Anale INFOnr 1 Pe 2012

ACADEMY OF ROMANIAN SCIENTISTS
SERIES ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF INFORMATION

VOLUME 5 2012 NUMBER 1

ONLINE EDITION

ISSN 2066 - 8562

TOPICS:
INFORMATION THEORY AND COMPLEXITY
PHOTONICS AND OPTICAL

ENGINEERING
ELECTRONICS AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS
I N F O R M A T I C S A N D C O M P U T E R S
IT SYSTEMS, MECHATRONICS AND ROBOTICS
ADVANCED MATERIALS, NANOSCIENCES AND
NANOTECHNOLOGIES
MICROELECTRONICS AND MICROSYSTEMS

Edi t ura
ACADEMIEI OAMENI LOR DE TII N DI N ROMNIA
Buc ur e t i

A N N A L S O F T H E A C A D E M Y
O F R O M A N I A N S C I E N T I S T S

Series on S C I E NC E A ND T E C H NOL O GY OF I NF OR MA T I ON

C O N T E N T S

NECULAI ANDREI
THE QUADRUPLED RATIONAL INTERPRETATION OF DIVINITY .................................................. 7
STEFAN IANCU
MAN, MACHINES AND CONSCIENCE? ....................................................................................... 15
I. TUNARU, R. WIDENHORN, E. BODEGOM, D. IORDACHE
COMPUTATIONAL APPROACH TO DARK CURRENT SPECTROSCOPY IN CCD
AS COMPLEX SYSTEMS.PART III. DEFINITION AND USE OF A NEW PARAMETER
CHARACTERIZING THE DEPLETION DARK CURRENT IN SEMICONDUCTORS ............................ 37
ADRIAN SIMION, STEFAN TRAUSAN-MATU
AUTOMATIC COMPUTER MUSIC CLASSIFICATION AND SEGMENTATION................................. 59
CORNEL COBIANU, BOGDAN SERBAN
POLYMERIC PRESSURE SENSORS: A CONCEPTUAL VIEW .......................................................... 75
CATALIN SPULBER, OCTAVIA BORCAN
AN ANALYSIS REGARDING THE DECREASING OF THE IMAGE QUALITY
WITH THE OPTICAL MISALIGNMENT ......................................................................................... 85
BOGDAN-ADRIAN STEFANESCU, DAN ANGHEL, OCTAVIAN DANILA,
PAUL STERIAN, ANDREEA RODICA STERIAN
APPLICATIONS OF QUANTUM CRYPTOLOGY FOR DATA TRANSMISSIONS
IMPLEMENTED IN A STUDENT LABORATORY ............................................................................ 95
DAN ALEXANDRU IORDACHE
THE MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF COMMUNICATIONS VERSUS THE PHYSICAL
THEORY OF INFORMATION. THE UNIVERSE VERSUS THE MULTIVERSE ................................... 109
M.R. JAFARI, M.R. ZARRABI, S. EFFATI
CHAOS AND STABILIZATION OF SELF-REMISSION TUMOR SYSTEM BY SLIDING MODE ........... 125

ONLINE EDITION

Copyright Edi t ur a ACADEMI EI OAMENI LOR DE TI I N DI N ROMNI A, 2012
Copyright Editura Academiei Oamenilor de tiin din Romnia, 2012
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A N N A L S O F T H E A C AD E M Y
O F R O MAN I AN S C I E N T I S T S
Series on S C I E NC E A ND T E C H NOL O G Y OF I NF OR MA T I ON
Founding Editor-in-Chief
Gen. (r) Prof. univ., M.D. Ph.D., Dr. H.C. VASILE CNDEA
Founding, Full Member of the Academy of Romanian Scientists
P r e s i d e nt o f t he A c a d e my o f Ro ma ni a n Sc i e nt i s t s
Co-Editor
Prof. univ. Ph.D. Eng. ADRIAN RUSU
Co r r e s p o nd i ng Me mb e r o f t he Ro ma ni a n A c a d e my
Ful l Member of t he Academy of Romani an Sci ent i st s
Series Editor
Prof. univ. Ph.D. Eng. PAUL STERIAN
Ful l Member of t he Academy of Romani an Sci ent i st s
President of the Section Science and Technology of Information

Series Editorial Board
Senior Res. Ph.D. Eng. Neculai ANDREI, Research Institute for Informatics, Bucharest
Prof. univ. Ph.D. Eng. Mircea BODEA, University Politehnica of Bucharest
Prof. univ. Ph.D. Erik BODEGOM, Portland State University, Oregon, USA
Prof. univ Ph.D. Eng. Gheorghe BREZEANU, University Politehnica of Bucharest
Senior Res. Ph.D. Eng. tefan CANTARAGIU, UTI Group, Bucharest, Romania
Prof. univ. Ph.D. Carlo CATTANI, University of Salerno, Italy
Senior Res. Ph.D. Eng. Cornel COBIANU, Honeywell Romania
Prof. univ. Ph.D. Eng. tefan IANCU, Romanian Academy
Prof. univ. Ph.D. Eng. Ciprian ILIESCU, Institute of Bioengineering
and Nanotechnology, Singapore
Prof. univ. Ph.D. Eng. Adrian IONESCU, cole Polytechnique Fdrale de Lausanne
Prof. univ. Ph.D. Ole KELLER, Department of Physics and Nanotechnology,
Aalborg University, Denmark
Prof. univ. Ph.D. Eng. Adrian PODOLEANU, Applied Optics Group, University of Kent, UK
Senior Res. Ph.D. Eng. Ctlin SPULBER, S.C. Pro Optica S.A., Bucharest
Prof. univ. Ph.D. Eng. tefan TRUAN-MATU, University Politehnica of Bucharest
Prof. univ. Ph.D. Eng. Florin UDREA, Engineering Department, University of Cambridge, UK

Chief of Department: Mihai CRUAU, Academy of Romanian Scientists Publishing House, eng.
Redactor: Andrei D. PETRESCU, Academy of Romanian Scientists Publishing House, prof. National College
Gheorghe Lazr, Ph.D., University Politehnica of Bucharest, Romania
Documentalist: Ioan BALINT, Academy of Romanian Scientists Publishing House, eng.

The series is published by the section Science and Technology of Information of the
Ac ad e my o f R o man i an S c i e n t i s t s
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3
FOREWORD
Based on a rich scientific tradition, the Academy of
Romanian Scientists, ARS is the continuator and the
unique heir of the Romanian Academy of Sciences (1936-
1948). Then, together with the Academy of Medical
Sciences and the Romanian Academy, it was included (by
Decree of the Great National Assembly) into the Academy
of the Romanian Popular Republic, with Academician
Traian Savulescu as president.
In 1956, Academician Traian Savulescu, together
with other scientists and members of the Academy, created
the Association of the Romanian Scientists, as a partial
compensation for the disappearance of the Romanian
Academy of Sciences. In 1996, at the first National
Congress of the Romanian Scientists (with international
participation) the denomination Academy of Romanian
Scientists was adopted, with the same acronym and the
same statute as in 1936.
By the Decree 52, from January 12, 2007, ARS was
recognized as an institution of public interest, situated
between the Romanian Academy and the specialized
Academies and enjoying the status of chief accountant of
public funds.
The Annals of the Academy of Romanian Scientists
reappeared and continued, during 2006-2007, the tradition
from 1936, with one volume every year. Starting with
2008, the Annals are published observing the inter-
nationally recognized standards as several independent
series, for each section of ARS.
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4

Despite their great diversity, all published papers
must have something in common. They will be assessed by
our referees, trusted researchers in their fields of activity
and they must be able to prove be influential in the science
progress.
In essence, we are seeking for papers of the highest
quality that present an important advance in conceptual
understanding to provide new insights into related
processes or report a new level of technological
performance or functionality for the future development
in different fields of interest.
In the same time, the papers must offer broad appeal
to the scientific community, including the young scientists
also. I would like, on this occasion to say a big thank-you to
all members of the scientific community who either
submitted papers, or acted as referees, or intend to
participate in the future at the success of the ARS Annals.
It is my real pleasure to congratulate now the
members of the Science and Technology of Information
Section of ARS and the members of the Editorial Board for
continuing the series on Science and Technology of
Information of the Annals. To all of them and to the
technical staff involved in the production of the journal,
my sincere thanks for their work and my best wishes of
success in the future activity.
Gen.(r), Prof. univ., M.D., Ph.D., Dr. H.C., Vasile Cndea
President of the Academy of Romanian Scientists
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Annals of the Academy of Romanian Scientists
Series on Science and Technology of Information
ISSN 2066 - 8562 Volume 5, Number 1/2012 5

C O N T E N T S
1. Neculai ANDREI
The Quadrupled Rational Interpretation of Divinity ........................ 7
2. Stefan IANCU
Man, Machines and Conscience? ............................................................. 15
3. I. TUNARU, R. WIDENHORN, E. BODEGOM, D. IORDACHE
Computational Approach to Dark Current Spectroscopy in CCD as
Complex Systems. Part III. Definition and Use of a New Parameter
Characterizing the Depletion Dark Current in Semiconductors ........... 37
4. Adrian SIMION, Stefan TRAUSAN-MATU
Automatic Computer Music Classification and Segmentation ................. 53
5. Cornel COBIANU,

Bogdan SERBAN
Polymeric Pressure Sensors: A Conceptual View ................................... 69
6. Catalin SPULBER, Octavia BORCAN
An Analysis Regarding the Decreasing of the Image Quality
with the Optical Misalignment ................................................................. 83
7. Bogdan-Adrian STEFANESCU, Dan ANGHEL, Octavian DANILA,
Paul STERIAN, Andreea Rodica STERIAN
Applications of Quantum Cryptology for Data Transmissions
Implemented in a Student Laboratory .................................................... 93
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6 Volume 5, Number 1/2012 ISSN 2066 - 8562

8. Dan Alexandru IORDACHE
The Mathematical Theory of Communications versus the Physical
Theory of Information. The Universe versus the Multiverse .................... 107
9. M.R. JAFARI, M.R. ZARRABI, S. EFFATI
Chaos and Stabilization of Self-Remission Tumor System
by Sliding Mode .......................................................................................... 123

Referents:
Senior Res. Ph.D. Eng. Neculai Andrei
Prof. univ. Ph.D. Eng. Mircea Bodea
Prof. univ. Ph.D. Eng. Gheorghe Brezeanu
Senior Res. Ph.D. Eng. tefan Cantaragiu
Senior Res. Ph.D. Eng. Cornel Cobianu
Prof. univ. Ph.D. Eng. tefan Iancu
Senior Res. Ph.D. Eng. Mircea Valer Puc
Senior Res. Ph.D. Eng. Ctlin Spulber
Prof. univ. Ph.D. Eng. Paul Sterian
Prof. univ. Ph.D. Eng. tefan Truan-Matu

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THE QUADRUPLED RATIONAL INTERPRETATION
OF DIVINITY
Neculai ANDREI
1

Abstract. When speaking about the rational interpretation of Divinity, there are three
main concepts that we will briefly summarize in this paper. At the end of it we will present
a fourth one, namely the symmetric rational interpretation of Divinity, as well as the
connections between it and the other three ones.
Keywords: Tzimtzum concept, Coincidentia Oppositorum concept, Continuous Creation concept,
Symmetry Concept, Mathematical modeling, Occam's razor
1. Introduction
We should mention that the first three concepts belong to the Western World, to
the Catholic Church, which for more than 1000 years has made a constant effort
for reconciliation between Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) and the Christian Dogma.
We, the Romanians, and actually the entire Eastern world, did not have a
Renaissance age, in the general meaning of the concept.
We did not need Renaissance. We had the Holly Eastern Fathers, whose effort
surpassed ancient art and philosophy and gave answers to the fundamental
problems of the human condition, answers that did not involve their issuing of
philosophical systems.
2. The Tzimtzum Concept
The most serious attempt to explain the idea of Creation ex nihilo is expressed in
the theology of Isaac Luria (Arizaal) (1534-1572). Considered as being the
founder of New Kabbalah, in fact the greatest Kabbalist of all times, he uses the
Tzimtzum doctrine - concentration, contraction or withdrawal. Being an
intellectual concept of Jewish mysticism, Kabbalah is an area dealt with not only
by Hebrew scholars. Kabbalah does not give much importance to the primordial
chaos. It conceives the world as an organized system, something that, in the
current language, would be considered a system governed by laws (conservation
laws) and not by hazard. Kabbalah is essentially a system representing the world
through areas of perception and representation, of interpretation of Divinity.
According to Luria, the existence of the Universe was possible only through a
process of "contraction" of God, i.e.

1
Research Institute for Informatics, Centre for Advanced Modelling and Optimization, 8-10,
Averescu Avenue, Bucharest 1,. Full member of the Romanian Academy. (e-mail: nandrei@ici.ro).
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8 Neculai Andrei
After Genesis, God, keeping intact His essence, has retired within Himself to
make way for the world itself, leaving, so to speak, an area inside Him, some
sort of mystical space from which He withdrew in order to return to the acts of
creation and of revelation [Scholem, 1960], [Eliade, 2000, p. 577].
In this view, God's withdrawal is more than a metaphor. It is rather a change in
His intensity over the world.
Notice that there are two forms of Tzimtzum, two forms of withdrawal. The first
one relates to the withdrawal of the divine being in itself in order to allow the
existence of the physical world. The second one is the withdrawal of the "divine
will" in order to confer freedom of choice to the human being. However, this
meant sacrifying the unity and exclusivity of Divinity. Therefore, the Tzimtzum
concept within Kabbalah states that the existence of free-will was conditioned by
the destruction of the original order, of the unity and symmetry, which are
fundamental attributes of Divinity.
Creating the Universe and making the free-will efficient implied giving up the
fundamental principle of science, that of causality. At this moment, Tzimtzum is
the only place where the principle of causality is not satisfied. This defines and
explains the "singularity" mentioned in the Big Bang theory (please see paragraph
4 below), an exception that does not need the principle of causality. The unity of
natural laws, their ubiquity in the sense that "The universe is full of laws" arises
from the unity of the Divine being, of Almighty, and from the Divine will. Giving
up the principle of causality in the act of creating the physical Universe and the
free will becomes therefore similar to the "withdrawal of God", to Tzimtzum.
Luria's Kabbalah is the greatest victory achieved by the anthropomorphic
philosophical trend in the history of Rabbinic Judaism and Hebrew mysticism, the
last religious movement with influence in all Hebrew environments and in all
countries without exception [Scholem, 1960]. Its significance, as manifestation of
rationality aiming at clarifying the act of the creation of the Universe and of the
free will, emerges as well from the fact that Tzimtzum, as the essence of
Kabbalah, is entirely present in the modern cosmological theory of the Big Bang.
3. The Coincidentia Oppositorum Concept
A second concept in the rational interpretation of Divinity is closely related to the
problem of conjecture and was dealt with by the German Bishop Nicholas of Cusa
(1401-1464) in his remarkable work De Docta Ignorantia (Of Learned Ignorance),
written in 1440. The theme of this original but difficult work is that most of our
knowledge is a conjecture, and admitting this is a matter of wisdom.
According to this concept, Cusa's universe is an expression that is an imperfect and
inadequate explanation (explicatio) of God, because this explanation occurs within
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The Quadrupled Rational Interpretation of Divinity 9
the sphere field of multiplicity and separation. On the other hand, within God, the
universe is present in a strict and indissoluble unity (complicatio), a unity that
includes all qualities and determinations, which are not only different, but even
opposite to one being. In Cusa's interpretation, any single being in the universe
represents the universe itself and therefore God himself, in a proprietary manner,
characteristic to that very being, contracting (contractio) the infinite richness of the
universe based on the own individuality of the being itself.
Cusa, who was the last major philosopher-theologian of the Roman Church, one
and inseparable, a "Ianus of philosophy" in the interpretation of P. P. Negulescu
(1872-1951) because he was pointing on one hand towards the Middle Ages and on
the other hand towards the Renaissance, argues that knowledge, which is relative
and finite, is unable to grasp the truth, which is simple and infinite. A great
personality of his time, Nicholas of Cusa, until he met Plethon Gemistos Georgios
(1355-1452) during a trip to Byzantium (1437) to attend a church council, was
oriented towards the Renaissance, a new world which was just being born. The
meeting with Plethon, a Greek Neo-Platonist philosopher who had come to Italy
and stirred in Florence a great movement of ideas that would later lead to the
founding of "Accademia Platonica" of Florence by Marsiglio Ficino (1433-1499),
also determined Cusa's return toward the prevailing mentality of the Middle Ages.
The outstanding all-reaching perspective of his metaphysics can be noticed in his
exceptional works De Concordantia Catholica (1434) and De Pace Fidei (On the
Peace of Faith - 1453) in response to the fall of Constantinople under the Turks. In
these works, Cusa defines concordantia as a universal theme. The bold conclusion
he reaches, concordantia, is drawn with aid from negative theology. Using the
same approach he comes to his masterpiece, De Docta Ignorantia.
Any science being conjectural, man himself cannot
know God. The truth - the absolute maximum - is
beyond reason because reason is unable to solve
contradictions. One must, therefore, transcend beyond
discursive reason and imagination and get maximum
of wisdom through intuition. But since the intellect
cannot express itself using a rational language, Cusa
resorts to symbols and, before anything else, to
geometric figures.
Within God, that which is infinitely large (maximum)
coincides with that which is infinitely small
(minimum) and virtuality coincides with action. In
His infinite simplicity, God hides (complicato) all
things, but at the same time He is in all things (explicato); i.e., complicato
coincides with explicato, which is the coincidentia oppositorum principle. By
Nicolas of Cusa (1401-1464).
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10 Neculai Andrei
understanding this principle, our ignorance becomes erudite. Still,
coincidentia oppositorum must not be interpreted as a synthesis gained through
reasoning, because it cannot be achieved in terms of finitude, but in a manner of
conjecture, in the infinite plane [Eliade, 2000, p. 599-600].
This is an exceptional interpretation of Divinity, comparable to that given by Isaac
Luria in his New Kabbala.
By knowing in part as Apostle Paul taught us in his First Epistle to the
Corinthians (Chapter 13, verse 9) and without access to ultimate truths we can
only make conjectures. As long as they withstand the tests, they are accepted.
Otherwise, they are rejected, leaving room for other theories to replace them and
summarize their experience.
4. The Continuous Creation Concept
Still, the most elaborate concept in the rational interpretation of Divinity belongs
to Descartes. Descartes' philosophy starts off with cogito, and it starts from the
fact that I think is an indisputable finding observed directly, not through
deductions. The next step in Descartes philosophy indicates that I , as a
thinking being, am capable of certainties and those certainties are obtained by
direct intuition, through direct knowledge. In this respect Descartes, by intuition
and certainty, gives a very solid foundation of human subjectivity. Then
Descartes raises the question of how to exit from man's inner world outside into
the objective world in order to gain knowledge of the world around us. His
solution is as follows. By thinking, more specifically, through the lucidity of
thinking, he reaches another obvious fact, namely the existence itself - cogito,
ergo sum. Thus, the act of thinking contains within itself the very existence of the
thoughtful subject. In this way, through the existence of the thinking subject, the
transition to the outside world, to the universal world of to exist becomes
possible. For Descartes, thinking is primordial to the extent that the mind is
better known than the body.
When Descartes says cogito, ergo sum he does not refer to his existence, but to
his existence as thinking matter, as mind itself, leaving the body as an annex to
be handled some other time. In total agreement with St. Francis of Assisi (1181-
1226) who refers to his brother, the body, Descartes realized that in order to be
strengthened, the formula "cogito, ergo sum" needs to be continued with
something further on. Indeed, it is very possible for an evil spirit (malin gnie) to
delude and mislead him, so that everything he thinks would become an illusion.
To avoid that, Descartes needs the idea of God, whose existence he supports through
the ontological argument, as Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109) did for the first time
500 years before. Thus, Good God is the guarantor of all truths, for He is never wrong
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and, given His nature, He cannot delude us. However, even if we ignore the logical
error contained in the ontological argument, there is another problem that appears
instantly: God guarantees the truths of the world, but there are eternal truths - the
truths of mathematics. What is then God's relationship with these truths like? Eternal
truths cannot be changed. Therefore is God subject to them?
Descartes gives a masterly solution to this problem
introducing the concept of continuous creation: the
free relationship between God and His creation is
the same from the very beginning to the end and it is
a creative connection at every moment. This implies
that, along with the continuous creation which
Descartes attributes to God and parallel with it, the
implicit emergence of a continuous doubt keeps
human certainties awake. And so, in its essence,
Descartes's conception contains the universal doubt.
All modern culture, all our achievements are based on
doubts and certainties, or as Anton Dumitriu (1905-
1992) [1986] says so beautifully in The Book of
Admirable Encounters (Cartea ntlnirilor admirabile), in the essay Descartes or
the Endless Doubt: on doubts about the doubts and certainties, on doubts about
the doubts and the certainty of certainties in a regresus in infinitum, that is to say,
a continuous re-examination of all values and certainties.
5. The concept of symmetry
We saw that the rational interpretation of Divinity's continuous creation places
God in free relationship with His creation, in a creative relationship that is present
every moment and at every point of the Universe.
In the current outlook regarding the formation of the Universe known as the Big
Bang theory, proposed by Georges Lematre (1894-1966), our Universe began its
existence 13.7 billion years ago as a very small singularity, extremely hot and of
very high density. During this period of billions and billions of years it expanded
and cooled, so as to reach the current size and temperature. The Big Bang theory
is supported by the so-called "Hubble's Law", named after Edwin Hubble (1889-
1953), who, in 1929 discovered that galaxies move further and further from us at a
speed that is proportional with distance. The further a galaxy is from us, the faster
its distancing speed. Objects that are the farthest seem to be moving away from us
with the speed of light. Therefore, one may as well assume that at some moment
back in time, the Universe was concentrated in a single spot, with very high
density and temperature. We then see that the Universe, being in the beginning
Ren Descartes (1596-1650).
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12 Neculai Andrei
only a spot with the above mentioned properties, was symmetrical, perfectly
symmetrical.
The Big Bang did not happen in space and time. According to the current
acceptance, space and time felt as such were created during the Big Bang. So, to
ask what had been before the Big Bang makes no sense. Meanwhile, it must be
noted that the concepts of space and time are characteristics of human
consciousness. The human being lives in the past, present and future. Only the
Divine is in a perpetual present.
One remarkable aspect of this cosmogonist theory is the following: as we go back
in time the Universe gets hotter, denser and the symmetries, now destroyed, are
restored. In other words, while going back in time towards the Big Bang moment,
the Universe and the interactions between particles become increasingly
symmetrical. This shows that the Universe becomes more simple and symmetrical.
In a somehow more simple way, without making much of a mistake, we can say
that life is organised matter or energy, based on differentiation. If the Universe is
perfectly symmetrical and uniform and totally ordered, then within this Universe
there is no complexity, no structure can be identified, no form of life, no
consciousness. In other words, in a perfectly symmetrical and uniform Universe,
as it was at the moment of the Big Bang, life and consciousness were not possible.
In the general acceptance of the Big Bang we see that the Universe was originally
a point containing an amorphous, relatively uniform energy mixture. This
uniformity was destroyed with the start of expansion and the energy transformed
itself into a mixture of elementary particles. As the Universe expanded, these
particles packed, forming galaxies with stars and planets and other celestial
bodies. As the differentiation grew steep and the initial order was destroyed, the
structure and complexity of the Universe increased. In the end, the differentiation
was broad enough to inbreed living things, brain and consciousness. In other
words, life can appear only in a Universe in which symmetry is not total, and this
can continue only by transforming the pre-existing order into chaos.
Given the balance that exists in the Universe as well as the uniformity of the
cosmic background radiation and the luminescence that fills the Universe, its
expansion evolves in a homogeneous and isotropic way. That is to say, the
expansion of the Universe has no privileged directions. Therefore, at the moment
of the Big Bang, the Universe, which was only one point, a singularity, was
destroyed in an infinite number of symmetries, but at the same time, given the
homogeneity and isotropy of the Universe, on another level, the original
symmetry has been preserved. So the essential and remarkable aspect of our
Universe is that of preserving the symmetry at a global level (the macroscopic-
scale, the entire Universe), as well as locally, in the sense that at any time and at
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any place we are surrounded by concepts that arise in dual-symmetric pairs, i.e.
we are immersed in an ocean of symmetries. And so, the concept of continuous
creation completes and reinforces itself as the following rational interpretation of
Divinity: God's free relationship with His creation is the same from the very
beginning to the end, that is, a continuous creative relationship in dual-
symmetric concepts at any moment.
6. Fundamentals of mathematical modeling
Mathematical modeling is an activity of high intellectualism through which a
certain part of the Universe is represented in mathematical symbols. The goal of
mathematical modeling is to build a mathematical tool that would provide the
understanding of the movement which takes place in the part of the Universe we are
interested in and to make accurate predictions of its evolution. Mathematical models
are presented in a variety of forms. The most important seem to be: linear or non-
linear, deterministic or stochastic, static or dynamic, discrete or continuous, etc.
They come in any shape, all of them satisfying the principle of causality.
Mathematical models are written based on
conservation laws that represent the essence of the
Universe. These, in turn, as demonstrated by Emmy
Noether (1882-1935), arise from symmetries, which
form the basis of our knowable Universe. Being
surrounded by an ocean of dual-symmetrical paired
concepts, the result is that the conservation laws
have a very serious base that ensures the adequacy
of mathematical models. I n this respect Descartes
view of continuous creation is completed in the
sense that, the free relationship of God with His
creation continuously creates symmetrical concepts.
The complexity of a given model always involves
equilibrium, a balance between its simplicity and its
accuracy in representation. What is important here is Occam's razor: out of the
models that have the same power of representation and prediction, it is
recommended that the simplest should be chosen.
The idea is that the model should be as simple as possible, but not simplistic.
Increasing the complexity of a model improves its realism, therefore its power of
representation, but it creates difficulties in understanding and analyzing the model
and raises computational questions about the size of the model and about the
numerical instabilities in the solving process. Therefore, a mathematical model, in
the perspective of infinite similarities with reality, is characterized by simplicity
imposed by conservation laws.
Emmy Noether (1882-1935)
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14 Neculai Andrei

