IACIU Journal Vol 1. No. 2 PDF

African Culture and International Understanding
Vol 1. No. 2
Volume 1 No. 2, October-December, 2012

is a quarterly publication of the Institute for African Culture and International Understanding, a UNESCO Category 2 Institute at the Olusegun Obasanjo Presidential Library, Abeokuta, Nigeria. The journal aims to provide insightful commentaries and position statements on all matters relating to the promotion of diverse African cultures and how these impact on international understanding.
Regional themes
2 Reflection on Mapping the Diversity of Cultural Expressions in Africa Akin L. Mabogunje 2 Harnessing Culture to Promote International Understanding in Africa Bola Akinterinwa 8 Promoting International Understanding in the USA through Culture: Lessons for Africa Richard K. Gordon
Focus on East Africa

12 Diversity and Dynamics of African Cultural Expressions in Eastern Africa Silverse Lisamula Anami
Focus on Southern Africa

18 Cultural Issues in Science Education in South Africa Gilbert Onwu 24 Obstacles to Achieving Diversity of Cultural Expressions in South Africa Sipho Seepe
Focus on West Africa

27 Emerging issues in African Literature and Culture: Perspectives from Cameroon Marius Yannick Binyou-Bi-Homb
About the Institute
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African Regional Colloquium organised by the Institute on March 1, 2012. These are: cultural expressions, their dynamics, their protection and their promotion. Cultural expression in popular conception is often limited to the artistic manifestation of a people and perhaps to their crafts and pristine technology. In truth, however, the term must be extended to embrace their laws, socialisation strategies, food producing activities, division of labour by sex, housing and settlement patterns, kinship and marriage forms as well as their traditional social and political organisation. Over the long period of contacts with other cultures, especially since colonial times, many African cultural expressions have been undergoing intensive and remarkable changes of one form or the other. It has become a matter of considerable concern and challenge as to which of these changes need to be promoted and which to be campaigned against with a view to protection and limiting the impact of modernisation on them. It may also be necessary to take a comparative look at some of the cultural expressions undergoing changes in different ethnic settings to evaluate and perhaps learn how other peoples in the same circumstances are coping. There is, however, no way that we can prevent the cascade of technological innovations and organisational advances from impacting on forms of African cultural expressions whether in their creation, production, dissemination, access and enjoyment. What is perhaps going to be important is to gradually evolve protocols of critical evaluation which will assist the discerning or relevant public in determining what is to be promoted and what is to be preserved in the current outpourings of cultural expressions in different regions of the continent. Such protocols will do for other areas of cultural innovations what literary criticism does for literature generally. It is clear, therefore, that we cannot dispute the critical relevance of the topic of the Africa Regional Colloquium of the Institute to our current situation in Africa as we confront the challenges of a globalising world.
Reflection on Mapping the Diversity of Cultural Expressions in Africa

Akin L. Mabogunje Professor Akin L. Mabogunje is Chairman, Governing Board, Centre for Human Security of the Olusegun Obasanjo Presidential Library, Oke Mosan, Abeokuta, Nigeria. Email: mabogunje1931@ yahoo.com
uring the early 20th century when most of Africa was under one form of colonial rule or the other, the continent was clearly an anthropologists delight. Tribes and ethnic nationalities of different sizes and levels of development were being discovered here and there. Indeed, in Nigeria alone, it is claimed there are close to 250 tribes and ethnic nationalities, although besides the major ones that we know the identification of the smaller ones becomes very fuzzy. Nonetheless, the number of these tribes and ethnic nationalities for the whole continent can thus be better imagined. Each of them also tended to be linguistic entities although many of them show close relationship through interaction through the ages. George Peter Murdock in his 1959 publication on Africa: Its Peoples and Their Culture History attempted a mapping of these ethnic entities on the basis of linguistic characteristics and went on to categorise them into fourteen major stocks or families including the Khoisan, the Nigritic, the Bantu, the Hamitic, the Sudanic and so on. Each of these stocks is then further sub-divided into many groups. I am not up-to-date with current ethnographic research in Africa but I am sure work in this field helps to provide the setting for much of the programmes and challenges of the Institute for African Culture and International Understanding.
It has become a matter of considerable concern and challenge as to which of these changes need to be promoted and which to be campaigned against with a view to protection and limiting the impact of modernisation on them.
What is perhaps of greater concern for the present, apart from the acknowledged ethnic diversity of the African continent, is encapsulated in four words in the title of the
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Harnessing Culture to Promote International Understanding in Africa

Bola Akinterinwa Bola A. Akinterinwa, PhD Sorbonne, is Professor of International Relations and Director General, Nigerian Institute of International Affairs, Lagos, Nigeria. Email: dgeneral@niianet.org; directorgeneral1@hotmail.com
ulture is an important subject in international relations, especially in terms of the increasing importance of cultural diplomacy. A body of scholars categorised it into two: material and non-material. While material culture encompasses products of technology and science or artefacts, the non-material culture comprises the value system, linguistic activities, literary and artistic productions, religious beliefs, morals and history. Another body of scholars has categorised culture into three layers: cultural tradition by which a specific society is identified, for instance, a peculiar language; sub-culture, a situation in which one maintains his or her original culture within a larger culture arising when people leave their normal habitat to live elsewhere, especially in cosmopolitan areas; and cultural universals, which are about universally-shared values, for instance, the use of age and gender for categorisation of people, concept of privacy, and classification of people by marriage and descent.
Consequently, seeking to promote understanding is also synonymous with seeking knowledge about the various cultures of the peoples of the world.
Culture is precisely the main determinant for the categorisation of the world into First, Second and Third World. Put differently, it is the basis for distinguishing between developed and under-developed countries, as well as developing countries. In this regard, culture is considered as the totality of thought and tradition by which a given group of people relates within the framework of global relations. Also in this vein, when someone gives up his or her culture in order to adopt another, one talks about cultural assimilation. The French people had this policy of assimilation during the colonial era. The Portuguese once considered that when anyone is proficient in the knowledge of the Portuguese language and abandons the African way of life, such a person is civilised. Thus, culture is also politics. Additionally, when the traits of one
culture are replaced with those of another, we talk about acculturation. Grosso modo, culture is considered as civilisation but we consider it here as a synonym for understanding. The reason cannot be far-fetched. The real essence of any civilisation such as knowledge, belief, law, morals, customs, habits, and music, is understanding. The finality of culture or civilisation is about understanding. In other words, understanding is one important pillar on which civilisation is predicated. It is within this frame of mind that one can talk about a cultured man or a man of culture, that is, a man who has knowledge, who has a civilised background and who shows understanding of the ways of life of other people. Consequently, seeking to promote understanding is also synonymous with seeking knowledge about the various cultures of the peoples of the world. When a person has the capacity and capability to understand, and shows understanding of happenings in his or her environment, threats to international peace and security cannot but be easier to remove. It is also again in this context that culture is necessarily about peace and development. Thus, Harnessing Culture to Promote International Understanding in Africa, as the topic of this article, is not only about the use of culture as an instrument of international understanding, but also about the use of culture to promote greater knowledge, sustain peace and development, foster inter-state cooperation, and by so doing, prevent the threats of scourge of World War. Since culture varies from people to people, since the level of education or knowledge is also not the same, but every group of people is desirous of peace, security, knowledge, progress and development, these mutual factors of interest require that the various cultures of the world be harmonised. Without a jot of doubt, culture, in all its ramifications, is well harnessed in virtually all the developed countries. Most of them have signed various agreements on cultural cooperation, involving educational and scientific exchanges, art exhibitions, musical concerts, knowledge preservation, exchange of art and painting works, and promotion of literary works. From the foregoing, the challenge of this article cannot but be daunting. If we admit that culture is about values that are jointly held by the people, if it is about norms, about dos and donts, accepted by the people as principles to be followed, and if it is also about their creativities, the questions to be addressed are the following: how should these values, norms, artistic endowments, pattern or manner of living be harnessed, especially in Africa? What should be the purpose of the harnessing? Perhaps more
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see the scope it covers to truly understand its significance in development. The challenges Africa faces today place more emphasis on the search for alternative ways to solve its problems.
interestingly, what should be the scope of the harnessing? Most significantly, which of the components of culture should be harnessed? Or should it be assumed that all the cultures of the world are compatible? In Africa, even if it is generally posited that African states shared many cultural values, there is no disputing the fact that the behavioural pattern still varies from one country to another, especially as a result of colonial factors. For instance, colonial languages, apart from the many African languages, divide African people. This situation does not allow Africa to have a common culture that can be projected internationally. Africa is a terra cognita of several cultures, begging for harmonisation. Besides, the way of the Anglophones, who are generally more aggressive, is quite different from those of the Francophones, who are more quiet and less aggressive. Francophones are not known to quickly revolt against their government or institution. The Anglophones, particularly Nigeria, hardly waste any time in condemning perceived wrong doings of the former colonial master. In this case, how do we harness the conflicting attitudinal dispositions of the Anglophones, on the one hand, and the Francophones, Arabophones and Lusophones, on the other? There is also the fact that African cultures, especially in terms of lifestyles, have been, to a great extent, westernised and arabicised. African traditional religions have also been given foreign contents. Should these Arabic-Islamic and European-Christian slants be included in the harnessing processes? In other words, to what extent can there be an authentic African way of life, an African lifestyle that will reflect originality and the peculiarities of the peoples of Africa? There are about 2000 spoken languages in Africa. Can there be one African language that can replace French or English, or Portuguese or Spanish or Arabic which are the foreign languages adopted as official languages of the 54 countries in Africa? Even within each country of Africa, to what extent have their various cultures and civilisations been coordinated? The importance of culture cannot be emphasised enough due to the effects it has had of human societies. Cultural practices crucial to development include traditional livelihoods related to cultural forms and local practices whose skills and knowledge are passed on from generation to generation; distinctive cultural forms and artistic expressions including buildings and architecture, literature, art, dance, music, crafts, storytelling, and films; and global ethics that celebrate cultural pluralism and dialogue while promoting human rights, equality for all individuals and groups including gender equality, and democracy. These are all general variant of cultural heritage, but one can
Culture as Basis for International Understanding

The importance of culture stems further to provide avenues for dialogue and understanding. Following the UN Secretary-General, Ban Ki-moons remarks, acknowledging the special event to mark the International Year on the Rapprochement of Culture, in New York, 2010, he highlighted the importance of dialogue and understanding among people and faiths. The world we live in today is rapidly changing and growing more connected and like never before, global challenges have local impacts. In an effort to replace barriers of distrust Ban Ki-Moon, urges the importance of strengthening cooperation by expanding the space for dialogue, which would build bridges of understanding amongst states. Dialogue among cultures and religions is crucial to fulfilling the central objectives of the United Nations Charter, upholding human rights and advancing development. As a result, global leaders gathered in New York in September 2010 for the high-level plenary summit meeting on the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). This meeting further cemented the need for countries, party to the Millennium Development Goals, to further commit themselves and focus their efforts to ensure more cooperation. Far too often, distrust and ignorance among cultures and faiths have been obstacles to peace and progress. The UN Secretary-General strongly believes greater cultural understanding, particularly promoting the rapprochement of cultures, would help promote the attainment of the MDGs. Further efforts made by the United Nations to use culture as a tool for building international cooperation can be seen through its commitmentto the promotion of cultural diversity and knowledge. UNESCO has championed this effort, of which the Institute for African Culture and International Understanding (IACIU) is under. The IACIU was created as a non-profit organisation with its headquarters located in the Olusegun Obasanjo Presidential Library in Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria. IACIU is an institution at the service of Member States and Associate Members of UNESCO from Africa. The IACIU was admitted as a category 2 Institute, according to an agreement signed on 8 April, 2009, between UNESCO and the Government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. The IACIU aims at promoting reciprocal knowledge and understanding in Africa and

beyond, paying considerable attention to the African Diaspora. Its objectives range from raising awareness about the important role played by cultural diversity, to studying tangible and intangible heritage, as well as contemporary cultural expressions in the African region and the Diaspora. Likewise, the Centre for Black Culture and International Understanding, also in Nigeria, as the name itself implies, works to elevate Black culture by focusing on its recovery, preservation, promotion, and utilisation of its enduring ways of being for the purposes of holistic development, appreciation, and international understanding. The Centre which is located in Osogbo has benefited from the collections of Ulli Beier, then living in Osogbo, who became a good friend of Oba Moses Oyinlola, who reigned as the Olokuku of Okuku from 1934 1960. Both Osogbo township itself, renowned for its Osun festival, the shrine of which has been listed as a world heritage site by UNESCO and its surrounding towns, are rich in festivals and other cultural practices. Despite the fact that a lot of the materials in the Centre are about Yoruba religious practices from the 1950s to the early 1970s, the Centre also reaches out to centres of Yoruba religious practices in Brazil, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Venezuela, the US, and the West Indies. Regionally speaking, mutual appreciation of diversity among cultures creates positive and constructive engagement. In essence, techniques of building international understanding such as dialogue, is known to promote mutual understanding, knowledge, reconciliation, and peace, which are essential to social stability. In addition to the United Nations Alliance of Civilisations (UNAOC)s unique coalition, with major worldwide corporations and civil society partners to advocate for cultural diversity and inclusion through the Do One Thing for Diversity and Inclusion campaign, other initiatives aimed at dialogue and integration have been promoted in Africa. Most important is the World Festival of Black Art and Culture (FESTAC). FESTAC was first held in 1966 in Dakar, Senegal. The festival was conceived by the then president of Senegal, Leopold Sdar Senghor. Senghor was a foundation member of the Negritude movement that sought to affirm and elevate the achievements of Black people and African culture throughout the world. It sought to imbibe regional understanding within Africa, primarily showcasing and celebrating Africa. A perfect expression of this mission, the first Festival Mondial des Arts Ngres was attended by people from 37 countries, and hosted many of the greatest Black cultural emissaries of the day, including Duke Ellington, Aim Csaire, and Josephine Baker. By the second FESTAC event,
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most African countries had gained independence, freeing themselves from degrading colonial control and ever eager to send their best cultural ambassadors to the festival. FESTAC 77 was attended by thousands of people from Africa and the Diaspora. Artists included Stevie Wonder, The Sun Ra Arkestra, and Donald Byrd from the US, Tabu Ley and Franco from the Congo, Gilberto Gil from Brazil, Bembeya Jazz National from Guinea, and Louis Maholo, Dudu Pukwana, and Miriam Makeba from South Africa. The core of the festival from the organisers perspective was a two-week long colloquium where more than 200 leading Black scholars presented papers and discussed topics related to everything from arts and languages, philosophy and religion, to science and technology. By the third festival, the African Union had assumed leadership of the festival demonstrating the importance of celebrating cultural diversity for the political integration.
Culture as a Desideratum for International Understanding

