Modeling and optimization of air-cooled condensers for low-temperature power cycles

Vic Van Peborgh

Abstract This paper presents a step-wise, three zone model for air-cooled condensers for low-temperature power cycles. Through nonlinear optimization the cost optimal geometry for a number of cases is determined. The solutions of this optimization are then used to examine the inuence of the condenser temperature, the ambient temperature and the available land area on the optimal cost. Also, the cost as a function of cycle eciency is examined for organic Rankine cycles. 1. Introduction 1.2. Problem statement The eciency of a power cycle is always limited by the Carnot eciency: C = 1 TL TH (1)

1.1. Background Low-temperature heat sources are omnipresent. Some examples are [1]: industrial waste heat,

exhaust gasses of diesel, biogas or landll gas engines, combustion of waste gasses, solvents,. . . , biomass incineration, solar thermal energy, geothermal energy.

with TH the temperature of the (low-temperature) heat source and TL the temperature at which residual heat is rejected to the environment (in the condenser). It is obvious from equation (1) that the maximal eciency of a power cycle increases when the temperature of the heat source TH rises, or when the heat rejection temperature TL is lowered. When considering low-temperature heat sources, TH will be limited to about 280 C [1], making the maximum cycle eciency low. To compensate the low TH as much as possible, it is very important to keep the heat rejection temperature TL low too. For air-cooled condensers, the absolute minimum for the heat rejection temperature is the ambient temperature. Because real heat transfer requires a driving temperature dierence it is important to keep this temperature dierence as small as possible, i.e. to have a high-performance, optimized condenser. 1.3. Air cooled condenser geometry This study presents a mathematical model for an A-frame air-cooled condenser, illustrated in gure

The thermal energy of these sources can be converted to mechanical energy by a low-temperature power cycle, e.g. an organic Rankine cycle (ORC). This study focuses on one component of an ORC: the condenser. More specic, only air-cooled condensers are considered. Although heat transfer to air is less ecient than heat transfer to water or another refrigerant, air is often used. This is mainly because of the strict regulation on the usage of water in some areas, or the limited availability in the direct surroundings of the power plant. In these cases air can be the more economic refrigerant.

model; c) identify a number of relevant cases to investigate; and d) optimize the condenser geometry for these cases. The presented model is to be implemented in a much larger model that simulates an entire ORC. This larger model is to be optimized as well, and long computing times should be avoided. This is why the presented model should be as fast as possible. 1.5. Contents
Figure 1: A-frame condenser module [2]

The next section describes the technical model. The main principles and methodology are explained in depth. Section 3 explains how the net present cost Ctot is calculated. In section 4 the optimization problem is formulated and section 5 discusses the results of this optimization.

2. Technical model 2.1. Air-cooled condenser (ACC) models in literature

Figure 2: Flat tube section with corrugated ns [4]

1. The condenser consists of an inlet steam duct, a condensate drain, a number of fans and two bundles of parallel nned tubes. The tube bundles consist of a large number of parallel at tubes with corrugated aluminum ns, arranged in one tube row. This geometry is the most widely used geometry for air-cooled condensers according to Putman and Jaresch [3]. The type of nned tubes is illustrated in gure 2.

Several mathematical ACC models are presented in literature. These models can always be classied as one of two types: computational uid dynamics (CFD) models [57], or (semi-) analytic models [8 15]. Even though large-scale ACCs are becoming more and more popular since the late 70s [3], all the cited models describe small-scale applications like refrigerators, air-conditioning installations and heat pumps. Because this study considers applications on a completely dierent scale and with a completely dierent conguration, none of the cited models can be applied here. A new model is to be constructed. Although CFD-models can be very accurate, these models imply a long computation time. As stated in paragraph 1.4, this model should be as fast as possible, ruling out the usage of CFD. An analytic model uses correlations rather than discretized conservation equations (CFD) to calculate the heat transfer coecient and the friction factor for the working uid and the cooling air. The physical phenomena that take place in the condenser dier greatly throughout it because of the presence 2