R E F E R E N C E S
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November 2, 2009. [http://camo.ici.ro/neculai/n47a09. pdf].
[3] Andrei, N., (2009) Aspecte ale evoluiei filosofiei i a tiinei. Mai 4, 2009.
[http://camo.ici.ro/neculai/n31a09.pdf]
[4] Andrei, N., (2011) mptrita interpretare raional a Divinitii, Manuscript, June 8, 2011.
[http://camo.ici.ro/neculai/r10a11.pdf]
[5] Curley, E.M., (1984) Descartes on the creation of the eternal truths. The Philosophical
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[6] Dumitriu, A., (1986) Eseuri. tiin i Cunoatere. Altheia. Cartea ntlnirilor Admirabile.
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[7] Eliade, M., (2000) Istoria Credinelor i Ideilor Religioase, Editura Univers Enciclopedic,
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[8] Matthew McMahon, C., The Doctrine of Continuous Creation.
[http://www.apuritansmind.com/ChristianWalk/McMahonDoctrineContinuousCreation.htm]
[9] Scholem, G., (1960) Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism, New York, 1946, (ediia 4,
revizuit i adugit, cu bibliografie suplimentar), 1960.

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MAN, MACHINES AND CONSCIENCE?
Stefan IANCU
1

Abstract. This paper presents a summary of the impact that the impetuous development of
information science and technology may have, emphasizing the trends and the role of artificial
intelligence. It sets out what conscience is, the way in which the information is processed in
the system of human thought, which is the relationship between this system and the study of
human conscience and the way in which man-to-man, man-to-machine and machine-to-
machine intercommunication is made. Then some controversial views on the possibility of the
existence of some machines with conscience are presented and it is demonstrated why it is not
possible to build such machines in the near future. The conclusion is that, in the near future,
machines with a conscience are not consistent with reality and that the best thing would be to
state that it will be possible in the future to build machines not with human intelligence, but
only machines with algorithmic, binary intelligence.
Keywords: artificial intelligence, conscience, intercommunication
Man, know thyself and thou wilt know
the Universe and the Gods
Inscription from the frontispiece of the Temple of Delphi.
1. Introduction
Information science and technology
2
is one of the rapidly evolving areas with the
most spectacular implications on the economic and social life. However, there are
some serious reasons to believe that what we have seen so far only its beginning.
Artificial intelligence is an important factor in the evolution of information science
and technology. This intelligence makes each element, device, component or

1
Prof. PhD. Eng., Scientific Secretary of the Information Science and Technology Department of the
Romanian Academy, Scientific Secretary of the Romanian Committee for the History and Philosophy
of Science and Technique from the Romanian Academy, Full, founding member of the Academy of
Romanian Scientists.
2
For the enunciation of the new scientific achievements in the field of automated information
processing the Europeans have promoted the term computer science (designed by the French in
1964) and the Americans have oscillated between Computer Science for the theoretical aspects
and ,,Electronic Data Processing for the applicative, practical aspects. The term information
technology, which has become widely accepted today, is relatively new and marks a maturation of
the field which has exceeded the stage of science and craft, entering the industrial phase. As the
technology of automated information processing generalized beyond the scope of numerical
calculation, the data and the computer are no longer perceived as essential (nowadays, the
potential visit to a virtual museum seems to have no connection with the earlier introduction of
data with punched tape to calculate wages or prices). In addition, the term information technology
shows symmetry with communication technology, offering the possibility of a linguistic
integration in the term information and communication technology with the acronym ICT.
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16 Stefan Iancu
system perform these three steps for any given task: to assess its internal conditions
and performance; to determine the requirements of any given task and if there is a
correlation between the conclusions of the first two stages, to determine what to do:
if there is a correspondence it executes it, if not it seeks help.
The interaction between microelectronics and the new photonic
1
science and
Nanochemistry
2
and biotechnology shows the importance of ISoC (Intelligent
Systems on a Chip) technology to human evolution. This technology will create
conditions for obtaining intelligent systems built on a single chip (ISoC).
ISoC technology is considered the top innovative process that will allow the
integration of the latest technological knowledge, selected from the intelligent
computer networks. It will make possible the development of some new circuits
and new intelligent systems with extraordinary features relevant to all the
economic sectors. Intelligent systems built on a single chip can be applied in areas
such as: health monitoring, medical diagnosis, microsurgery, Nano chemistry,
environmental monitoring, etc. (Iancu St., 2007).
Recently, the similarity between man and machine has been increasingly debated
in the literature, the man being considered a sophisticated machine made of
billions of biomoleculars that interact in accordance with the rules derived from
science, presumed to be well defined, but which are still incompletely known
(Brooks Rodney, 2008). These biomoleculars interactions in our head generate
our mind and our intelligence, our feelings and emotions, the consciousness of our
existence. Accepting these assumptions would lead to remarkable possibilities. If
we work like machines and if we manage to understand and assimilate all these
rules that govern our mind, then, in principle, there should be no reason why we
should not reproduce, in silicon and steel, machinery to operate under the same
rules by which the man himself operates. Supposedly, these machines should be
able to demonstrate that they have human intelligence, human emotions and even
human consciousness. The problem to be clarified is if we work like machines or
not-if it were so-if we can ever identify all the rules by which we operate.
Information and communication technology has begun to be incorporated into the
environment and the objects of current use; its use is so man "friendly" that it is no
longer seen as an annex, but as a current integral part. In the report "2006 State of the
Future" (http://www.acunu.org/millenium/sof2006.html), conducted by over 2000
scientists and futurists, the increasing interest in the man-machine collective
intelligence, which is expected to grow significantly in the next 25 years, is signaled.

1
Photonic science- the science of electronic phenomena based on the propagation of light.
2
Nanochemistry - discipline that deals with the formation of future materials through a better
understanding of the unique properties of atom and molecule sets, ranging in size from that of an
individual atom to those of some pieces of material.
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Man, Machines and Conscience? 17
Understanding the brain, the mind and the human consciousness is considered
today the last frontier of science by many scientists. In fact, the sciences of mind
and consciousness, besides quantum physics, have reached a common, unique
frontier of science (Mihai Draganescu, 2000).
Mind and consciousness cannot be fully explained without quantum physics and
the study of the latter will no longer evolve without taking into account the
consciousness. What connects the frontiers of quantum physics and consciousness
is the phenomenological information
1
, the experience, qualia
2
, the active
information that generates the quantum world according to David Bohm
3
, and
generally the phenomenological meanings (Mihai Draganescu, 1999).
2. What is conscience?
The nature of consciousness is not yet understood and therefore, scientifically,
there is no conclusive answer to the question what is conscience. There is only a
concept that makes connections between individuals and their knowledge on their
own existence.
Conscience is extremely difficult to define scientifically because it is entirely
subjective. For this reason, its study has long belonged to philosophy and religion.
Recently, the biologists, especially the neurobiologists, have entered the debate.
Some of them hoped that the image of the brain and the electrical reading of brain
signals will reveal the neural correlation of consciousness and actually there has
been made significant progress in this field. But what exactly in our brain activity

1
Phenomenologically - on phenomenology (1.-descriptive study of a set of phenomena as they
manifest in time and space; 2. - description / in Fichte and Hegel /of the spiritual history of
conscience that grows from sensorial certainty to "absolute science; 3.-idealist philosophical
current-established by E. Husserl, which reduces the object to phenomenon, seen as spiritual
essence and as a final and direct result of consciousness, regardless of the objective existence and
the sensorial experience.)
2
Qualia come from Latin and it is the plural form, meaning qualities. The singular form quale
means a certain type or a certain way. In the philosophy of mind, the term qualia was used for
the first time in 1929 by Clarence I. Lewis (philosopher, 1883 - 1964) in the paper "Mind and the
World Order" to describe the recognizable qualitative characteristics of a given fact that should not
be confused with the objective properties of the objects in the external world. The term qualia has
been established after 1982 with the publication of Frank Jacksons article (Australian philosopher
b.1943) Epiphenomenal Qualia, where it receives the meaning of certain features of the bodily
sensations and of certain perceptual experiences which cannot be reduced to what is included in
the pure physical information. Qualia can also be defined as introspective phenomenal aspect of
mental states that arise as a result of perception, in a certain appropriate manner, of the sensations
in an environment. Qualia refer, therefore, to the way in which things appear to us, the way in
which they reach the consciousness through the reception of the senses.
3
David Joseph Bohm (20 December 1917-27 October 1992) was a scientist with real
contributions in theoretical physics, philosophy and neuropsychology, as well as in the Manhattan
Project;
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18 Stefan Iancu
makes us be conscious is still unknown. Certainly, there is no area in the brain
that is active only when we are conscious and that is passive when we no longer
realize that we are conscious. Even if we accept (and not everyone does) that it
comes from the brain, there are still some problems. The situation was called the
hard problem of consciousness, some people trying to explain it by calling it the
emergent property of the active neuronal networks - something that is born of the
interaction between neurons, but not found in them.
Conscience is the most advanced man specific form of objective psychological
reflection of reality by means of sensations, perceptions and thoughts in the form
of representations, concepts, judgments, and reasoning, including emotional and
volitional processes. Consciousness is a superior process of the human mind,
developed through social activity and enculturation
1
, by means of communication,
based on an internal and internal-external (verbal and written) communication
model consisting of reflection codified by knowledge, self-organization with
emerging effects and self-adjustment at the level of the mind that link the
information received over the time to the experienced feelings, giving rise to often
new thoughts and feelings. In terms of cognitive sciences, consciousness is the
faculty of understanding all internal and external phenomena that relate to us.
According to some, conscience is not a moral instance that tells you what is right
and what is wrong, it is not a human attribute but an attribute of the intelligence in
our mind (Dennett C. Daniel, 1991). Conscience is related to thought as a specific
human feature. The subject of human thought is the entire world surrounding the
man and the man himself, his place in this world, all these leading to the purpose
of his life, whether he realizes it or not. A second characteristic of consciousness
is judgment, i.e. the ability to distinguish well from evil. A third feature of
consciousness is that it triggers mans will. By will, the man produces facts:
thoughts, words and works (gestures). Without its will, the man cannot act
consciously. These three characteristics of consciousness - thought, judgment and
will but also the emotive states determine entirely mans attitude towards
himself, towards his fellowmen, towards society. That is way mans actions show
the quality of his consciousness. His consciousness dictates his behavior, his
attitude towards himself, towards his fellowmen, towards his society.
We should make a clear distinction between conscience and consciousness
2
. Being
conscious is understood to have a distinct meaning than having a conscience, i.e. to
"hear" that inner voice, which always shows us what is right and what is true. Free
will gives us, unfortunately, the right to override the advice of conscience.

1
Enculturation - process of assimilation of a certain form of culture, by training and education
throughout the life.
2
Consciousness - the fact of being aware of the surrounding reality, of peoples own possibilities,
the obligations that people have in society to achieve the goals set previously.
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Consciousness is a process of cognitive reflection over the world and the man
himself. We speak, thus, about world consciousness and self-consciousness. While
world consciousness is coercive, showing the real dimension of things, the
unrelenting, objective necessity, self-consciousness is the key condition of the self-
adjusting activism, of selectivity and creative intervention in the environment. The
world consciousness is based on models or images of the objective reality, while
self-consciousness is based on the model of the self and on personal traits.
Consciousness must be considered in the first place, in unity with the social
human activity of transforming the world, of adapting. It forms in time, under the
influence of society, of its principles; through family, schools, books, by verbal
exchanges between the individual and those around him, through his thoughts
formed in contact with the evolution environment. Of all the species of the earth,
the man is the only one who becomes just like the others provided that he
develops, evolves in the human society. Man does not become man if he is kept in
isolation
1
from human society (Dulea Gabriel, 2005).
The issue of consciousness will lead to an important frontier for mankind as well.
A science of consciousness begins to develop and the nature of the consciousness
could have significant implications for the society. Man and human
consciousness, with all the scientific and cultural developments and the religions
that preach what is right and not what is wrong, have failed to create a true
civilization, the social and human civilization
2
. Man might not be able to create a
true civilization because of its genes that prevail over its culture. Thierry de
Montbrial noted: dont we have reasons to think that it, the consciousness,
continues to grow if not progress? This is the message of great religions. This is
also the message of science because it makes us revise continuously our image
about the universe and our place in the universe ...". (Thierry de Montbrial, 1999).
A long debated question in philosophy is whether consciousness exists as a brain
specific phenomenon or it is inherent in all matter (principle known as the
principle according to which everything has a conscience, which can be found
in ancient philosophies).

1
From the literature it is known the case of the twins, one of which was stolen by the monkeys
(known cases). The other one grew in the city and became a mature man: he graduated a college,
he got a job, he knew to browse the internet etc. The one grew by the monkeys became an animal:
he couldnt talk, he couldnt admire a landscape, he couldnt walk on two feet and used "all fours"
instead (actual cases are known).
2
M. Draganescu claimed in August 2000 within the exhibition of The inevitability of
globalization and the Information Society that By social civilization we must understand the
quality of the relations between people, between groups, nations, states, ethnic groups, institutions,
and their relations with the natural and artificial-technical environment, all considered in
connection with human, ethical and aesthetic criteria of the manifestation of a certain point of
mans life in its existence.
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20 Stefan Iancu
H.S. Green
1
relates the functioning of the brain to quantum processes that produce
unpredictable effects. (Green H.S., 2000). A very interesting point of Green's
thinking is that intelligence cannot be connected to consciousness. This argument
was confirmed by the artificial intelligence that showed that there can be
intelligence, in a primary, unconsciously form.
Our problem, of all of us, is the simple fact that, our consciousness is always
subject to thoughts and judgment. We continuously perfect ourselves by simply
understanding that, in the order established by the reason that created us, the
consciousness is superior to thoughts and we have an obligation to live rationally
and therefore responsibly. And the society, to the formation of which each of us
contributes, will become, in its turn, more responsible, giving, thus, finality to its
becoming.
3. Information processing in the human thinking system
The tenth decade of the twentieth century was the brain decade; a period in which
the knowledge acquired about the brain exceeded the knowledge acquired in
seven or eight decades earlier. New discoveries have led to the establishment of
connections between human performance, failures and diseases, not only with
brain biochemistry but also with genetic factors. One can say without any
exaggeration, that 60% of the mental functions are genetically determined. In
other words, genes determine the limits of our capacities and the environment
determines how completely this potential is achieved.
The idea of a neural network emerged in the '60s of the twentieth century and it
was put into practice in the 90s of the same century once the neural scanners
appeared. But how can the attention mood are "caught"? The only option available
to the researchers was to catch the precise moment of becoming conscious, i.e.
when we understand a joke or solve a mystery like finding the difference between
two almost identical pictures. Studies on these phenomena have led to a model,
widely accepted today, namely that of the conscious working space. According
to this model, our neurons are organized into two distinct areas: on the one hand
small brain circuits, a kind of processors that generate unconscious mental
representations and on the other hand, a working space responsible for the
conscious representations. This, working space can support only one image at a
time, and therefore each processor that composes it is in competition with the
others to impose its own information. There are several factors that make a
representation to prevail over another. This happens, for example, when we are
focused on a painting but we react instantly if we hear our name pronounced. The
same principle governs the dj vu states. This is the most accepted model, but

1
H.S. Green Professor of Physics at the Univ. of Adelaide, Australia;
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it is far from explaining everything, for instance we do not know, the "language"
through which neurons communicate with each other, neurologists barely perceive
a vague background noise.
In 2000, Arvid Carlson, Paul Greengard and Eric R. Kandel received the Nobel
Prize for medicine for their crucial discoveries in understanding the normal
functioning of the human brain
1
. The study of the functional connection between
brain and mind has been done by similarity to computer connection - program,
although it is known that a computer is not a brain, but because computer
programs are designed by people with brain, it has been considered that a
computer for which these programs are written could represent, based on a
comparison, a model in the analysis of the connection brain / mind, and the
distinction among brain, mind and human reason has been considered to be
similar to the distinction between machine (hardware), inferior or soft programs
(for example operating systems) and superior or hard programs
2
. The similarity
between the two distinctions has been based solely on the fact that human reason
and the high level programs are both higher forms of organization.
I, personally, believe that, because the nature of human reason as a superior form
of organization of the functional connection between brain and mind is yet

1
The human brain has about 1500 cmc, being about 5 times more massive than the one of the
primates of the same weight, it represents about 2% of body mass, consumes 20% of the total
oxygen pumped through the heart arteries and is composed of 1,000 billion nerve cells, each nerve
cell forming thousands of contact points, the so-called synapses (the contact area between two
neurons), and the communication among nerve cells is made through chemicals called
neurotransmitters. When a neurotransmitter substance stimulates a nerve cell, its signal is
transmitted through a process called slow synaptic transmission, a process involving an essential
chemical reaction, protein phosphorylation which changes the functioning of nerve cells. The
resulted changes may last from seconds to hours. The slow synaptic transmission is the one that
controls both our movements and processes of the brain, involved in emotions and reactions to
substances that cause addiction. Human brain reacts to what we see or hear due to the
neurotransmitter substances carrying signals in nerve cells and because memory functions are
achieved through changes in the forms and functions of the synapses.
2
Currently, in the literature (M Voicu, 2006) there are two levels of artificial intelligence:
inferior or soft level - ensures the development of non-biological processes that require a
smart management such as the management of some production processes, making analysis, the
game of chess, processing, understanding and natural language synthesis. This level, considered
inferior, in fact, provides a more accurate and faster memory than the human one, it has a greater
storage capacity than the human one and it can acquire and provide instant knowledge;
superior or hard level - can give the possibility to the machine to have smart reactions
similar to the human ones if two conditions are met: a computing capacity of at least 10
16

operations per second and an artificial intelligence software similar to the human one. In 2005,
IBM Blue Gene/L PC already achieved 10
14
operations per second and if estimates are made
according to Moores law, confirmed by the microelectronics industry, it might reach, in constant
prices, 10
16
operations per second in 2020.
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22 Stefan Iancu
unknown, the comparative study of the brain / mind relationship using similar
rules to computer/ computer program may be only the beginning of the study
which could be beneficial only to computer science development. As research
carried out revealed that there was no apparent connection between the functions
of the neural networks that constitute the brain and the functions of a computer
system, there should be a thorough concern to identify the real nature of the
structure of human reason as a result of a superior form of organization of the
functional connection between brain and mind.
Although in the past 10-15 years very important steps have made in the study of
information processing, it still cannot be said with respect to human thought that it
has been deciphered or that the mechanism of thought generating new knowledge
is known. In an article published in 1998 in The Economic Tribune (Iancu. St,
1998), I stated that a computing machine that thinks could not be devised because
the mechanism of human thinking was not known yet.
If a computer is able to handle a large number of 0 and 1, it is very hard for it
to recognize an object or to read a manuscript, tasks that the brain makes easily.
The efficacy of human brain, according to an American-Swiss team from the
Institute of neuro-science in Zurich, is the result of its hybrid character both
binary and analog. There are claims according to which the problem of designing
artificial intelligence software to obtain similar reactions to the human ones can be
solved. The temporal and spatial resolution of scanning the human brain
progresses exponentially, so that observations in real-time of human neural
networks
1
are already possible. Mathematical models and validated simulations of
several tens of brain regions, including regions of the cerebellum, where is the
majority of brain neurons, have been developed. Although the co-operation in
interaction of all these models has not been simulated yet, at present, it is
considered that the conditions necessary to provide solutions for hard intelligence
will be created in approximately two decades.
Compared with the human brain, the computer presents several advantages in the
sense that if it has the correct software, it does not forget and does not do any
mistakes. The human brain has reached a high degree of perfection due to its
continuous evolution and adaptation, but it forgets and does errors. Consequently,
the similarity between brain/mind and computer/program is inconsistent. If
thinking is a non-algorithmic process operating primarily with images, the
computer is a rigorously logic algorithmic machine, even when it has to process
erroneous data. If the rules of logic are rules of correct reasoning, thought

