eesearch Ee"ort 29 Securing @and Eights in 3frica. iied. Eussell !ress* 2J. >assan* E. 2%%6. L,he Hou6le :hallenge of 3da"ting to :limate :hange -ile 3ccelerating Hevelo"ment in SS3.M :entre for Environmental Economics and !olic1 in 3frica :ED!3#* 2niversit1 of !retoria* !.1-2$. >astenrath* S. 2%%F. L:irculation mechanisms of climate anomalies in East 3frica and the e=uatorial Indian (cean.M H1n. 3tmos. (ceans* 43* 2$43$. IDE:. 2%%6. L-orld Hisasters Ee"ort9 focus on neglected crisis.M ,he International Dederation of Eed :ross and Eed :rescent societies. !" 21'-21&. International +onetar1 Dund I+D#. 2%11. L,he Dederal Hemocratic Ee"u6lic of Ethio"ia9 !overt1 Eeduction Strateg1 !a"er 4 Arowth and ,ransformation !lan 2%1%G2%11 4 2%14G2%1$. )ol. 1. !".11&.
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International Institute of Eural Eeconstruction IIEE# and Save the :hildren 2S3. 2%%F. L@eaving Hisasters Cehind9 3 guide to disaster ris< reduction in Ethio"ia.M IIEE Nairo6i K Save the :hildren 3ddis 36a6a. !". 2'2. Intergovernmental !anel for :limate :hange I!::#. 2%13. LSummar1 for !olic1 +a<ers9 In9 -or<ing Arou" I :ontri6ution to the I!:: Difth 3ssessment Ee"ort - :limate :hange 2%139 ,he !h1sical Science Casis.M I!:: -AI 3!E$* S!+-2. Intergovernmental !anel for :limate :hange I!::#. 2%12. LSummar1 for !olic1ma<ers. In9 +anaging the Eis<s of E;treme Events and Hisasters to 3dvance :limate :hange 3da"tation XDield* :.C.* ). Carros* ,.D. Stoc<er* H. Uin* H.J. Ho<<en* J.@. E6i* +.H. +astrandrea* J.J. +ach* A.-J. !lattner* S.J. 3llen* +. ,ignor* and !.+. +idgle1 eds.#Y. 3 S"ecial Ee"ort of -or<ing Arou"s I and II of the Intergovernmental !anel on :limate :hange. :am6ridge 2niversit1 !ress* :am6ridge* 2J* and New Sor<* NS* 2S3* "". 1-1&. Intergovernmental !anel for :limate :hange I!::#. 2%%Fa. LSummar1 to for !olic1 +a<ers. In :limate :hange 2%%F9 ,he !h1sical Science Casis.M :ontri6ution of the -or<ing Arou" I to the Dourth 3ssessment Ee"ort of the Intergovernmental !anel on :limate :hange XSolomon S.H.* Uin* +. +anning* Q. :hen* + +ar=uis* J.C. 3ver1t* +. ,ignor and >.@. +iller eds#Y. :am6ridge 2niversit1 !ress* :am6ridge 2J and New Sor<* 2S3. !". 2-1F. I!::. 2%%F6. LSummar1 for !olic1 +a<ers. In :limate :hange 2%%F9 Im"acts* 3da"tation and )ulnera6ilit1M9 :ontri6ution of -or<ing Arou" II to the Dourth 3ssessment Ee"ort of the I!::* +.@ !arr1* (.D. :an7iani* J.!. !aluti<of* !.J. )an der @inden and :.E. >anson* Eds.9 :am6ridge 2niversit1 !ress* :am6ridge* 2J* 4 !". 2-22. Jinfe* >. 1&&&. ZIm"act of climate change on the water resources of 3wash Eiver Casin* Ethio"ia*Z :limate Eesearch* )ol. 12* "". &1-&6 +agad7a :.>.H. 2%%%. L:limate :hange Im"acts and >uman Settlement in 3frica9 !ros"ects for 3da"tation.M Environmnetal +onitoring and 3ssessment 61#* 1&3%2%$. Jluwer 3cademic !u6lishers* Netherlands. 1&3-2%$. +e7e->aus<en* E. 2%%4. L:ontrasting :limate )aria6ilit1 and +eteorological Hrought with !erceived Hrought and :limate :hange in Northern Ethio"ia.M :limate Eesearch. )ol. 2F9!". 1&-31. +engistu H. 2%11. LDarmersI "erce"tion and <nowledge of climate change and their co"ing strategies to the related ha7ardsM - :ase stud1 from 3diha* central ,igra1* J. 3gric. Sci.* )ol.2* No.2* !"13'-14$. National +eteorological Services 3genc1 N+S3#. 