Home > Tips and Facts > Gray Iron Casting Design

Basics of Gray Iron Casting Design: 10 Rules for Engineered Quality

With attention to these key dos and donts of engineering gray iron castings, you can ensure fewer design re!ated defects and optimi"ed cast geometry# In its simp!est form, casting in$o!$es using a pattern to form a mo!d ca$ity into which mo!ten meta! is poured, so!idifies and %ecomes a component# In actua!ity, the process %egins %efore the pattern is made, at the point when an engineer decides on the %est design for the component# &n!y with a working know!edge of what a foundry can and cant do can an engineer design a tru!y efficient part' one that takes ad$antage of %oth materia! and specific casting process ad$antages# Gray iron is one of the most $ersati!e meta!s, %ut a know!edge of its distinct characteristics is integra! to an efficient design# This artic!e detai!s () ru!es of gray iron design# *+uipped with this %asic know!edge, an engineer wi!! ha$e a good %asis for optimi"ing cast components#

Visualize the Casting in the Mold

It can %e difficu!t to fo!!ow a!! section changes and shapes from a %!ueprint# ,y creating a three dimensiona! drawing or constructing a sma!! mode!, an engineer can study how the meta! wi!! enter the mo!d, disco$er how so!idification proceeds and define how parts must %e fed to assure casting soundness# - mode! to sca!e or a fu!! si"e pattern can %e used !ater to he!p the designer see how cores must %e designed, p!aced or omitted# It a!so wi!! he!p the foundry to determine how to mo!d the casting, detect casting weakness .shrinks and cracks/, where to p!ace gates and risers, and answer other +uestions affecting casting soundness, cost and de!i$ery#

Design for

oundness

0ost meta!s and a!!oys shrink when they so!idify# Therefore, design components so that a!! mem%ers of the parts increase in dimension progressi$e!y to one or more suita%!e areas where feeder heads .risers/ can %e p!aced to offset !i+uid shrinkage .Fig# (/# !ig" 1: These i!!ustrations portray how design can %e used to rectify meta! shrinkage defects# To ensure a component is free of shrinkage porosity, design components so that hea$ier sections are c!ose to risers that can feed !i+uid meta! to them#

#$oid har% Corners and #ngles

1o!idification of mo!ten meta! a!ways proceeds from the mo!d face, forming un%a!anced crysta! grains that penetrate into the mass at right ang!es to the p!ane of coo!ing surface# - simp!e section presents uniform coo!ing and greatest freedom from mechanica! weakness# When two or more sections con2oin, mechanica! weakness is induced at the 2unction and free coo!ing is interrupted, creating a 3hot spot,4 the most common defect in casting design# In designing ad2oining sections, rep!ace sharp ang!es with radii and minimi"e heat and stress concentration# 1ome e5amp!es of impro$ed designs are shown in Fig# 6# !ig" &: Designs that incorporate sharp corners wi!! resu!t in structura! weaknesses due to !oca!i"ed hot spots at the 2unctions, howe$er, adding radii that are too !arge a!so may resu!t in shrinkage defects .sections that are !arger wi!! feed thinner wa!!s, !ea$ing a $oid in the thick 2unction/# ,y incorporating sma!! fi!!et radii, hot spots are a$oided, assuring impro$ed strength#

*ngine cy!inder parts such as steam 2acketed cy!inders often are i!! designed with !oca!i"ed casting weaknesses due to sharp corners .Fig# 7/# When engineering a cored part, a$oid designs that do not ha$e a coo!ing surface# !ig" ': These schematics show how a steam 2acketed cy!inder design was impro$ed with rounded 2unctions#

1tream!ining an e5terior may resu!t in a hea$y section at 2unctions# Thin, e!ongated cores forming the ca$ities within the component resu!t in a heat concentration accentuating the hea$y sections# The resu!ting shrinkage defect causes !eakage# - rounded 2unction wi!! offer uniform strength properties# (e)t8 9u!e :# 0inimi"e the ;um%er of 1ections >>

Mini*ize the (u*+er of ections

- we!! designed casting %rings the minimum num%er of sections together at one point# - simp!e wa!! section wi!! coo! free!y from a!! surfaces, %ut %y adding a section .forming a T/, a hot spot is created at the 2unction, and it wi!! coo! !ike a wa!! that is <)= !arger# 1taggering sections minimi"es hot spot effects, thus e!iminating weakness and reducing distortion# If staggering is not possi%!e, a cored ho!e through the center of the 2unction wi!! he!p to speed so!idification and a$oid hot spots .Fig# :/# !ig" ,a - ,+: To pre$ent une$en coo!ing, %ring the minimum num%er of sections together or stagger them so that no more than two sections con2oin# When this is not possi%!e, a circu!ar we% with ad2oining sections is the preferred way to design structures that must intersect .:%/#