Convinced that any human society is necessarily governed by rules and principles based on traditions, languages, ways of life and thought, in other words, on a set of cultural values, which reflect its distinctive character and personality, African governments established various institutional frameworks to harness these diverse cultures to promote international understanding. These include the Cultural Charter for Africa; the African Character for Cultural Renaissance (Nairobi, 2005); Plan of Action for the Cultural and Creative Industries in Africa (Algiers, 2008). As regards the Cultural Charter for Africa, it was adopted by Heads of State and Government of the Organisation of African Unity meeting in its Thirteenth Ordinary Session, in Port Louis, Mauritius, from 2nd to 5th July, 1976, to provide Africa with sound cultural policies for the development of the continent. It is a comprehensive document that primarily explores measures to strengthen the African economy through arts and culture and especially to create wealth and employment. Article 1 of this Charter states that its aims and objectives are as follows:-
to liberate the African peoples from socio-cultural conditions which impede their development in order to recreate and maintain the sense and will for progress, the sense and will for development; the rehabilitation, restoration, preservation and promotion of the African cultural heritage; the assertion of the dignity of the African and of the popular foundations of his culture;
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African Culture and International Understanding Harnessing Culture to Promote International Understanding in Africa
In using culture to promote international understanding in Africa, it is important to understand what international relations or foreign affairs is all about. Nicholson defined international relation as the study of social interactions in context where there is no higher authority to intrude or mediate and which is outside any single governmental jurisdiction. In other words, international relations simply mean relations among nations with each implementing aspects of its foreign policy which is influenced by the nature of its culture. It is also defined as interactions among cultural systems since a nation is a cultural system.
combating and eliminating all forms of alienation and cultural suppression and oppression everywhere in Africa, especially in countries still under colonial and racist domination including apartheid; the encouragement of cultural co-operation among the States with a view to strengthening African unity; the encouragement of international cultural co-operation for a better understanding among peoples within which Africa will make its original and appropriate contribution to human culture; promotion in each country of popular knowledge of science and technology; a necessary condition for the control of nature; and development of all dynamic values in the African cultural heritage and rejection of any element which is an impediment to progress.
On the African Charter for Cultural Renaissance (Nairobi, 2005), it replaces the 1976 Cultural Charter for Africa and deals with objectives and principals, African cultural diversity, identity and renaissance, cultural development, the use of African languages, the use of the mass media, the role of states in cultural development, intra-and inter-African cultural co-operation and Africa and the Africa Diaspora. The Plan of Action for the Cultural and Creative Industries in Africa (Algiers, 2008) was signed by all culture ministers at an African Union meeting in 2008 and its aim is to support the growth and development of the cultural and creative industries in Africa. Its economic objectives are to generate new resources; open new markets; strengthen the competitiveness of African cultural and creative goods and services and private and community initiatives, as well as establish an African cultural common market. Its social objectives are to foster cultural identity and new and pluralistic forums of cultural expression, and to broaden peoples participation. Its political objectives are to ensure regional integration, reduce external dependence, foster new institutional partnerships between the private and public sectors, south-south and new south-north cooperation. It addresses eleven areas for intervention: reinforcing African ownership; addressing the need for statistical, institutional and legislative capacity-building; facilitating access to markets and audience; improving infrastructure; improving working conditions; targeting and empowering women, vulnerable groups and refugees; protecting African intellectual property rights and labels; preserving African tangible and intangible cultural heritage; and mobilising resources for sustainable implementation.
It is important to interact within the realms of other states culture, with their people, institutions and ideas in order to have a good understanding about that other culture because the lack of understanding of other peoples cultural attitudes and values contribute to political, social, economic, ideological and other forms of conflict.
Therefore, the way a country behaves in the international system is linked to that countrys cultural system. According to Senator Fulbright, how well we communicate the values of our societies to others would greatly influence the shape of the world. This simply implies that we can understand how cultural relations can increase international understanding which will, in turn, result to the reduction of conflict among states, especially in Africa which is bedevilled with crisis of one form or the other. Cultural relations can therefore act as a significant vehicle for establishing understanding between different people and would effectively lessen the feelings of anxiety and hopelessness that are very common in conflicts. Thus, cultural relations is one of the most effective ways for nations to attain an active and cooperative understanding of one another by offering potential for reducing and managing the worlds ills. There is a connection between ones belief system and foreign relationship in the international system, in such a way that the decisions of political actors or leaders represent the decisions of their respective states as well as the individuals within that state. In order to understand

why someone does something, we must understand the images that others have about us. A national image has a great impact on the relations between states. If a national image which is perceived as national values, is deemed incompatible, the potential for conflict at the international level becomes very high. Just as suggested by Edward Hall that one of the main crises in the world today is humankinds relationship to its extensions, institutions, ideas as well as the relationships among the many individuals and groups that inhabit the globe, increasing international understanding through cultural awareness will help to promote international understanding in Africa. It is important to interact within the realms of other states culture, with their people, institutions and ideas in order to have a good understanding about that other culture because the lack of understanding of other peoples cultural attitudes and values contribute to political, social, economic, ideological and other forms of conflict. For example, the national image of the United States may have also played a significant role in the United States lack of seeing beyond their own ide fixe. In 1949, President Trumans Secretary of State, Dean Acheson, actually feared that democratic America would not take the Communist threat seriously enough. Thus from 1949, the plan was to exaggerate the danger posed for America by the USSR and China. In order to protect and firmly establish its national democratic image, American state leaders continued to emphasise its democratic ideals in much of the language of American policy. In the face of globalisation, the industrialised nations are entering the world market as blocs, such as the European Union (EU), the North American Free Trade Area (NAFTA) and the emerging economies such as the Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa (BRICS). Harnessing the diverse cultures in African countries will enhance their cooperative strength by consolidating their regional cooperative effort and multilateral arrangements. Diverse African cultures can also be harnessed toward the struggle for economic emancipation and attainment of social prosperity for the people of Africa. This could be achieved through continental initiatives aimed at ameliorating the stringent economic conditions existing in most African countries. In the 21st century, with the development of the supersonic means of communication and transportation, all the countries of the world have come closer to each other. Consequently, no country can successfully isolate itself from other countries, because whatever happens in one country, will inevitably impact on others, either directly or indirectly. The current global economic crisis is an ample example of how a crisis in America and Europe
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can spiral to affect the banking sector in Nigeria. History has shown the existence of mistrust and misunderstanding among countries which shaped international politics and relations for years. However, there are several problems of global concern like pollution, poverty, unemployment, terrorism and proliferation of nuclear armaments to be tackled through mutual understanding and co-operation. The symbolic force of cultural heritage cannot be underestimated as a powerful international force. Culture acts as a spring of hope, enabling a deep sense of belonging and empowerment. By preventing conflict, building peace and protecting rights of marginalised groups, intercultural exchange can help create conditions for achieving international goals such as the MDGs.
Although certain aspects of African culture may be lost to Western/ American culture, it does not remove from the pressing need to revive crucial practices as a way of improving international understanding of education, integration, development and of other cultures.
Indeed, international peace and mutual understanding is the need of the hour. Efforts and the mere existence of international organisations like the UNO, UNESCO and the AU give even more reason to promote good neighbourliness and peaceful co-existence among the people of the world. On the other hand, there are numerous ways that cultural system aid conflict and reduce cooperation. One of the simplest problems has been that of cultural imperialism whereby a dominant political or economic power can impose its power on others, or create conditions whereby its culture has preference. This was the case with most European empires (including the Spanish, French, English and Dutch). In the contemporary period, the United States is often seen as directly and indirectly aiding Americanisation, largely through companies spreading cultural commodities, as well as having strong educational, research, media and publishing industries. The debate which leads many scholars to argue that there is a crisis in African culture is primarily due to the overwhelming influence of Western culture which accompanied adopted democratic practises. The fear is that the infiltration of Western culture into African society is not only reason for Africas stagnated development levels, but also a concern for its cultural heritage. Although certain aspects of African culture may be lost to Western/
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neighbourhood, television, or radio station. In almost any city, large or small, you will find a restaurant featuring an ethnic theme the most popular being Chinese. Many cities hold international film festivals. They have small cinemas regularly showing foreign films. In the USA, satellite, cable and local television stations cater to the viewing tastes of the many immigrant and non-immigrant populations. In large metropolitan areas television programming exists in more than 15 different languages. In large metro areas radio stations broadcast programmes in a multitude of languages.
American culture, it does not remove from the pressing need to revive crucial practices as a way of improving international understanding of education, integration, development and of other cultures. There is still hope that by reviving culture as a key cornerstone of many African States foreign policy, positive steps in development will materialise into society.
Conclusion
In this paper, we highlighted the contributions of culture to development and to the promotion of international understanding in Africa and the rest of the world. It is worthy of remark that modern society is bringing together more people who speak different languages, practise different religions, hold different political views, have vastly different amounts of wealth or poverty, and more. To increase understanding amongst these different peoples within this international system, more attention must be paid to our similarities. National differences could lead to conflict at times, but we can avoid many of the disputes by understanding each others culture. Improving cultural relations are not going to solve the worlds problems, but they can certainly aid in better relations between African countries in the international system.
Achieving cultural integration has not been easy. There are certainly bigoted individuals and segregated enclaves in the USA where ideas of cultural acceptance and internationalism are rejected in bitter and often violent ways.
In the USA there are 89 national historic sites open to the public and financially-supported by the federal government. The National Park Service (NPS) manages 78 of these. Groups affiliated with the US National Park Service manage eleven others. These sites are usually large and small edifices related to the cultural history of the USA and its citizens. For example there is the Boston African American National Historic Site. Here one can find 15 pre-civil war structures relating to the history of Bostons 19th century African-American community, including the museum of Afro-American historys African Meeting House, the oldest standing African-American church in the United States. The home of Frederick Douglass, the famous abolitionist is also designated as a historical site and open to visitors. The NPS historical site at Manzanar, California marks the displacement of Japanese-Americans from their homes during World War II. This embrace of the history of its people by the federal government through the preservation of culturally-significant areas is an example of how the political requirements of living in a multicultural society demand recognition of the plurality the people. Through exhibits, seminars, and multimedia presentations these historical sites are portrayed as significant components of USA life. This education on US history includes the history of the cultural group whose story is being shared, and preserved. US racial pluralism also brings together many disparate social values under the umbrella of culture. Interracial marriages in the USA and subsequent inter-racial births have risen 5% since the 1980s. In the USA in 2010
Promoting International Understanding in the USA through Culture: Lessons for Africa
Richard K. Gordon Professor Richard Gordon of California State University, Dominguez Hills, Carson, California, USA, specialises in multicultural education. Email: rgordon@csudh.edu
he United States is a melting-pot nation, bringing in millions of people and incorporating them into an Anglo-American civilisation based on broadly shared liberal idealslife, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. A borderless American dream remains the attraction for tens of millions of documented and undocumented immigrants. The pluralistic nature of the US society begs for consistent reflection on ones cultural understanding. In the USA, whether you are discussing which restaurant, which movie, which neighbourhood, which television channel or which radio station you enjoy, there will generally be references to the nation represented in that restaurant, movie,