1.4. Scope and objectives The scope of this study is to minimize the net present total cost Ctot of an A-frame air-cooled condenser. The set of optimization variables consists of some geometrical parameters (see table 1) and the mass ow of air m air . Before this optimization can take place, a suitable mathematical model with enough degrees of freedom is to be constructed. To realize this, the following objectives must be completed: a) construct a mathematical model for an A-frame air-cooled condenser; b) validate this

of one- and two phase ow. This distinction in ow regime is made in the presented model. As explained in the next section, the technical part of the model consists of two routines: one for the condenser zones with one phase ow (desuperheatig and subcooling zone) and one for the condensation zone, where two phase ow occurs. 2.2. Technical model 2.2.1. Input The inputs to the technical part of the model are: ambient pressure P and temperature T ; inlet condition of the working uid; partial condenser geometry (table 1); air mass ow per unit of tubelength m air ; desired outlet condition of the working uid (partly dened: temperature Twf,out or quality xwf,out ).

2.2.3. Routines To calculate these outputs, the model divides the parallel nned tube bundles into small sections. Because the modeled ACC is a crossow heat exchanger, the inlet conditions of air will be the same for every section. The heat transfer coecient and the friction factor for the air-side ow, respectively hair and fair are consequently calculated at the start of the model. The working uids inlet condition is dierent for every section, but at the rst section it is known. This rst inlet condition allow the calculation of the working uids outlet condition at this rst section. The outlet condition at one section is the inlet condition at the next section. These calculations continue until the desired working uids nal outlet condition is reached. The technical model is based on the -N T U methodology. This methodology provides a certain level of insight that the LMTD-method cannot give for crossow heat exchangers [17]. A detailed description of this method can be found in any introductory heat transfer textbook (e.g. Incropera and DeWitt [17]). As stated before, the technical model consists of two dierent routines: one for one phase ow (desuperheating and subcooling) and one for tho-phase ow (condensation). Both routines are explained in the next two paragraphs. One phase ow Both the vapor ow during desuperheating and the liquid ow during subcooling are one phase ows. These ows abide by the same rules, and thus can be modeled with the same routine. The one phase ow routine divides the tube bundles in small sections whose length is called Lstep . For every section, the one phase ow routine calculates the necessary parameters in following order: hwf , Cair , Cwf and N T U , , Tair,out and Twf,out , Pwf,out .

Because the model divides the tube bundles in small sections (see later), and the length of the nned tubes is not an input, the air mass ow m air is indirectly calculated with the mass ow per unit of tubelength, which is a input parameter: m air = m air 2Ltot (2)

The mass ow of air over a nned tube section with length Lstep can now be written as m air,step = 2.2.2. Output The outputs of the model are: length of the nned tubes Ltot ; outlet pressure of the working uid Pwf,out ; outlet condition of the cooling air. With the inputs given, the model calculates how long the nned tubes should be for the working uid to reach the desired outlet temperature or quality. The other two outputs are also important, because they dene the outlet condition of both the air and the working uid. 3 1 Lstep m air = m air Lstep 2 Ltot (3)

hwf is the heat transfer coecient of the working uid ow, C is dened as C = mc p , with m the

Parameter di t sb sf f Ntpr e [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [] [ ] [mm]

Description nned tube inner diameter nned tube wall thickness distance between nned tubes distance between ns thickness of ns number of nned tubes per bundle inclination angle of nned tubes internal roughness of nned tubes

Optimization variable t = 1, 5 mm variable variable f = 0, 3 mm variable = 60 e = 0, 046 mm [16]

Table 1: Name, units and description of the geometric input parameters. The last column gives the value of the parameter in the optimization. The geometric parameters are also explained graphically in gure 3.

mass ow and cp the specic heat capacity of the considered uid. In the desuperheating zone, these steps are repeated until the stopping condition is reached: Twf Twf,sat (4)

xwf xwf,out

(6)

If the working uids desired outlet condition is a subcooled liquid, the stopping condition is xwf = 0 (7)

with Twf,sat the saturation temperature of the working uid. In the subcooling zone, the stopping condition is Twf Twf,sat Twf,sub (5)

and the working uid is passed on to the one phase routine to model the one phase ow. As stated in paragraph 2.1 the presented model uses correlations to calculate the heat transfer coefcients and friction factors in each step. The next paragraph explains which correlations are used. 2.2.4. Correlations

with Twf,sub the specied degree of subcooling. Two phase ow In the condensation zone a slightly dierent routine is used. The most important dierence is that the nned tubes are not divided into parts with an equal Lstep . Instead, the total change in quality x that must be achieved in the condensation zone is divided into n equal parts xstep . In every step, following parameters are calculated: hwf , NTU, , Lstep and Tair,out , Pwf,out .