1
In the "Wired" from March 2009 it has been stated that The center of human memory
considered, not long ago, too chaotic to be decoded, might be deciphered soon. Through some
research conducted at the University College from London the researchers succeeded, using the
cerebral activity of four subjects in a virtual room, to identify the exact place where they were.
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processes, emotions and human feelings are not governed only by rules of logic.
Studies have shown that there is no global relationship between brain and mind. It
has been found that several distinct parts of the brain may generate separate or
parallel effects in the mental process. Human mind is capable of identifying a
piece of information and a structure known in various forms of presentation. For
example, a driver with experience identifies if the engine works properly or not by
the noise it makes. A new sound, which he has not heard before, may make him
understand that the engine is not working properly (Karl Pribram, 2007).
Lets see what happens today. Deciphering the human genome (information that
can be stored on 80,000 compact discs) and elucidating the relationships between
genes and their effects may, in the next 10 years, lead to the domination of the
society and hopefully of the socio-human consciousness, of the whole human
biological foundation. Its change, not only for medical purposes, due to a
controlled evolution, a self-controlled evolution actually, that could lead to
characteristics that determine favorable features for a superior conscience and
socio-human civilization.
4. Man-to-man, man-to-machine and machine-to-machine
intercommunication
The main means of man-to-man intercommunication
1
is spoken language. Any
human communication has both a desirable and an unpredictable and sometimes
even unwanted effect by the speaker. In interpersonal communication, the mood
and desire of the receiver to communicate may have a key role in an efficient
exchange of ideas and information.
The context of the communicative act, its duration and the level of knowledge and
intercommunication between speakers, the level of knowledge in the area to
which the subject of the conversation belongs to, etc. play a significant role in the
person-to-person communication. In current human language we use a large
number of metaphors (e.g. "time flies like an arrow") and the problem of
understanding metaphors is related to the problem of living, the central problem in
understanding the concept of consciousness as well (GH von Wright, 1995). A
familiar neighborhood can make us understand and control complex phenomena,
living a phenomenon (a situation) being fundamental to its understanding.
It has not been possible so far to create a computer program that allows man-to-
machine or machine-to-machine intercommunication in human spoken language,
perfectly identical to human dialogue. The problems encountered in a verbal
dialogue with a machine are generated especially by the idiomatic language
2
,

1
Intercommunication - the mutual conversation between several discussion partners.
2
Idiomatic - all the characteristics of a language; relevant to an idiom (a generic term for concepts
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24 Stefan Iancu
which, according to some authors are insurmountable in understanding the
meanings of sentences.
Currently, one of the contextual problems found in the dialogue with a machine,
in human language, is the sequence of the replies. This issue is treated in Austin
1

and J.R. Searle
2
s theory of speech acts which places each line from a dialogue in
a well-specified category: information, demand, offer, etc.
Any man-to-machine communication involves an interface made of all the real
physical elements (keyboard, screen, mouse, etc.) or the virtual ones (windows,
menus, other ways of display and interaction displayed on the screen) and the
software involved in the dialogue between a man and a computer or computer
network. The human factor is decisive in designing and operating such interfaces
(Trausan-Matu Stefan, 2000).
In man-to-machine dialogue, the key effect is given by the information
interaction, the physical interaction between man and machine having only a
secondary role, directed towards the facilitation of the information interaction
(pressing some keys, moving the mouse, etc.). Both man and machine (the
electronic computer from the control system) have different representations of the
information (the computer - memory bits; in programming languages - symbolic
structures; and the man - symbolic structures and images from the memory). The
machine provides information to the human discussion partner in a certain form
(alphanumeric, graphic, imaging, auditory, tactile, etc. form) and the latter takes
them, makes certain judgments and as a result, it selects a particular processing
variant and gives certain orders. All these interactions, subject to some possible
disturbances are intermediated by signs and signals, which turn into ways of man-
to-machine communication carried out through a communication channel
according to a certain code.
People will interact with the computer making it able to respond and give
evidence of understanding. Such technology is already experienced in the
laboratory. Verbal communication technology increased by natural language

of language, dialect, subdialect or speech).
1
John Langshaw Austin (28 March 1911-8 February 1960) a philosopher of the language, who
contributed to the birth of this field. He held a very important place in the English philosophy of
the language alongside Wittgenstein (Ludwig Josef Johann Wittgenstein-b. 26 April 1889,
Vienna - d. 29 April 1951 - was an Austrian philosopher, author of some fundamental
contributions in the development of modern logic and the philosophy of the language) for the way
in which they looked at the way words are used (use) and to elucidate the sense (meaning).
2
John Rogers Searle (born 31 July 1932) Professor of Philosophy at the University of California,
Berkeley, known for his contributions to the philosophy of language, the philosophy of mind and
consciousness, over the characteristics of social reality constructed in opposition to the physical
reality and over the practical reason;
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understanding makes a computer to understand and participate in the interaction.
Let us imagine that in the near future it will be possible to ask a computer to make
all the arrangements necessary for a trip to Sinaia for the weekends. The computer
should understand from his knowledge base that we" means our entire family
that our family has certain preferences regarding the means of transport, and it
should automatically make reservations on the date and time requested, that the
family has certain accommodation preferences to satisfy by booking early seats,
etc. The computer should contact several travel agents and negotiate, select and
demand a particular journey in preferential conditions to the agency which
ensures the highest performance/cost ratio. Thus, it will take several seconds to
launch the request to the computer and half a day needed to negotiate with travel
agencies will be spared.
"Intelligence" implies the possibility of connecting autonomous devices in a
network that will then work together. Let us imagine that a company which runs
the operation of 800 blocks of housing for rent from a distance could understand
the behavior of the tenants based on the pheromones
1
of the occupants. Let us
imagine a piece of furniture that could respond to the wishes of its user or to
systems that could control the operation of a vehicle and could drive it on the
highway
2
.
The researchers from IBM Israel started in 2008 the "Hermes" program that will
create a device to help the elderly have a computer-assisted memory. The elderly
will be equipped with microphones and miniature video equipment to record, at
their command, what they have said, what they have done, where there have been at
a certain time. All this information will be stored and processed to provide, upon
request, electronic "memories" to those with memory slips. The computer will free
man from its daily tasks, giving it the necessary time for creative activities, for
personal, family concerns, etc. What is fiction today will become reality in the next
decade of the 21
st
century. Will we entrust the logic, daily, algorithmically activity
to the computer as it happened at the beginning of the first industrial revolution,
when muscular strength was replaced by the strong arm of machines?
As of 2000, according to the literature, the research direction with the greatest
potential for the development of information technology is represented by

1
Pheromones - chemical, biologically active substance secreted by the individuals belonging to
different species that influence the process of development and the behavior of other individuals of
that species or of other species.
2
The future belongs to the intelligent automobiles with reflexes that are faster than the human
ones. In 2008 the license of the only road safety system, called Mobileye, was sold in Europe by
two teachers from Israel. It integrates the alarm for danger of collision with the one signaling
leaving the road and with the dangerous proximity alarm. The traffic security system is already
installed on luxury cars like BMW, Volvo, Buick and Cadillac.
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26 Stefan Iancu
computers operating autonomously, i.e. computers able to solve their own
operation problems, able to self-repair and become functional again. The term,
"autonomous computer" may sound esoteric but it will have practical
implications, reducing the total cost of operation (the cost of installation,
operation maintenance, current and periodic maintenance of the system) and
eliminating hazards generated by viruses.
Currently, the evolutionist artificial intelligence systems, inspired by biology, as
well as those on artificial life, are increasingly powerful. If most of the previous
approaches of the artificial intelligence sought to imitate intelligent human
behavior, the solutions provided by the artificial life sub-domain aim to summarize
some artificial life forms to model it as it might be or become, to try to understand
the life we are living. The distinction between machine and live nature has not been
determined by the nature of the existing machinery. On the contrary, the concepts of
mind and machine depend one on the other, being in a continuous dialectics.
The problems with the industrial robots and the current automated production
sectors are simpler than those of the human-type robot, but they are much more
complex than those of the mechanical duck
1
or those of the means of production
without electronic control and adjustment. Only after the man had had the
electronic means to build the artificial intelligence did it become a characteristic
of the automated means of production. The law of the complementarily between
the mechanical motion and the electronic intelligence marked the technological
development in the second half of the twentieth century, leading to the evolution
of production machinery and machinery in general. The evolution from the simple
tool to the tool with artificial intelligence made the world familiar to quantitative
growths, but also important qualitative leaps.
Currently, practical information and communication technology applications,
even wireless, operate separately, independent of one another. Machine-to-
machine communication, although in incipient development phase is in a
continuous expansion. At present, there is no infrastructure designed to allow a
general intercommunication between telecommunication devices, integrated in
machines equipped with artificial intelligence.
In literature (Kallio Johanna, 2009) it has been estimated that in 2010 the number
of the communication devices, integrated in machines equipped with artificial

1
In the winter of 1738-1739, Jacques de Vaucanson (1709-1782, French engineer) built and made
a demonstration in Paris with a mechanical duck, considered to be the first robot that was able to
peck grains that after a reasonable time, necessary for digestion, were eliminated. Besides this
mechanical duck, during the same demonstration two other mechanical constructions representing
a flutist and a tambourine drummer and whistle singer were presented. In addition to the
commercial, philosophical, popular and professional success, the three presented automatic
devices impressed Voltaire, who called Vaucanson, a rival to Prometheus.
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intelligence will be 1,000 times larger than the number of the mobile phones,
which currently exceeds one billion. When all the existing communication devices
will be interconnected to the Internet, new opportunities for machine-to-machine
intercommunication will appear. Usenet project (Ubiquitous M2M Service
Network
1
) launched by Eureka/ITEA 2, in 2008 aimed to solve this
interoperability problem within three years, providing information collection,
transmission and processing services and creating an interactive system with
machines equipped with telecommunication devices.
Ubiquitous M2M Service Network will provide opportunities and benefits that are
essential for the activities of various companies, in particular if the systems that
control their key processes are able to use real-time information, generated by the
machine-to-machine (M2M) intercommunication. The main result of the M2M
system operation will be that all the interconnected companies will be able to
increase their service quality, to reduce cost prices and increase customer
satisfaction.
5. Can machines have a conscience?
Currently there are many machines, whose behavior suggests that they are
endowed with mental processes. For example, the aircrafts equipped with
autopilot can fly by themselves on air routes: they respond to external sensorial
information; they take decisions on the flight; they communicate with other
aircrafts; they know when they need fuel; they feel a potential danger, etc.
The way in which an autopilot functions restores the following question: Are
humans the only ones who make decisions, who communicate? Machines do not?
And, yet, the problem is not really that simple. For a number of cognitive
researchers, strong artificial intelligence is not just a tool for formulating and
testing hypotheses concerning the human world, but also if it is well-planned a
mind that seems to understand and have other cognitive processes as well, in
brief, a conscious mind. John Rogers Searle thought that it was impossible for
machines (even with strong artificial intelligence) to have a consciousness. He
considered that there is only one machine made of flesh and blood or
neuroproteins that may be conscious, the phenomenon of consciousness being
inaccessible to silicon and metal.
In the SF literature, the existence of robots with self-consciousness and decision-
making capacity as a result of their own judgments in accordance with the social
requirements
2
has been imagined since the first decades of the twentieth century.

1
M2M - machine/two/to machine.
2
In 1921 Karel Capeks Rossums Universal Robots was published. It is about the construction
by people of better robots that were sent to fight in wars. Robots decide that fighting in a war is
madness and they conquer the world to dominate peace.
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28 Stefan Iancu
If we consider the elements of intelligence based on a more or less developed
nervous system, of so many creatures inferior to man, all machines with all their
automated perfection, including with microelectronic or nanoelectronic structures
of control and adjustment, seem primitive to us compared with the simplest
creatures and with the latest machines equipped with artificial intelligence. "The
simplest living cell is so complex that supercomputer models may never simulate
its behavior" (Wayt Gibbs W., 2001).
Some say that mankind will never build a machine with a conscience. It is indeed
difficult to imagine how a brain-robot could be the support of a conscience. But at
the same time it is difficult to imagine the way in which our organic brain may be
the seat of a conscience. And yet we accept it easily even though we do not imagine
how it could be possible. The genetic revolution of the 60s of the last century has
made the hopes of building a conscious machine revive. It is argued in the literature
(Vinge Vernor, 2008) that mankind became efficient enough to be considered a
superhuman being through its computer networks and the created databases.
Globalization, increased today by the Internet, is accompanied by the creation of a
global network which is assumed to become a network of artificial intelligence and
in the future with conscious nodes of artificial intelligence. What kind of conscience
will such a network have? Green thinks that there will be a symbiosis of human
conscience with this conscience of the Internet by creating an ecological system that
will lead to a great intelligence
1
and wisdom (Green H.S., 2000).
The artificial intelligence
2
is a discipline that provides methods, techniques and
information tools, based on specific ways of information processing, which
mimics different facets of complex problem solving, which could not be
satisfactorily resolved only by using numerical methods. Artificial intelligence is
the result of combining computer science, physiology and philosophy (logic),
cognitive psychology and management science, biology. Research in automatic

In 1950, Isaac Asimov published the work I, Robot in which he set out the three fundamental
laws of robotics:
a. - A robot may not injure a human being, or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to
harm.
b. - A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings, except where such orders would
conflict with the First Law.
c. - A robot must protect its own existence, except where such protection would conflict with the
First or Second Law.
1
Intelligence - the capacity of the individual to adapt to new circumstances, to determine the
essential relations and to find a way out of a given situation, to solve new problems.
2
Artificial intelligence - the capacity of advanced technical systems to achieve performance that
could be identical to those of humans. The term indicates a concept (in the wide sense advocated
by Turings test), an area (a branch of information technology that deals with intelligent behavior
automation) and an instrument (for the development of applications, objects and intelligent
technologies).
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learning, automatic processing of natural language, sensorial perception, made it
possible for scientists to build machines that perceive and understand, leaving the
impression that they reason.
Perhaps the best way to assess whether a machine has intelligence is the one
shown by Alan Turing
1
. He said that "a computer deserves to be considered
intelligent if it makes the man to believe that its actions with such a computer are
its actions with another man" - (http://library.thinkquest.org/2705/basics.html).
The issue of artificial intelligence has been defined on the one hand, in
comparison with the ability to reason, and on the other hand, in relation to
behavior skills. Basically, artificial intelligence involves both a better
understanding of human thinking and a rational way of action. Rationalism and
the human factor define the four major categories of definitions: systems that
think like humans, systems that think rationally, systems that act like humans,
systems that act rationally. The rational-human dichotomy does not imply that
people are irrational, but that people often make (sometimes explainable) mistakes
"(Elena Solunca Moise, 2002).
Artificial intelligence involves the storage and the logic processing of a very large
volume of data and symbols with very high speeds. Therefore its support is the
static electronic memories of high capacity in small physical volume and the
logical drives that have taken the form of microprocessors. The evolution of the
artificial intelligence is closely linked to micro and nanotechnology developments
in general and the development of computer science in particular, significant
results being achieved in recent decades, both in the conceptual and the applied
plans, as a result of introducing the electronic circuits in the structure of devices,
machines, facilities and development of operating systems in real time (Iancu St.,
2003).
Human brain has been considered a supercomputer, which might interact with
ordinary computers. It is also thought that, in the future, the print of a mans
consciousness could be stored on a computing support, ensuring thus the
immortality of the individual. According to the literature (Koch Christof, 2008) in
the next 25 years it will be possible for a person to transfer its mind, memory,
intelligence, its entire personality to a machine and thus this machine could
acquire consciousness
2
.

1
Alan Turing (1912 - 1954), English mathematician, a pioneer in the development of computer
logic, as it is known at present.
2
According to the literature, clinical studies have shown certain neural activities that offered the
possibility of some rudimentary understanding of billions of processes that might constitute the
basis of forming a conscience. At the same time it was found that many processes in the brain have
nothing in common with the conscience. Extensive destruction of cerebellum (the small brain, part
of the encephalon located in the rear and bottom of the head) does not affect a person's conscience,
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30 Stefan Iancu
If a persons mind, memory, intelligence could be reduced to the level of a
structure of electrons, it will become possible for this structure to be copied and
multiplied, sold, pirated and/or, "deleted" from the memory of the machine. Such
a structure could also be unified with another electronic structure with artificial
intelligence, improving the operating parameters of the latter. For the moment,
such statements are and will be only some SF scenarios because as long as no one
knows how the human brain works, it is impossible to know what a conscience is.
Hans Moravec
1
thinks that the intelligence of robots, even before 2050, will
exceed by far the intelligence of people (Hans Moravec, 1999). Follower of the
principle Structural science is sufficient to explain the whole nature, including
life, mind and conscience", although he has some doubts on this principle,
Moravec believes that the mere increase in the computing power and memory of
computers will lead to consciousness without any special precautions in order to
produce qualia. This is however excluded by the principle Structural science is
insufficient and incomplete to explain the whole existence, including life, mind
and conscience", (Draganescu Mihai, 1997 A), principle that also states the need
for the recognition of some new physical and information ingredients, of a new
physics, of some new scientific principles. However, Moravecs following
statement is very interesting: In that case, mass-produced, fully educated robot
scientists working diligently, cheaply, rapidly and increasingly effectively will
ensure that most of what science knows in 2050 will have been discovered by our
artificial progeny! (Hans Moravec, 1999). It is possible that such robots, lets call
them quantico-phenomenological ingredients, will appear. Will they be socio-
human? Or will they take on their own the evolution of the conscience on the
Earth and in the Universe? Green believes that the development of quantum
computers with conscience and that will reproduce themselves will be the next
step in evolution.
All the optimistic forecasts do not state the strict requirements for a machine to
have a conscience. We assume that a machine with conscience does not need
anything more than what humans have. But which are the essential properties of
human conscience, without which it could not exist? The answer to this question
may refer to the amount of integrated information that a human being or a
machine could generate. The man and the machine perceive and become
conscious of an existing state separately. For example, a man and a photoelectric
cell
2
can signal if a nearby screen is bright or dark. But while the man by looking
at the light or dark screen perceives a lot of information the photodiode does not

although there are more neurons in the cerebellum than in any other part of the brain.
1
Hans Moravec - Professor at Carnegie Mellon University, USA, who has been working for 45
years in the field of Robotics.
2
Photoelectric cell diode whose operation depends on the intensity of light flow that falls on it.
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see anything, but it only responds to the presence of the luminous flow. The way
in which the man and the photoelectric cell react to the existence of light is
distinguished by the amount of generated information
1
. When the photoelectric
cell receives the luminous signal it enters one of two possible states, while the
man when he sees the dark screen enters a large number of possible states. If he
sees black it means he does not see blue, red, green, etc. For the man, the black
screen does not signify only the absence of light, but also it could mean the lack
of some previously seen and appreciated images. Therefore being conscious
implies being an entity with a huge repertoire of states and the level of conscience
is given by the quantity of integrated information which may be generated.
Therefore humans have a much bigger level of consciousness than any machine.
The integrated information theory (IIT) established in science and mathematics
can determine the amount of information generated by the integrated systems
consisting of several integral parts.
IIT suggests a way of assessing the conscience of a machine through a kind of
Turing test for consciousness, and in this sense, Koch Christof and Giulio Tononi
(Koch Christof, 2008) have proposed a version of the Turing test in which a
certain scene is presented to the computer and it has to deduct the "joke", the
essence of the scene, which is perfectly possible for the human judgment (Vinge
Vernor, 2008).
Other attempts to measure the consciousness or the intelligence of a machine
failed. Conversations in natural language or participating in strategic games,
considered human attributes have been performed by computers. Deep Blue
super-computer that defeated Garry Kasparov at chess in 1997, discussions with
the computer in natural language on different areas or participating in strategic
games have shown that machines may exceed human performance in narrow
areas, but none of these experiences did not reveal the existence of a conscience in
a machine.
According to IIT, consciousness implies a large glossary of states for a single
integrated system. To be useful, these internal states should be able to provide
much information about the world in general. A test used to prove that a machine
has a conscience is whether it can or cannot describe a scene seen for the first time
and which is different from the huge number of scenes stored in its database. A
man, for example, can describe successfully and in a different manner what
happens in a scene from a photograph, a painting or a scene from a film, seen for
the first time. For a machine equipped with artificial intelligence to understand a
picture that it has not seen before or an image that includes elements which do not

1
The amount of information is measured by reducing the uncertainty that appears when you have
to choose between several possible occurrences.
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32 Stefan Iancu
exist in its database it is still impossible. It will be possible to write a computer
program which will identify the objects from a new image based on the multitude
of objects from its database, but this program does not imply the existence of a
conscience. As long as it will not have a huge storage capacity and the computer
program will not be designed to conclude from a multitude of possible
combinations in action the items or all the items of any potential future image in
different contexts (the picture of a child in a garden with a toy gun in his hand is
completely different than a young man with a gun in his hand at the door of a
bank) it will be impossible to speak about the conscience of a machine.
In 1986 researchers tried to design the model of an artificial brain
1
with 6,000
synapses, using an electronic microscope. Two decades later, they were still
working at the functional model of this minimal nervous system. Giorgio Buttazo
showed that G.S. Paul and E. Cox (1996), Ray Kurzweil (1999), Hans Moravec
(1999, 2000) had estimated how complex the human brain was based on the
enormous number of synapses (10
12
neurons, each on average with 10
3
synaptic
connections with other neurons, so a total of 10
15
synapses). Simulating the human
brain with artificial neural networks taking into account that each synapse requires 4
bytes of memory in a computer it results that it would be necessary a memory of 4
million Gbytes. Giorgio Buttazo, based on the developments and trends in the
evolution of computers, believes that such a memory can be obtained in 2029
(Buttazo Giorgio, 2001). Note, however, that such a memory is only one of the
conditions necessary for a simulation of a giant neural model and assuming that we
will have determined how consciousness forms with the huge number of parameters
whose values are only vaguely suspected, and therefore, I, personally, consider that
such a simulation is very unlikely to happen in the foreseeable future.
In the literature (Wada Yasuo, 2001) it is stated that the development of
nanotechnologies based on molecular nanoelectronics and quantum devices will
enable the replacement of the silicon MOS technology in 2015. The issue of brain
knowledge cannot be solved only by improving computer technology while a
theory of the mind and consciousness based only on structures and structural
fundamental forces of nature is not possible. The phenomenological processes and
the phenomenological reality are equally important for obtaining such a theory
(Drgnescu Mihai, 2007).
If the structure and the operating mode of the human brain are understood then we
might understand the way in which human consciousness is formed. But this issue