1&&6. L3ssessment of Hrought In Ethio"ia.M N+S3. 3ddis 36a6a. !". 2-6&. (ates N* :onwa1 H* and :alow E. 2%11. L,he WmainstreamingI a""roach to climate change ada"tation9 insights from Ethio"iaIs water sector.M Cac<ground Note* (HI* !". 1-'. ISSN 1F$6-F61%. !aavola J* and 3dger -. N. 2%%2. LJustice and 3da"tation to :limate :hange*M -or<ing !a"er 23* ,1ndall :entre for :limate :hange. !". 1-1&. Schi""er @.E.D. 2%%Fa L!3SHE! screening9 assessing the entr1 "oints for integrating climate change into Ethio"iaIs develo"mentM in :onwa1* H.* Schi""er* @.* Sesuf* +.* Jassie* +.* !ersechino* 3.* Je6ede* C. eds#* Eeducing vulnera6ilit1 in Ethio"ia9 addressing the issues of climate change9 Integration of results from !hase I. Norwich9 (verseas Hevelo"ment Arou"* 2niversit1 of East 3nglia. Simms 3* and Eeid >. 2%%$. L3frica 4 2" in Smo<e?M ,he Second Ee"ort from the -or<ing Arou" on :limate :hange and Hevelo"ment* New Economic Doundation* @ondon on line9 htt"9GGwww.iied.orgGclimate.changeG"u6s.htmlTauis#. Smith J.C.* Jlein E.* and >u= S .2%%3. L:limate :hange* 3da"tive :a"acit1 and Hevelo"ment.M Im"erial :ollege !ress* @ondon. S"erling H.* and :annon* J.S. 2%%F. LHriving :limate :hange9 :utting :ar6on from ,rans"ortation.M Elsevier Inc. !". 1-$. ,afere* +. 2%11. L,he Environmental and Socio-economic Im"acts of Hrought Hisasters* !erce"tions and 3da"tation in Ethio"ia.M !hH ,hesis* 2niversit1 of South 3frica 2NIS3#* South 3frica. ,esso A.* Emana C.* and Jetema +. 2%12. LEconometric anal1sis of local level "erce"tion* ada"tation and co"ing strategies to climate change induced shoc<s in North Shewa* Ethio"ia.M International Eesearch Journal of 3gricultural Science and Soil Science* )ol. 2 '# !". 34F-363. ,hom"son >.E.* Cerrang-Dord @. and Dord J.H. 2%1%. L:limate :hange and Dood Securit1 in Su6-Saharan 3frica9M 3 S1stematic @iterature Eeview. Sustaina"ilit( 2%1%* 2* 2F1&-2F33. ,adesse +* Cela1 J. 2%%4. LDactors influencing ado"tion of soil conservation measures in south Ethio"ia9 ,he case of Aununo area.M J. 3gric. Eural Hev. ,ro". Su6tro".* 1%$ 1#9 4&-62 ,ol* E.S.J. 2%%F. L,he ,rade-off 6etween 3da"tation and +itigation for Sea @evel Eise9 3n 3""lication of D2NH.M S"ringer Science and Cusiness +edia* C. ). !".F41-F$3. )iste E.* Jorecha H* and Sorte6erg* 3. 2%12. LEecent Hrought !reci"itation ,rends in Ethio"ia.M ,heoretical and 3""lied :limatolog1* S"ringer-)erlag. (di9 1%.1%%FGs%%F%4-%12-%F46-3. 2ND:::* :(! 13. 2%%'. LEe"ort of the :onference of the !arties on its thirteenth session* held in Cali from 3
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to 1$ Hecem6er 2%%F* 3ddendum "art two9 3ction ta<en 61 the :onference of the !arties at its thirteenth session. -oldeamla< C.* Hawit 3. 2%11. LDarmersI !erce"tion of :limate change and Its 3gricultural Im"act in the 36a1 and Caro-3<o6o Eiver Casin.M Ethio". J. Hev. Ees. )ol 33* No 1* 3ddis 36a6a* Ethio"ia. -are* +.-.* Eavelo* 3. :.* and Helan1 +.@. 2%%$. L!ermanent El Nino-li<e :onditions Huring the !liocene -arm !eriod.M Scinece 3%&#* !F$'-F61. -e66 !. and Craun J. 1&&4. LDamine and Dood Securit1 in Ethio"ia9 lessons for 3frica.M John -ill1 and Sons. New Sor<. !". 1%-$6. -orld Can< .2%%6. LEthio"ia9 managing water resources to ma;imise sustaina6le growth9 a -orld Can< water resources assistance strateg1 for Ethio"ia.M -ashington* H:9 -orld Can< www.world6an<.org# -orld Can<. 