For the working uid the Gnielinski [18] correlation was used to calculate the Nusselt number in one phase ow. From this Nusselt number the heat transfer coecient hwf is calculated. The pressure drop caused by friction is calculated with the friction factor fwf . This friction factor is approximated by the Churchill [19] correlation. This correlation is particularly suitable because it is fairly accurate [20] and spans the entire Rewf -domain. In the condensation zone, the heat transfer coecient is calculated with the Shah [21] correlation. Because this correlation is only suited for condensing ow in horizontal tubes, it must be multiplied with the correction factor of W urfel et al. [22]. The pressure drop caused by friction during condensation is calculated with the Chisholm [23] correlation. For the air-side heat transfer coecient hair and friction factor fair , no suitable correlations were 4

These calculation steps are repeated until the stopping condition is reached. For a two phase ow as desired condenser output this stopping condition is formulated as

3. Economic model As stated in section 1.4, a cost-optimal solution is to be found. To estimate the total cost of an aircooled condenser, it is important to note that the total cost consists of two terms: Ctot = Ccap + Cwork (8)

with Ccap the capital cost and Cwork the working cost of the condenser installation. The capital cost can be further decomposed:

Ccap = Che + Cf ans + Cpump + Cinst + Cland (9)

Figure 3: Geometry described by Wang et al. [26]. Air ows in the z -direction.

found in literature. Although a large number of correlations is available for a lot of dierent geometries [4, 2440] none of the considered correlations describes the geometry illustrated in gure 2. Park and Jacobi [41] and Thome [42] came to the same conclusion after their own literature studies. Because no better correlation was found, the Wang et al. [26] correlations were used to calculate hair and fair . This correlation actually describes air ow in a heat exchanger such as the one illustrated in gure 3. The used N T U relationships are from Navarro and Cabezas-G omez [43]. 2.3. Validation Because the modeled geometry (Fig. 3) does not correspond with the real geometry of air-cooled condensers, no validation of the model was performed. Two datasheets of real ACCs were obtained (from Indaver and EDF-Luminus), both of them used the geometry depicted in gure 2. According to literature [3] this is the most widely used type of nned tubes for ACCs. Manufacturers websites back up this statement. 2.4. Implementation The presented model is implemented in the open source programming language Python [44]. 5

with Che and Cf ans the capital cost of respectively the nned-tube heat exchanger and the fans. These two terms are calculated using a correlation from Peters and Timmerhaus [45]. Cpump is the capital cost of the pump, estimated with a correlation from Seider et al. [46]. Cinst is the installation cost and is estimated to be [45]: Cinst = 0, 30 (Che + Cf ans + Cpump ) (10)

Cland is the cost of the land on which the condenser is built. The working cost consists of two contributions: Cwork = Cmain + Cel = Cmain + Cel,f ans + Cel,pump

(11)

Cmain is the annual maintenance cost, estimated to be [46]: Cinst = 0, 05 (Che + Cf ans + Cpump ) (12)

Cel,f ans and Cel,pump are the cost of the energy consumed by the fans and the pump, respectively. The latter contribution will be a lot smaller than the that of the fans. The working cost over a timespan of twenty years (the estimated lifetime of the condenser installation [46]) are reduced to a net present cost that can be added to the capital cost Ccap to form the total net present cost Ctot .