E*%loy .nifor*

ections

Thicker wa!!s wi!! so!idify more s!ow!y, so they wi!! feed thinner wa!!s, resu!ting in shrinkage $oids# The goa! is to design uniform sections that so!idify e$en!y# If this is not possi%!e, a!! hea$y sections shou!d %e accessi%!e to feeding from risers# !ig" /: This hydrau!ic coup!ing was origina!!y designed with a core that caused !oca!i"ed porosity# ,y redesigning the component with uniform wa!!s, the weight of the casting was reduced, !owering the manufacturing cost and remedying the shrinkage pro%!em#

Correctly 0ro%ortion Inner 1alls

Inner sections of castings .resu!ting from comp!e5 cores/ coo! much s!ower than outer sections and cause $ariations in strength properties# - good ru!e is to reduce inner sections to )#> of the thickness of the outer wa!!# -$oid rapid section changes %ecause they wi!! resu!t in porosity pro%!ems simi!ar to what is seen with sharp ang!es# Whene$er comp!e5 cores must %e used, design for uniformity of section to a$oid !oca! hea$y masses of meta!# The inside diameter of cy!inders and %ushings shou!d e5ceed the wa!! thickness of castings# When the inside diameter of a cy!inder is !ess than the wa!! thickness, it is %etter to cast the section so!id, as ho!es can %e produced %y cheaper .and safer/ methods than with e5treme!y thin cores# !ig" 2: To remedy the shrinkage defects in the origina! design of a hydrau!ic coup!ing, e5cessi$e meta! was remo$ed, resu!ting in a !ighter weight casting with !ess strain in the !ight radia! $eins#

!illet #ll

har% #ngles

Fi!!ets .round ed corners/ ha$e three functiona! purposes8 to reduce the stress concentration in a casting in service; to eliminate cracks, tears and draws at reentry angles; to make corners more moldable by eliminating hot spots. The num%er of fi!!et radii in one pattern shou!d %e the minimum possi%!e, prefera%!y on!y one# To fu!fi!! engineering stress re+uirements and reduce stress concentration, re!ati$e!y !arge fi!!ets may %e used with radii e+ua!ing or e5ceeding casting section# Fi!!ets that are too !arge are undesira%!e'the radius of the fi!!et shou!d not e5ceed ha!f the thickness of the section 2oined#

To a$oid a section si"e that is too !arge at an ?@? 2unction, round an outside corner to match the fi!!et on the inside wa!!# Where this is not possi%!e, consideration must %e gi$en to which is more $ita!8 the engineered design or the possi%!e casting defect# In the case of a ?A? or ?B? sections and other angu!ar forms, a!ways design them so that a generout radius e!iminates !oca!i"ation of heat# !ig" 3a - 3d: In Ca, wa!!s meet at acute ang!es, creating hot spots# The %est design is Cd in which honeycom%ing produces uniform coo!ing conditions, assuring impro$ed strength with minima! risk of distortion and structura! weakness#

#$oid #+ru%t

ection Changes

The difference in re!ati$e thickness of ad2oining sections shou!d not e5ceed a ratio of 68(# If a greater difference is una$oida%!e, consider a design with detacha%!e parts, !ike machine too! %eds that can %e %o!ted# When a change in thickness is !ess than 68(, it may take the form of a fi!!et# When the difference is greater, the recommended shift is in the form of a wedge# Howe$er, wedgeshaped changes in wa!! thickness shou!d not taper more than ( in :# Where a com%ination of !ight and hea$y sections is una$oida%!e, use fi!!ets and tapered sections to temper the shifts#