1
Research carried out revealed that there is a category of rules which coordinate the activity of the
classic systems (e.g. the electronic computer) that can be described in Euclidian and/or Newtonian
terms or drafted in Cartesian space/time coordinates and another class of rules for the coordination
of the classes of systems with fine-grain structure (e.g. the brain), knowing that in the latter may
occur radical changes within the creation process through successive transformations.
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is unlikely to be solved in the 21
st
century. If in the literature (Drgnescu Mihai,
2007) it is stated that the current biological man cannot build a society of the
consciousness but only a society of predicting the society of consciousness, how
can we hope to build a machine with a conscience? Firstly, it would be necessary
for the current biological man and the existing social consciousness to evolve.
Humanity was not able to ensure the management of the natural environment of
our planet. While many natural species are destroyed, different biotechnologies
multiply transgenic plants and animals. How far will this process go? Will
everything that has been designed over millions of years in the natural
environment disappear and will we be surrounded only by robots?
Research and the practical implementation of the new scientific discoveries and
new technologies should not be fighting against the created natural world, but
only against the motions and the energies of the powers of the world which are
unnatural and hostile to the natural environment.
6. Conclusions
(1) The consciousness that we have today is the result of the ongoing interaction
between tool (i.e. the hand), thought (i.e. the brain/mind), communication (i.e.
the society) and the increasing cultural development of the individual over
millions of years, so it is clearly different from the self-consciousness of some
animals endowed with some form of intelligence. It is clear that the human
consciousness is part of the natural world and that it has contributed to reducing
human progress in favor of the human cultural evolution.
(2) Nowadays there are machines which have the ability to understand human
language in a particular domain, to read texts written in human language, to
recognize shapes and to process images, there are machines which communicate
among themselves, changing and enriching their databases. However, it is not
known if there are programs that make a machine self-conscious. There are
programs that allow a machine to identify the space in which it is placed and
which route to follow to get to another spatial location. It has not been created
the program that could ensure the auto-orientation of a machine so that it could
move in a totally unknown space or in a known and easily modified space.
(3) The developments in science and information technology are taken into
account in the understanding of the way in which our brain and mind work.
Many conclusions on the possible functioning of the brain were drawn by
similarity based on what is known on the functioning of the electronic computer.
The possibility of higher levels of structural organization of quantum
information processing in the brain, levels that are to be identified by future
research, should be taken into account as well.
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34 Stefan Iancu
(4) Currently, it is not known whether human consciousness depends only on the
scientific laws, still imperfectly known, or if it has been formed as a result of the
action of the still unknown energy fields. Only after having understood the
entire system of quantum information processing in the brain will it be possible
to say if machines can be endowed with a conscience or not. These facts lead us
to the conclusion that at present there is no premise to make us believe that the
construction of conscious machines, similar to the human one would be possible
in the near future.
(5) What distinguishes humans from the other species is the fact that it is the
only one who affected the natural environment. Human intelligence has
completely deciphered the genome of its species. Cloning is already possible, a
scenario of a supposed Bing Bang moment has been created, the solar system is
being explored, but man fails to explore and know its own planet, to reveal its
genesis and destiny in the universe. In this context, claiming that the creation of
a machine with a conscience is a certainty is not consistent with reality. Perhaps
the best answer is that it will NOT be possible to build machines with human
intelligence in the future, but only machines with an algorithmic, binary
intelligence.
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R E F E R E N C E S
[1] *** An Introduction to Artificial Intelligence, http://library.thinkquest.org/2705/basics.html.
[2] Bergson H., Oeuvres, Presses Universitaire de France, 1959.
[3] Buttazo Giorgio, Artificial Consciousness: Utopia or real Possibility?, Computer (IEEE),
July 2001.
[4] Brooks Rodney, I, Rodney Brooks, Am a Robot, IEEE Spectrum, June 2008.
[5] Dennett C. Daniel Consciousness Explained, Editura Little, Brown and Company, 1991.
[6] Drgnescu Mihai, ,On the structural-phenomenological theories of consciousness, The
Noetic Journal, 1, No.1, 1997.
[7] Drgnescu Mihai, De la filosofia mentalului la stiinta mentalului, Revista de filosofie,
XLIV, Nr. 5, sept-oct 1997.
[8] Drgnescu Mihai, On the notions of understanding and intelligence, NOESIS, XXIII,
1998.
[9] Drgnescu Mihai, Structural-Phenomenological Theories in Europe and USA, The Noetic
Journal, Vol.2, 1999, No.1-2.
[10] Drgnescu Mihai, The Frontiers of Science and Self-organization, Comunicare la a IV-a
Conferin Modelarea structural-fenomenologic, Academia Romn, Bucureti, 20-21 iunie 2000.
[11] Drgnescu Mihai, Societatea Contiinei, Editat de Institutul de Cercetri pentru
Inteligen Artificial al Academiei Romne, Bucureti, 2007.
[12] Descartes Rene, Oeuvres et letters, Paris, Gallimard, 1953.
[13] Dulea Gabriel, Componenta energetic a psihicului uman: perspectiv psihofilosofic,
Editura Universitii Naionale de Aprarare, Bucureti, 2005.
[14] Green H.S., Information Theory and Quantum Physics, Physical foundations for
Understanding the Conscious Process, Springer Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg, 2000.
[15] http://www.acunu.org/millenium/sof2006.html.
[16] Iancu t, Un calculator electronic nu poate gndi?, Tribuna economic nr. 44/1998.
[17] Iancu t, De la sisteme automate la sisteme inteligente, Inventica i economie nr. 2/2003.
[18] Iancu t, Ingineria de la roat la inteligen artificial, Iai, Editura Performantica, 2007.
[19] Kallio Johanna and Latvakoski Juhani Ubiquitous Machine-to-Machine Service Networks,
European Research Consortium for Informatics and Mathematics (Ercim) News 76, January,
2009.
[20] Koch Christof and Giulio Tononi, Can Machines Be Conscious, IEEE Spectrum, June 2008.
[21] Laffite J., Reflexions sur la science des machines, Paris, 1932.
[22] La Mettrie, Omul main i alte opere filosofice, Bucureti, Editura Politic, 1961,
Bucureti.
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36 Stefan Iancu
[23] Luger G.F. & Stubblefield W.A., Artificial Intelligence and the Design of Expert Systems,
2
nd
Edition, The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Inc. Redwood City, CA, 1993.
[24] Moravec Hans, Rise of the Robots, Scientific American, decembrie 1999.
[25] Pribram Karl, Quantum Information Processing in Brain Systems and The Spiritual Nature
of Mankind, The Center for Frontier Sciences, Special 20
th
Anniversary Edition. Volume 16,
Number 1, 2007.
[26] Solunca Moise Elena, Interviu cu Dan Tufi, M.C. al Academiei Romne, Revista
Academica nr. 4 iulie 2002 (Anul XII, 141).
[27] Thierry de Montbrial, Le sens de lhistoire, Discurs de receptie la Academia Romn, 1999.
[28] Truan-Matu tefan, Interfaarea evoluat om-calculator, Bucureti, Editura Matrix
Rom, 2000.
[29] Vinge Vernor, Signs of the singularity, IEEE Spectrum, June 2008.
[30] Voicu Mihai, Secolul XXI sau Cum descinde secolul XXI din mileniul II, Bucureti,
Editura Academiei Romne, 2006.
[31] Von Wright G.H., Explicaie i nelegere, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 1995.
[32] Wada Yasuo, Prospects for Single Molecule Information Processing Devices, Proceedings
of the IEEE, August 2001.
[33] Wayt Gibbs W., Cybernetic Cells, Scientific American, August 2001.

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ISBN 2066-8562 Vol. 5, Number 1/2012 37
COMPUTATIONAL APPROACH TO DARK CURRENT
SPECTROSCOPY IN CCD AS COMPLEX SYSTEMS.
PART III*. DEFINITION AND USE OF A NEW PARAMETER
CHARACTERIZING THE DEPLETION DARK CURRENT
IN SEMICONDUCTORS
I. TUNARU
1
, R. WIDENHORN
2
, E. BODEGOM
2
, D. IORDACHE
3
Rezumat. Studiul efectuat a evideniat faptul c frecvent rezultatele experimentale privind
vitezelor de generare ale principalelor capcane adnci nu corespund valorilor prezise de
aproximaia clasic (presupunnd egalitatea seciunilor eficace:
n
=
p
de captur a
electronilor liberi i respectiv golurilor) a modelului riguros cuantic al lui Shockley-
Read-Hall (SRH). Pentru a mbunti precizia descrierii curenilor de ntuneric de golire,
lucrarea de fa a introdus un nou parametru gradul de polarizare a seciunilor eficace de
captur a electronilor liberi, respectiv golurilor. n afara capacitii sale de a furniza
evaluri mai exacte ale curenilor de ntuneric din semiconductori, noul parametru
reprezint un instrument util pentru: a) analiza unor anomalii ale valorilor vitezelor de
generare, b) atribuirea capcanelor cu nivele adnci pentru fiecare pixel CCD, pornind de
la dependena de temperatur a curenilor de ntuneric din dispozitivele CCD.
Abstract. The accomplished study pointed out that frequently the experimentally observed
generation rates of the main deep-level traps do not correspond to the values predicted by
the classical approximation (assuming equal capture cross-sections
n
=
p
of the free
electrons and holes, respectively) of the Shockley-Read-Hall (SRH) rigorous quantum
expression. In order to improve the accuracy of the depletion dark current description, this
work introduced the new parameter polarization degree of the capture cross-sections of
free electrons and holes, respectively. Besides its ability to provide considerably more
accurate evaluations of the depletion dark current in semiconductors, this new parameter
represents a useful tool for: a) the analysis of some anomalies of the generation rate
values, b) the assignment of deep-level traps for each CCD pixel, starting from the
experimental data concerning the temperature dependence of the dark current in CCDs.
Keywords: Charge-Coupled Devices, Dark Current, Capture cross-sections of free electrons and
holes, Deep-level traps
1. Introduction
As it is well-known, the temperature dependence of the depletion dark current
) (T De
dep
emitted in a semiconductor [with the intrinsic Fermi level E

i
the

1
Ph.D. student, Physics Department, University Politehnica of Bucharest, Romania.
2
Professor, Portland State University, Oregon, USA.
3
Professor, Ph.D., Physics Department, University Politehnica of Bucharest, Romania, Honorary
member of Academy of Romanian Scientists.
*
This paper represents the continuation (3
rd
part) of the works indicated by references [16].
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38 Ionel Tunaru, Ralf Widenhorn, Erik Bodegom, Dan Iordache
generation-recombination centers (or traps) characterized by the energy level E
t
,
the capture cross-sections
p n
o o , of free electrons and holes, respectively, and
the concentration N
t
] is described by the famous rigorous quantum expression of
Shockley, Read and Hall [13], by means of the generation rate U(T):

( )
(
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
(
|
.
|
\
|
+

= =
kT
E E
n p
kT
E E
n n
N n n p V
T U
A x
De
t i
i p
i t
i n
t i th p n
pix dep
dep
exp exp
) (
2
o o
o o
, (1)
where x
dep
is the width of the depletion region, A
pix
is the area of the pixel, and n
i

is the intrinsic carrier concentration. Given being that besides the numerous
physical parameters involved by expression (1), the temperature dependence of
the depletion dark current due to the semiconductor lattice defects or impurities
includes also the parameters describing the temperature dependence of all
physical quantities from relation (1), it results that the use of this (too intricate)
expression requires to consider some particular cases.
The most important such particular case refers to the region depleted of carriers,
where n and p n
i
. In this case, the expression of the depletion dark current
becomes:

kT
E E
kT
E E
N n V
A x q I
t i
p
i t
n
t i th p n
pix dep dep

+
=
exp exp o o
o o
. (2)
From relation (2), one finds [4] that the depletion dark current reaches a sharp
maximum for the traps with energy:

p
n
i t
E
t
dep kT
E E
dE
dI
dep
I t
o
o
ln
2
0
max ,
= =
|
|
.
|
\
|
. (3)
Taking into account that the trap energy level E
t
and its capture cross-sections of
free electrons
n
and holes
p
, respectively, are independent quantities, the
quantities
kT
E E
i t

and
p
n
o
o
ln
2
1
are not strictly equal, but they have to be of the
same magnitude order for the detectable traps by means of the Dark Current
Spectroscopy Method (DCS) [4, 5].
For this reason, the usual procedure (see e.g. [4, 6], relation (7.8), page 610) is to
take into consideration
kT
E E
i t

and neglect
p
n
o
o
ln :
Watermark Protected

Definition and Use of a New Parameter
Characterizing the Depletion Dark Current in Semiconductors 39

kT
E E
kT
E E
N n V
T U
t i i t
t i th

=
exp exp
) (
o
(where:
p n
o o o = = ) (4)
is not rigorous and cannot lead usually to accurate evaluations.
2. Check of the classical approximation (4) relative to the experimental results
concerning the generation rate
The specialty literature provides (e.g. the works [5]) a sufficient number of
experimental data about the generation rates of different deep level traps in
silicon, pointing out even the existence of some still unexplained irregularities:
there is actually more Au present on the Mn scribe line than there is Mn,
although the stronger Mn trap dominates the dark current [5c], p. 478.
For this reason, we studied the predicted by means of approximation (4) ratios
o / cosh ) / (
exp (
ave
i t
kT
E E
s e U , which should be [according to relation (4)] almost
equal for all traps. The obtained results were synthesized by Table 1.
Table 1. Calculated values (in the frame of this work) of the invariant [according to relation (4)]
o / cosh ) / (
exp (
ave
i t
kT
E E
s e U , proportional to the ratio
exp theor
U U
Trap
Generation rate
U
exp
(e/s at 55
o
C)
Trap level
|E
t
E
i
|
(meV) [5c]
Average
cross-section
(cm
2
) [5c]
o / cosh ) / (
exp (
ave
i t
kT
E E
s e U

Mn 6400 ~ < 50 ~ 110
-15
31074.0
Ni; Co 3700 < 30 6.610
-15
1161.5
Pt 970 60 710
-15
1051.0
Au
s
565 < 30 110
-15
1170.6
Fe
i
195 120 150 310
-14
1461.5
Trap 1
(acceptor
E-center)
70 100 210
-15
1615.2
Trap 2 8 200 810
-15
4258.3
Trap 3
(donor
E-center)
1.8 270 210
-14
9100.6
Watermark Protected

One finds that the approximation (4) leads to evaluations of the generation rate:
(i) of the same magnitude order for Ni, Co and Au (especially), as well as
(though sensibly different) for the Pt, Fe
i
, and the acceptor E-center traps,
(ii) considerably smaller (almost 30 times) than the experimental results
for the Mn traps,
(iii) sensibly smaller, but not so low as for Mn, for the traps
2 (unidentified) and 3 (donor E-center).
As it results from the more recent [7] studies of the Mn traps in Si, the most important
causes of their striking strange overall behavior (see Table 1 and [5c]) are:
a) the large number of Mn defects types in Si: at least 4 different interstitial
charge states Mn
i
, other 3 different substitutional charge states Mn
s
, those of the
cluster Mn
4
, those of the Mn-metal (B, Al, Ga, Sn, Au) pairs (at least 2 charge
states Mn-B, 2 charge states of Mn-Au, etc ; see fig. 3),
b) the huge values interval of the capture cross-sections corresponding to
the different charge states of Mn defects: starting from
p
= 210
-18
cm
2
for the
E
v
+ 0.27 eV state of Mn
i
, passing through the value o
n
= 3.110
-15
cm
2
for the
E
c
0.12 eV and E
c
0.43 eV states of Mn
i
[8], up to o
n
= 2.110
-12
cm
2
for the
level located in proximity of the Fermi level in Si [7a], the value ~ 10
-15
cm
2

indicated by McColgin [5c] being in fact a geometric average of the Mn defects
capture cross-sections over this extremely broad interval.
According to the conclusions of the [7a] work: Mn shows a far more complex
defect structure than Fe or Cr for instant, which do not normally exist in the
substitutional form and also exhibit one single interstitial energy level in the Si band
gap. A consequence of these additional energy levels for Mn is that is difficult to state
a priori which level dominates recombination, as the populations of the various
charge states will depend on the Fermi level, i.e. on the doping type and
concentration. It results that the approximation (4) should be replaced by a
considerably more accurate one, which will be of special interest for the other
deep-level traps (Ni, Co, Pt, Au
s
, and even for the Fe
i
and the acceptor E-center trap).
3. Definition of the new parameter polarization degree of capture
cross-sections
Instead of the above approximation, this work has written (without any additional
approximation) the expression (2) as:

(
= pdg
kT
E E
h
N n V
A x q I
i t
t i th p n
pix dep dep
sec
2
o o
, (5)
Watermark Protected

where ) ( sec x h is the hyperbolic secant function:
x
x h
cosh
1
) ( sec = . (6)
The new parameter polarization degree of the capture cross-sections of free
electrons and holes, respectively (pdg), describing the asymmetry of the pair of
capture cross-sections
p n
o o , was defined by this work as:

p
n
p n
p n
pdg p
o
o
o o
o o
ln
2
1
tanh arg
+
=
1
. (7)
Figure 1 below presents the plots of the function ) ( sec p x h + for different values
of the variable x and of the parameter p of the magnitude order of 1. Taking into
account the considerable deviations from the values of the previous factor
(

kT
E E
h
i t
sec of the function
(
pdg
kT
E E
h
i t
sec , even for the very-deep
level traps detectable by the DCS method, significant corrections of the depletion
dark current evaluations are expected to be brought by the expression (5).

Fig. 1. Plots of the hyperbolic secant function sech(x

+

p) for different values of the parameters
) ( ) ( kT E E x
i t
=
and pdg p (polarization degree of the capture cross-sections).
The thick vertical line through x = +2 indicates the descent of the sech(x

+ p) function
from the value +1 for p = 2, up to less than + 0.05 for p = + 2.5.

1
The traps of the crystalline lattice (embedded nano-particles/systems, nano-defects) capture both
free electrons and holes, but with different probabilities. Given being the capture probability is
proportional to the corresponding cross-section (
n
or
p
), the capture probability asymmetry can
be given by the expression (7) [somewhat similar to those from Optics, Nuclear physics, etc.],
because: pdg > 0 corresponds to prevalent free electrons capture, pdg = 0 to equal capture
probabilities, etc.

Watermark Protected

4. Existing experimental results about both capture cross-sections (of free
electrons and holes, respectively) and their polarization degree (pdg)
Despite: a) the high technical interest presented by the identification of
contaminants (see e.g. [5], [6]), b) the possibility to determine experimentally
both capture rates for a given trap (by means of the DLTS method [9], especially),
in practice there were evaluated: (i) usually up only the (geometrical) averages
p n
o o o =
, (ii) both capture cross-sections only for a part of the different studied
traps. Table 2 synthesizes some known values of both capture cross-sections of
free electrons and holes, respectively, by certain defects (traps) from silicon, as
well as of their polarization degree (pdg), implicitly. In order to understand easier
the location of the different defects (traps) in Si, instead to indicate their positions
relative to the upper limit of the valence band (Ev) or to the bottom limit of the
conduction band (E
c
), we give in Table 2 the evaluated traps energies relative to
the intrinsic Fermi level, considered as E
i
0.54 eV [4].
Table 2. Some known values of both capture cross-sections of free electrons and holes,
respectively, in silicon, as well as of their polarization degree (pdg), implicitly

Trap Group
Energy
(eV)
n
(cm
2
)
p
(cm
2
)

k
= o
n
/o
p

pdg Ref.
U (55C)
e/s [5c]
Tii
+
4 E
i
+ 0.27 3.110
-14
1.410
-15
22.14 +1.549 [7d]
Tii
++
4 E
i
0.28 1.310
-14
2.810
-17
464.3 +3.070 [7d]
Vi
++
5 E
i
0.18 5.010
-14
3.010
-18
16667 +4.86 [7d]
Cri
++
6
E
i
+ 0.32 2.310
-13
1.110
-13
2.091 +0.369 [7d]
E
i
+ 0.30 2.010
-14
4.010
-15
5 +0.805 [10a]
(Cri
+
Bs
-
)
-
6; 13 E
i
0.26 5.010
-15
1.010
-14
0.5 0.3466 [10a]
Moi
+
6
E
i
0.26 1.610
-14
6.010
-16
26.67 +1.642 [10b]
E
i
0.223 7.810
-15
6.010
-16
13 +1.282 [8b]
Mni
+
7 E
i
+ 0.09 9.4 +1.1204 [7a]
(Mni
+
Bs
-
)
+
7; 13 E
i
+ 0.01 2.110
-12
3.510
-13
6.0 +1.282 [7a]
Mni
++
7 E
i
0.21
23.1
(18.528.3)
+1.57 [7a]
all Mn
Traps
7 o = (o
min
o
max
)
1/2
1.010
-15
; o
max
/o
min
~ 10
6
[5c],
[7a]
6400
Fei
+
8 E
i
0.16 5.010
-14
7.010
-17
714.3 +3.286 [7d]
Watermark Protected

(FeI
+
Bs
-
)
+
8; 13
E
i
+ 0.28
( 0.02)
1.410
-14

( 0.02)

1.110
-15

(0.52.5)
13 +1.282 [7c]
Coi
+
9
E
i
0.02 o = (o
n
o
p
)
1/2
6.610
-15
[5c] 3700
Nii
+
10
Pts
-
10 E
i
+ 0.31 3.410
-15

[11]
Pti
-
10 E
i
+ 0.02 4.510
-15
1.0910
-14
2.42 +0.442 [11] 970
Pts
+
10 E
i
0.18 5.410
-14
[11]
Aus
-
11
E
i
0.01 1.410
-16
7.610
-15
0.01842 - 1.997 [7d]
5.010
-16

1.010
-15

T
- 4
0.5 -0.3466 [12c] 565
Zns
- -
12 E
i
+ 0.07 1.310
-19
6.610
-15
1.9710
- 5
-5.417 [7d]
Zns
-
12 E
i
0.21 1.510
-15
4.410
-15
0.3409 - 0.538 [7d]
PVp
-

E-center
14
E
i
+ 0.10 o = (o
n
o
p
)
1/2
6.610
-15
[13a] 70
E
i
+ 0.084 3.710
-16
[13b]
PV
+
14 E
i
0.27 [13a] 1.8
From Table 2 (see e.g. the results referring to the traps Cr
i
++
, Mo
i
+
, Au
s
-
, PV-pair
-

acceptor E-center), there result also the accuracies (not too good) of the capture cross-
sections evaluations, and of their polarization degree. One finds also that the
recombination rate U was not still measured systematically. Given being the capture
cross-sections and their polarization degree pdg are often temperature dependent,
table 3 synthesizes the main types of the temperature dependence of the capture
cross-sections.
Table 3. Main types of the temperature dependence of the capture cross sections of free electrons
and/or holes, respectively in different semiconductors
The type of the
temperature dependence
Typical expression of
temperature dependence
Some examples for the
traps in the semiconductor
Reference
Arrhenius law o
n
(T) ~ o
n
exp(-E
B
/kT) EL2, HL1, HL10 in GaAs [14a]
Power laws o(T) T
-n
n ~ 0.21 (o
n, Au
in n-Si) [12d]
n ~ 2.5 (o
n, Au
in p-Si) [12c]
n ~ 4.0 (o
p, Au
in n-Si) [12c]
Temperature
independence
o(T) ~ constant
o
p
in GaAs [14a]
o
n, Au
in n-Si [12c]
Watermark Protected