15% of all marriages were interracial. Offspring of intercultural marriages speak of visiting paternal relatives in one of the worlds regions while also visiting their maternal relatives in another of the worlds regions. Individuals in these blended marriages find themselves serving as cultural ambassadors among their same-race friends and relatives. These ambassadors diplomatically explain the values of their spouse, and their spouses family culture to others. These conversations act as mini-travelogues and history lessons where the listener begins to consider travelling abroad after hearing about their friends close experiences with individuals from different culture. Achieving cultural integration has not been easy. There are certainly bigoted individuals and segregated enclaves in the USA where ideas of cultural acceptance and internationalism are rejected in bitter and often violent ways. But the underlying idea of USAs melting-pot culture represents a consistent challenge for each of its citizens to confront. In this dialogue with family, neighbours, strangers, and foreigners, the cultural impulse more often than not is to accept differences. Do all Americans accept this challenge? Of course not. Are there virulent opponents of internationalism? Most certainly so. Up to this point I did not discuss the role of business in promoting international understanding. My reason for doing so is that doing business is more often a conversation about monetary relationships and not the personal relationships forming the rich and profound ideas conjured when thinking of an international and cultural relationship. Business relationships occur most often in financial sectors of major cities. They are not in the small towns, villages, and hamlets visited by people wishing to have a profound understanding of other international citizens. Business relationships are typically short-term they do not end up in marriages. The type of internationalism promoted through the uniqueness of American culture can be found in the historical support by institutions to educate and be educated in the knowledge of other people and their cultures. I do not see how business relations address multiple facets of human understanding by promoting products and services only. The formal operations of business hegemony should neither be a substitute for the promotion of internationalism nor should business hegemony be considered a response to the demands of pluralistic US demographics. The culture of education in a pluralistic society is the incubator for reinforcing international understanding among a population. A societal commitment to education is very crucial in laying the foundation in developing a curious and willing citizenry embracing internationalism.
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Numerous federal, state, local, and private institutions support and maintain an infrastructure tied to the needs for having an educated citizenry. These institutional supports directly and indirectly promote intercultural and international understanding. A higher education culture provides a fertile array of intercultural courses contributing to international understanding. Still further evidence of the promotion of international understanding in higher education is found in the number of international students and faculty studying and collaborating on numerous campuses. In higher education we also find stateside faculty collaborating with international faculty on multiple academic-related projects. The higher education web extends to students, faculty, and community members and contributes to a culture of international understanding. The structure of this web carries both visible and invisible vibrations of internationalism. A network of museums and libraries having collections and exhibits representing international and national cultures exposes individuals to common ancestral and historical cultural roots. It is very easy to see how museum and library attendance can excite a curiosity that contributes to ones cultural understanding and serve as a motivator for gathering greater understanding that perhaps leads to an international experience. Visitors to historical sites receive opportunities to participate in cultural histories having national and international bases. Given the educational nature of these sites, it seems very easy for one to acquire a broad perspective of the cultures being celebrated and remembered. Couple the culture of education with the multiplicity of arenas where cultural opportunities, cultural histories, and social awareness interact and you witness the chemistry involved in the development of the promotion of international understanding in the USA. This complex interaction has as its nexus the universally desired cultural value education. Education in a racially and culturally pluralistic society is of critical importance in promoting international understanding.
Examples of the Fulbright and Peace Corps Programmes in Fostering International Understanding
The Fulbright Scholar Programme is a very important cultural vehicle for promoting international understanding. The programme is the USA governments premier academic and cultural exchange effort. The Council for the International Exchange of Scholars (CIES) administers the Fulbright Scholars Programme. CIES is a private organisation within the Institute of International Education
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health resources, cultural activities, and managing fiscal responsibilities. They would also receive information on transportation to school, and if possible, a specific country coordinator. The office would also notify appropriate administrators and faculty of the international students arrival and major study area. There would also be an administrative emergency contact number available. If international students and faculty arrive with their families this office would locate appropriate elementary or secondary schools for children of the international couple. The office would also seek administrators and teachers in schools who would foster a positive experience for the family. The International Office of International Affairs in conjunction with individual academic departments would have the responsibility for recruiting international faculty. University deans in considering the hiring of new faculty could impress the idea that international research is a significant component of the promotion process. Deans would also look for prospective hires having an international agenda on their list of goals. Department officials would also encourage international opportunities for faculty, such as CIES and IIE. This office would also help faculty discover funding opportunities for international opportunities when necessary. In internationalising the campus, an Office of Faculty Development would sponsor international scholars on campus. There could be forums where international faculty would speak on topics of interest. These talks would expose students to the international learning community. The Office of Faculty Development would provide opportunities for social activities involving international scholars, students and others. Within the Faculty Development office there would be policies in place supporting internationalism as part of the promotion process. Of course we see curriculum offerings in colleges and universities as another way in which the culture of education promotes international understanding. Comparative literature courses, courses in international business culture, comparative history courses, and world language studies represent a very small sampling of courses offered in college and university curricula in the USA. Students in the USA can study Swahili and Sanskrit, Hausa and Hindi languages. There are many professional organisations such as the Japan and US Teacher Education Consortium whose membership seeks to involve them in crosscultural collaborations on international research projects. These international conferences and meetings would be an excellent resource for promoting international understanding. The additional benefit, besides promoting international understanding is of course, the professional
(IIE). Two of IIEs regional offices are in Africa. IIE in Cairo, Egypt represents the Middle East and Northern Africa (MENA). IIE in Addis Ababa represents IIEs presence in sub-Saharan Africa. These regional offices provide services in leadership development, higher education services including scholarship and exchange programmes, and high quality study tours. The federal focus on internationalism can also be found in the Peace Corps programme. The Peace Corps traces its roots and mission to 1960, when former president John F. Kennedy challenged students at the University of Michigan to serve their country in the cause of peace by living and working in developing countries. From that inspiration grew an agency of the federal government devoted to world peace and friendship. Since that time, more than 200,000 Peace Corps Volunteers served in 139 host countries. The Peace Corps has three goals: (a) helping the people of interested countries in meeting their need for trained men and women; (b) helping to promote a better understanding of Americans on the part of the peoples served; and (c) helping to promote a better understanding of other peoples on the part of Americans (Peace Corps). The federal commitment to internationalisation promoting the exchange of cultures in collaboration with government and non-profit agencies expresses the cultural power of education. Education influences cultural understanding. CIES, IIE, and the Peace Corps are three agencies heavily influenced by federal policy and a commitment to education that foster international understanding. Underlying that commitment to international understanding is a dedication to the highlyprized cultural value of education. This recognition of the cultural value of education is evident at the federal level and also in institutions of higher education. Internationalisation of university and college programmes is drawing renewed interest among higher education leaders. Universities that place a value on educating students for international experiences recognise the dynamic value of culture. In higher education culture is a dynamic construct not easily understood but highly worthy of continual discussion. An Office of International Affairs would have the responsibility of housing several individual programmes. Two student-centred programmes housed in the Office of International Affairs would include Student Study Abroad Programme and the International Student Office. The latter office would advise international students on campus. The office would also monitor student academic and social progress from arrival to departure. Students visiting this office would receive information on visa requirements, housing (dormitory or off-campus) and

exchange of knowledge. The culture of education is reinforced in the shared concern for improving ones discipline. Faculty exchanges could be initiated and facilitated during an international conference. My sixmonth visiting scholar experience in Japan at Tokyo Gakugei University resulted from my attendance at an international conference.
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address the rise of an international consciousness. Higher education partnerships and the role of higher education development in Africa have been sorely neglected in the past few decades, said David Hansen, a senior fellow at the Association of Public and Land Grant Universities (APLU).
Museums are part of it

While the university is one area where a commitment to a culture of education, can generate international understanding, there are other venues outside the university or college promoting international understanding. The USA has an array of museums having international themes. The soon to be opened (2015) National Museum of African American History and Culture, the Schoenberg Museum and the Du Sable Museum all have collections devoted to sharing the cultural heritage of Africans and Africans in the USA. These museums are supported by federal, state, local and private funds. This governmental and private support is an indication of how once again the culture of education, finds ways in which to promote international understanding. The African diaspora can also be found at the Afro-Peruvian museum in Zaa, Peru. Zaa is a small city of 39,000 inhabitants in the Lambayeque region of northwest Peru. I visited the Afro-Peruvian museum in Zaa on two separate occasions. The museums mission is to protect valued cultural artefacts, and educate youth and others concerning the African influences in Peru and to teach dance and music of the Africans of Peru. It would be unreasonable to compare the resources of the Afro-Peruvian museum contrasted with that of the National Museum of African American History and Culture. Yet the former museums education is similar to that of the latter. That mission is education focused. A nations belief in the cultural value of education, channelled through its museums and other cultural repositories has an enormously valuable effect on promoting international understanding. The educational value of museums cannot be overlooked in this discussion concerning ways in which culture promotes international understanding.
The African diaspora has remarkable reach. Formalising that reach through meaningful engagement with other world cultures is the context within which we speak of promoting international understanding.
The APLU, is a non-profit association of public research universities, spearheading the African-US Higher Education Initiative. One aim of the Initiative is to increase awareness of the vital role universities play in the continents social and economic development. APLU sponsored partnerships exist between Addis Ababa University and the University of Connecticut, the University of Malawi and Michigan State University, and the University of Cape Town and the University of Cincinnati. Establishing, shepherding, and sharing protocols and results similar to the APLU initiative throughout African universities can assist in promoting international understanding.
Lessons for Africa

In Africas multiple regions, one can certainly find racial and cultural pluralism. Within these regions the cultural pluralism among citizens of the various countries is evident. In these regions in terms of promoting a culture of internationalism, the educational resources of higher education can be highlighted, strengthened, and shaped to
Each year many African scholars commence scholarly activities in the USA under the auspices of the Fulbright Programme for Foreign Students. For example, 12 students from Botswana travelled to US universities between 2008 and 2011. There were 50 Fulbright grantees from Nigeria, and 25 from Senegal during the same period. Fulbright scholars from other African nations are represented on faculties of higher education throughout the continent. These scholars are ambassadors for promoting international experience. Upon return to their home country they could engage in scholarly activities to disseminate information about their experience. They could encourage others to apply for the Fulbright award. With appropriate administrative support they could begin the type of collaborations offered in the APLU African-US Higher Education Initiative.
The instinct to travel beyond geographical borders may be as profound a marker of our humanity as is the instinct to educate. Trust your spirit. Listen to your spirit. Internationalism is a state of mind sparked by imagination and wonder. Yes, there is a comfort in home. And yet as
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African Culture and International Understanding communities in eastern Africa and continues to influence the cultural dispositions of the east African communities.
humans our home is the entire planet. The African diaspora has remarkable reach. Formalising that reach through meaningful engagement with other world cultures is the context within which we speak of promoting international understanding. If there is a lesson for Africa that I can humbly share it is this. Harness the splendour of your educational systems primarily through the university. Use your educational systems to promote multicultural understanding. Utilise your universities to plough the minds of your students with a message touting the advantages of an international experience. Press into the hearts of your political leaders the need to honour cultures, ideas, and traditions through support of museums, libraries, and historical sites having broad significance to your population and at the same time be inviting for others to visit as well. African musicians and artists receive international acclaim. Support more of this talent by entering into reciprocal arrangements with artists from other nations. What are the service arenas similar to the Peace Corps that Africans can export? Surely an African government can recruit specialists, to share with other nations, ideas, thoughts, and values unique to the continent and lacking in other of the worlds regions.
Diversity and Dynamics of African Cultural Expressions in Eastern Africa

Silverse Lisamula Anami
The conspicuous landscapes of eastern Africa highlighted by the expansive and ever cavernous Great Rift Valley, the east African coast, the Great Lakes and the highlands, which, coupled with the towering Mt. Kilimanjaro, Mt. Kenya, Nyandarua ranges, Mt. Elgon, Mt. Ruwenzori, Mau Ranges, Serengeti and Ngorongoro craters, appear to host the greatest secrets of the east African region. The vast range of flora and fauna provide the communities with greater prospects influencing the formation of new trends of creativity and a broad spectacle of cultural diversity amongst the peoples of eastern Africa. The tropical, the arid and semi-arid seasons of east Africa and indeed the changing climatic patterns of the universe, form the consortium of factors that determine the essence and creative trends of cultural practices adopted by communities and individual practitioners that interact with these physical features of eastern Africa. This paper endeavours therefore, to highlight the fundamental importance of cultural practices formulated on the basis of the above mentioned historical, environmental and natural features of eastern Africa. The paper proposes some practical interventions that could be deployed to ascertain viability and the ultimate promotion of the diverse cultural expressions of the communities. The host of innovative cultural expressions adopted by the human society are, by all means, the by-products of coping mechanisms that form the fabric of society. This paper takes cognisance of the migratory trends and the overall effects created in the cultural lives of the communities.
Silverse Anami is a culture and development Consultant in Kenya. Email: anamisilverse@yahoo.com
Ethnic Diversity in East Africa It makes a lot of sense to discuss culture in terms of specific communities, whether founded on ethnicity or otherwise. Ethnic communities in east Africa are viewed in three major classifications, namely; Bantu, Nilotes and Cushites. While Bantu-speaking communities are the majority, contemporary distribution shows a remarkable evidence of socio-economic integration amongst them, producing a mosaic of ethnicities and cultural practitioners. These forms of integration have tended to infuse cultural attributes amongst the communities without necessarily making them wholesomely homogeneous. The ethnic communities of eastern Africa have continued to adhere to their ancestral origins as their source of inspiration, social identity as well as their economic and political empowerment.
he east African sub-region provides numerous archaeological activities in our search for answers to fundamental concerns of the human race. Indeed, the `cradle of humanity has continued to attract an inflow of community immigrants from all parts of the world. Movements from the southern, central and northern Africa converged in eastern Africa while sailors, traders, missionaries, explorers, tourists and cultural practitioners from the middle east, far east, Europe and other parts of the world made historical stop-over and/or settlements along the east African coast and its mainland. It is believed by many communities in east Africa that all migratory movements headed eastwards. This trend of migration informs the magnetic pull that impacted on the movements and eventual settlement of many