Ma)i*ize Design of Ri+s and Brac4ets

9i%s ha$e two functions8 to increase stiffness and to reduce weight# If they are too sha!!ow or too wide!y spaced, they can %e ineffecti$e# The thickness of ri%s shou!d appro5imate D)= of the ad2oining thickness and shou!d %e rounded at the edge# In other words, thin ri%s shou!d %e a$oided when 2oined to a hea$y section or they may !ead to high stresses and cracking# The design preference is for the ri%s to %e deeper than they are thickE the ri%s shou!d so!idify %efore the casting section they ad2oin# In addition, the space %etween ri%s shou!d pre$ent any !oca!i"ed accumu!ation of meta!# In genera!, ri%s in compression offer a greater safety factor than ri%s in tension# Howe$er, castings ha$ing thin ri%s or we%s in compression may re+uire design changes to pro$ide necessary stiffening and a$oid %uck!ing# -$oid cross ri%s or ri%%ing on %oth sides of a casting# Cross ri%%ing creates hot spots and makes feeding difficu!t# Instead, design cross coup!ed ri%s in a staggered dou%!e ?T? form# -$oid comp!e5 ri%%ing, which comp!icates mo!ding, hinders uniform so!idification and creates hot spots# Conse+uent!y, ri%s are on!y prefera%!e when the casting wa!! cannot %e made strong or stiff enough on its own# 9i%s meeting at acute ang!es a!so may cause mo!ding difficu!ties, increase costs and aggra$ate the risk of casting defects# ?Honeycom%ing? often wi!! pro$ide increased strength and stiffness without creating hot spots .Fig# C/# ,rackets carrying offset !oads introduce %ending moments'!oca!i"ed and in the %ody of the casting# -s a remedy, taper ?@? shaped %rackets and make the !ength of contact with the main casting as amp!e as possi%!e# -s another option, %rackets may fre+uent!y %e cast separate!y and then attached, simp!ifying mo!ding# - ri%%ed %racket wi!! offer a stiffness ad$antage, %ut a$oid heat concentration %y pro$iding cored openings in we%s and ri%s# 1uch openings shou!d %e as !arge as possi%!e, and consistent with strength and stiffness# -$oid rectangu!ar shaped cored ho!es in ri%s or we%sE use o$a! shaped ho!es with the !ongest dimension in the direction of the stresses#

10 Rules for Good Casting

The !ast few years ha$e witnessed an unprecedented increase in our understanding of the casting process# Thus, as understanding has increased, the !ist of re+uirements has %een steadi!y amended as they ha$e %ecome known# 1tarting from an initia! !ist of four ru!es, () ru!es ha$e now %een identified that incorporate the !atest techno!ogy for producing re!ia%!e castings# These are 2ust the start# -dditiona! ru!es may e5ist, %ut they remain to %e further researched and c!arified# The () ru!es that fo!!ow are proposed as necessary, %ut not, of course, sufficient# They shou!d %e used in addition to e5isting con$entiona! technica! specifications such as a!!oy type, strength and tracea%i!ity $ia I1& >))), etc#, and other con$entiona! foundry contro!s such as casting temperature, etc# -!though not yet tested on a!! cast materia!s, there are fundamenta! reasons for %e!ie$ing that the ru!es ha$e genera! $a!idity, and are app!ica%!e for a!! types of meta!s and a!!oys, inc!uding those %ased on a!uminum, "inc, magnesium, cast irons, stee!s, air and $acuum cast nicke!, co%a!t and titanium# ;e$erthe!ess, a!though a!! materia!s wi!! pro%a%!y %enefit from the app!ication of the ru!es, some wi!! %enefit a!most out of recognition, whereas others wi!! %e !ess affected# @isted in summary form, the ru!es are intended to assist the casting industry# -dhering to them wi!! speed up the process of producing the casting right the first time, and shou!d contri%ute great!y to reducing scrap when the casting goes into production# In this way, the casting industry wi!! %e a%!e to raise standards without any significant increase in costs# 1uperior +ua!ity can %e offered with confidence# &n!y in this way wi!! castings %e accepted %y the engineering profession as re!ia%!e, engineered products, and assure the future prosperity of the casting industry and its customers# Con$erse!y, the ru!es constitute a draft process specification, which %uyers of castings cou!d demand if they wished to %e assured that they were %uying the %est possi%!e casting +ua!ity# If %uyers specified that their casting sources fo!!owed such ru!es, the +ua!ity and re!ia%i!ity of the castings wou!d %e higher than cou!d %e achie$ed %y any amount of e5pensi$e +ua!ity contro! on the finished product#

Rule 1" 0ro$ide a Good Quality Melt

Immediate!y prior to casting, the me!t sha!! %e prepared and treated if necessary using the %est current practice# The aim is to pro$ide a me!t at the correct temperature, correct chemistry and with !ow residua! !e$e!s of disso!$ed gas and inc!usions# Inc!usions, particu!ar!y o5ide fi!ms, are reintroduced into the !i+uid meta! %y poor hand!ing, such as

pouring from furnaces and !ad!es prior to casting# Frocedures to a$oid such reintroduction of damage need to %e introduced# The figure %e!ow shows the hydrogen so!u%i!ity in a!uminum and two of its a!!oys, i!!ustrating the a%rupt fa!! in so!u%i!ity on so!idification#