4. Optimization
16 14

A cost-optimal solution is to be found, and therefore expression (8) is minimized. The optimization variables are a number of geometrical parameters (see table 1) and the mass ow of air per unit of tubelength m air . A total of nine boundary conditions are imposed of which ve are a linear function of the optimization variables. The inner diameter of the nned tubes should always be between 10 di 40 mm. The physical lower boundary for the distance between the tubes is st di , in practice a slightly larger lower boundary is used to avoid numerical problems during the optimization: 1, 5di st 5di . The upper boundary for st is to avoid unrealistic values from being considered. The distance between the cooling ns sf also has a physical lower boundary: sf f . Again, for numerical reasons, a larger lower boundary is used in practice: sf 3f . The remaining four boundary conditions are a nonlinear function of the optimization variables. The most important boundary condition states that the pressure of the working uid should always remain positive: Pwf,out 0. A negative working uid pressure has no physical relevance and causes the calculation of the uid properties (using RefProp [47]) to behave unexpectedly. The second nonlinear boundary condition limits the length of the nned tubes: 5 Ltot 15 m. The lower boundary for Ltot is to avoid numerical problems. The upper boundary is a practical limit [3]. The last boundary condition is imposed on the occupied land area Aland . The upper limit for this parameter is varied throughout the optimization to study the inuence of this parameter on the optimal net present cost. As a summary, the optimization problem can be written as: min Ctot 10 di 40 mm (13)

12

Ktot [106 e]

10

Isobutan Propane R1234yf R134a R227ea R245fa

25

30

35

Tcond [ C ]

40

45

50

Figure 4: Total net present cost Ktot as a function of the initial condensing temperature Tcond (T = 15 C)

The optimization is realized in Python [44], with the OpenOpt [48] optimization toolbox. Because the optimization is unstable, a number of dierent solvers (mma, scipy slsqp, ralg and scipy cobyla) was used. Manual iteration between these solvers was necessary to obtain convergence. Every solution was checked with every solver.

5. Results The optimization problem given by expression (13) is carried out for a number of dierent cases [49]. A total of six working uids (isobutane, propane, R134a, R1234yf, R227ea and R245fa) are considered at six dierent condenser temperatures between 25 and 50 C . A number of dierent ambient temperatures is considered and the inuence of Aland,max is studied. In the initial cases, Aland,max is set to +. 5.1. Inuence of the condenser temperature

di ,st ,sf ,Ntpr ,m air

subject to

1, 5 di st 5 di 0 Pwf,out sf 0, 9 mm

Figure 4 shows the total net present cost (equation 8) as a function of the initial condensing temperature Tcond for the dierent working uids at an ambient temperature of T = 15 C. This gure clearly shows that the cost rises rapidly when the condenser temperature lowers. Two of the points on the graph show deviant behavior: at Tcond = 25 C, both R227ea and R245fa give 6

Aland Aland,max

5 Ltot 15 m

Isobutan Propane R1234yf R134a R227ea R245fa

Tomg =15 C Tomg =10 C

Ktot [106 e]

Ktot [106 e]
25 30 35 40 45 50

Tcond [ C ]

25

30

35

Tcond [ C ]

40

45

50

Figure 5: Total net present cost Ktot as a function of the initial condensing temperature Tcond (T = 10 C)

Figure 6: Total net present cost Ktot as a function of the initial condensing temperature Tcond at dierent ambient temperatures (R134a)

rise to an extremely high cost. This can be explained as follows: the initial condensation temperature is 25 C, but as the working uid ows through the nned tubes, the pressure Pwf declines. As the pressure declines, the condensation temperature also declines. In the two deviant points, the condensation temperature declines to 17,98 C en 16,32 C (for R227ea and R245fa, respectively). Considering the ambient temperature in these point is T = 15 C it is no surprise that because of the small temperature dierence a very large heat exchanger is needed. Figure 5 shows the same function at an ambient temperature of T = 10 C. Because the temperature dierence between the air and the working uid is bigger, no deviant points are observed.