Some communities have common origins while others have come from diverse backgrounds with a range of shared opportunities. The pastoralist Nilotic communities migrated southwards from Sudan and settled in parts of Uganda and around Lake Victoria in Kenya and Tanzania. A large part of the Nilotes has since settled in the highlands of Kenya and Uganda and has continued to practise their pastoralist lives up to date. The Nilotic groups that travelled south through the western route were forced to change their pastoralist lives as their livestock were often attacked and killed by tsetse flies. The Luo Nilotes adopted the unfamiliar agricultural lifestyle which reverberates well with the lake region conditions. This is only but an example of many occupational adjustments which impact greatly on the diversity of cultural expressions associated with the migrating communities. Essentially, the communities creatively developed their cultural diversity on the basis of their long-term interaction with nature and the environment. The communities socio-economic and political aspirations are mostly inspired and propelled by the motivation to strengthen their identity through the economic and political empowerment of their citizens. The different communities have contributed greatly towards human creativity, cultural diversity leading to innovations that define their identity, governance systems and life aspirations. The mainstream ethnic communities of Eastern Africa to mention just a few include the Luhya, Luo, Kalenjin, Kikuyu, Mijikenda, Taita, Akamba, Maasai, Pokot, Turkana, Ateso, Sukuma, Saboat, Karamojong, Nyamwezi, Chagaa, Hehe, Ngoni, Abagusi, Dorobo, Ogiek, Hutu, Tutsi, Twa, Baganda, Banyankole, Somali, Orma, Mbeya, Tabora, Kuria, Samia, Digo, Banyoro, Suba, Swahili and Borana. Some of these communities are found in more than one country owing to the pre-colonial harmonious coexistence amongst them. It is worthwhile to note that most of the ethnic communities of East Africa have lived together harmoniously celebrating the richness of their cultural heritage through intermarriages, social integration and assimilation enhanced by shared opportunities. However, in other instances, some communities have been engulfed in endless inter-ethnic conflicts arising from perceived differences between them, mostly caused by political rivalry and competition for power and/or resources. The example of such instances can be traced to the 1994 genocide in Rwanda involving the Hutu and the Tutsi communities and the 2007/2008 post election violence that involved the Kikuyu, Kalenjin, Luo, Luhya and other communities of Kenya that fervently competed in the disputed general elections of 2007. The double decade long strives and restlessness that characterises life in Somalia is the sad example of inter-clan conflicts that have constantly
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tormented the human society in Eastern Africa.
Human Creativity
The communities naturally endeavour to invent procedures and techniques that could facilitate their continued survival within the context of the environment and the times of the moment. In this regard, the gift of creativity bestowed upon humankind becomes extremely handy. Of course there would always be occasions when some individual practitioners would prove to be more creative under the same circumstances. It is in this respect that the United Nations fraternity recognises the significance of human creativity as the fundamental source for the development of Cultural Diversity. In this regard, it is appreciated that within the framework of the 2003 UNESCO Convention for Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity, the Basoga communities of Uganda have embarked on the lucrative programme of revitalising their old tradition of bark cloth making. This initiative is geared to enhance the protection of the traditional skills of making bark clothes while safeguarding the intangible cultural heritage of the communities. In the process, the communities concerned will endeavour to promote cultural diversity in the region while leveraging on human creativity as a strategy for the development of cultural industries in Uganda and beyond. In this way, it is worthwhile to note that East African communities and indeed the individual cultural practitioners bear the sovereign responsibility to propagate the protection, sustenance and the ultimate safeguarding of their cultural heritage as they posses, not only the skills of inventing the cultural expressions, but also the capacity to host and transmit them to the younger generations as their symbol of identity and continuity. Human creativity amongst the communities of Eastern Africa has given rise to the development of spectacular innovations including basketry, pottery, hand crafts, sculpture, arts and design, architecture, weaving, embroidery, performing arts, music, dance and theatre, storytelling, poetry, drama, puppetry, rock art, singing games, ritual arts and masquerades amongst others. This undertaking, no doubt, promises to inspire vast indulgence in the promotion of cultural industries around the world.
Some Creative Masterpieces of East Africa

The typical innovations created by the peoples of Eastern Africa cover the wider spectrum of manifestations that represent the identity and aspirations of the local communities and which are actualised through a variety of
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and Uganda, the Pokot of Kenya and Uganda, the Somali, Borana and Orma of Northern Kenya, Somali and Ethiopia, plus other pastoralist communities of Eastern Africa. Sculpture: The carvings and sculpture of the Akamba and Makonde communities of Kenya and Tanzania respectively, are household commodities in the cultural industries of eastern Africa. They have admirable profiles at the east African and the international platform. The sculptures make a fundamental appeal to the tourism and cultural industries in east Africa. There is no doubt that the sculptures, most of which illustrate the interaction between the sculptors and the wildlife of east Africa, are an important attribute to the repertoire of the eastern Africa cultural expressions for which special market outlets are designated around many tourist destinations. The sculptures form the bulk of the regions cultural goods and indeed the leading product amongst the cultural industries of the east African region. Dress code, hair plaits and body marks of the Maasai communities of Kenya and Tanzania are a particularly significant trade mark of the east African people. These expressions are also used to authenticate the social status of the individuals and are especially useful for age set initiation in many communities. The Maasai, the Turkana, the Samburu, the Pokot, the Rendille, the Karamojong, the Somali, the Swahili and the Saboat communities among others have their indigenous dress codes which form the basis of their identity. These cultural art forms have lately been incorporated in the silhouette of cultural industries of east Africa. They form the traditional costume of the respective communities and the showbiz of the relevant cultural practitioners. Traditional necklaces are associated with the indigenous Turkana, the Pokot, the Karamojong, the Saboat, the Kalenjin, the Samburu, the Rendille and the Maasai communities of Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. The artefacts symbolise the marital and family status of the individual practitioners and the community. They are mainly used to define the social and cultural standings of individuals and practitioners in society thus providing a systematic approach to interpersonal relations. This cultural resource is essentially useful for promotion of value systems and social integration. In contemporary times, the artefacts have widely been used for aesthetic embellishments and enhancement of art and design. The necklaces are currently an essential and indeed popular commodity that is visible in almost all spheres of cultural industries in east Africa. It is worth mentioning that the diverse shades of necklaces have attracted a wide range of entrepreneurship across the continent, mostly popular with the youth and the female gender.
cultural expressions including electronic production, oral dissemination, traditional and technological publications and distribution of the expressions. Some of the significant expressions include: the performing arts, oral traditions, indigenous knowledge, cultural ceremonies, festivals, rites of passage, handcrafts, architectural designs, traditional medicine, indigenous games, film, theatre, book publications, culinary arts, traditional farming, food ways, conflict resolution, storytelling, music and dress codes. In Eastern Africa, like most of the other African communities, cultural performances reflect the aesthetic principles and ethical values of the society. Some of the performances serve the purpose of communicating and educating the young thus passing on language values, literary traditions, historical occurrences and styles. It could be used to articulate peoples traditions and aspirations. Due to the roles that music and other performing arts play, greater focus has been directed at the art form to enhance the economic output that is attributed to it. In Kenya, music industry accounts for about 5% of the national economy thus creating opportunities for enhanced employment and wealth creation. Most of these attributes are readily passed on to the younger generations and are recognised as the communitys source of identity and continuity, To sample just a few, we examine the following cultural forms of eastern Africa: Music traditions: A greater part of the East African populace, like other cultural organizations, recognise music making as an essential and viable means of enhancing the societys commitment to safeguarding music culture of the communities while creating appropriate avenues for dissemination of the artworks. Traditional Benga music is no doubt a masterpiece of the east African great composers like Daudi Kabaka, John Nzenze, Daniel Mwai Kamau, Owino Misiani and Susan Owiyo. Benga music genre forms the character and benchmark for music development in eastern Africa dating back from the 50s and the 60s and spreading to the contemporary moments. Along with this singular genre are the diversity of traditional sounds and rhythms enshrined in inflections of the ceremonies and rituals of the diverse communities. Handcrafts: The handcrafts of eastern Africa are both functional and artistic in nature. They are utilised in all spheres of life including rites of passage, for example, the walking stick of the Maasai people, which is awarded to the moran following the Enkipaata age set ceremony. It is the peoples symbol of identity and serves to recognise the age set of the individual moran in Tanzania and Kenya. The other East African communities that practice this heritage include the Kalenjin of Kenya, the Karamojong in Kenya

The Sengenya, Isukuti, Atenusu drums and associated dance movements of the Digo, Giriama, Duruma (Mijikenda), Isukha, Idakho (Luhya) and the Ateso communities of Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, respectively, are renowned musical drum sets popular for their aesthetic appeal to the bearers, the communities and respective practitioners. The drum sets are widely used during ceremonial occasions as they are readily adaptable amongst many other communities of eastern Africa. These drum sets are renowned for their vibrant and sentimental percussive beats and the rhythmic throbs that characterise the climax of performances of these art forms. The Sengenya, Isukuti and Atenusu art forms, which incorporate the art of constructing the instruments and then the execution of the concerted drum beats plus the associated songs and dance activities, remain to be the most insightful cultural performances in the east African region. At the moment the art forms have been identified by the communities concerned and the respective government authorities for nomination to UNESCO for inscription on the Representative List of the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. The associated art forms continue to flourish within the tourist, social and cultural platforms. The spectacular coronation drums, songs and dances of the Baganda Community in Uganda are renowned for their dynamism, addiction and inspiration. The aesthetic capital of the Baganda dance exploits is always tremendous and a sight to behold, enabling the art form to travel widely within east Africa and beyond. Within the context of the traditions of the Baganda community, all drums belong to the Kabaka (king of the Baganda). When the Kabaka presents a chief with any office, he confers upon him a drum. A person so promoted is said to have èaten a drum (alidde Engoma) or if a son takes his fathers place, it is said that he has èaten his fathers drum (alidde engoma ya kitaawe). In 2011, the reigning Kabaka Ronald Muwenda Mutebi II inaugurated a new set of six Baganda drums which he named Buganda Bummu. The newly established Buganda Bummu drums were commissioned as a symbol of unity among the Baganda, a campaign, Kabaka Mutebi II, has spearheaded since his coronation as King of Buganda in 1993. He appointed the Nkusu clan to manage the functions of the Buganda Bummu as the main drummers of these symbolic and culturally functional drums set. In essence, the Buganda Bummu drums have joined a long list of other drums that were similarly established by past Kings of Buganda for various thematic functions. For a long time, court functions of the Baganda were elaborate with the deployment of a
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large number of drum ensembles belonging to the Kabaka. Each group of drums was named and men were specifically designated to take up residence at the Lubiri (palace) for the exclusive duty of pasting the drums. In contemporary times, there are fewer drums utilised as a huge score of the traditional drums were lost during Kabaka Mutesa Is reign due to the many civil wars, battles and fires which arose out of the perennial inter-ethnic power struggles and conflicts. Besides, modern lifestyles seem to be more demanding than the traditional past when citizens were contented with voluntary services to the royalty. In recent times, the financial capabilities of the Kabaka appear to be constrained as his influence is limited to promotion of cultural functions of the communities. There are, no doubt, practical difficulties in the royalty maintaining an army of drum-beaters without commensurate revenues and/or returns that can be ploughed back into the trade. The drummers prefer more profitable occupations hence they have ventured into business concerns created by the trend of cultural industries and tourism. A large number of traditional drums have fallen into disuse either for reasons of economy or for lack of drummers with knowledge of specialised or classical drum beats. In most cases, the whereabouts of the designated ceremonial drums is unknown to the practitioners. Many researchers have launched investigations into the essence and significance of the Baganda drums with the view of strengthening their viability, culture and ultimate contribution to the promotion of community life. Other spectacles of the cultural diversity of east Africa include, the dodo dance movements of the Luo communities in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, attributed to female gender as an entertainment and recreational masterpiece capable of driving through the intrinsic domains of the practitioners and spectators. The Taarab music of the Zanzibari communities in the United Republic of Tanzania is a prominently cherished heritage of the east African communities. The spread of Taarab music around eastern African continues to espouse the interest of the bearers and practitioners especially in the traditions, beliefs, procedures, rituals, skills, knowledge and cultural practices associated with the Kaya sacred forests of the Mijikenda communities on the East African Coast as well as other indigenous communities of East Africa.
Linguistic Diversity in East Africa