5. Experimental evaluation of the difference E
t
E
i

In order to interpret the obtained (calculated) values of E
t
E
i
corresponding
sometimes to a mixture of defects inside each studied pixel, an experimental
evaluation of the difference E
t
E
i
is necessary. Given being that the most
efficient experimental method intended to the defects location inside the studied
semiconductor forbidden band is the deep-level transient spectroscopy (DLTS)
method, we have to evaluate the E
t
E
i
difference starting from the defects (traps)
positions relative to the upper limit E
v
of the valence band and the bottom limit
(edge) E
c
of the conduction one (see fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Positions of the defects (traps) energy levels and of the Fermi intrinsic level
according to the DLTS results.
Given being for a certain temperature T the energy gap is (approximately) known,
it is necessary to evaluate also the intrinsic Fermi energy E
i
(T) at this temperature.
According to the basic Condensed Matter Physics treatises [2], the temperature
dependence of the intrinsic Fermi energy E
i
(T) is given by the expression:

*
*
ln
4
3
) (
2
1
) (
dn
dp
g i
m
m
kT
T E T E + = , (8)
where:

3 / 2
2 / 3
*
2 / 3
* *
(
+ =
ph pl dp
m m m and:
3 *
2
* *
6
l t dn
m m m = (9)
are the effective masses corresponding to the states densities of holes and free
electrons, respectively, while
* * *
, ,
l ph pl
m m m and
*
t
m are the effective masses
associated to the light and heavy holes, respectively, and to the longitudinal and
transverse electrons effective masses, relative to the major axis of the energy
ellipsoid E( k ). For free electrons in silicon, there are used the values
o l
m m 98 . 0
*
= ,
o t
m m 19 . 0
*
= , and
o l
m m 916 . 0
*
= ,
o t
m m 225 . 0
*
= , which lead to
the values
o dn
m m 5965 . 0
*
1
~ and
o dn
m m 6528 . 0
*
2
~ of the effective mass

Watermark Protected

associated to the electrons state density in the conduction band of Si, while for the
holes from Si there are usually used the values
o pl
m m 16 . 0
*
= ,
o ph
m m 49 . 0
*
= ,
which lead to the value
o dp
m m 5492 . 0
*
~ of the effective mass associated to the
holes state density in the silicon valence band. As we use the first or the second
pair of electron effective mass in Si, we obtain 06196 . 0 ln
4
3
*
*
~
dn
dp
m
m
, or 0.1296,
hence the temperature coefficient of the silicon intrinsic Fermi energy correction:
1 5
*
10 116 . 1 ln
4
3

s K
dn
m
k dp
is at least one magnitude order less than that of the
energy gap corresponding to silicon: ) ( 10 2 . 4 21 . 1 ) (
4
,
eV T T E
Si g

~ [2].
For an average use temperature T 250 K (this work, [12a], etc.), one finds that
the intrinsic Fermi energy correction
*
*
ln
4
3
dn
dp
m
m
kT
has a value inside the interval
(1.34; 2.8) meV, remaining so negligible relative to the usual defects (traps)
energies in Si, even for the very-deep level defects, detectable by the studied dark
current spectroscopy method.
6. On the evaluation of the polarization degree of capture cross-sections of
free electrons and holes, respectively
Taking into account that the power law expressions of the temperature
dependence of capture cross-sections can be approximated by Arrhenius type
expressions (with negative activation energy E
B
) and substituting the Arrhenius
expression [see Table 3] in the polarization degree definition (7), one obtains:
kT
E
pdg
kT
E
T
T
T pdg
B B
p
n
p
n
2 2
ln
2
1
) (
) (
ln
2
1
) ( = = =

o
o
o
o
, hence the temperature
dependence of the hyperbolic secant argument can be expressed as:

( )

+
= +

= +
= pdg
kT
E E
pdg
kT
E E E
T pdg
kT
E E
T h
eff
i t
B i t i t
2 /
) ( ) ( sec arg , (10)
by means of the effective energies difference ( )
eff
i t
E E and of the pdg(T)
asymptotic value
pdg .
The DCS method allows however an indirect evaluation of the polarization
degree pdg (in fact of its asymptotic value
pdg ), starting from the improved

Watermark Protected

approximation (5). Our (indirect) evaluation of the effective parameters |E
t
E
i
|
eff

and pdg
was achieved by means of the least-squares fit (using the gradient

method) of the slope s and intercept i of the regression line of the modulus of the
argument of the hyperbolic secant function in terms of the
kT
1
parameter:
i
kT
s pdg
kT
E E
h
i t
+ =
(
|
.
|
\
|
+
1
sec arg . (11)
In order to provide correct interpretations of the results of our procedure (10), we
studied the existing experimental data for 20 randomly chosen pixels of a Spectra
Video CCD camera (model SV512V1) manufactured by Pixelvision, Inc. (see
[9a]). The obtained (in the frame of this work) types of qualitative results and
their interpretations are synthesized by Table 4.
Table 4. Main types of results obtained by means of the regression line
|arg[sech(pdg+(E
t
-E
i
)/kT]|= i + s/kT study and their interpretation
Slope s
sign
Intercept i
sign
Interpretation
Examples of
pixels [12a]
> 0 > 0
Both (E
t
E
i
)
eff
and pdg
have the same sign, hence:

|E
t
E
i
|
eff
= s, |pdg|
= i and: (E
t
E
i
)
eff
/pdg
> 0
188; 471
> 0 < 0
(E
t
E
i
)
eff
/kT > - pdg
> 0 or
(E
t
E
i
)
eff
/kT < - pdg
< 0
121; 200
< 0 > 0
pdg
> - (E
t
E
i
)
eff
/kT = (E
i
E
t
)
eff
/kT > 0 or
pdg
< - (E
t
E
i
)
eff
/kT = (E
i
E
t
)
eff
/kT < 0
321; 400
In order to estimate the impact of the polarization degree (pdg) values on the
depletion dark current the obtained numerical results for the 17 pixels whose data
sets lead to physically convergent evaluations were synthesized by Table 5. As
one can find easily, the accuracy of the obtained results decreases very much for
the pixels emitting weak depletion dark current (low values of the depletion pre-
exponential factor, Dep).
Table 5. Interpretation of the obtained quantitative (numerical) results [s = sign(E
t
-E
i
)
eff
]
Pixel
Dep (Mcps K
-3/2
),
10
6
counts/s K
-3/2

Obtained information about
the effective parameters
Calc. Depletion
Dark Current
Accuracy (%)
sech[pdg+
(E
t
-E
i
)/kT]
|E
t
E
i
|
eff
, meV s pdg

321; 400 2.541 32.125 3.075 17.47% 0.3808
181; 260 5.433 24.39 0.0187 2.975% 0.5887
121; 200 6.022 34.44 0.3274 5.65% 0.5381
141; 220 6.478 8.49 0.773 6.158% 0.5872
101; 180 6.623 24.66 0.0455 2.454% 0.5702
Watermark Protected

301; 380 7.224 30.85 0.3114 3.002% 0.6068
188; 471 9.530 28.04 0.790 6.988% 0.2511
81; 160 11.710 33.59 0.0154 2.294% 0.4117
221; 300 15.998 28.03 0.438 3.797% 0.2176
201; 280 21.944 31.21 0.117 1.77% 0.4140
29; 88 32.120 51.860 0.155 2.473% 0.2207
61; 140 40.792 27.352 1.369 7.055% 0.1467
281; 360 66.386 45.697 0.397 3.197% 0.1688
261; 340 105.688 57.225 0.135 2.2798% 0.1306
341; 420 254.039 55.479 0.259 2.277% 0.1249
161; 240 268.671 76.223 0.632 3.73% 0.0338
31; 247 421.361 2.16 1.3896 5.379% 0.5109
Figures 3 and 4 present the diagrams of the traps levels for GaAs and Mn in the Si
lattice, respectively. From Table 2, one finds that the majority of donor /acceptor
states are located in the upper/lower half of the forbidden band, respectively,
while the other states named here trans-Fermi level donor/ acceptor states (as
the levels EL2, E5, HL10, HL16 in GaAs, (Mn
+
Au
-
)
+
and Mn
i
++
in the Si lattice)
have negative values of the product sign( )
t i
pdg E E .

Fig. 3. Traps levels diagram for GaAs [14a].

Fig. 4. Traps levels diagram for Mn in the silicon lattice [7, 8, 15].

Watermark Protected

Taking into account that the number of the trans-Fermi level states is sensibly
less than the number of the other electronic states, this finding represents a useful
tool in the assignment of these states (traps).
6. Study of the anomalies of the generation rate U values
This work achieved the least-squares fit (using the gradient method [17], [16b]) of
the improved approximation (5):
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

pdg
kT
E E
h
kT
E
T De
kT
E
T De De
eff i t g
dep
g
diff
) (
sec
2
exp exp
2 / 3
, 0
3
, 0

of the experimental results concerning the dark current emitted by some pixels of
the studied Spectra Video CCD camera (model SV512V1) [12a].
There were obtained evaluations of all parameters of the above expression, particularly
of the depletion pre-exponential factor Dep De
dep

, 0
, effective energy gap E
g
and of
the trap location
eff i t
E E ) ( inside the silicon forbidden band, as well as of the
asymptotic value pdg
of the capture cross-sections polarization degree. Using these

numerical estimations, the numerical evaluation of the generation rate at the
temperature
55 C
gr
t =
(hence T
gr
= 328.15 K) was obtained by means of the expression:

(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

pdg
kT
E E
h
kT
E
T De T U
gr
eff i t
gr
g
gr dep gr
) (
sec
2
exp ) (
2 / 3
, 0
. (12)
The obtained results are presented in Table 6, where the pixels were written in the
monotonic order of their increasing depletion pre-exponential factors Dep. While
according to the classical approximation (4) it was expected to find the
proportionality of the generation rate U(T) with the depletion pre-exponential factor
dep
De Dep
, 0
, the examination of Table 6 points out several discontinuities, that
can be explained only by the different values of polarization degree pdg

and of the
effective energies difference ( )
eff
i t
E E .
Table 6. Comparison of the evaluated values of the depletion pre-exponential factor Dep and of the
generation rate (corresponding hyperbolic secant function values in brackets) for different
pixels of a SpectraVideo CCD camera (model SV512V1)
Pixel
Dep (Mcps K
3/2
),
10
6
counts/s K
3/2

Evaluated
generation rate
U(e
-
/s) at 55C
Pixel
Dep (Mcps K
-3/2
),
10
6
counts/s K
3/2

Evaluated
generation rate
U(e
-
/s) at 55C
321; 400 2.541 124.6 (0.3808) 201; 280 21.944 2243 (0.4140)
181; 260 5.433 680 (0.5887) 29; 88 32.120 1981 (0.2207)
Watermark Protected

121; 200 6.022 866 (0.5381) 61; 140 40.792 1464 (0.1467)
141; 220 6.478 713.5 (0.5872) 281; 360 66.386 3184 (0.1688)
101; 180 6.623 751 (0.5702) 261; 340 105.688 3276 (0.1306)
301; 380 7.224 1564 (0.6068) 341; 420 254.039 3899 (0.1249)
188; 471 9.530 588 (0.2511) 161; 240 268.671 1996 (0.0338)
81; 160 11.710 1176 (0.4117) 31; 247 421.361 4923 (0.5109)
221; 300 15.998 1654 (0.2176)
The considerable impact of the polarization degree (pdg) on the values of the
hyperbolic secant
( )
(
(
pdg
kT
E E
h
eff
i t
sec and of the generation rate, is
indicated both by the values of the last column of Table 5 (see the value for the
pixel 161; 240, particularly) and of Fig. 1.
According to the work [5c], the even more striking large generation rates of the Mn,
Ni, Co traps (see e.g. Table 1) could be explained by means of a complex character
(like Mn
4
) of these traps and/or of a possible Poole-Frenkel [18] effect. The
accomplished analysis pointed out that even the capture cross-sections of the Ni and
Co traps are considerably larger than that of the substitutional gold Au
s
, their
generation rates agree very well [according to the classical approximation (4), see
Table 1, with that of Au
s
, while even the use of the improved approximation (5) does
not lead to a quantitative justification of the experimental value of the Mn trap
generation rate.
Given being the: a) considerably more complex defect structure (larger number of
charge states) of Mn than those of Cr, Fe, Ni, Co, etc, b) still incompletely
characterized (mainly by means of the capture cross sections of free electrons and
holes, respectively) of many Mn defects (e.g. of the substitutional states, of the
Mn
4
cluster, of the Mn pairs with Al, Ga, Sn, etc), c) intentional contamination
with Mn atoms which lead to the McColgins results [5c], our analysis lead to the
conclusion that the striking strange pair of values referring to the average cross-
section and to the generation rate/Mn atom can be explained (more than by the
Poole-Frenkel effect) by an averaging of the generation rates of Mn defects in
different charge states with very different capture cross sections (many of them
considerably higher than the average value indicated by [5c]).
The obtainment of new experimental information about both free electrons o
n
and
holes o
p
capture cross-sections of the main deep-level traps in silicon will
contribute of course to a more accurate description of the temperature dependence
of the depletion dark current in semiconductors.
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7. Use of the polarization degree pdg as an assignment criterion of the
deep-level traps
The accomplished study pointed out that the newly defined physical parameter
polarization degree of the capture cross-sections of free electrons and holes,
respectively is a basic feature of the deep-level traps, allowing considerably more
accurate descriptions of the temperature dependence of the depletion dark current
in charge-coupled devices.
For this reason, we consider that besides the classical assignment criteria as the:
a) depletion pre-exponential factor
dep
De
, 0
, b) generation rate U(T
g.r.
) at a given
temperature, c) the location of the studied trap inside the semiconductor forbidden
band, d) average capture cross-section
p n ave
o o o o = , the: e) polarization
degree
p n
p n
p
n
pdg
o o
o o
o
o
+
= = tanh arg ln
2
1
of capture cross-sections, as well as the:
f) average value | |
+ pdg kT E E h
ave eff i t
/ ) ( sec
of the hyperbolic secant function,
are also basic assignment criteria for the deep-level traps in a semiconductor,
starting from the observed temperature dependence of the dark current in each
CCD pixel (the Dark Current Spectroscopy method).
Conclusions
This work pointed out the necessity to introduce the new parameter polarization
degree of the capture cross-sections of free electrons and holes, respectively in
order to ensure a sufficiently accurate description of the temperature dependence
of the depletion dark current in semiconductors. It was found also the ability of
this new parameter to: a) analyze successfully the anomalies of some reported
generation rate values [e.g., no anomaly for the reported generation rates of Ni and
Co [5c], but probably wrong value (1210
14
cm
2
, instead of ~ 110
15
cm
2
) for
the average cross-section of the electronic states of the embedded Mn traps which
produce a 6400 e
-
/s generation rate], b) discriminate among the contributions of
the different deep-level traps to the depletion dark current in each CCD pixel,
allowing so certain assignments of the deep-level traps in the CCDs pixels. In this
aim, both newly introduced notions of polarization degree and trans-Fermi
level donor/acceptor states are useful.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank very much for the fruitful discussions and important received
information to Dr. G. Moagar-Paladian, National Institute for Research and
Development in Micro-technology, Bucharest.
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R E F E R E N C E S

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ISSN 2066-8562 Volume 5, Number 1/2012 53

AUTOMATIC COMPUTER
MUSIC CLASSIFICATION AND SEGMENTATION
Adrian SIMION
1
, Stefan TRAUSAN-MATU
2

Rezumat. Lucrarea de fa descrie i aplic diferite metode pentru segmentarea
automat a muzicii realizat cu ajutorul unui calculator. Pe baza rezultatelor i a
tehnicilor de extragere a caracteristicilor folosite, se ncearc de asemenea o
clasificare/recunoatere a fragmentelor folosite. Algoritmii au fost testai pe seturile de
date Magnatune i MARSYAS, dar instrumentele software implementate pot fi folosite pe
o gam variat de surse. Instrumentele descrise vor fi integrate ntr-un framework /
sistem software numit ADAMS (Advanced Dynamic Analysis of Music Software -
Software pentru Analiza Dinamic Avansat a Muzicii) cu ajutorul cruia se vor putea
evalua i mbunti diferitele sarcini de analiz i compoziie a muzicii. Acest sistem are
la baz biblioteca de programe MARSYAS i conine un modul similar cu WEKA pentru
sarcini de procesare a datelor i nvare automat.
Abstract. This paper describes and applies various methods for automatic computer
music segmentation. Based on these results and on the feature extraction techniques used,
is tried also a genre classification/recognition of the excerpts used. The algorithms were
tested on the Magnatune and MARSYAS datasets, but the implemented software tools can
also be used on a variety of sources. The tools described here will be subject to a
framework/software system called ADAMS (Advanced Dynamic Analysis of Music
Software) that will help evaluate and enhance the various music analysis/composition
tasks. This system is based on the MARSYAS open source software framework and
contains a module similar to WEKA for data-mining and machine learning tasks.
Keywords: automatic segmentation, audio classification, music information retrieval, music
content analysis, chord detection, vocal and instrumental regions
1. Music Information Retrieval
The number of digital music recordings has a continuous growth, promoted by the
users interest as well as the advances of the new technologies that support the
pleasure of listening to music. There are a few reasons that explain this trend, first
of all, the existential characteristic of the musical language. Music is a form of art
which can be shared by people that belong to different cultures because it
surpasses the borders of the national language and of the cultural background. As
an example the West American music has many enthusiasts in Japan, and many
persons in Europe appreciate the classical Indian music. These forms of

1
Eng., Ph.D. student, Faculty of Automatic Control and Computers, University Politehnica of
Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania, (simion.adrian@gmail.com).
2
Corresponding member of AOSR. Prof., Ph.D., Faculty of Automatic Control and Computers,
University Politehnica of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania, (stefan.trausan@cs.pub.ro).
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54 Adrian Simion, tefan Truan-Matu

expression can be appreciated without the need of a translation that is in most of
the cases necessary for accessing foreign textual papers.
Another reason is the fact that technology for recording music, digital
transformation and playback allows the users access to information that is almost
comparable to live performances, at least at audio quality level.
Last, music is an art form that is cult and popular at the same time and sometimes
is impossible to draw a line between the two, like jazz and traditional music.
The high availability and demand for music content induced new requirements
about its management, advertisement and distribution. This required a more in-
depth and direct analysis of the content than that provided by simple human
driven meta-data cataloguing.
The new techniques allowed approaches that were only encountered in theoretical
musical analysis. One of these problems was stated by Frank Howes [1]: There is
thus a vast corpus of music material available for comparative study. It would be
fascinating to discover and work out a correlation between music and social
phenomena. With the current processing power and advancements we can answer
questions such as: What is the ethnic background of a particular piece of music or
what cultures it spawns.
In light of these possibilities and technological advances we needed a new
discipline that would try to cover and answer the various problems. Music
Information Retrieval (MIR) is an interdisciplinary science that retrieves its
information from music. The origins of MIR are domains like: musicology,
cognitive psychology, linguistic and computer science.
An active research area is composed of new methods and tools for pattern finding
as well as the comparison of musical content. The International Society for Music
Information Retrieval [2] is coupled with the annual Music Information Retrieval
Evaluation eXchange (MIREX) [3]. The evaluated tasks include Automatic Genre
Identification, Chord Detection, Segmentation, Melody Extraction, Query by
Humming, to name a few. This paper will focus mostly on Automatic
Segmentation and Genre Identification.
2. Former studies and related work on Automatic Music Segmentation
The topic of speech/music classification was studied by many researchers. While
the applications can be very different, many studies use similar sets of acoustic
features, such as short time energy, zero-crossing rate, cepstrum coefficients,
spectral roll off, spectrum centroid and loudness, alongside some unique
features, such as dynamism. However, the exact combinations of features used
can vary greatly, as well as the size of the feature set.
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Automatic Computer Music Classification and Segmentation 55

Typically some long term statistics, such as the mean or the variance, and not the
features themselves, are used for the discrimination.
The major differences between the different studies lie in the exact classification
algorithm, even though some popular classifiers (K-nearest neighbor, Gaussian
multivariate, neural network) are often used as a basis.
For the studies, mostly, different databases are used for training and testing the
algorithm. It is worth noting that in these studies, especially the early ones, these
databases are fairly small. The following table describes some of the former
studies:
Table 1. Some of the former studies
Author Application Features Classification method
Saunders,
1996 [4]
Automatic real-time FM
radio monitoring
Short-time energy, statistical parameters of
the ZCR
Multivariate Gaussian
classifier
Scheirer and
Slaney, 1997
[5]
Speech/music
discrimination for
automatic speech
recognition
13 temporal, spectral and cepstral features
(e.g., 4Hz modulation energy, % of low
energy frames,
spectral roll off, spectral centroid, spectral
flux, ZCR, cepstrum-based feature,
rhythmicness),
variance of features across 1 sec.
Gaussian mixture model
(GMM), K nearest
neighbour (KNN), K-D
trees, multidimensional
Gaussian MAP estimator
Foote, 1997
[6]
Retrieving audio
documents by acoustic
similarity
12 MFCC, Short-time energy
Template matching of
histograms, a tree-based
vector quantizer,
trained to maximize mutual
information
Liu et al.,
1997 [7]
Analysis of audio for
scene classification of
TV programs
Silence ratio, volume std, volume dynamic
range, 4Hz freq, mean and std of pitch
difference,
speech, noise ratios, freq. centroid,
bandwidth, energy in 4 sub-bands
A neural network using the
one-class-in-one network
(OCON) structure
Zhang and
Kuo, 1999 [8]
Audio
segmentation/retrieval
for video scene
classification, indexing
of raw audio visual
recordings, database
browsing
Features based on short-time energy,
average ZCR, short-time fundamental
frequency
A rule-based heuristic
procedure for the coarse
stage, HMM for the second
stage
Williams and
Ellis, 1999
[9]
Segmentation of speech
versus non speech in
automatic speech
recognition tasks
Mean per-frame entropy and average
probability dynamism, background-label
energy ratio, phone distribution match
all derived from posterior probabilities of
phones in hybrid connectionist-HMM
framework
Gaussian likelihood ratio
test
El-Malehet
al., 2000 [10]
Automatic coding and
content based
audio/video retrieval
LSF, differential LSF, measures based on
the ZCR of high-pass filtered signal
KNN classifier and
quadratic Gaussian
classifier (QCG)
Buggati et al.,
2002 [11]
Table of Content
description of a
multimedia document
ZCR-based features, spectral flux,
shorttime energy, cepstrum coefficients,
spectral centroids, ratio of the high-
frequency power spectrum, a measure
based on syllabic frequency
Multivariate Gaussian
classifier, neural network
(MLP)
Lu, Zhang,
and Jiang,
Audio content analysis
in video parsing
High zero-crossing rate ratio (HZCRR),
low short-time energy ratio (LSTER),
3-step classification:
1. KNN and linear spectral
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2.1. Digital Audio Signals
When music is recorded, the continuous pressure from the sound wave is
measured using a microphone. These measurements are taken at a regular time
and each measurement is quantized.
Fig. 1. Digital sound representation (time domain):
a. Music is a b. that is sampled c. and Quantized
continuous signal; .
Sound can be represented as a sum of sinusoids. A signal of N samples can be
written as:
2002 [12] linear spectral
pairs, band periodicity, noise-frame ratio
(NFR)
pairs-vector quantization
(LSP-VQ)for
speech/nonspeech
discrimination.
2. Heuristic rules for
nonspeech classification
into music/background
noise/silence.
3. Speaker segmentation
Ajmera et al.,
2003 [13]
Automatic transcription
of broadcast news
Averaged entropy measure and
dynamism estimated at the output of a
multilayer perceptron (MLP) trained to
emit posterior probabilities of phones.
MLP input: 13 first cepstra of a 12th-order
perceptual linear prediction filter.
2-state HMM with
minimum duration
constraints (threshold free,
unsupervised, no training).
Burred and
Lerch, 2004
[14]
Audio classification
(speech/
music/background
noise), music
classification into genres
Statistical measures of short-time frame
features: ZCR, spectral centroid/roll
off/flux,
first 5 MFCCs, audio spectrum
centroid/flatness, harmonic ratio, beat
strength, rhythmic regularity, RMS
energy, time envelope, low energy rate,
loudness
KNN classifier, 3-
component GMM classifier
Barbedo and
Lopes, 2006
[15]
Automatic segmentation
for real-time
applications
Features based on ZCR, spectral roll off,
loudness and fundamental frequencies
KNN, self-organizing
maps, MLP neural
networks, linear
combinations
Munoz- Exp
osito et al.,
2006 [16]
Intelligent audio coding
system
Warped LPC-based spectral centroid
3-component GMM, with
or without fuzzy rules-
based system
Alexandre et
al, 2006 [17]
Speech/music
classification for
musical genre
classification
Spectral centroid/roll off, ZCR, short-time
energy, low short time energy ratio
(LSTER), MFCC, voice to-white
Fisher linear discriminant,
K nearest neighbor
Watermark Protected