This paragraph and paragraph 5.1 can be summarized by stating that the net present cost grows exponentially if the temperature dierence between the working uid and the ambient air declines. 5.3. Inuence of the available land area In the previous cases, Aland,max was set to +. Because it was observed that the occupied land area became very big for low condenser temperatures, the inuence of this parameter was studied. Figure 7 shows how the total net present cost grows exponentially when theres less land area available. To study this rise of the cost a bit more, the next paragraph considers the evolution of the two components Ccap and Cwork of the total net present cost (equation (8)) as a function of the available land area Aland,max . 5.4. Inuence of the available land area on the composition of the total net present cost Figure 8 illustrates the evolution of the two components of the total net present cost: the capital cost Ccap and the working cost Cwork . It is clear that the total cost grows exponentially when the available land area gets smaller. The second trend is also very clear: as this land area gets smaller the capital cost Ccap gets smaller too. This is because the largest component of the capital cost is the heat exchanger cost, and a smaller heat exchanger (less land area available) costs less. When the avail7

5.2. Inuence of the ambient temperature When comparing gures 4 and 5, it can be seen that the cost for T = 10 C is generally lower than that for T = 15 C. Figure 6 illustrates this for the working uid R134a. Figure 6 clearly shows that apart from being lower, the total net present cost curve also has a smaller slope when the ambient temperature T is lower. This is because both cost curves will go to + when T = Tcond T goes to zero. In a way, the curve for T = 10 C is a horizontal shift to the right of the T = 15 C curve. Because of a dierence of uid properties at the dierent condensation temperatures this horizontal shift is not exact.

4000

Aland,max = +

Kwerk Kkap
4

3500

Aland,max = 3000 m2 Aland,max = 2500 m2 Aland,max = 2000 m2

3000

Ktot [106 e]

Aland [m2 ]

2500

2000

1500

1000 1 500

30

35

Tcond [ C ]

40

45

50

3000

2500

2000

Aland,max [m2 ]

(a) Figure 8: Evolution of the two components Ccap and Cwork of the total net present cost Ktot as a function of the available land area Aland,max (R134a, T = 10 C)
Aland,max = + Aland,max = 3000 m2 Aland,max = 2500 m2 Aland,max = 2000 m2

4. 5 4. 0 3. 5 3. 0

Ktot [106 e]

creases to 25% in the case of Aland,max = 2000m2 , which still is a substantial fraction of the total net present cost. 5.5. Total net present cost as a function of the ORC cycle eciency Figure 9 shows the net present cost as a function of the ORC cycle eciency of the dierent cases. It is clear that the total cost grows exponentially with the ORC cycle eciency. This exponential growth is a consequence of the superposition of two trends: rstly, the ORC cycle eciency is higher for low condenser temperatures [49]; secondly, as illustrated in gures 4 and 5, the total net present cost rises when the condenser temperature is lower.

2. 5 2. 0 1. 5 1. 0 0. 5 0. 0

30

35

Tcond [ C ]

40

45

50

(b) Figure 7: (a) Occupied land area Aland as a function of the initial condensing temperature Tcond for dierent values of Aland,max (T = 10 C) (b) Total net present cost Ktot as a function of the initial condensing temperature Tcond for dierent values of Aland,max (T = 10 C)

able land area gets smaller, the working cost Cwork grows exponentially. This is because the amount of heat to be transferred remains the same, but the total heat transfer area is smaller. The reduction of heat transfer area is compensated by a bigger air mass ow. A bigger air mass ow requires more powerful fans, which consume more energy. It should be noted that although the contribution of capital cost gets smaller when the available land area decreases, it stays a substantial part of the total net present cost. The capital cost is about 60% of the total net present cost in the case of an unlimited available land area. This 60% gradually de8

6. Conclusion This paper presents a new ACC model. This model is a step-wise, three zone model. The condenser geometry was optimized for a number of dierent cases. Clear trends were shown: the total net present cost grows exponentially when the temperature dierence between the working uid and the ambient air becomes smaller; the total net present cost grows exponentially when the available land area gets smaller;

Isobutan Propane R1234yf R134a R227ea R245fa

Ktot [106 e]

10

11

12

13

cycle [%]

Figure 9: Total net present cost Ktot as a function of the ORC cycle eciency (T = 10 C )

as the available land area gets smaller, the working cost grows and the capital cost declines; and a higher ORC cycle eciency is coupled to a much higher cost, this growth is exponential. Although the trends predicted by this model seem plausible, the model can still be improved. The most important improvement that can be implemented is a suitable correlation for the air-side heat transfer coecient and friction factor. This correlation can be sought in literature (although an extensive literature study was unsuccessful) or can be set up with experimental data. References
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