The communities of East Africa can best be classified as language groups on account of the vast diversity of languages and language dialects used to disseminate their cultures. The ethnic communities are mostly referred to by
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own language, however, the majority of them are Bantu languages, and large proportions of Kiswahili language is made up of Bantu words and expressions. It belongs to no one ethnic group and is spoken all over the country. It is used in schools as a language of communication, in administration and in commerce. People speak it freely and eloquently and, although there are different dialects, it is truly a `lingua franca of the East African region. Whiteley for instance, suggest that: ìf Swahili was the language of the country in Tanganyika, in Kenya, it was the language of towns, especially Nairobi, where people from all parts of the country found it as convenient bulwark against the loneliness of a city life as well as a reality tool to exploit attractions which the city offered.
their language dialects. In most cases, the languages of the communities coupled with the national language policies and medium of communication tend to act as the bottle neck or barrier to their integration process and indeed their source of strive and general indifference. The Bantu speaking communities may have common intonation but they nevertheless remain strangers to each other as they would, more often than not, need an interpreter between them. The linguistic diversity, therefore, could prove to be an impediment to the process of integration, cohesiveness and intercultural cooperation amongst the communities. But the need to revitalise and safeguard the indigenous languages cannot be underestimated as it is the languages of the communities that are the custodian and the vehicle of transmission for their diverse cultural attributes. Indeed, it has scientifically been accepted that the protection and enrichment of the linguistic diversity of the nations could guarantee the communities of sustained stability in their history and indigenous knowledge as well as promote the flexibility of creative management of their oral traditions. On the other hand, the people of eastern Africa, particularly Tanzania, have developed policies for the promotion of Kiswahili as the common language for the diversity of communities and people of The United Republic of Tanzania. The use of a singular language, Kiswahili, throughout the country tends to unite the citizens beyond their ethnic boundaries. It is apparent that the chances of conflict arising amongst ethnic communities that share the same language were largely remote. The promotion of Kiswahili as the lingua franca of Tanzania, by the founding father of the Republic of Tanzania, Mwalimu Julius Kambarage Nyerere, played a significant role in the sustenance of peace and tranquillity amongst the peoples of Tanzania. A renowned writer, Samuel Huntington, in his publication, The Clash of Civilisations and the remarking of World Order (1996:59-67), observes that `the central elements of any culture and civilisation are language and religion....people define their identity by what they are not. He confirms that Kiswahili language does form an important aspect of the identity of the people of Tanzania. Whiteley traced the origin of Kiswahili to the long term interaction of the Arab immigrants with the Bantu dialects of the East African Coast. The evolution of the Kiswahili language and its ultimate growth made it to be recognised as a medium of communication for traders along the trade routes. As a result, Kiswahili has flourished among the East African communities becoming an integral part of the East African society. Despite the fact that each ethnic group has its
National Cultural Policies

At the dawn of the millennium, governments and government agencies around the world were hard pressed by local and international public watch-dogs to demonstrate purposeful strategies of propelling the society into a more meaningful future with clear performance targets. This was well outlined in the much publicised Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) geared towards reduction of poverty and attainment of sustainable development while guaranteeing equitable distribution of resources and opportunities. Indeed, the involvement of communities in the planning and overall implementation of development initiatives has ignited new enthusiasm in the development process. The countries of eastern Africa, in reviewing their national development agenda, embraced the approach of strategic planning which informed all state agencies in their policy development and overall implementation of the Millennium Development Goals. The culture sector, which was perennially left out of the mainstream government management strategies found solace and inspiration in the UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity adopted by the UNESCO General Conference in November, 2001 and the euphoric craving for change and inclusiveness in the management of public affairs as a trend for the new millennium. Indeed, national cultural policies in east Africa were greatly influenced by the universal declaration on recognition and promotion of cultural diversity on one side and the development of the East African Commission for Culture and Sports and overall revitalisation of the East African Community on the other. This development has provided a platform for consistent consultations at the East African Community level where a joint committee was established to review national policies with the grand objective of harmonising them to develop a regional culture and sports policy framework. This would

lead to the establishment of an East African Commission for Culture and Sports. Although the momentum for establishment of the regional commission has slowed down, the opportunities that the East African Community Common Market and the public-private partnership have created have greatly enhanced cultural cooperation and the development and promotion of cultural industries at all levels. Cultural programmes, such as the renowned `Tusker Project Fame the `Spotlight on Kenyan Music, the `Lamu Cultural Festival, the `Sawa Sawa Festival, the `Kikwetu Festival, the Busara Music Festival; the `Kenya Music Week; the `Sakata I and II Dance Festivals; all sponsored by the corporate community, have greatly revitalised the performing arts and music industry in East Africa. The national cultural policies of the Republic of Kenya and the Republic of Uganda as well as the draft Culture and Sports Policy of the East African Community recognise and acknowledge the role and significance of the UNESCO standard-setting instruments, particularly the conventions on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions and the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity amongst others. In this respect, the States Parties of the East African Community, in collaboration with other State Parties of the conventions are actively participating in the implementation of the above-mentioned conventions. This provides immense benefits in terms of visibility for the conventions and their objectives, with utmost focus on the protection and promotion of culture as a tool for social integration of the communities and sustainable development. The promotion of cultural industries is perhaps the most strategic initiative to guarantee the development of cultural diversity in eastern Africa. In this regard, nongovernmental organisations in Kenya are involved in the International Fund for Cultural Diversity project on `Mapping for Cultural Industries in Kenya and organisation of a `Consultative Forum for Cultural Practitioners. The indulgence of cultural practitioners in the development and implementation of the UNESCO Conventions provides the necessary visibility and inspiration to promote the diversity of cultural expressions and the wider spectrum of cultural industries. The role of non-governmental organisations (NGO) in the development of creative cultural industries in Africa has been a challenge as many such organisations lack the necessary resources to spearhead sustained implementation of the initiatives. In Eastern Africa, some success stories can be said of the partnerships between three NGOs namely: AcaoCommunitaria of BRASIL (Rio
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de Janeiro) with 40 years experience, the Lake Victoria Network of Culture and Arts (LAVINCA) of Kisumu (Kenya) and Mansion des Jeunes de Kimisagara of Kigali (Rwanda), have continued to undertake useful activities aimed at promoting the creative cultural industries across the region while underlining the south-south cooperation as a viable strategy for cooperation, collaboration and sustainable development. The above mentioned NGOs network has continued to conduct useful joint programmes supported by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), especially strengthening capacity in the promotion of creative cultural industries amongst cultural practitioners in development countries within the context of the southsouth cooperation.
Conclusion
It is certainly not feasible to document the entire spectrum of the gems that represent the diversity of cultural heritage of communities in a short paper. Considering that the ultimate aim of this paper is to shed light on trends that impact upon the protection and indeed promotion of cultural diversity in the east Africa region, we could now proceed to consider some practical conclusions that would guarantee continuous protection of cultural diversity in eastern Africa, as a strategy for the attainment of sustainable development for communities. Specifically, I would propose that the following measures be undertaken, within the prospects and aspirations of the relevant communities to embrace the potential of their cultural innovations as a tool for sustained development:
Government as well as non-governmental institutions should undertake to, continuously, work in collaboration with relevant communities on the identification of cultural elements that are acceptable attributes for sustenance of human development; development of elaborate thematic inventories of cultural expressions that could be enlisted to inform society on the essence and prospects of the expressions, thus providing an essential reference for the younger generations; develop the necessary policy framework that would inspire the promotion of the cultural elements inscribed in the inventories; undertake a comprehensive baseline survey that could inform the trends of acceptance of the cultural elements that support the aspirations of the society;
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critical mass of scientifically literate citizenry. We need to mobilise our intellectual resources to save our planet Earth. Formal science education (informal as well) has much to offer in helping to develop and strengthen knowledge and skills required to take action to counteract those debilitating human conditions that persist for a significant percentage of the African population. Our current approaches to education in science still perpetuate a way of thinking that is not in alignment with preparing our (African) youth to develop the knowledge and skills required for active participation in todays complex world. The application of knowledge has become one of the key sources of growth in the global economy, and precisely for this reason the term Knowledge Economy (KE) has been coined to reflect this increased importance of knowledge. This emphasis on knowledge economy, or the knowledge revolution as it is sometimes called, is manifest in different ways: there are closer links between science and technology ; there is increased importance of science and culture and so greater attention is given to the complementary frameworks of modern science and indigenous knowledge systems (IKS); there is increased advocacy for socio-scientific issues (social issues that have a scientific basis and are of significant importance to the society/community) to be considered in the course of students formal education as a way of connecting science education to the goals of sustainable development The central issue in this article is about some aspects of culture and how they impact on science education in contemporary South Africa. Culture is given its widest interpretation here, as a way of life of a particular country, to include the language, the constellation of belief systems including religion, values, social practices and so on. More specifically, this article discusses some critical questions arising from much contestation about approaches to education in science which have failed to provide contemporary students with the opportunity to see the relevance of studying science. Young peoples interest in the study of science-related courses is on the decline in South Africa and indeed worldwide. The argument here, is that natural and social worlds have co-evolved in cultures, and that focusing on cultural issues on how we teach science is one way of ultimately seeking to increase the socio-cultural relevance of science and science education for improved access and motivation.
initiate a mutual corporate approach to facilitate consistent intervention in the protection and promotion of cultural diversity while upholding the principles of integration and cohesiveness; create opportunities for promotion of awareness and mutual respect for the gems in the vast repertoire of cultural diversity within the prospects of interculturalization and dialogue amongst cultures; and develop mechanisms of interfacing culture and education as a strategy to incorporate and mitigate upon the effects of globalisation while promoting sustainable development amongst communities.
The communities of eastern Africa are duty bound to protect their heritage but the same cannot be left to nonskilled practitioners. The need to build capacities amongst the creators and practitioners of the foreseen cultural elements is paramount. To achieve this, there would be need to create opportunity for partnerships and synergy as a strategy to mobilise international assistance to support the specific national concerns.
Cultural Issues in Science Education in South Africa

Gilbert Onwu Professor Gilbert O. M. Onwu is Emeritus Professor, Faculty of Education, Research Directorate, University of Pretoria, South Africa. Email: gilbert.onwu@yahoo.com
Introduction
ur world is in crisis. Our continent (Africa) in particular, is facing daunting challenges with respect to access to education and health care; averting deepening poverty and worsening environmental degradation such as erosion and loss of biodiversity; access to clean water and improved sanitation; access to energy; enhancing food production to meet the needs of growing populations; addressing income inequity; enhancing women empowerment and emancipation especially rural women; lack of democracy and good governance; poor infrastructural development and so on. How should we best address this litany of issues of human development, equity and sustainability? What should a relevant science education look like within that context? Our ability to provide lifes essentials of water, food, shelter, energy and good governance will require not only major advances in science and technology but also a
Calling for a Shift

In this article, I advance a rationale for a shift in emphasis of science education from one that is characterised by a view of science that is disconnected from social issues to