The chart %e!ow shows mechanica! property regimes for an -! :#< Cu (#< 0g a!!oy in fi!tered and unfi!tered conditions GHed2a"i et a!# .(>C</H#

Home > Tips and Facts > () 9u!es for Good Casting > 9u!e 6

Rule &" #$oid 5i6uid !ront Da*age

This is the re+uirement that the !i+uid meta! front .the meniscus/ shou!d not go too fast# 0a5imum meniscus $e!ocity is a%out )#< mIs# .This ma5imum $e!ocity may %e raised to ( mIs in sections on!y a few mm thick#/ Howe$er, surface tur%u!ence damage can %e a$oided e$en at higher speeds if the casting fi!!ing system is sufficient!y narrow to constrain the meniscus, not a!!owing room for sp!ashing or drop!et formation# The scematics %e!ow show the effect of increasing height on a fa!!ing stream of !i+uid, i!!ustrating8 .a/ the o5ide fi!m remaining intactE .%/ the o5ide fi!m %eing detached and accumu!ating to form a dross ringE .c/ the o5ide fi!m and air %eing entrained in the %u!k me!t#

The schematic $iew of a sp!ash of mo!ten a!uminum shows the formation of a fo!ded .dou%!e/ fi!m that might consist of thick o!d fi!m, or new thin fi!m, or %oth, a!! !ike!y to occ!ude air in the fo!ds#

Rule '" #$oid #rrest of the 5i6uid !ront

This is the re+uirement that the !i+uid meta! front shou!d not go too s!ow!yJ -nd, more precise!y, shou!d not stop at any point on the front#

The ad$ancing !i+uid meta! meniscus must %e kept ?a!i$e? and free from thick o5ide fi!m that can %e incorporated into the casting# This is achie$ed %y ensuring that the !i+uid front on!y ad$ance uphi!! .in the case of gra$ity poured casting processes, from the %ase of the sprue onwards/# This imp!ies that8 on!y %ottom gating is permissi%!e, and no fa!!ing or s!iding downhi!! of !i+uid meta! is a!!owed# The meniscus must e5perience continuous uninterrupted upward ad$ance# That is, no stopping due to arrest of pouring, and no e5tensi$e hori"onta! sections or waterfa!! effects .a$oided %y casting design or mo!d orientation/, which wi!! cause a genera! temporary arrest of the !i+uid front in the casting, and thus !ead to o5ide !aps, or if pro!onged, e$en co!d !aps#

This drawing shows the unsta%!e ad$ance of a fi!m forming a!!oy, showing the formation of !aps as the interface intermittent!y stops and restarts %y %ursting through and f!ooding o$er the surface fi!m#

Rule ," #$oid Bu++le Da*age

;o air %u%%!es shou!d %e entrained %y the running system# If they are entrained, then they shou!d not %e a!!owed to pass through the !i+uid meta! in the mo!d ca$ity# If this happens, then a mi5ture of o5ide %u%%!e trai!s, together with residua! misshapen %u%%!es in the casting, wi!! resu!t# This is %y far the most common defect in castings, and is common!y mistaken for shrinkage porosity# This se$ere defect may %e a$oided %y8

Fast %ackfi!! of fi!!ing system %y $irtue of proper!y designed sprue and pouring %asin, and use of a stopper in sma!! castings, ceramic foam fi!ters p!aced c!ose to sprueIrunner 2unction, and %u%%!e traps# -ny so!utions must %e demonstrated as effecti$e using some suita%!e techni+ue such as rea! time K ray radiography# ;o interruptions to pouring#

This drawing i!!ustrates the most common defect in castings %u%%!e damage as a mi5ture of o5ide cracks and residua! entrapped %u%%!es#

Rule /" #$oid Core Blo7s

Gases from cores or e$en occasiona!!y from parts of the mo!d shou!d not %e a!!owed to penetrate the !i+uid meta!# Core or mo!d %!ows cause a rather different type of defect than the entrained air %u%%!es#

Cores shou!d %e demonstrated to %e of sufficient!y !ow gas content andIor ade+uate!y $ented to pre$ent %u%%!es from core %!ows# .This demonstration might %e carried out %y a $ideo recording of the fi!!ing of the mo!d without a cope, for instance#/ No clay-based core or mold repair paste should be used unless demonstrated to be resistant to the creation of blow defects.