. )) ( 2 sin( )) ( 2 cos(
2 /
0
) ( ) (

N
k
i
k
r
k
N
k
a
N
k
a x
(1)
The signal can be represented in the frequency domain using the
coefficients )} , ( ),..., , {(
2 /
) (
2 /
) (
1
) (
1
i
N
y
N
i y
a a a a .
The magnitude and phase of the k
th
frequency component are given by:
2 ) ( 2 ) (
) ( ) ( ] [
i
k
r
k M
a a k X (2)
) arctan( ] [
) (
) (
r
k
i
k
p
a
a
k X (3)
Perceptual studies on human hearing show that the phase information is relatively
unimportant when compared to magnitude information, thus the phase component
during feature extraction is usually ignored. [19]
The Spectral Centroid is another spectral-shape feature that is useful in the
extraction and analysis process. We can see form Table 1 its various uses. The
Spectral Centroid is the center of gravity of the spectrum and is given by:
2 /
1
2 /
1
] [
* ] [
N
k
M
N
k
M
k X
k k X
C
(4)
The Spectral Centroid can be thought of as a measure of brightness since songs
are consider brighter when they have more high frequency components.
2.2. Time-Frequency Domain Transforms
In MIR and sound analysis in general it is common to do transformation between
the time and frequency domains. For this the mathematical apparatus gives us the
real discrete Fourier transform (DFT), the real short-time Fourier transform
(STFT), discrete cosine transform (DCT), discrete wavelet transform (DWT) and
also the gammatone transform (GT).
Music analysis is not concerned with complex transforms, since music is always a
real-valued time series and has only positive frequencies.
Given a signal x with N samples, the basis functions for the DFT will be N/2 sine
waves and N/2 cosine waves that correspond to the previous coefficients.
The projection operator is correlation, which is a measure of how similar two time
series are to one another. The coefficients are found by:
1
0
) (
) 2 cos( ] [
2
N
i
r
k
i
N
k
i x
N
a (5)
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1
0
) (
) 2 cos( ] [
2
N
i
i
k
i
N
k
i x
N
a
(6)
The DFT is computed in an efficient manner by the fast Fourier transform FFT.
One drawback of both the time series representation and the spectrum
representation is that neither simultaneously represents both time and frequency
information. A time-frequency representation is found using the short-time
Fourier transform (STFT): First, the audio signal is broken up into a series of
(overlapping) segments. Each segment is multiplied by a window function. The
length of the window is called the window size.

Fig. 2. Magnatune apa_ya-apa_ya-14-maani-59-88.wav (time domain).

Fig. 3. Magnatune apa_ya-apa_ya-14-maani-59-88.wav (spectrogram).
Fig 2 and 3 were obtained with a tweaked version of the MARSYASs tool
sound2png with the following commands:
./sound2png -m waveform ../audio/magnatune/0/apa_ya-apa_ya-14-maani-59-88.wav
../saveres/magnatunewav.png -ff Adventure.ttf
./sound2png -m spectogram ../audio/magnatune/0/apa_ya-apa_ya-14-maani-59-88.wav
../saveres/magnatunespec.png -ff Adventure.ttf
Another useful transformation is the wavelet transform.
2.3. Mel-Frequency Cepstral Coefficients (MFCC)
The most common set of features used in speech recognition and music annotation
systems are the Mel-Frequency Cepstral Coefficients (MFCC). MFCC are short-
time features that characterize the magnitude spectrum of an audio signal. For
each short-time (25 ms) segment, the feature vector is found using the five step
algorithm given in Algorithm 1. The first step is to obtain the magnitude of each
frequency component in the frequency domain using the DCT We then take the
log of the magnitude since perceptual loudness has been shown to be
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approximately logarithmic. The frequency components are then merged into
40 bins that have been space according the Mel-scale.
The Mel-scale is mapping between true frequency and a model of perceived
frequency that is approximately logarithmic.
Since a time-series of these 40-dimensional Mel-frequency vectors will have
highly redundant, we could reduce dimension using PCA.
Instead, the speech community has adopted the discrete cosine transform (DCT),
which approximates PCA but does not require training data, to reduce the
dimensionality to a vector of 13 MFCCs. [20]
Algorithm 1. Calculating MFCC Feature Vector
1: Calculate the spectrum using the DFT
2: Take the log of the spectrum
3: Apply Mel-scaling and smoothing
4: Decorrelate using the DCT.
3. Problem description
A common feature that aids record producers to meet the demands of the target
audiences, musicologists to study musical influences and music enthusiasts to
summarize their collections is the musical genre identification.
The genre concept is inherently subjective because the influences, hierarchy or the
intersection of a song to a specific genre isnt universally agreed upon.
This point is backed up by a comparison of three Internet music providers that
found very big differences in the number of genres, the words that describe that
genre, and the structure of the genre hierarchies. [18]
Although there are some inconsistencies caused by its subjective nature, the genre
concept has shown interest from the MIR community.
The various papers and works on this subject reflect the authors assumptions
about the genres. Copyright laws prevented authors from establishing a common
database of songs, making it difficult to directly compare the results.
4. Experiments description
The datasets used for training and testing were MAGNATUNE [21] and two
collections that were built in the early stages of the MARSYAS [22] framework.
As the ADAMS system is built in a modular form the various tasks (described
below) can be automatized and the sound can flow through these modules until
the complete analysis is made.
The ADAMS main directory structure can be seen in the following picture:
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Fig. 4. ADAMS Main Directory Structure.
The machine learning tasks are done with the WEKA [23] tool, loading the
compatible arff files produced with the aid of MARSYAS.
The chosen OS for these experiments was Mandriva Linux 2011, the compiler
version being gcc (GCC) 4.6.1 20110627 (Mandriva).
Extractors that were used:
- BEAT: Beat histogram features
- LPCC: LPC derived Cepstral coefficients
- LSP: Linear Spectral Pairs
- MFCC: Mel-Frequency Cepstral Coefficients
- SCF: Spectral Crest Factor (MPEG-7)
- SFM: Spectral Flatness Measure (MPEG-7)
- SFMSCF: SCF and SFM features
- STFT: Centroid, Rolloff, Flux, ZeroCrossings
- STFTMFCC: Centroid, Rolloff Flux, ZeroCrossings, Mel-Frequency
Cepstral Coefficients
On every experiment for the specified extractors are also presented the confusion
matrices [24] in order to have an idea about the actual and the predicted
classifications done by the classification system.
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4.1. Experiment 1: Classification using Timbral Features
This experiment uses the following extractors: Time ZeroCrossings, Spectral
Centroid, Flux and Rolloff, and Mel-Frequency Cepstral Coefficients (MFCC).
We extract these features with the option timbral and we also create the file that
will be loaded with the WEKA environment for analysis with the following
command:
./adamsfeature -sv -timbral ../col/all.mf -w ../analysis/alltimbral.arff
Based on experiment the following classifiers were chosen: Bayes Network,
Naive Bayes, Decision Table, Filtered Classifier and NNGE.
The results are shown in the following table:
Table 2. Timbral Features - Classifier Results
Table 2 was build loading the file alltimbral.arff in WEKA and training the built-
in classifiers

Fig. 5. WEKA Prediction Errors Graph.
Classifier
Model
Build
Time(s)
Coorectly
Classified
Incorrectly
Classified
Mean
absolut
error
Root
mean
squared
error
Relative
absolute
error
Root
relative
squared
error
Bayes Network 1.78 62.5% 37.5% 0.0753 0.2648 41.82% 88.28%
Naive Bayes 0.04 55% 45% 0.0902 0.2925 50.09% 97.51%
Decision Table 15.49 51.6% 48.4% 0.1467 0.2599 81.53% 86.64%
Filtered Classifier 4.55 87.8% 12.2% 0.0348 0.1318 19.31% 43.94%
NNGE 10.69 100% 0% 0 0 0 0
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Fig. 6. Confusion Matrices for Timbral Features Classification
4.2. Experiment 2: Classification using Spectral Features
This experiment uses the following extractors: Spectral Centroid, Flux and Roll
off. The feature extraction was done with the following command:
./adamsfeature -sv -spfe ../col/all.mf -w ../analysis/allspectral.arff
Using the same classifiers the results are:
Table 3. Spectral Features - Classifier Results
Classifier
Model
Build
Time(s)
Correctly
Classified
Incorrectly
Classified
Mean
absolute
error
Root
mean
squared
error
Relative
absolute
error
Root
relative
squared
error
Bayes Network 1.78 46.5% 53.5% 0.1192 0.2742 66.21% 91.41%
Naive Bayes 0.23 42.5% 57.5% 0.1205 0.2924 66.92% 97.47%
Decision Table 0.72 46.1% 53.9% 0.1491 0.2655 82.82% 88.49%
NNGE 2.02 100% 0% 0 0 0 0
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Fig. 7. Confusion Matrices for Spectral Features Classification
4.3 Experiment 2: Classification using MFCC
This experiment uses the Mel-Frequency Cepstral Coefficients extractors. The
feature extraction was done with the following command:
./adamsfeature -sv -mfcc ../col/all.mf -w ../analysis/allmfcc.arff
Table 4. MFCC Features - Classifier Results
Classifier
Model
Build
Time(s)
Correctly
Classified
Incorrectly
Classified
Mean
absolute
error
Root
mean
squared
error
Relative
absolute
error
Root
relative
squared
error
Bayes Network 1.23 63.3% 36.7% 0.0764 0.2475 42.42% 82.50%
Naive Bayes 0.22 58.5% 41.5% 0.0847 0.2694 47.07% 89.80%
Decision Table 6.4 49.1% 50.9% 0.1481 0.2638 82.27% 87.94%
NNGE 3.74 99.8% 0.2% 0.0004 0.02 0.22% 6.66%
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Fig. 8. Confusion Matrices for MFCC Features Classification
4.4 Experiment 4: Classification using Zero Crossings
The feature extraction was done with the following command:
./adamsfeature -sv -zcrs ../col/all.mf -w ../analysis/allzcrs.arff
Table 5. Zero Crossings Features - Classifier Results
Classifier
Model
Build
Time(s)
Correctly
Classified
Incorrectly
Classified
Mean
absolute
error
Root
mean
squared
error
Relative
absolute
error
Root
relative
squared
error
Bayes Network 0.09 34.7% 65.3% 0.1437 0.2789 79.83% 92.97%
Naive Bayes 0.01 34.5% 65.5% 0.1441 0.2869 80.06% 95.63%
Decision Table 0.22 42.4% 57.6% 0.1511 0.2691 83.95% 89.71%
Filtered Classifier 0.15 44% 56% 0.1403 0.2649 77.94% 88.24%
NNGE 0.52 99.8% 0.2% 0.0004 0.02 0.22% 6.66%
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Fig. 9. Confusion Matrices for Zero Crossings Features Classification.
4.5 Experiment 5: Classification using Spectral Flatness Measure
The feature extraction was done with the following command:
./adamsfeature -sv -sfm ../col/all.mf -w ../analysis/allsfm.arff
Table 6. SFM Features - Classifier Results
Classifier
Model
Build
Time(s)
Correctly
Classified
Incorrectly
Classified
Mean
absolute
error
Root
mean
squared
error
Relative
absolute
error
Root
relative
squared
error
Bayes Network 1.78 58.4% 41.6% 0.0838 0.2738 46.53% 91.28%
Naive Bayes 0.15 53.2% 46.8% 0.0935 0.294 51.96% 97.99%
Decision Table 12.35 50.4% 49.6% 0.1472 0.2621 81.78% 87.37%
NNGE 9.24 99.8% 0.2% 0.0004 0.02 0.22% 6.66%
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Fig. 10. Confusion Matrices for Spectral Flatness Measure Features Classification.
Conclusions
Five experiments were conducted for determining the music genre of a specific
audio file. The extracted features varied in each experiment in order to determine
which one was more suited to the dataset used. The five classifiers provided
different results based on the extracted features and these were put to test with
well known machine learning tools and music analysis frameworks like WEKA
and MARSYAS, and also with an analysis system developed on top of the
MARSYAS framework.
The results show that satisfactory results can be obtained even from the simplistic
approaches as Nave Bayes classification, but better results were obtained using
more advanced techniques. The fact that the nearest neighbor produced very good
results doesnt mean that it will have the same behavior on another dataset.
Improvements on the presented methods can be obtained by testing these methods on
a broader dataset and determining the intrinsic influences of each genre on another.
The conclusions of these influences can have a more meaningful sense from the
social point of view like blues and its derivatives and we can find very unlikely
results like death metal having roots in jazz music.
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R E F E R E N C E S
[1] Howes, F. Man Mind and Music. Marin Secker & Warbug LTD., 1948.
[2] Ismir. http://www.ismir.net/ (Visited on 2012/01/23)
[3] Mirex. http://www.music-ir.org/mirex/wiki/MIREX_HOME (Visited on 2012/01/23)
[4] J. Saunders, Real-time discrimination of broadcast speech/music, in Proceedings of IEEE
International Conference on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing (ICASSP 96), vol. 2, pp. 993
996, Atlanta, Ga, USA, May 1996.
[5] E. Scheirer and M. Slaney, Construction and evaluation of a robust multifeature speech/music
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Processing (ICASSP 97), vol. 2, pp. 13311334, Munich, Germany, April 1997.
[6] J. T. Foote, A similarity measure for automatic audio classification, in Proceedings of the AAAI
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Stanford, Calif, USA, March 1997.
[7] Z. Liu, J. Huang, Y. Wang, and I. T. Chen, Audio feature extraction and analysis for scene
classification, in Proceedings of the 1st IEEE Workshop on Multimedia Signal Processing (MMSP
97), pp. 343348, Princeton, NJ, USA, June 1997.
[8] T. Zhang and C.-C. J. Kuo, Hierarchical classification of audio data for archiving and
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Processing (ICASSP 99), vol. 6, pp. 30013004, Phoenix, Ariz, USA, March 1999.
[9] G. Williams and D. P. W. Ellis, Speech/music discrimination based on posterior probability
features, in Proceedings of the 6th European Conference on Speech Communication and Technology
(EUROSPEECH 99), pp. 687690, Budapest, Hungary, September 1999.
[10] K. El-Maleh, M. Klein, G. Petrucci, and P. Kabal, Speech/music discrimination for multimedia
applications, in Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal
Processing (ICASSP 00), vol. 6, pp. 24452448, Istanbul, Turkey, June 2000.
[11] A. Bugatti, A. Flammini, and P. Migliorati, Audio classification in speech and music: a
comparison between a statistical and a neural approach, EURASIP Journal on Applied Signal
Processing, vol. 2002, no. 4, pp. 372378, 2002.
[12] L. Lu, H.-J. Zhang, and H. Jiang, Content analysis for audio classification and segmentation,
IEEE Transactions on Speech and Audio Processing, vol. 10, no. 7, pp. 504516, 2002.
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[13] J. Ajmera, I. McCowan, and H. Bourlard, Speech/music segmentation using entropy and
dynamism features in a HMM classification framework, Speech Communication, vol. 40, no. 3, pp.
351-363, 2003.
[14] J. J. Burred and A. Lerch, Hierarchical automatic audio signal classification, Journal of the
Audio Engineering Society, vol. 52, no. 7-8, pp. 724739, 2004.
[15] J. G. A. Barbedo and A. Lopes, A robust and computationally efficient speech/music
discriminator, Journal of the Audio Engineering Society, vol. 54, no. 7-8, pp. 571588, 2006.
[16] J. E. Munoz-Exp osito, S. G. Galan, N. R. Reyes, P. V. Candeas, and F. R. Pena, A fuzzy
rules-based speech/music discrimination approach for intelligent audio coding over the Internet, in
Proceedings of the 120th Audio Engineering Society Convention (AES 06), Paris, France, May 2006,
paper number 6676.
[17] E. Alexandre, M. Rosa, L. Caudra, and R. Gil-Pita, Application of Fisher linear discriminant
analysis to speech/music classification, in Proceedings of the 120th Audio Engineering Society
Convention (AES 06), Paris, France, May 2006, paper number 6678
[18] F. Pachet and D. Cazaly, A taxonomy of musical genres, RIAO 00: Content-Based Multimedia
Information Access, 2000.
[19] B. Logan, Mel-Frequency Cepstral Coefficients for music modeling, ISMIR 00: International
Symposium on Music Information Retrieval, 2000.
[20] D. Turnbull, Automatic music annotation, Department of Computer Science, UC San Diego,
2005.
[21] Mangatune. http://tagatune.org/Magnatagatune.html (Visited on 2012/01/23).
[22] MARSYAS. http://marsyas.info/ (Visited on 2012/01/23).
[23] WEKA. http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/ml/weka/ (Visited on 2012/01/23).
[24] http://www2.cs.uregina.ca/~hamilton/courses/831/notes/confusion_matrix/confusion_matrix.
html.
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POLYMERIC PRESSURE SENSORS: A CONCEPTUAL VIEW
Cornel COBIANU
1*
and Bogdan SERBAN
1
Abstract. In the first part of this paper, we present a review of the piezoresistive pressure
sensors based on polymeric thick films deposited on rigid and flexible diaphragm. The
study of the state of the art has shown the performances of this technology, where
maximum sensitivity is obtained on thin flexible diaphragm for a gauge factor of about
10, in a pressure range of 05 kPa. The present challenges come from the high
temperature coefficient of the resistance of about 500 ppm/C, and the long temperature
drifts of about (0.52)%, which may require improved repeatability of fabrication
technology and advanced differential signal processing techniques for the market
acceptance. In the second part of the paper, we present our novel concepts for the
realization of the piezoresistive pressure sensors. The first concept consists in the surface
modification of the organic substrate by ion implantation of nitrogen and phosphorus
species for creating piezoresistive behavior and high electrical conductivity of organic
piezoresistors. The second concept consists in the novel chemical synthesis route of
organic thin film by doping the polyaniline with large molecules of p-sulfonated
calix[n]arene (n =4, 6, 8), sulfonated crown ethers, in the liquid state. Addition of the
metal nanoparticles to the previous homogeneous solution can further increase the
piezoresistive factor. Other new features of our second concept come from the direct
printing from solution of the above piezoresistive organic thin films, as well as metallic
films interconnecting the piezoresistors, and finally the monolithic fabrication of the
sensor rim and diaphragm by plastic injection molding, where the pressure diaphragm
could be as thin as 75 micrometers.
Keywords: piezoresistive organic films, polymeric thick film, pressure sensors, metal
Nanoparticples, p-sulfonated calix[n]arene, sulfonated crown ethers
1. Introduction
Pressure monitoring is an important parameter in the control of a large diversity of
industrial processes and medical applications. Pressure can be measured by
mechanical devices, as well as electro-mechanical and electro-optical instruments.
The measurement of the pressure of a fluid by pure mechanical principle is based
on the presence of an elastic diaphragm fixed at one end, which is moving its free
end as a result of pressure variation, and its position change is indicated by a
needle connected to the free end, and which is thus rotating with respect to its zero
position (Fig. 1).
This principle is used for the pressure measurement on gas/liquids pipelines,
where pressure manometers based on Bourdon tubes are still in place, today.

1
Honeywell Romania, Sensors and Wireless Laboratory, Bucharest, Romania.
*Member of Academy of Romanian Scientists, cornel.cobianu@honeywell.com.
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70 Cornel Cobianu, Bogdan Serban

In other cases, the elastic diaphragm is fixed at both ends, and this is deflecting in
the central part as a result of pressure change (Fig. 2). Such deflection is creating
strain in the diaphragm, and its value can be also used for the pressure
measurement, in the so called strain gauges. These deflecting diaphragms have
opened the way for the electro-mechanical principles of pressure measurement.