one that emphasizes science as a human enterprise that is embedded in socio-cultural or environmental issues. The shift is especially necessary in the South African context for meeting the requirements of multicultural science in the national science curriculum statement, as opposed to a monoculture science that tends to serve the interest of a privileged few. It seems that the claim that science is important has not always been accompanied by the knowledge of what kind of science and curriculum is responsive to students in the context in which they live, or what kind of science translates into wealth and improved quality of life in Africa. School science must seek to do more than just enabling students to succeed in higher levels of school science. The subject is only one among many other intellectual resources or subjects that students can draw from in order to succeed at that level. In South Africa, multicultural science education as envisaged, should aim at providing equitable opportunities for both black and white students of varying backgrounds and cultural groups, that would facilitate an understanding of the identities constructed by individuals from the various cultural groups, and how these identities are sustained or can be reconstructed to include scientific reality. From a multiculturalist perspective, what is being suggested here is basically this: that science is contextual, is culturally produced and that cultures have disparate ways of understanding the natural world and natural phenomena, and that the different ways of knowing should be recognised by orthodox science as well. In South Africa, with such an understanding in mind, there are areas of empowerment in science education that a multicultural approach could possibly enhance. Some of these areas include the incorporation of students culture and language in science teaching, and collaborative participation of the community in schools and science classrooms. It would indeed be problematic for science education to be primarily aimed at promoting future success in the culture of schooling only, without links beyond school science classrooms, to communities, for self- and social empowerment and transformation. For this reason, there is an urgent need for the augmentation of existing South African national strategies designed to enhance the quality, and increase the number of qualified science teachers in the system, especially of those able to upgrade the conceptualisation of school science that is centred on social empowerment and school community collaboration, especially in rural disadvantaged communities. Thus, a relevant and indeed socially responsible science education is that which is intended within the school curriculum to
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maximise the importance of science education in helping students to respond to the challenges in the communities where they live. Reformulating the agenda of science education is long overdue such that it is oriented towards facilitating understanding of both students and the general public of the personal benefits of science, and catalysed in particular, by collaborative participation of the community in schools and science classrooms. This participative/partnership model could serve as the basis for developing a different kind of community of practice in science classrooms, and for producing a greater number of scientifically literate people in the community. In the developing countries of Africa, however, including South Africa, the bond between formal science and society is still relatively weak and there are gaps between activities of the scientific communities and the public understanding of science. The upshot is the absence of a strong science culture among various constituent stakeholders, who under normal circumstances ought to be the drivers of scientific and technological development. The prevailing state of affairs however, has its antecedents. In the 1970s and 80s when most African countries formulated their science and technology policies, the developmental agenda and technological opportunities were different, and regrettably, most of the policies focused on organisational aspects rather than on programmes. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s science and technology received scant attention by way of funding support, in spite of the glaring evidence from South East Asia and other regions that investment in science and technology was really worthwhile because of its direct and indirect benefits. Almost a generation later, Africa is yet to recover from the missed opportunity.
Cultural contexts and Issues of Relevance in South Africas National Science Curriculum
A discernible consequence of Africas low investment in science and technology is the declining quality of science and engineering education at all levels of educational systems. Student enrolment in science, engineering and technology subjects at primary, secondary and tertiary levels is also falling. Like other African countries, South Africa is faced with problems of low uptake of, and underperformance in science subjects. A demonstrably low percentage of all postsecondary education degrees are in mathematics, science or engineering. South Africas ratio of scientists and engineers to the population stands at 3.3 per 1000 compared with 21.5 per 1000 and 71.1 per 1000 in the US and Japan respectively as reported by the National
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Sciences Learning Area deals with the promotion of scientific literacy. It does this by:
Research Foundation (NRF) in 2005. The education system is expected to play a significant role in addressing these imbalances. South Africa is a country undergoing a period of rapid transformation and democratisation. A positive element in this concomitant social and political change is the intellectual space provided for marginalised indigenous knowledge and voices to be heard. At a macro level, South Africa has been eager to develop its scientific human capital by providing frameworks including norms and standards for transforming and reconstructing South African society. Government is charting this process of transformation by expanding the countrys educational facilities, providing adequate funding of curriculum development and research centres, as well as developing and facilitating the implementation of policies on science and technology and Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS). The Department of Science and Technology, for example, hosts the South African Women in Science Awards (WISA) annually to recognise and reward the achievements of South African women scientists and researchers. The WISA winners are profiled as role models for younger scientists and researchers. This years (2012) theme for the Women in Science Awards is Using Science and Technology to Develop Rural Women and End Poverty. South Africa is perhaps one of the very few African countries that has implemented policies that recognise and stress the importance of protecting and promoting indigenous knowledge and technologies to solve specific problems. Following the calls for an African Renaissance a key response by government was the inclusion of indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) in the National Curriculum Statement for General Education and Training (GET) and for Further Education and Training (FET). The reason for this infusion of IK into mainstream science curriculum is best captured by quoting from the National Curriculum Statement document (DoE 2003): Now people recognize the wide diversity of knowledge systems through which people make sense of and attach meaning to the world in which they live. Indigenous knowledge systems in the South African context refer to a body of knowledge embedded in African philosophical thinking and social practices that have evolved over thousands of years. The National Curriculum Statement Grades 10-12 (FET) has infused indigenous knowledge systems into the Subject Statements. To further illustrate, an example of a curriculum policy document that explicitly acknowledges the significance of bodies of knowledge or discourses other than that of orthodox science is the national curriculum policy for natural sciences. It states that The Natural
the development and use of science process skills in a variety of settings; the development and application of scientific knowledge and understanding; and the appreciation of the relationships and responsibilities between science, society, and the environment (Department of Education, Pretoria, 2002, p. 4).
The document elaborates on each of these three aspects of scientific literacy, synthesises their intended meaning in three broad learning outcomes, and provides an extended discussion of how the three components can be assessed. The third outcome, described as challenging, with potential to broaden the curriculum and make it distinctively South African (p. 10), is of special interest because it includes attention to relationships between science and traditional practices/technologies as these relate to traditional wisdom and knowledge systems. One can assume that learners in the Natural Sciences Learning Area think in terms of more than one world-view. Several times a week, they cross from the culture of home, over the border into the culture of science, and then back again. How does this fact influence their understanding of science and their progress in the Learning Area? Is it a hindrance to teaching or is it an opportunity for more meaningful learning and a curriculum which tries to understand both the culture of science and the cultures of home? (p. 12). The valuing of indigenous knowledge (IK) and the recommendation of its integration into the national curriculum statements pose for science educators, and indeed practitioners in the field several questions: Is IK in alignment or congruent with science especially when it is more nuanced and more specific to a given localityits localness? Is it meaningful and relevant to learners life experiences? Does it serve as a useful link between home/community and school based experiences? Will it boost the morale and enhance the sense of self worth of the local indigenous community? Can it be extrapolated or applied to other contexts or similar situations? These questions are frequently raised in discourses, and informed science teachers seek to address them in an attempt at incorporating IK into school science. It is not my attention here to discuss the subject of valuing IK any further than is necessary. Suffice it to say that the question of whether or not authentic IK exists or whether or not it is complementary with modern science is no longer the issue or a matter of serious debate. What is currently of interest takes on more of a pragmatic than a philosophical hue, and it centres

on how the two frameworks are able to complement each other in the context of science classroom teaching and learning. How to develop a method for interfacing IK with school science in a valid and legitimate way is of crucial importance for the integration agenda. One of the major challenges faced by science educators is to identify epistemologies of IK practices and beliefs in relation to their infusion into school science curriculum. Once a valid method of identifying epistemologies for IK practices has been developed, this would help the teachers to reason out and assign appropriate teaching methods and assessment strategies when interfacing IK with mainstream science curriculum. The jury is still out as to South African science teachers perception of the nature of IK in relation to orthodox science, and its incorporation (if?; what?; how?; and when? questions) into science classroom teaching. The curriculum does not specify how to integrate IK into mainstream science curriculum and for that reason teachers have different interpretations on how best this incorporation could be achieved. Despite the impressive contributions indigenous knowledge and local technologies have made in various localities, particularly in dealing with specific developmental and ecological problems, there appears to be what one might refer to as intellectual reluctance, on the part of science teachers to actively engage with IKS. There are several reasons for this state of affairs, on the one hand, not least in the use of euro-centric lenses or Western modern science (and ways of knowing) to value indigenous knowledge systems in terms of knowledge production and dissemination. The so called scientific method approach has certain implications for Africas better understanding and use of its indigenous knowledge base. On the other hand, multiculturalists would argue that orthodox science and indigenous knowledge are essentially complementary, and that some of the modern inventions have come about as a result of this symbiotic relationship, as it were. For example, the discovery of aspirin would not have been possible without indigenous knowledge. Whether multicultural or universal science education should be taught in the science classrooms remains a contested and unresolved issue. It is however clear that such contestation emanates from how the nature of science is perceived. IK is a domain or area of study which is in its infancy, and has not presently filtered into the curriculum of teacher training institutions. As a result science teachers in schools are poorly prepared to meet the challenge. They lack the content, they lack the methodology and they lack the training to introduce it into
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schools. Nevertheless, the inclusion of IK in science lessons ought to present a singular educational opportunity that could profitably be used by the teacher on the students behalf, notably, to contextualise science education, foster debates, critical discussions, arguments, inquiry and decision-making that can invariably form part of the cultural dialectics of the science classroom. The science classroom as contexts for effective and productive communication does raise the question of the effect of language as an aspect of culture, on science education in South Africa. South Africa has eleven official languages. The issue of language has long been investigated in the context of science education. There is a consensus that science is contextual, and is not culture neutral. But the traditional approach to science teaching which traditional teachers have latched on to for so long views science as being independent of mind and social context. This view could possibly explain why language or medium of instruction was not ever considered important until lately. Recent works have shown that in the South African setting, students facility with language of instruction and examination is a strong determinant of performance in science and mathematics at school and public examinations. For many students, the greatest barrier to learning science is language. The majority of black students are English as second language speakers and users, and the majority may not comprehend, what is written or taught and may resort to rote learning. Like many other African countries, South Africa has developed its science curricula and content solely on the basis of orthodox Western trends and science is taught mainly in English or Afrikaans. African Blacks endure additional challenges in the sense that there are no direct translations of scientific concepts in mother tongue or vernacular, hence the conceptual difficulties that teachers and students find with science could be attributable to a language factor.
Culturally Relevant and Socially Responsible Science Education

In South Africa the poor performance of the education system particularly with regard to science and mathematics education has attracted the attention of diverse stakeholders including universities, employers and parents. The central issue is that African students for complex of reasons do not do well in public examinations in school science, and are disinclined to choose science and engineering at tertiary level. Black students are underrepresented in the science, engineering and technology fields of study. The situation is worrying because of its implication for science and
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attract students to engage with the discipline. The reasons for this situation is as I indicated earlier are diverse and complex. First, science is frequently taught in a majority of our South African schools as rote memorisation of complex facts and abstract or meaningless data which is really at odds with the visceral-driven way we live and interact with our environment. Second, science teachers have failed in their social responsibility to provide students and indeed the public with an understanding of the personal rewards of science, including sciences potentially beneficial effect on personal development. Thirdly, failure of science teachers to develop valid teaching approaches that seek to link the day-to-day experiences of students to their science classroom experiences has further obscured and diminished the relevance of science in their lives. Few people, I think, would argue against the general principle of making science education more relevant. In the context of schooling, relevance implies making science education more pertinent and empowering to students, who live in a world where challenges appear to be increasingly insurmountable. What is needed is a culturally-relevant science education that is socially responsible. Here relevance would entail the use of community resources and incorporation of local issues and practices into the school curriculum. Thus, context or issues-based learning is invariably seen in the eyes of the student as something worthwhile, meaningful, useful and important. Socio-scientific themes ought to be the starting point for learning, aside from the fact that socio-scientific issues often frame the transformation agenda of many African countries. These include adequate health care, food production, agriculture and small holdings which are of interest to individuals and to society at large. Culturally-relevant and socially-responsible science education is one that provides learners with the knowledge and skills necessary to take part in and secure human development. As envisaged, it has much to offer in enhancing the emancipatory interests of students in such a way as to enable them play a responsible role in society. Rather than focus more on what is important to the scientist, a culturally relevant science educations tends more to what is important to the learner including scientific knowledge as priority and other learner needs, and learner motivation. Interestingly enough, the findings of a very recent study undertaken by a doctoral student under my supervision gives empirical support to our view of context based science education that seeks to maximise students learning through participatory discussions, which is consistent with a democratic approach..
engineering graduate production, economic development and scientific research output. Existing explanations range through lack of provision of resources, teacher supply and quality of teacher education. Others include school management, classroom environment, poverty and family support systems. Issues of language, the cultural clashes between modern science and African traditions have been advanced. Students dwindling interest, low motivation to learn and poor performance in science can all be attributable to the lack of recognisable relevance of science and science teaching by students. There is no doubt that alienation of students from science may be due in part to the way science is taught and in part to the failure of the curriculum, specifically its purposes in meeting the interests and aspirations of the students. For these reasons, education in science as advocated by many science educators ought to move progressively towards a real world, context-based approach to the teaching and learning of science at all levels of the school curriculum. The advocacy strikes directly at questions of relevance and the importance of engaging our pupils and students as active agents in meaningful learning. South Africas former National Curriculum Statement and the current Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) in physical and life sciences promote and place emphasis on context-based education; the use of real-life issues in teaching the subjects. A context-based education focuses on developing knowledge and skills from familiar contexts such as social issues, which are closely related to students needs and interests, and which reflect the realities of the communities in which they lead their lives. As unfortunate, empirical and anecdotal evidence point to the fact that science classroom teaching in the countrys schools is hardly influenced by contextualised teaching, instead, the emphasis is on structured approaches. Even though the third learning outcome of the National Curriculum Statement for Science subjects specifically stipulates and deals with the interface of science and society, the learner-centred teaching approach(es) which ought to facilitate this interfacing is largely absent from science lessons. Science lessons are manifestly dominated by teacher-centred knowledge transmission practices, which discourage both diversity and individualised construction of knowledge-constructivism. It can be surmised that although contextualised teaching is recommended in the national curriculum, its application at school level remains just that, a recommendation. Although science still remains one of the most important subjects in the countrys school curriculum, as a subject of choice, it has repeatedly failed to excite and