,e!ow is a ?core %!ow? a trapped %u%%!e containing core gases# 1hown at the %ottom of the i!!ustration is a %u%%!e trai!, ending in an e5fo!iated dross defect as the resu!t of a passage of copious $o!umes of core gas# G-fter Fraw!ey et a!# .(>C:/H#

I!!ustrated %e!ow is the detachment of a %u%%!e from the top of a core, %e+ueathing a %u%%!e trai! as a permanent !egacy of its 2ourney# This %u%%!e may %e ear!y enough to escape at the free surface of the rising meta!#

Home > Tips and Facts > () 9u!es for Good Casting > 9u!e L

Rule 2" #$oid Da*age

hrin4age

;o feeding uphi!! %ecause of unre!ia%!e pressure gradient .a!so see 9u!e C on con$ection/# Demonstrate good feeding design fo!!owing a!! se$en feeding ru!es, %y an appro$ed computer so!idification mode!, and test castings# Contro! the !e$e! of f!ash at mo!d and core 2ointsE mo!d coats and mo!d temperatures# 9andom f!ashImo!d coatsImo!d temperatures can gi$e random feeding effecti$eness %y unpredicted changes to the temperature distri%ution in the casting#

This figure shows castings with %!ind risers# F6 is correct!y $ented, %ut has mi5ed resu!ts on sections 17 and 1:# 9iser F7 is not $ented and therefore doesnMt feed at a!!# The unfa$ora%!e pressure gradient draws !i+uid from a fortuitous skin puncture in section 1D# The %ottom drawing i!!ustrates the p!astic coffee cup ana!ogue8 the water is he!d up in the upturned cup and cannot %e re!eased unti! air is admitted $ia a puncture# The !i+uid it contains is then immediate!y re!eased#

Rule 3" #$oid Con$ection Da*age

Thin or thick section castings automatica!!y a$oid con$ection pro%!ems# Thin section castings free"e +uick!y %efore con$ection %ui!ds up# In

thick section castings, con$ection he!ps redistri%ute hot meta! into the risers on the top of the casting, since there is p!enty of time %efore free"ing starts# Howe$er, intermediate sections, which represent the great ma2ority of castings, ha$e a free"ing time commensurate with the time taken for con$ection to operate .in a few minutes/ and can cause damage# Nnsuita%!e temperature gradients in the casting can undermine the effecti$eness of risers, and !ead to segregation and apparent shrinkage damage in castings# This is a !itt!e known and !itt!e researched area that most current computer simu!ations cannot tack!e# For such intermediate sections, either8 Reduce the problem by avoiding convection loops in the geometry of the casting and rigging. Eliminate convection by 1 !-degree roll-over after mold filling. These i!!ustrations show the encouragement of therma! con$ection %y .a/ side and .%/ %ottom feeding, and its e!imination %y .c/ top feeding#

Rule 8" 0lan egregation Distri+ution

Change of section wi!! norma!!y in$o!$e change in distri%ution of a!!oying e!ements in the casting# This can mean parts of the casting are out of chemica! specification# 1uch pro%!ems may need to %e addressed if properties are threatened .such as a !oca! %ritt!eness, especia!!y in a stressed region/ and may re+uire prior negotiation with the customer#

Rule 9" Control Residual

tress

-$oid unknown or random residua! stress %y for%idding +uenching of !ow ducti!ity, !ight a!!oy castings into water fo!!owing high temperature so!ution treatment# ,oi!ing water is a!so not permitted since it represents a neg!igi%!e impro$ement o$er co!d water# Howe$er, po!ymer +uenchant or forced air +uench may %e accepta%!e if casting stress is shown to %e neg!igi%!e# F!anned residua! stress may %e %eneficia! if designed correct!y into the +uenching process# This chart shows the rates of coo!ing of a 6) mm diameter a!uminum %ar when +uenched %y $arious means from >76OF .<))OC/#

*!ongation to Fai!ure 9esu!ts from Different Puenching 0edia *!ongation .=/ 0ean Q6#< +.(, - ..(. /.+( - 1./( $. 1 - !.1/

Puenching 0edia "ot-water #uench 1$ %& '(!%)* )old-water #uench 0ater-glycol #uench

0inimum ..!1 +. ! +. $

Rule 10" 0ro$ide 5ocation 0oints

-!! castings wi!! %e pro$ided with agreed !ocation points for dimensiona! reference and for pickup for machining# The com%ination of c!amping points to %e used during machining is a!so usua!!y he!pfu! and easi!y incorporated, as i!!ustrated in Fig# () %e!ow# These drawings show ways in which the si5 point !ocation method can %e used on a casting#