Fig. 1. Schematic picture of a Bourdon Fig. 2. Pressure diaphragm flexing
tube used for a pressure manometer. under applied external pressure.
Historically speaking, in 1856 Lord Kelvin has discovered that the electrical
conductor can change its electrical resistance, when it is strained due to an
external applied force. Thus, he can be credited with the discovery of the
piezoresistive effect in metals, which was then used in metallic strain gauge
devices for multiple applications (strain, torque, force) including pressure sensing.
Later, the piezoresistive effect was defined as a change in the electrical resistivity
of a material as a function of the externally applied stress on it. Now, it is
generally agreed that the discovery of piezoresistive effect is at the origin of the
most of electric sensors for mechanical measurands defined as devices able to
convert a non-electrical signal (like fluid) pressure into an electrical signal (like
voltage). The silicon technology followed by the micro-electro-mechanical system
(MEMS) technology have used all these principles for the miniaturization of the
existing macroscopic devices and sensors.
The impetuous development of the MEMS technology was founded on two
important technical pillars, consisting of well-established integrated circuit (IC)
infrastructure and excellent operation of the macroscopic principles at the
micrometer scale. A convincing demonstration of this successful approach is
coming from microsystems for pressure measurement, where the well-known
principle of macroscopic diaphragm movement as a function of pressure has been
transferred to microtechnology scale with very good results.
The era of miniaturized pressure sensors has been triggered by the discovery of
the piezoresistive effect in silicon and germanium, in 1954 by Charles Smith [1].
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Polymeric Pressure Sensors:
A Conceptual View 71
The time interval from piezoresistance discovery to the first associated
commercial product was short, as in 1959, Kulite was already delivering the first
silicon strain-gauges bonded on a metal diaphragm. During sensor operation, the
metal diaphragm is elastically deflecting due to the applied pressure, and a tensile
stress is developed in the central region of the diaphragm, while a compressive
stress is developed at the periphery of the diaphragm (Fig. 2.).
Such a stress is transmitted to the strain gauge, which is feeling it by the well-
known stress-strain correlation, and a change in the resistance is obtained due to
the piezoresistive effect, which is thus an indication of the pressure to be
measured. In the presence of an external pressure, a piezoresistor located on the
central part of the diaphragm from Fig. 2. is exposed to tensile stress and its
resistance value is increasing, while a piezoresistor located at the periphery of the
diaphragm, near the edge, is exposed to compressive stress and its resistance value
is decreasing with respect to the value specific to zero stress. For an accurate
pressure measurement, where the ageing effects in the piezoresistors, as well as
external temperature variations to be compensated, four piezoresistors are located
in the arms of a Wheatstone bridge, and thus obtaining a differential sensing
configuration for the signal conditioning.
Using such an approach, at the beginning of 1970s, IBM has proven the
operation of the first piezoresistive pressure sensor with silicon diaphragm, while
the first commercial all-silicon pressure sensor was delivered in 1974 [2].
The piezoresistive effect was measured in doped silicon resistors, which were
located in well-defined regions of the diaphragm, as described above. The
excellent elastic properties of silicon diaphragm, combined with the fact that the
silicon piezoresistor is obtained intrinsically in the diaphragm, without any need
of strain gauge bonding to silicon diaphragm can explain the excellent
performance of silicon MEMS pressure sensors. Thus, the MEMS silicon
technology has proven its capability to generate commercial products, where thin
silicon diaphragms have been used from very beginning in medical application for
measuring blood pressure.
In parallel with silicon MEMS technology, which has brought to the market the
first miniaturized microsystems, sensors and actuators, like pressure sensors,
accelerometers, inkjet nozzles for thermal inkjet technologies and thus predicting
its long-term innovation capabilities, other sensing technologies were emerging,
which were targeting mechanical sensing applications (pressure torque, force)
based on other than silicon materials and substrates. It is the case of thick film
technologies which have found their niche sensing applications.
In this paper, we shall briefly present polymeric film technologies for pressure
sensing applications. At the beginning of the study, the state of the art for the
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piezoresistive polymeric thick films will be shown, where such materials are
deposited on diaphragms made of glass, alumina, or even flexible substrates, and
their pressure sensing properties are described [3-6].
Finally, our concepts for new polymeric pressure sensors, including all-organic
technologies will be shown. Here, firstly, we present a novel pressure sensing
concept, where the plastic substrate will receive electrical conductivity and
piezoresistivity properties on well-defined regions of the organic diaphragm by
using IC specific technology like ion implantation [7]. Then, another novel
concept for all-plastic pressure sensor is described where chemical synthesis for
the preparation of new organic thin films with enhanced electrical conductivity is
shown. This piezoresistive pressure sensor is made by additive, maskless direct
printing of the organic films in well-defined positions of plastic diaphragm, which
is obtained by injection molding [8].
2. Piezoresistive pressure sensors based on thick film resistors
The operation principle of the piezoresistive mechanical sensors based on thick
films is similar to that described for silicon sensors, but the diaphragm and the
piezoresistor are made of different materials. For the evaluation of different
piezoresistive materials, the gauge factor is used, and this is equal to the ratio
between the relative variation of the resistance (R/R) and the relative variation of
the resistor length (or the strain (/)). The piezoresistive behavior in thick
resistive layers was systematically investigated by using commercial ruthenate
thick films from Dupont [9]. The thick films were deposited on alumina substrate
as a gel of high viscosity by screen printing technology, and then fired at high
temperatures, around 850-950
o
C, for obtaining thick solid layers. The gauge
factor for these ruthenate thick films was in the range of 11-14, being weakly
dependent on the strain direction.
Such piezoresistive thick films have a gauge factor which is higher than that of the
metal strain gauge (1.8-4.5), and much smaller than that of semiconductors (40-
200) [10]. The temperature coefficient of these thick ruthenate film piezoresistor
(TCR) was about 100 ppm/
o
C, while the temperature coefficient of the gauge
factor (TCGF) was smaller than 500 ppm/
o
C.
These values can be compared with the similar ones of the metal wire strain
gauges, where the TCR has a large range of variation (20-4000) ppm/
o
C, and
TCGF is in the range 20-100 ppm/
o
C [9]. Unfortunately, such high temperature
technology is restricting the type of substrate to be used to only ceramics, and is
increasing the cost of processing.
As a low temperature alternative to the well-established ruthenate thick film
piezoresistive technology presented above, the pressure sensor based on
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polymeric thick film resistors was proposed at the beginning of the 90 exploiting
the piezoresistive effect in such organic layers, which can tolerate processing
temperatures not higher than 150-300
o
C [ 3].
The thick film composition consists of an organic polymer matrix, like a
polyimide, which is loaded with carbon for obtaining the resistive and
piezoresistive behavior. The sensing diaphragm is made of different rigid
materials like, alumina, glass-reinforced epoxy laminate (FR 4), or even a flexible
substrate [4].
For the realization of the planar piezoresistor, initially, the metallic electrodes
were deposited and patterned on the substrate. Then, the deposition of the
polymeric thick films on the rigid substrate, like alumina, glass, or FR 4 is made
by screen printing technology, followed by thermal consolidation process at low
temperatures, below 300
o
C. These planar polymeric thick films based polymeric
piezoresistors have a gauge factor of about 10, which is rather similar to the value
obtained for ruthenate thick films, but the TCR is equal to +/ 500 ppm/
o
C, which
is much higher with respect to the value obtained for ruthenate material
(100 ppm/
o
C).
In the case of a sandwich piezoresistor configuration, when the polymeric thick
film is sandwiched (on the z direction) between two electrodes, with the first
electrode deposited on the substrate and the second electrode deposited on the
polymeric thick film, the gauge factor has reached a much higher value of about
80 [5]. In addition, these sandwich polymeric piezoresistive pressure sensors have
shown a very high value of the TCR, of about 2200 ppm/
o
C, which may be
more difficult to compensate, even in Wheatstone configuration, due to existing
mismatches between the TCR of different piezoresistors.
Also, poorer reproducibility of sandwich sensor with respect to planar ones was
obtained.
When such polymeric thick films were deposited on flexible substrates, having
much lower thickness with respect to the rigid one, the sensitivity of the planar
polymeric thick film pressure sensors has increased of about 6 times, but, in our
opinion, this result should be correlated only with the pressure diaphragm
properties (thickness and Young module) and not to sensing layer, itself. Such
thick films polymeric planar pressure sensors on rigid substrate are working in the
temperature range from 0 to 75
o
C, and their linear response was obtained for a
pressure range from 0 to 10
6
Pa.
Typical linearity plots of the planar polymeric thick film deposited on alumina
substrates have shown a non-linearity of about 3% in the range [0; +500]
microstrains (1 microstrain means a dilation/shrinkage of 1 micrometer of
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material having a length of 1 meter), while the sandwiched piezoresistor have had
a non-linearity of 14% in the same strain range [5]. One of the biggest drawbacks
of such polymeric pressure sensors is the long-term drift, equal to about 0.5-2 %,
and which was estimated by the sensor output drift after an accelerated ageing test
at 1000
o
C and 85
o
C.
This behavior should be correlated to the specific ageing mechanisms of the
organic materials. The challenging temperature behavior of these polymeric
pressure sensors followed by their relative high drifts due to material ageing can
be partially solved by design of the diaphragm (thickness and Young modulus of
organic substrate) as shown in [3,4] and by means of Wheatstone bridge-based
differential signal conditioning.
Therefore, much work should be devoted here, but such polymeric sensors are the
best candidate for low cost disposable pressure sensors for applications where the
accuracy is not critical.
3. Piezoresistive pressure sensors based on surface modified polymeric
diaphragm
Flexible electronics (flex circuits), where the traditional silicon integrated
circuits are placed by surface mounting technologies on a flexible plastic substrate
is rapidly advancing in many market applications, from portable video camera to
solar cell [11].
For these flex circuits, the metallic interconnections between different integrated
circuits are made by standard photolithographic techniques. In parallel, an all-
organic electronics is emerging where the semiconductor devices like organic
light emitting diodes (OLED) and organic field emission transistor (OFET) are
manufactured in the body of the organic semiconductor materials [12]. In this
context, the sensing domain is going to add new capabilities to the rigid and
flexible organic electronics. On this idea, recently, we have proposed a concept
for pressure sensors where a polymeric pressure diaphragm is surface modified in
order to obtain selectively piezoresistive effect [7].
The novelty of our approach comes from the technology of the piezoresistor
realization, where we have applied ion implantation technique for the local
realization of the piezoresistivity and electrical conduction enhancement, as it will
be described below. In Fig. 3, we show a cross section view of an-all plastic
piezoresistive pressure sensor, before packaging, where the substrate and the
diaphragm come from the same starting rigid plastic material, which could be a
polyimide, like Kapton from Dupont or liquid crystal polymer. Alternatively,
polystyrene-co-acrylonitrile (SAN) 80/20 could be used. Such organic polymers
are dielectric materials, which have a very high electrical resistivity, and therefore
they cannot be used as they are for reaching the intended function.
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Fig. 3. Schematic of a pressure sensor with
diaphragm obtained by etching back side of the
substrate and piezoresistor fabricated by ion
implantation.
However, it was already shown in the literature that the ion implantation can
dramatically increase the electrical conduction of these plastic materials [13].
Therefore, we have proposed to perform a high dose implantation of the nitrogen
species, in well-defined regions of the diaphragm for the generation of the
piezoresistive regions. This process was followed by a phosphorus ion
implantation in the same region for further enhancement of the electrical
conductivity of the piezoresistive regions.
For generating such electrical and piezoelectrical properties selectively, in the
organic diaphragm, standard IC photo-lithographical processes can be used. This is
possible due to the chemical resistance of these rigid plastic materials to the
solvents and the other solutions used to remove the photoresist, at the end of the ion
implantation processes. Subsequently, the electrical contacts to the piezoresistors
are done by IC technology processes like electron-gun physical vapor deposition,
where, for example, a thin film combination like chromium/gold can be used.
Chromium is assuring the adherence of the gold layer to the plastic substrate and
ion-implanted regions of the piezoresistors.
For the realization of the diaphragm in the starting plastic material, the back-side
etching of the substrate is performed by plasma techniques, like reactive ion
etching (RIE). The realization of such pressure diaphragms from Fig. 3. is
possible by metal masking of the entire front side, and of selective regions of back
side regions of the substrate, which should survive after deep etching and
subsequently form what is called the rim of the pressure sensor. The thickness of
the pressure diaphragm is determined by the pressure range needed to be
measured and the important requirement that the deflection of the pressure
diaphragm under external pressure to be in the elasticity domain of that material.
Such design conditions are preserving the linearity of the sensor response and also
minimizing the hysteresis and long-term drifts of the sensors.
Fig. 4. Pressure with plastic diaphragm bonded
by adhesive to glass.
Watermark Protected


In other applications, it may be useful to use a glass substrate and a plastic diaphragm
which can be bonded together for defining the pressure sensor. Such an approach is
also possible within the above concept, where initially a plastic foil (similar to the
silicon wafer from the point of view of batch processing) of the thickness required by
the pressure sensing application is processed, as presented above, but, in this case
there is no need for the back side etching, as the entire thickness will play the role of
the diaphragm. In this case, which is shown in Fig. 4., micromachining of the glass
substrate is needed for the realization of the rim of the sensor, which is also allowing
the access of the fluid pressure (air, liquid) to the pressure diaphragm. Glass MEMS
is a well-established batch technology for sensor applications, and also for sensor
packaging, in general.
In this case, the key process is glass drilling at the wafer level for the sensor rim
realization, and this can be done by either wet etching in HF based solutions, or
by RIE or even laser drilling. The signal conditioning techniques are standard
consisting in Wheatstone bridge, which will be described in more details, in the
next section.
4. Low cost all-plastic piezoresistive pressure sensors
In different industrial domains, there is a strong demand for disposable, low cost
pressure sensors. In such cases, the silicon technology may still be expensive,
considering the cost of clean room processes, and of the monocrystalline silicon
substrate itself.

Fig. 5a. Top view of the low cost pressure sensor
made by plasting molding and direct printing of organic piezoresistive layer.
Watermark Protected


Fig. 5b. Cross section view through 2A-2A axis.
For such applications, where even the photolithographical processing should be
avoided, we have developed a concept for a simple technology based on plastic
injection molding of the sensor rim and pressure diaphragm in conjunction with
mask-less, direct printing methods for the deposition of the metal, and novel
organic piezoresistive layers [8].
In Fig. 5. a), we show a top view of the pressure sensor based on four
piezoresistors, R
1
-R
4
, all of them being located in well-defined positions of the
molded plastic diaphragm, while in Fig. 5. b) we show a cross section view
through the central region of the pressure diaphragm.
These piezoresistors are electrically interconnected in a Wheatstone bridge, as
shown in Fig. 6. In the absence of an external pressure, all four piezoresistors
have the same value of the resistance, and the output voltage of the Wheatstone
bridge is equal to zero.
In order to obtain this zero voltage, two potentiometers are also connected to the
Wheatstone bridge, as in Fig. 5. a) and Fig. 6.
In the presence of an external pressure, the piezoresistors R
1
and R
3
, which are
positioned in the central region of the diaphragm, are exposed to tensile stress,
while R
2
and R
4
, which are located at the periphery of the diaphragm are exposed
to the compressive stress.
The variation of the piezoresistance as a function of pressure can be written as
follows:
R
1
= R
o
(1 + x)
R
2
= R
o
(1 x)
R
3
= R
o
(1 + x)
R
4
= R
o
(1 x)
Watermark Protected


where, R
o
is the resistance value of the piezoresistor at the reference pressure, while
x = G*, where G is the gauge factor of piezoresistance, and is relative deformation
of the length of the piezoresistor, =/ [10].
Fig. 6. Wheatstone bridge with four piezoresistors for maximum pressure sensitivity.
As mentioned above, the novel aspects of the pressure sensor realization come
from the new organic piezoresistive materials, the maskless method for film
resistor deposition, and as well as the cheap technology proposed for the plastic
diaphragm realization.
For the realization of the piezoresistive films, we are considering more chemical
synthesis routes, which are aiming an increased electrical conductivity and
piezoresistivity of the organic layer. In the case of an all-organic piezoresistive
layer, for example, we suggest starting with polyaniline and doping it with large
molecules like p-sulfonato-calix[n]arenes (n = 4, 6, 8), p-sulfonated-
calix[n]arenes (n = 4, 6, 8), tosylates, carboxylic acids of calix[n]arenes
(n = 4, 6, 8), sulfonated crown ethers, sulfonated cyclodextrines, carboxylic acid
nanotubes, or carboxylic acid of fullerenes.
All these compounds can be dissolved in water and other solvents. They can
generate -stacking interactions with polyanilines and thus contributing to the
increase of electrical conductivity of the polymeric film.
In Fig. 7. we show the chemical formulae of the p-sulfonated-calix[n]arene for
n = 4, 6, 8, while in Fig. 8., we show the reaction for doping the aniline by
p-sulfonated calix[4]arene. The synthesis of a soluble conducting polymer can be
as follows. One can start with aniline substituted with an o-methoxy group and an
o-ethoxy group in equimolar amounts which can be polymerized by combining
with hydrogen peroxide, in aqueous solution. The dopant can be p-sulfonated
calix[n]arenes (n = 4, 6, 8), tosylates, carboxylic acids of calix[n]arenes (n =
4, 6, 8), or sulfonated crown ethers [14].
Watermark Protected


Fig. 7. Chemical formula of p-sulfonated calix[n]arene, where n = 4, 6, 8.

Fig. 8. Synthesis of doped polyaniline; HA stands for p-sulfonated calix [4]arene.
as described above. If the electrical and piezoresistive behavior of the all-organic
polymer film should be further increased, then, metal nanoparticles may be added
to the above polymeric sol, creating thus a heterogeneous inorganic-organic
mixture in the liquid state, which will be further used for the direct printing
method to be described below. Thus, an efficient increase of the gauge factor of
the piezoresistors is expected by the addition of metal nanoparticles to the liquid
phase of the initial pure organic solution.

Fig. 9. Schematics of the direct printing method for the maskless preparation of solid films.
6
CH
2
SO
3
H
OH
CH
2
SO
3
H
OH
4
CH
2
SO
3
H
OH
8
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In Fig. 9., we show a schematic of direct printing apparatus. More data about this
additive deposition method can be found elsewhere [15]. Specific to this direct
printing method is the formation of the liquid precursor of the future solid film, by
any chemical syntheses routes, which is then deposited in the right location of the
substrate by a moving nozzle, while its travel above the substrate is computer-
controlled. If we go into more details, as can be seen in Fig. 8., a gas flow is used
to carry the liquid phase of the atomized deposition material to a nozzle, which
is printing the liquid state on the substrate for the realization the pattern of the
future solid film. After printing, the gelly layers are dried and thermally
consolidated at the temperatures allowed by the organic materials, so that their
chemical properties to be preserved. The advantage of this deposition method is
that the solid film is printed from the very beginning in the right position and
pattern, and there is no need for additional photolithographic and etching process
for the layer delineation. Under such conditions, there is no loss of material and
many technological steps are eliminated.
By this additive technology we can deposit not only the polymeric films as
described above, but also the metallic films used to interconnect electrically the
piezoresistors from Figs. 5 and 6. For these metallic conductors, one can use
organic conductors, or silver based pastes, which have a low resistivity and do not
introduce parasitic resistances to the Wheatstone bridge.
Finally, a novel aspect of our concept is the monolithic realization of the sensor
rim and pressure diaphragm in a single process, from the same material by means
of plastic injection molding. This is possible by the progress in the field of this
molding process, where pressure diaphragms as thin as 75 m are possible to be
obtained. As plastic materials one can mention here, polycarbonates, polyesters
such as PET or nylon, or PVC.
As mentioned from very beginning, one of the most important drivers for such all-
plastic piezoresistive pressure sensors, based on injection molding and direct
printing of the organic conductive and piezoresistive solid films is the high
potential for a low cost fabrication process and associated materials. Such
concepts show the potential of the organic semiconductors to open the way
towards a new family of applications like flexible, intelligent microsystems,
where both the electronic circuit signal processing and the sensing devices to be
performed on the organic substrate.
5. Conclusions
In this paper we have reviewed the key materials and processes for the realization
of the polymeric thick films piezoresistive, and we introduced our concepts for the
preparation of novel organic piezoresistive thin films to be used in the next
generation of piezoresistive pressure sensor on rigid and flexible substrates.
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The polymeric pressure sensor domain was developed in the last two decades
starting from the useful results obtained in the years 1980s on piezoresistive
ruthenate thick films. Such polymeric thick films consisted of carbon loaded
polyimide films have shown a gauge factor of about 10, and they have been used
for pressure sensor operating in the range of about 0-10
6
Pa on either rigid or
flexible substrate.
The relatively high temperature coefficient of resistance (+/- 500 ppm/
o
C) and
long-term drift of these organic polymeric piezoresistive films (0.5-2)% used for
either planar and sandwich device configuration are partially solved by
Wheatstone bridge-based signal conditioning.
More work should be further devoted to the repeatability of fabrication
technology so that the organic piezoresistors connected in the Wheatstone bridge
to have similar temperature coefficient of resistance and gauge factor, and thus
minimize the long- term drift of sensor output.
We have introduced two novel approaches for the preparation of the thin film
polymeric piezoresistive pressure sensors. First concept consisted in the selective
surface modification of the organic substrate by ion implantation of nitrogen
species for inducing local piezorestivity, followed by phosphorus or boron
implantion for enhancing the electrical conductivity or the organic piezoresistors.
The novelty of the second concept consisted in the original chemical synthesis of
piezoresistive organic material, deposition method by direct printing, and
monolithic fabrication of plastic diaphragm by injection molding.
The new organic synthesis consist in doping of polyaniline as free base(
emeraldine) with large organic molecules (p-sulfonated calix[n]arenes p-
sulfonated calix[n]arenes, tosylates, carboxylic acids of calix[n]arenes, sulfonated
crown ethers, sulfonated cyclodextrines, carboxylic acid nanotubes, or carboxylic
acid of fullerenes. The bulk counterions of dopants improve the conductivity of
polyanilines
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to expresses their thanks to Honeywell International for
their support to work on this topic and write this paper.
Watermark Protected


R E F E R E N C E S
[1] Ch.Smith, Piezoresistive effect in germanium and silicon, Physical Review, 1954, vol. 94,
pp. 42-49.
[2] Commercial devices have been available for some time. See, for example, the National
Semiconductor Catalog, Transducers; Pressure and Temperature for August 1974.
[3] G. Harsanyi, Polymer Thick Films Technology: a Possibility to Obtain Very Low Cost
Pressure Sensors?, Sensors and Actuators A, 25-25 (1991), pp. 853-857.
[4] C. Csazar, G.r Harsanyi and R. P. Agarwal, A very low cost pressure sensor with extremely
high sensitivity, Sensors and Actuators A, vol. 41-42 (1994), pp. 417-420.
[5] K.I. Arshak, A.K. Ray, C.A. Hogarth, D.G.Collins, F. Ansari, An Analysis of polymeric thick
films as pressure sensors, Sensors and Actuators, A 4 vol. 49, (1995) pp. 41-45.
[6] N.J. Hendreson, N.M. White, T.V. Papakostas, P.H. Hartel, Low-Cost planar PTF Sensors
for Identity Verification of Smartcard Holders , Invited paper 2002 IEEE, Flexible Sensors in
Smart Applications session.
[7] C. Cobianu, M. Gologanu, I. Pavelescu, B. Serban, Micro-machined Pressure Sensor with
Polymer Diaphragm, US Patent 7401525 B2, Date of Patent July 22, 2008.
[8] C. Cobianu, S. R. Shiffer, B. Serban, A.D. Bradley, M. N. Mihaila, Pressure Sensor,
US Patent 7 318351 B2, Date of Patent, January 15, 2008.
[9] C. Canali, D. Malavasi, B. Moretn, M. Prudenziati, A. Taroni, Strain Sensitivity in Thick Film
Resistors, IEEE Transactions on Components, Hybrids, and Manufacturing Technology, vol.
CHMT-3, No. 3, September 1980, pp. 421-423.
[10] R. P. Arreny and J. G. Webster, Sensors and Signal Conditioning, Second Edition, John
Wiley and Sons, 2001, ISBN 0-471-33232-1.
[11] D. Shavit: The developments of LEDs and SMD Electronics on Transparent Conductive
Polyester Film, Vacuum International, 1/2007, S. 35 ff.
[12] H. Sirringhaus, C.W. Sele, T. von Werne, C. Ramsdale, 2007 Manufacturing of organic
Transistor Circuits by Solution-based Printing in G. Hadziioannou, G.G. Malliaras,
Semiconducting Polymers: Chemistry, Physics and Engineering, vol. 2 (2
nd
Edition),Wiley-
VCH. pp. 667694. ISBN 978352731271913]
[13] R. E. Giedd, M.G. Moss, M.M. Craig, and D.E. Robertson, Temperature sensitive ion-
implanted polymer films," Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research [Netherlands],
vol. B59/60, 1991, pp. 1253-1256.
[14] B. Serban, M. Bercu, S. Voicu, M. Mihail, Gh. Nechifor, C. Cobianu Calixarene doped
polyaniline for applications in sensing, International Semiconductor Conference, CAS 2006,
Proceedings, pp. 257-260.
[15] M. Hedges, Aerosol Jet Technology for Printed and Organic Electronic Devices,
Proceedings of LOPE Conference, 2009.
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AN ANALYSIS REGARDING THE DECREASING OF THE
IMAGE QUALITY WITH THE OPTICAL MISALIGNMENT
CATALIN SPULBER
1
, OCTAVIA BORCAN
2
Rezumat. Performantele de informaie vizuala achiziionate de o camera termala sunt
determinate de doi parametri distinci, NETD (Noise equivalent temperature difference)
si MTF (Modulation Transfer Function); valoarea fiecruia dintre aceti parametri este
dependent de caracteristicile si de metodologia de msurare a componentelor de baz
ale unei camere termale: obiectivul i matricea de detecie. Autorii analizeaz unele
probleme legate de msurarea NETD i a MTF n cazul n care variaz distana focal a
obiectivului i apare o dezaliniere optic la montajul camerei termale. Experimentele
realizate demonstreaz c o distan focal mai mare asigur un MTF mai bun, iar
evaluarea NETD cu instrumentar electronic este mai adecvat.
Abstract. The performances of visual information acquired with a thermal camera are
determined by two distinct parameters, NETD (Noise equivalent temperature difference)
and MTF (Modulation Transfer Function) values of each of these parameters is
dependent on the characteristics and the methodology for measuring the basic
components of thermal camera: the lens and the starring detector. The authors analyze
some problems related to measurement NETD and MTF where the focal lens is variable
and optical misalignment occurs when mounting thermal camera. Experiments
demonstrate that a longer focal distance provides a better MTF and NETD evaluation
with electronic instruments is most appropriate.
Keywords: Thermal camera, NETD, MTF, optical misalignment, lens focal
1. Introduction
It is known that, in the field of actual research of vision using thermal cameras,
the most frequent question refers to the performance of the distance observation,
as is shown in the paper [1, 2].
This performance is described by some main parameters, as Noise Equivalent
Temperature Difference (NETD), Modulation Transfer Function (MTF), and
Minimum Resolvable Temperature Difference (MRTD) [3].A thermal camera is
commonly composed of an optical assembly, a FPA detector module (starring
detector), and signal processing electronics.
The imaging process can be described as a functional flow diagram (fig. 1.) from
scene (input information) to observer (output information).