The study essentially investigated the relative effectiveness of context-based and traditional teaching approaches in determining performance differences in genetics achievement, problem solving, decision making, and integrated science inquiry skills and attitude towards life sciences. The nature of the research questions and the researchers commitment to issues of relevance and authentic contexts rendered a mixed-method research approach an appropriate orientation for the inquiry. The innovative aspects of the study included first, the use of contexts selected by students themselves in developing the narratives for the genetics materials and secondly, the application of a five-stage learning cycle model that maximised participatory modes of learning of the students. We found that context-based teaching was statistically significantly better than traditional teaching approaches in enhancing student performance in genetics content knowledge, problem-solving and decision-making abilities, inquiry skills of hypothesis formulation and experimental design, and in improving students attitude towards the study of life sciences. Teachers and students (Black African students from township schools) who participated in the study voiced their views, which should encourage more research into the use of personal, socio-scientific themes identified by students themselves as contexts in designing context based teaching models. Post intervention focus group interviews held with both the experimental and control group members revealed that first, students from the experimental group found the study of genetics- a life science topic generally considered difficult to learn worldwide, to be interesting and great fun. The students also expressed confidence about their post-test performance in the genetics themes examined. Secondly, the experimental group mostly attributed their performance to the way the topic was taught using context based teaching approach, as evident in the following quotations from students interview protocols. If all educators taught us the way sir (the teacher) did, we would never fail any subject. I enjoyed looking back at my original ideas. (Reference to stages 2 and 4 of the learning cycle). The nice thing about the lessons was that we talked about things that happen in our own homes. I now understand why my brother looks so different from all of us. (familiar and authentic context). The stories made the study of genetics easy because we managed to understand what was happening and were able to explain the situations (Use of authentic narrative contexts from the students perspective).
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It was fun to learn genetics by using our own experiences. It makes genetics so easy. I am sure I have passed the test. Teachers who taught the experimental group expressed similar sentiments as their students, as stated below. Teacher A: Students were very excited during lessons, especially during phase 4. Sometimes, it was difficult to control them, because they came up with so many questions and suggestions. Teacher B: For the first time, I did not have to force my students to talk. In fact, I had to control them most of the time. Everyone wanted to say something. Teacher C: Learners who were taught using the new method really understood the lessons, because of relating everything they did to what happens in real life, and the practical activities and discussions. Once you give them what happens in real life, and then teach them the relevant genetics concepts, it becomes easier for them to understand. Students from the control group also found the study of genetics to be interesting. However, their comments indicate that they were apprehensive about their post-test performance in the topic. The reasons given for their lack of confidence among others were the difficulty in remembering the many genetics terms or concepts, and their inability to relate to some of the materials meaningfully in terms of their daily life experiences. The study benefits science educators through the provision of a prototype for developing context based curriculum materials. Specifically, the model developed provides science teachers with practical guidelines for devising narratives or storylines as authentic contexts for linking contexts to concepts when for instance, infusing IK into school science curriculum. This approach is particularly significant for the incorporation of IK into mainstream science curriculum. With this inclination for relevance and social responsibility there is an increasing recognition that science education in South Africa ought to be fostering engagement with goals of sustainability in various domains such as IK, health and environment, poverty alleviation and economic prosperity which are of interest to students and to their communities.
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the last three centuries, the defining feature of the South African life was that of racial and colonial domination. This led to the subjugation and marginalisation of the cultures of the majority. The architects of apartheid colonialism were unwavering in their supremacist beliefs. None expresses this than the former Prime Minister General Smuts in 1906. Smuts observed: When I consider the political future of the natives in South Africa I must say that I look into shadows and darkness, and I feel inclined to shift the intolerable burden of solving that sphinx of a problem to the ampler shoulders and stronger brains of the future. In case Africans did not get it, General Smuts ideas on race relations were taken to the next level by then-Minister of Bantu Education Dr. H.F. Verwoerd. He cautioned against creating false expectations amongst the natives. In a no-holds-barred address to the Apartheid Parliament in 1955, he promised: When I have control of native education, I will reform it so that natives will be taught from childhood to realise that equality with Europeans is not for them. There is no place for him (the black child) in European society above the level of certain forms of labourWhat is the use of teaching a Bantu child mathematics when it cannot use it in practice? Since then whites have, by and large considered themselves to be the stronger brains of the future, and have in various ways persistently reminded all and sundry that had it not been because of them, South Africa would have disintegrated. It would seem to me that diversity of cultural expressions would first have to start with an appreciation of the political, economic and psychological dimensions of cultural domination as well as its legacy of the concomitant institutionalized behaviour. Doing so will assist in confronting those institutional practices, attitudinal behaviours and motive forces that enable the continued reproduction of racial, economic and sociocultural inequalities. Reflecting on the socio-psychological impact of oppression on a people, Steve Biko, the prominent exponent of Black Consciousness Movement, puts this sharply when he observes that: I have lived all my conscious life in the framework of institutionalised separate development [apartheid]. My friendships, my love, my education, my thinking and every other facet of life have been carved and shaped within the context of separate development. These are the socio-psychological side effects that
Conclusion
In conclusion, this article builds on previous discourses and discussions and is written with the mind of continuing the debate about the kind of relevant science education that is needed to help address the current global challenges facing humanity in general, and Africa in particular. It adds to the call for science education to be made more pertinent and empowering to learners. Some aspects of South Africas science education system, have been used to further highlight some of the cultural blocks to multicultural science as well as examined challenges that call for a paradigm shift, if we wish to prepare future citizens able to deal with complex everyday issues in socially responsible ways. Such a vision I believe is what scientifically literate citizenry is really all about.
Obstacles to Achieving Diversity of Cultural Expressions in South Africa

Sipho Seepe Professor Sipho Seepe is a physicist, professor of Science & Mathematics Education, University of Pretoria and a political commentator. Email: sipho_seepe@yahoo.com.
Indeed, the very fact that we need to promote diversity of cultural expression is an acknowledgement of existence of a problem a problem that manifests itself in that one culture has assumed or acquired a dominant status at the expense of others. It is an existential problem that finds expression in heterogeneous societies in which citizens traverse multiracial, multi-class, multi-ethnic settings each setting giving expression to a particular and peculiar cultural expression. South Africa is home to all these. These multi-existential realities are a challenge on their own. But when spiced with a history of colonial and racial subjugation the challenges are heightened. For
romotion of diversity of cultural expression can only take place in an enabling environment. It must start with acknowledgement of the countrys history of colonial domination whose potent expression is hostile intolerance to diversity and its effects on the psyche of its people. In addition, it would require an engagement among equals. Those who consider themselves culturally superior are least inclined to engage with those they hold in contempt; their contempt is more aggravated when they also hold social and economic positions of power and influence

must be addressed. Unless one deals with the root cause, ones solutions and cures are bound to be impoverished. For Biko the root cause is white arrogance. He avers: Apartheid both petty and grand is obviously evil. Nothing can justify the arrogant assumption that a clique of foreigners has the right to decide on the lives of majority...The fact that apartheid has been tied up with white supremacy, capitalist exploitation, and deliberate oppression makes the problem much more complex. Material want is bad enough, but coupled with spiritual poverty it kills. And this latter effect is probably the one that creates mountains of obstacles in the normal course of emancipation of the black people. On culture and religion, Biko is spot on; in an effort to destroy completely the structures that had been built up in the African society and to impose their imperialism with an unnerving totality the colonialist were not satisfied merely with holding a people in their grip and emptying the Natives brain of all form and content, they turned to the past of the oppressed and distorted, disfigured and destroyed it. No longer was reference made to African culture, it became barbarism. Africa was dark continent...No wonder the African child learns to hate his heritage in his days at school. So negative is the image presented to him that he tends to find solace only in close identification with the white society. The advent of democracy has done little to address white supremacist ideas. Eighteen years into democracy, black people are still to embrace the enormous challenges of translating their numerical strength into a dominant cultural force that will engage other cultures on an equal footing. The culture of the white minority continues to dictate the terms and terrains of engagements. Africans are still expected to march according to some western cultural drum. Cultural diversity is acceptable as long as it is consistent with the dominant culture since nothing of value can be expected from African people. The only Africans respected, and routinely paraded as models of emulation, are those trained to parrot their masters. The effects on the psyche of black people are devastating. It would seem to me that we have a number of challenges to deal with before any form of diverse cultural expression can be realised. We first must address the pervasive racism in society and confront white supremacist ideas. We also have to address the material condition of the black majority and emancipate their economic well-being in new forms independent from the colonial economic legacies.
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The economic gains derived from colonial oppression are premised on the logic that the other must catch-up to the pace and direction determined by colonialists and their beneficiaries. It is to be expected therefore that the challenge of addressing the historical imbalances would loom large in minds of South Africans. The disparities were perhaps aptly captured by the former President Thabo Mbeki (29 May 1998) in his observation that; South Africa is a country of two nations. One of these nations is white, relatively prosperous, regardless of gender or geographic dispersal. It has ready access to a developed economic, physical, educational, communication and other infrastructure. This enables it to argue that, except for the persistence of gender discrimination against women, all members of this nation have the possibility to exercise their right to equal opportunity, the development opportunities to which the Constitution of 93 committed our country. The second and larger nation of South Africa is black and poor, with the worst affected being women in the rural areas, the black rural population in general and the disabled. This nation lives under conditions of a grossly underdeveloped economic, physical, educational, communication and other infrastructure. It has virtually no possibility to exercise what in reality amounts to a theoretical right to equal opportunity, with that right being equal within this black nation only to the extent that it is equally incapable of realisation. This reality of two nations, underwritten by the perpetuation of the racial, gender and spatial disparities born of a very long period of colonial and apartheid white minority domination, constitutes the material base which reinforces the notion that, indeed, we are not one nation, but two nations. And neither are we becoming one nation. Consequently, also, the objective of national reconciliation is not being realised. The resolution of the race problem requires, among other things, that we understand racism from the perspective of the victim, a point eloquently raised by Faegan and Sikes in their book Living with Racism. While apartheid laws have been removed from the statute books, and we seldom experience blatant discrimination, the subtle form that exists has equally devastating effects. Racism remains widespread and entrenched in the traditionally white-controlled work places, company boardrooms, law courts, schools and other places.
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their disproportionate social and material benefit (i.e. increased access to resources, better hiring potential, elevated social desirability etc.). We need to reflect on the agencies and structures of domination. One would have expected that our educational institutions would have been in the forefront of providing solutions to this challenge. If anything, they have been implicated in the perpetuation and reproduction of the practices. The Ministerial Committee on Transformation and Social Cohesion and the Elimination of Discrimination in Public Higher Education Institutions was set up to investigate discrimination in public higher education institutions, with a particular focus on racism and to make appropriate recommendations to combat discrimination and to promote social cohesion revealed that racism is pervasive in South Africas institutions. The report painted a shocking picture that it occasioned the Minister of Higher Education to comment that our democracy is threatened by the very things we seek to overcome racism, sexism and class inequalities. These three issues, while deeply integrated, are not the same things. They are each distinctive forms of discrimination and cannot be reduced into one another. And each cannot be fully understood outside of the others. But the findings of the Ministerial Committee are to be expected. Mahmood Mandani (1999) reminds us: Both the white and black institutions were products of apartheid, though in different ways. The difference was not only in the institutional culture, that the former enjoyed institutional autonomy and the latter was bureaucratically driven. The difference was also in their intellectual horizons. It was the white intelligentsia that took the lead in creating apartheid-enforced identities in the knowledge they produced. Believing that this was an act of intellectual creativity unrelated to the culture of privilege in which they were steeped, they ended defending an ingrained prejudice with a studied conviction. The irony is that the white intelligentsia came to be greater, became a more willing, prisoner of apartheid thought than its black counterpart (p.131). It would seem to me that any attempt to promote diverse cultural expression must begin with addressing the pervasive socio-economic realities, confronting racism and instituting a thorough going transformation of societal institutions. Anything short of this would lead to the continued reproduction of geo-political imagination of apartheid in our institutions and society in general.
It is therefore necessary to understand racism as referring not only to discriminatory actions of particular bigots but also institutionalised discrimination through which people of different race groups are dominated. Racism must also be understood as lived experience. When blacks speak of racial discrimination, they do not speak in abstract concepts of discrimination learned from books. Rather, they speak of mistreatment encountered as they traverse historically white places. The cumulative effect of racism on individuals and family members must be appreciated. Racial epithets that are often thrown around speak to denial of constitutional rights, limited opportunities, unequal treatment before the law and daily humiliation.
It would seem to me that any attempt to promote diverse cultural expression must begin with addressing the pervasive socio-economic realities, confronting racism and instituting a thorough going transformation of societal institutions. Anything short of this would lead to the continued reproduction of geopolitical imagination of apartheid in our institutions and society in general.
As in most discussions on racism, the approaches tend to focus on how blacks are disadvantaged by racism in societal institutions. An incisive approach should, however, include a focus also on advantages that whites gain from blacks disadvantage. Writing in Truthout (31 August 2012) Michael Ortiz reminds us: A dominant racial system reveals itself as an ideological and systemic arrangement of various institutions, policies and procedures that constantly aim to maintain the racial status quo. The prevailing system of racial supremacy is also characterized by the social and material benefit it affords to those who are members of the dominant racial group. Racism is then described as a form of discrimination that may systemically, institutionally, or ideologically disadvantage those groups of subordinate status, while those of the dominant group gain disproportionate advantage. Racial privilege then describes all the ways in which dominant group members actualize

A heavy dose of a philosophy akin to the black consciousness philosophy is needed. Such a philosophy would address issues of cultural reclamation. This would be an anti-dote to the soporific prescription of integration which does nothing but to lull Africans to sleep. What seems to be on the menu is a form of racial integration or cultural engagement that is rooted in black accommodation in white structures. To borrow from Biko, it is an engagement in which the superior-inferior, white-black stratification that makes the white a perpetual teacher and the black a perpetual pupil....[Black people] have been made to feel inferior so long that for them it is comforting to drink tea, wine or beer with whites who seem to treat them as equals. This serves to boost their own ego to the extent of making them feel slightly superior to those blacks who do not get similar treatment. African people would have to exorcise the demons of inferiority and self-hatred before they can embark on a path that would promote free cultural expression, Jansens advice on research is pertinent in this regard: A new area of theory and research which draws on the black experience as one important way of knowing is vital if we are to move beyond the tenaciously structuralist treatment of the race/ class dilemma.Blacks may indeed be located on the margins, but merely increasing their numbers within the white-dominated core of intellectual production is insufficient for emancipatory politics and practise. Our paradigms have to be re-defined from a black perspective as we rediscover the Afro-centricity of our heritage, rearticulate the experience of racial oppression, and re-set the agenda for politics and research (p. 109). To conclude, the project of promoting diversity of cultural expressions is doomed to fail if it does not address the enduring economic and socio-psychological legacy of colonial and apartheid oppression.
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consciousness. After independence, French, English, German and Iberian studies were the most prolific disciplinary fields in literary studies. Today, African studies, whether in linguistics or literature and African culture, has thankfully gained ascendancy. This paper aims to provide an overview of the development of African studies in Cameroon. We will draw particular attention to one sector of African Studies: African literatures and cultures. What is the state of this discipline in Cameroon? What are the major issues which it would encounter and how will it cope? What are the new materials flowing from this discipline and why does it appear as an essential disciplinary field in Cameroon? The Cameroonian Literature and the Challenge of Linguistic and Cultural Identity
Ngugu Wa Thiongo, in an undated article The Language of African Literature decried the plight of African literature after independence by asking the question of what is exactly meant by African literature? [Is] it literature about Africa or about the African experience? [Is] it literature written by Africans? What about a non-African who wrote about Africa: does his work qualify as African literature? What about an African who sets his work in Greenland: does that qualify as African literature? Or [are] African languages the criteria? OK: what about Arabic, was it not foreign to Africa? What about French and English which had become African languages? What if a European wrote about Europe in an African language? If...If...If... []. Many of these questions still remain important in the literary field in Africa. Regarding its particular linguistic context on the continent, Cameroon counts nearly 268 estimated languages or dialects. Among these languages, seven are recognised as major traditional languages: Douala, Bassa, Foulbe, Ngomala, Ewondo, Boulu and Bamoun. But none of these languages has so far been chosen as one of the official national languages. Cameroon has two official national languages: French and English. It is only in recent years that the Government has decided to teach the seven main traditional languages in primary and secondary schools. It has also opened Cameroonian language branches in post-secondary schools, and native languages are taught in Departments of African Studies in universities. In addition to these national and local languages, we note the invasion of languages such as pidgin English or camfranglais that disrupt the paradigms of literary field in Cameroon. These languages are sought in the new media of literariness such as DVDs, CDs and the Internet.
Emerging issues in African literature and culture: Perspectives from Cameroon