2%%6. L:lean Energ1 and Hevelo"ment9 ,owards an Investment Dramewor<*M -ashington* H:* 2S3* 146. -orld Hevelo"ment Ee"ort* -HE. 2%1%. LHevelo"ment and :limate :hange.M -orld Can< !u6lications* !". 2$F-2'$. -orld Can<. 2%%$. LNatural Hisaster >ot S"ots9 3 Alo6al Eis< 3nal1sis.M Hisaster Eis< +anagement Series No. $. ,he -orld Can<. !" 1$. -orld Eis< Ee"ort. 2%11. L-orld Eis< Inde;9 :once"ts and Eesults.M 2nited Nations 2niversit1 4 Institute for Environmnet and >uman Securit1* !". 13 4 3&. %aereg Tafere received his C.Sc. degree in "h1sics geolog1 minor# from 3ddis 36a6a 2niversit1 in 1&'6 and +.Sc. from Indian Institute of ,echnolog1 II,#* Jharag"ur in 1&&1 in e;"loration geo"h1sics. 3fter having wor<ed with the Ethio"ian Institute of Aeological Surve1* and -orld )ision International* he then received his !hH in 2%11 in environmental management. >e continues to wor< for -orld )ision International at a ca"acit1 of an associate director of disaster management for the East 3frica region. >is research interest is mainl1 in the im"acts of disasters on humans and the natural environment* disaster ris< reduction HEE#* and climate change. /rof 0ana Oli#ier was awarded her CSc in Qoolog1 and Cotan1 from the 2niversit1 of the -itwatersrand in 1&6F. She su6se=uentl1 o6tained her C.Sc honours Aeogra"h1# from the 2niversit1 of South 3frica 2NIS3# and her +.Sc. and !hH from Eand 3fri<aans 2niversit1 now 2niversit1 of Johannes6urg# with s"eciali7ation in :limatolog1. She has lectured at )ista 2niversit1* the 2niversit1 of Stellen6osch* 2niversit1 of the North and 2NIS3 and is currentl1 Emeritus !rofessor in the He"artment of Environmental Sciences at 2NIS3 and !rofessor E;tra-ordinarius in the He"artment of Aeogra"h1* Aeo-informatics and +eteorolog1 at the 2niversit1 of !retoria. Huring her academic career she has written and assisted the "u6lication of more than 6% "a"ers in accredited scientific 5ournals. >er research interests var1 widel1* with em"hasis on environmental "ro6lems. %aarten 0ordaan o6tained his C.Sc. degree in geogra"h1* geolog1 and Cotan1 from the universit1 of Johannes6urg in 1&'1 followed 61 C.Sc. honours in 1&'2 Aeogra"h1#. >e then received his +.Sc. in AIS and remote sensing from the same universit1 in 1&&6. >e currentl1 lectures at 2NIS3 and is in his final 1ear wor<ing on his !hH in environmental sciences. >e 6ecame a +em6er of International 3ssociation of Im"act 3ssessors in 2%%F and National Aeogra"hic 3ssociation of South 3frica in 2%%3. >is research interests include9 environmental remote sensing* ecological assessment* environmental ecolog1 and conservation area assessment and management.
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Climate Change Adaptation-Opportunities and Challenges From Two Communities in Ethiopia

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Climate Change Adaptation-Opportunities and Challenges From Two Communities in Ethiopia

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Journal of Environment and Earth Science ISSN 2224-3216 !a"er# ISSN 222$-%&4' (nline# )ol. 3* No.

GDP trend 1980-2005

Year Agriculture Total GDP

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