Marius Yannick Binyou-Bi-Homb Marius Yannick Binyou-Bi-Homb is of the University of Dschang, Cameroon. Email: bibihmy@yahoo.fr
he advent of African Studies programmes in the Faculties of Arts and Letters in Cameroon has been perceived by many as the awakening of postcolonial
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as a writer, you have to do written literature, especially write at least novels, poetries and dramas in the language of the former colonial master. These major genres fall into what we call lieux certains. They are classic genres which, unlike the lieux incertains, are classifiable, legitimate and internationally recognised by western standards. If we had limited ourselves to these lieux certains, Africa would not have invented any literary genre. Africa does not do literature but merely copy Western genres since, most prolific African writers do write neither in local language nor in a manner imposed by their culture of origin. In the light of Pascale Casanova, it could therefore be argued that African writers are exiles in the linguistic sense of the term. The problems posed by Ngugu Wa Thiongo always remain topical as Africa will take into account the language setting in his literary production. In Cameroon, the problem is even more annoying to the extent that any local language has not been established as the national language compared to countries like Senegal, where Wolof is spoken, South Africa where Kiswahili and Zulu are used. If writers like Calixthe Beyala, Jean-Roger Essomba and Gabriel Kuich Fonkou decide to write in their mother tongue, their works will be read only by the citizens of their villages and therefore die with them. Young researchers who venture into the field of lieux incertains are often labelled specialists of small literatures or folklore. However, for experienced researchers who have acquired an international reputation, the opposite effect occurs. Productions in this field attract the attention of the international community. Having realised that any literature that would like to look authentic should adapt to local cultures and realities, researchers like Pierre Fandio decided to specialise in the literature of the margin, those who have not been legitimised by the centre. Henceforth inter-media topics such as environment, music and movies are now part of literary studies and integrated in Cameroonian literary news. However, this escapist attempt betrays an inherent reality of the literary field in Cameroon. Historically, the study of African culture in Cameroon is limited to purely linguistic analysis and the study of classical literary texts in such platforms as novels, dramas, poetries, short stories and essays.
They are considered as new means of disseminating literary creations. Despite this scarlet linguistic landscape, only texts written in French or in English by Cameroonian writers residing inside or outside the country are known as Cameroonian literature. Thus, we can speak of Cameroon Anglophone and Francophone literature. Literatures written in local languages are generally classified in the order of folklore or popular culture. Although these literatures are strongly attached to the minor genres such as stories, epics, legends, proverbs, riddles and lullabies. The dilemma of oral literature or written literature remains one of the fundamental issues raised by Cameroonian researchers. These researchers, in response to Western ideology, defend the assumption that all African oral productions (ritual incantations, myths, tales, epics, legends, proverbs, riddles and lullabies) can be considered as literature. Unlike Western ideology which states that literature is written, one of the strongest supporters of the African oral literature, Tala Kashim, recognises that one can speak of written and oral literature. Moreover, he argues that this western thesis on the inexistence of an African oral literature falls within a post-colonial ideology. According to Tala Kashim, there are three distinct categories of literature in Africa: oral literature in African languages, literature written in African languages and literature written in Western languages such as English, French, Portuguese, German or Spanish. He goes even further and asserts that: Oral literature in African languages is naturally, the oldest and most predominant kind of literature in Africa. Narrative forms inherent in written literature are also apparent, according to him, in oral literature. This is what he calls orature, all consisting of prose narratives, poetry and drama in oral form. This African oral literature has its own modes of operation, its specificities and legitimating instances. According to Abiola Irele, it is the true literature of Africa. It is the literature that is still the most widespread and with which the vast majority of Africans, even today, are in constant touch, and it represents that form of expression to which African sensibilities are most readily attuned (Irele Abiola, Orality, Literacy, and African Literature, p. 139, in Classificatory paradigms in African oral narrative, Ademola Dasylva, Ibadan, 1999, pp.134-141).
Young researchers who venture into the field of lieux incertains are often labelled specialists of small literatures or folklore.
Unfortunately, the Cameroonian oral literature is not matching the written literature armada. To be taxed
When Cultural Studies are Limited to Language and Literature

In Cameroon, there are few universities whose departments of African Studies have been in existence for more than ten years. In spite of their age, these departments devoted to African culture, are stealing the spotlight from the

Departments of Foreign Studies -English, French, Hispanic Letters and Germanistik. Although Italian and Chinese studies are becoming increasing popular perhaps more than German and Spanish studies, our concern lies not in the conflict between the different departments. We want to understand why African studies in Cameroon are still limited to literary and linguistic research. Ghana and Nigeria have certainly made some progress in the approach of African studies called Afrikanistik in Germany. In Ghanaian Departments of African Studies, one does not only study African literatures and languages, one tackles popular culture (le lieux incertains) through the study of traditional songs, local traditional rhythms, indeed, everything that relates to culture. This is not to deny the existence of such studies in Cameroon, only to remark that as well as their specialists, they are extremely rare and cut from the departments of African Studies. At the University of Dschang for instance, there is a Department of African Studies. However, the majority of publications and thesis revolves around French or English written literature, the study of linguistic issues in French or English and sometimes Cameroonian languages or oral literature in Cameroon. It is only in the last three years that, under the leadership of Prof. Pierre Fandio, a great interest has been devoted to popular culture.
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choosing a local official language would have the advantage of fostering the translation industry and promote Cameroonian local languages, literatures and cultures both inside and outside the country.
Should the study of African culture in Cameroon be confined to research on language and literature? Can language and literature alone be the vehicle for projecting the whole culture of a people or nation? These are some of the questions answered by Pierre Fandio in his book Les lieux incertains du champ littraire camerounais contemporain. La postcolonie partir de la marge, LHarmattan, Paris, 2012. The Cameroonian literary and cultural context is ambiguous due in part to its historical and political situation and secondly to the current political willingness. Cameroon experienced German colonisation before being placed under French and English protectorate after the Second World War. Among the ten regions of the country, eight are French speaking and two English speaking. In the interest of regional balance, no local language was
selected as official national language in favour of French and English, which are the official languages. But Cameroon is not the only country in Africa that has experienced colonisation! Cameroon is not the only country in Africa that has a multitude of local languages! The question of the choice of a national local language does not stand tall each time on the table of Cameroonian parliament. Today the national consciousness grasps the urgency of authentic cultural identity which is the foundation of sustainable development. Departments of African Studies in Cameroon and Africa should embrace this new direction of research and not be limited only to literary genres enshrined by Western hegemony. In addition to written African literatures, the research should turn to oral literature, artistic expression of African culture in cinema, music, comics, newspapers, radio, television, sculpture, and traditional ceremonies. Moreover; Afrikanistik researchers should legitimate uncertain places and create new genres in order to lead to the recognition and the emergence of a proper African culture. The solution of choosing a local official language would have the advantage of fostering the translation industry and promote Cameroonian local languages, literatures and cultures both inside and outside the country. Those that are qualified as illiterate because they speak neither French nor English, but local language, will find themselves integrated into the development process. So the emergence of the improvement sought by 2035 by the Cameroonian Government will hardly be achieved. It is true that some countries like the United States of America experienced development in spite of their original culture. Since, before the arrival of Christopher Columbus, Empires like Maya, Aztec and Inca inhabited the former American continent. This land was made up of Indians who disappeared with colonisation and today native Indians constitute only about 1% of the U.S. population. Each continent has its own realities. Africa is not America. Africa is predominantly populated by Africans despite the recent invasion by Indians and Chinese.
Towards a Post-colonial Approach to African Culture In the current globalised world, competition and not war is the key factor for hegemony between nations. Culture becomes a key factor in recognition of the power of the people. African languages and literatures, as currently taught in Cameroon, cannot meet the expectations of the national policy of the emergence of a great nation by 2035. African Studies
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African African Culture Culture and and International International Understanding Understanding
laboratories should think outside the box and propose new avenues of analysis reflecting the cultural mosaic of Cameroon and Africa. Departments of Foreign Studies should not abandon their specificities but should realise that there are new forms of cultural expressions apart from language and culture. These fields of the margin should be taken into account and legitimised by African researchers who are not called to work alone but in networks.
African languages and literatures, as currently taught in Cameroon, cannot meet the expectations of the national policy of the emergence of a great nation by 2035.
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About the Institute

The Institute for African Culture and International Understanding, a UNESCO Category 2 Institute of the Olusegun Obasanjo Presidential Library (OOPL), Abeokuta, Ogun State was approved by the Executive Board of UNESCO in October 2008 and formally commissioned at its OOPL site on January 9, 2009 by Koichiro Matsuura, the immediate-past Director-General of UNESCO. The Governing Board of the Centre chaired by HE Dr. Christopher Kolade, was inaugurated on March 4, 2009.
Vision
The vision of the Institute is to increase inter-cultural dialogue and international understanding between Africa and other civilisations.
Mission
The mission of the institute is to preserve Africas cultural heritage, promote and strengthen renaissance in African cultures both at the regional and international levels.
Aims of the Institute

The institute aims at: raising awareness among stakeholders at the national, regional and international levels about the important role played by cultural diversity and its corollary, intercultural dialogue, for social cohesion in pluralistic societies; facilitating the network of sister institutions working in these fields and inducing relevant academic and scientific studies; providing a platform of genuine cooperation for specialists in African culture; providing capacity-building through the promotion of knowledge-sharing about spiritual and other religious traditions and their underlying values in order to strengthen harmonious coexistence; and highlighting the values of diversity and dialogue by studying tangible and intangible heritage as well as contemporary cultural expressions in the African region and the Diaspora (through inventories and catalogues, including in digitised form, disseminating and exhibiting collections and other relevant materials).
Governing Board
Dr. Christopher Kolade (Chairman). Members: Ambassador Dr. Mary M. Khimulu, Ambassador Denise Houphouet-Boigny, Ambassador Mohamed Sameh Amr, Ambassador Dolana Msimang, Dr. Joseph Ngu Country Rep. UNESCO; Mr. George Ufot (Representative of the Perm Sec. Min of Culture, Tourism and National Orientation), Professor Peter Okebukola; Sultan of Sokoto Muhammad Saad Abubakar III, Prof. Oye Ibidapo-Obe.
Secretariat
Professor Peter Okebukola (Ag. Director), Omotayo Ikotun, Vitalis Ortese, Damian Oyibo, Oladiran Olaniyi, Bayo Peter Akintayo, Ibukun Olagbemiro, Tunde Sobola, Adebayo Gitto
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Institute for African Culture and International Understanding Olusegun Obasanjo Presidential Library Oke-mosan, Abeokuta, Nigeria TEL +2348022904423; +23439290761; +23439884401
AIR MAIL
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Editor
Peter A. Okebukola
Editorial Office
Institute for African Culture and International Understanding Olusegun Obasanjo Presidential Library Oke-mosan, Abeokuta, Nigeria Tel: +2348022904423; +23439290761; +23439884401
Invitation to Potential Authors

We welcome articles and reports for publication in the journal. Such articles should be succinct and should convey messages in line with the aims and objectives of the Institute. Articles should be sent to peter@okebukola.com. Institute for African Culture and International Understanding

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African Culture and International Understanding

Volume 1 No. 2, October-December, 2012

African Culture and International Understanding

Focus on East Africa

Focus on Southern Africa

Focus on West Africa

About the Institute

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Reflection on Mapping the Diversity of Cultural Expressions in Africa

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Harnessing Culture to Promote International Understanding in Africa

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Culture as Basis for International Understanding

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Culture as a Desideratum for International Understanding

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Museums are part of it

Lessons for Africa

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tormented the human society in Eastern Africa.

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Linguistic Diversity in East Africa

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National Cultural Policies

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Cultural Issues in Science Education in South Africa

Calling for a Shift

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Culturally Relevant and Socially Responsible Science Education

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Obstacles to Achieving Diversity of Cultural Expressions in South Africa

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When Cultural Studies are Limited to Language and Literature

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About the Institute

Aims of the Institute

African Culture and International Understanding

Invitation to Potential Authors

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