1
Pro Optica Service&Components, e-mail: catalin.spulber@yahoo.com.,

Academy of Romanian
Scientists, www.aosromania.ro.
2
Pro Optica Service&Components, Romania, e-mail: borcan_octavia@yahoo.com.
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84 Catalin Spulber, Octavia Borcan

Fig. 1. The flow information between thermal camera components.
The lens gathers the scene radiance onto the detector array (FPA). The detector
module converts the radiation (photons) into an electrical signal, which enters a signal
processing unit. As it already was mentioned by authors in a previous article [2], the
environment (the atmosphere with aerosols or thermal perturbations) and the main
components of camera can deteriorates the final image.
An object is visible in an image because it has a different brightness than its
surroundings (target contrast). The input to any thermal camera system is photon
number N from the scene. The contrast of the object (i.e., the signal) must overcome
the image noise. Noise increases with the signal level results when the image has
been represented by a small number of individual particles. The signal-noise ratio
(SNR) is defined as the contrast divided by the standard deviation of the noise [4].
The mathematics governing these variations is called counting statistics or Poisson
statistics. That is, if there are N particles in each pixel on display, the mean is equal to
N and the standard deviation is equal to N . This makes the signal-to-noise ratio
equal to N . Detection is a noisy process. The noise V is composed of shot noise,
spatial noise, and excess noise. There are additional noise sources, including readout
amplifier noise and digital quantization noise. This is modelled as follows [4]:

noise read
V V V + = (1)
The noise equivalent temperature difference (NETD) is a widely used performance
parameter that characterizes the sensitivity of thermal imaging sensors.
The Modulation Transfer Function (MTF) is a quantitative measure of thermal
camera capability to transfer contrasts from the object plan in the image plan
depending on the aims of the lens and detector details. MTF is used to approximate
the position of best focus.
2. The problematic
Two problems are import ants if there is misalignment between the optical lens
and FPA:
a) Although NETD has been used for many years, there has always been some
confusion and misunderstanding about how to measure it. Differences in opinion
on how this measurement should be made can cause substantial variations in
Watermark Protected

with the Optical Misalignment
reported values of NETD measurements [5]; for example, subjective digital noise
introduced by the display. The NETD will then calculated from the experimental
data as follows [6,7]:

N / S
T
NETD
A
= (2)
where
background et arg t
T T T = A , and the SNR is the signal-to-noise ratio of the
thermal camera.
b) The projection of the scene on the FPA detector is not perfect; since the
optical elements create blur [8]. For a quantitative analysis it used a test thermal
pattern as in figure 2., and the relation [3]:

eye display FPA optics
MTF MTF MTF MTF MTF

= (3)

Fig. 2. Thermal pattern used in the thermal camera performance analysis.
The MTF value varies with the lens focal length and their aperture or F number
(F#). The calculus of MTF values is based on the followings relations:

|
|
.
|
\
| t
=
|
|
.
|
\
| t
|
|
.
|
\
| t
=
cutoff
cutoff
cutoff
FPA
f
f
sinc
f
f
f
f
sin
MTF
(4)
where the spatial frequency f [cycles/mm], the cut-off frequency c
ut-off
[cycles/mm],
the horizontal and vertical size of detector (dH and dV, respectively) is exprimed as:
]
mrad
lp
[
dasV
1
f ];
mrad
lp
[
dasH
1
f
V cutoff H cutoff
= =

;
] mrad [
f
dV
dasV ]; mrad [
f
dH
dasH
ob ob
= =
Watermark Protected

|
.
|
\
|
t =
H
CCH
H H display
f
fl
d
FF sinc ) f ( MTF
(5) where FF
H
and FF
V
fill factors for
detector on the horizontal, respectively vertical direction.
MTF
optics
and MTF
FPA
have the configuration in figure 3.

Fig. 3. MTF Diagram for the MTF realized with the Maviis 1.5 software (JCD Publishing).
where
4 ) (
) (
4 1
4 1
+

=
V V
V V
MTF
t
(6)
On the other hand, it is known that [3, 9]:

|
(
t
o
|
|
.
|
\
|
A
=
2 / 1
frame
2 / 1
2 / 1
d
T
2 / 1
R
) t t ( MTF
f
) f (
NETD
3
MRTD (7)
Watermark Protected

or [7]:
f
f
f
K NETD
MRTD
MTF
= (8)
where: Af
R
-electronic frequency bandwidth, o- the field of view of the FPA
starring, f-the spatial frequency of the target being observed, t
d
[s] response time
of the detector, t- the integration time of the observer eye, t
frame
- the frame time.
So, it can write:

) f ( MRTD
NETD
const ) f ( MTF
1
o
= ;
o
=
2
const
NETD ;
f f
1
ob

= o (9)
For comparison of two MRTD as the same spatial frequency, in which one of the
thermal camera has a certain optical misalignment, it can by written as:

mis
mis
) f ( MRTD
) f ( MRTD
NETD
NETD
) f ( MTF
) f ( MTF
mis
= (10)
3. Experiments and results
For the experimental determination a thermal camera with the following technical
characteristics was used: the working spectral range 812 m, detection matrix
with micro-bolometers and resolution of 640 x 480 detection items, the size of the
detection item being 0.17 m, the focal distance for the objective being of 45 and
135 mm and f number (F#) between f/1.1 (for 45 mm lens focal) and f/1.6 (for
135 mm lens focal). In laboratory conditions, in order to determine the MRTD
function thermal patterns with 4 cycles/target, the ambient temperature was
24.7
0
C, and the black body temperature was 29.7
0
C (fig.4-6).

Fig. 4. Example of image
acquired with thermal contrast
AT = 10 C

AT=5 C

AT=2 C
The procedure used to evaluate NETD was based on standard ASTM E 1543-00 [6].
The results are presented in figures 7-19.
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Fig. 7. Visual images signal and noise on the oscilloscope.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
NETD
Noise N [mV]
Signal S [mV]
S
i
g
n
a
l
,

N
o
i
s
e
,

N
E
T
D

[
m
V
]
Measurement no.

Fig. 8. Variation of the NETD excluding subjective (digital) noise.

Fig. 9. Original Image for measurement MTF (aligned focal lens 135 mm) with DT 1500
tester thermal camera and related software from Inframet.
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Fig. 10. The diagram MTF vs. spatial frequency. The loss of image quality in different cases of a
lens misalignment with 45 mm focal length.

Fig. 11. The diagram contrast vs. off-axis distance.
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The loss of image contrast with off-axis distance of a 45 mm focal length.

Fig. 12. The diagram MTF vs. spatial frequency. Comparison between MTF diagrams for lenses
with 45 mm and 135 mm focal lengths, with well alignment done. One can see, for example, that
for a same resolution of 0,5 lp/mm, a 3.3 times improvement of contrast using a lens with a focal
length 3 times greater, can be obtained.

Fig. 13. MTF aligned focal lens 45 mm.

Fig. 14. MTF aligned focal lens 135 mm.
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Fig. 15. MTF with misaligned
2 mm focal lens 135 mm.



4. Conclusions
A better MTF and NETD evaluation with electronic instruments is most
appropriate;
A significant decrease in MTF is obtained at low level variations of optical
misalignement;
4.3 The MTF decreases with decreasing lens focal.

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R E F E R E N C E S
[1] Owen, A.: "Surveillance cameras steal away the night, in Laser Focus World, 33, 111-115 (1997).
[2] Borcan, Octavia, Spulber, C: Experimental method for observation prediction based on the
decision matrix, through day/night equipments in NIR and LWIR spectral ranges, in Infrared Imaging
Systems: Design, Analysis, Modelling, and Testing XX, edited by Gerald C. Holst, Proceedings of
SPIE Vol. 7300 (SPIE, Bellingham, WA 2009) 730011.
[3] Holst, Gerald C. Infrared Imaging Systems: Design, Analysis, Modelling, and Testing IX.
[4]

Saar Bobrov* and Yoav Y. Schechner: Image-based prediction of imaging and vision
performance, in J. Opt. Soc. Am. A/Vol. 24, No. 7/July 2007.
[5] Ronald G. Driggers, Curtis M. Webb, Stanley J. Pruchnic, Carl E. Halford and Ellis E. Burroughs,
"Laboratory measurement of sampled infrared imaging system performance", in Opt. Eng. 38, 852
(1999).
[6] ***ASTM E 1543 00: Standard Test Method for Noise Equivalent Temperature Difference of
Thermal Imaging Systems.
[7]

Arnold Daniels: Field Guide to Infrared Systems Field Guide to Infrared Systems, Detectors, and
FPAs, Second Edition, SPIE Press Book, Bellingham, 2010, ISBN: 9780819480804.
[8] Steven W.Smith: The Scientist and Engineer's Guide to Digital Signal Processing, 1997, ISBN
978-0966017632.
[9] Alan Irwin, Robert L. Nicklin:Standard software for automated testing of infrared imagers,
IRWindows, in practical applications, in Proceedings of SPIE, SPIE 3377, 206 (1998).
[10] Paul A. Bell, Carl W. Hoover, Jr., Stanley J. Pruchnic, Jr., Standard NETD test procedure for
FLIR systems with video outputs, Proc. SPIE 1969, 194 (1993].
[11] Spulber, C, Borcan, Octavia: Some Aspects Regarding the Image Acquisition using Video
Systems under Low Vibrations, in Annals of the Academy of Romanian Scientists Series on Science
and Technology of Information 6, Vol. 2, 87-98, Number 1/2009, ISSN 20662742.

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APPLICATIONS OF QUANTUM CRYPTOLOGY
FOR DATA TRANSMISSIONS
IMPLEMENTED IN A STUDENT LABORATORY
Bogdan-Adrian STEFANESCU
1
, Dan ANGHEL
1
, Octavian DANILA
1
,
Paul STERIAN
1
, Andreea Rodica STERIAN
1

Abstract. Quantum cryptography based on the BB84 protocol is discussed in the
following presentation, containing the concepts and the work that has been carried out in
the field, with some developments suitable for student research. Although it has not been
implemented on a commercial level, data transmissions based on quantum cryptology is a
good alternative for integration in optical fibers communications, with a wide range of
applications due to its securing capabilities. Evolution in photon-study related fields,
such as photon echo, contribute to the better understanding and further improvement of
the quantum key distribution protocol. An efficient way of encrypting the information is
by the use of a key. As it is well known, the encryption key uses very complex algorithms
that are very hard to break but the problem of key transmission between the transmitter
and receiver still remains. On a classical channel, the answer was given in the form of
RSA public keys that were sent between the transmitter and receiver several times, and
implied the use of randomizing algorithms by use of prime numbers. Quantum approach
of this problem can be solved through the following principle: If a quantum system that
resides in a defined state is observed, thus measured, the state of that system is
irreparably changed. This has a direct application in detecting whether an eavesdropper
has entered the quantum channel or not. A student-oriented experimental apparatus is
presented, together with a virtual simulation of the protocol that implements the
principles of quantum cryptography. Our optical channel can be improved using the
photon echo effect. Excitement of superradiant states by irradiating a probe with a
coherent optical impulse, with its duration and intensity conveniently chosen can be
shown with the photon echo. We demonstrated that the photon echo can improve the code
by adding either a controlled error on the channel or transforming the channel from a
binary channel to a ternary channel.
Keywords: Quantum cryptology, Data transmission, superradiant states, ternary channel
1. Introduction
The goal of this paper is to help students understand the application of quantum
physics in information security.
Why is information security so important? In present days, a lot of information is
exchanged via large networks, such as a LAN or the Internet [1-3, 11]. If sensitive
information is exchanged, a way of guarding the information from unwanted
eavesdroppers is needed [4-6]. A quite simple way of doing this is by encrypting

1
Academic Center for Optical Engineering and Photonics, Faculty of Applied Sciences, University
Politehnica Bucharest, Romania (sterian@physics.pub.ro).
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Bogdan-Adrian Stefanescu, Dan Anghel, Octavian Danila,
94 Paul Sterian, Andreea Rodica Sterian
the information. An efficient way of encrypting the information is by the use of a
key. The encryption key uses very complex algorithms that are very hard to break,
but there is another problem: How does the sender send the key to the receiver? In
early days, the key was transported to the receiver via physical medium such as
paper, punch card, floppy disk, EEPROM or CDROM. There was no insurance of
the interception of the key.
On a classical channel, used in the 1970-s, the answer was given in the form of
RSA public keys[5], that were sent between the transmitter and receiver several
times, and implied the use of randomizing algorithms by use of prime numbers.
Quantum approach of this problem can be solved through the following principle:
If a quantum system that resides in a defined state is observed, thus measured, the
state of that system is irreparably changed. This has a direct application in
detecting whether or not an eavesdropper has entered the quantum channel.
2. Quantum Cryptography
Quantum cryptography solves the key distribution problem by allowing the
exchange of a cryptographic key between two remote parties with absolute
security, guaranteed by the laws of physics. This key can then be used with
conventional cryptographic algorithms [5]. If one encodes the value of a digital bit
on a single quantum object, its interception will necessarily translate into a
perturbation, because the eavesdropper is forced to observe it. This perturbation
causes errors in the sequence of bits exchanged by the sender and recipient. By
checking for the presence of such errors, the two parties can verify whether their
key was intercepted or not. It is important to stress that since this verification
takes place after the exchange of bits, one finds out a posteriori whether the
communication was eavesdropped or not. That is why this technology is used to
exchange a key and not valuable information. Once the key is validated, it can be
used to encrypt data. In telecommunication networks, light is routinely used to
exchange information. For each bit of information, a pulse is emitted and sent
down an optical fiber to the receiver, where it is registered and transformed back
into an electronic signal. These pulses typically contain millions of photons [3,
14]. In quantum cryptography, one can follow the same approach, with the only
difference that the pulses contain only a single photon. In particular a photon
cannot be split into halves.[6].
3. The BB84 protocol
The first protocol for QC has been proposed in 1984 by Charles H. Bennett, from
IBM New-York, and Gilles Brassard, from the University of Montreal, hence the
name BB84 under which this protocol is recognized nowadays. They published
their work in a conference in India, totally unknown to physicists.
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Implemented in a Student Laboratory 95
We shall explain the BB84 protocol using the language of spin 1/2 , any 2 level
system being equivalent to it. The protocol uses two interlocutors, Alice, as the
transmitter, and Bob, the receiver, as well as an eavesdropper, Eve. The photons
of use are divided into 4 quantum states that constitute 2 bases, think of the states
up | i, down | i, left | i and right | i. Conventionally, one attributes the
binary value 0 to states | i and | i and the value 1 to the other two states, and
calls the states qubits (for quantum bits). In the first step, Alice sends individual
spins to Bob in states chosen at random among the 4 basic states (the spin states |
i,| i, | i and | i are identified with the polarization states horizontal,
vertical, +45 degrees and -45 degrees, respectively). How she chooses at
random is a delicate problem in practice, but in principle she could use her free
will. The individual spins could be sent all at once, or one after the other (much
more practical); the only restriction being that Alice and Bob can establish a one-
to-one correspondence between the transmitted and the received spins[1]. Next,
Bob measures the incoming spins in one of the two bases, chosen at random
(using a random number generator independent from that of Alice). At this point,
whenever they used the same basis, they get perfectly correlated results. However,
whenever they used different basis, they get uncorrelated results. Hence, on
average, Bob obtains a string of bits with 25% errors, called the raw key. This
error rate is so large that standard error correction schemes would fail. But in this
protocol Alice and Bob know which bits are perfectly correlated (the ones for
which Alice and Bob used the same basis) and which ones are completely
uncorrelated (all the other ones). Hence, a straightforward error correction scheme
is possible: For each bit Bob announces publicly in which basis he measured the
corresponding qubit (but he does not tell the result he obtained). Alice then only
tells whether or not the state in which she encoded that qubit is compatible with
the basis announced by Bob. If the state is compatible, they keep the bit, if not
they disregard it. In this way about 50% of the bit string is discarded. This shorter
key obtained after bases reconciliation is called the sifted key. The fact that Alice
and Bob use a public channel at some stage of their protocol is very common in
crypto-protocols. This channel does not have to be confidential, but has to be
authentic. Hence, any adversary Eve can listen to it all the communication on the
public channel, but she cant modify it. In practice Alice and Bob may use the same
optical fiber to implement both the quantum and the classical channels. Note that
neither Alice nor Bob can decide which key results from the protocol. Indeed, it is
the conjunction of both of their random choices which produces the key [4-6].
Let us now consider the security of the above ideal protocol (ideal because so far
we did not take into account unavoidable noise due to technical imperfections).
Assume that some adversary Eve intercepts a qubit propagating from Alice to
Bob. This is very easy, but if Bob does not receive an expected qubit, he will
simply inform Alice to disregard it. Hence, in this way Eve only lowers the bit
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rate (possibly down to zero), but she does not gain any useful information. For
real eavesdropping Eve must send a qubit to Bob. Ideally she would like to send
this qubit in its original state, keeping a copy for herself.
4. Simple software simulation of the BB84 protocol
There are many software implementations used to simulate the BB84 protocol.
Some are written in PHP code, Java ,C++, or native quantum simulation software.
For this paper we have chosen a software written in Visual C++ called QIT
designed by Fernando Lucas Rodriguez. This is a general public license (GPL)
software and it can be found on the Internet for student training and research. The
program has an interactive graphical user interface (GUI) that allows students to
watch a step by step execution of the protocol. Students will use the program to
find the different quantum keys.
The program will run from one of the 2 computers on the lab table witch must run
a Windows XP 2 operating system with .NET 2 installed. From the folder QIT13
the students must execute QIT IDE.exe [9]. After the execution the following
window will appear (Fig. 1.):

Fig. 1. Output window of QIT.exe
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Then from the Interactive menu ->Communications->InteractiveBB84
Cryptosystem is selected. With this selection the interface for simulating the
BB84 protocol will appear (Fig. 2.):

Fig.2. GUI of QIT.exe
Example: The secret data to be sent is: Information Security and Cryptology.
Press Start, then Finish. The resulting binary secret key is:
110101001101110011010000101010000000010011110111101101111001000010
011000110101011110101111010000010101001001010011100100110111100000
000010010001100111101110110101011010001010111010100110010101110010
010110000000001011000101101011100010111110001010000111000000111110
1100100111000100
A step by step execution of the protocol is available by pressing Start then
Execute Step [9].
The figure 1 and 2 represent the main steps in the execution of the protocol.
Behind the software the steps are as follow: the (4+delta)N qubits will be
transmitted. For each bit, Master station selects a basis randomly (horizontal-
vertical or diagonal), and also selects a random value (true or false). It sends the
resulting quantum state after encoding the true or false value into the selected basis.
It also stores the basis selected and the random value. The slave station measures
values received into a random basis (horizontal-vertical or diagonal). It stores the
basis used for measurement and the value measured. The master station sends the
basis used for values encoding. The values are not transmitted, they are the secret.
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The slave station stores the master's used basis for encoding. The master station
stores coincidences. Slave station informs Master about which basis there was
coincidence during qubit encoding and slave measurement. Values measured are
not transmitted, only if there was coincidence.
The master and slave generates an intermediary 'secret private' key with the values of
qubits of which where was coincidence on basis encoding and measurement and
checks that intermediary key has at least the double of bits needed for chippering data.
The master select random intermediary-key bits indexes for public comparisons,
and informs of those positions to the slave. The number of bits to compare will be
the size of intermediary key minus the number of bits needed for chippering data.
Slave stores the indexes of the positions that will be compared.
The master sends the values that tried to encode on quantum channel of the selected
indexes. Slave stores the values that Master sends. The master stores the values that
Slave sends. Slave sends the values that measured on quantum channel of the
selected indexes.
Master calculates noise level (it knows what it tried to send, and what Slave
received). If noise rate is too high (over 25%) with high probability there is an
Eavesdropper and data transmission is aborted. Slave calculates noise level (it
knows what Master tried to send and what it received). If noise rate is too high
(over 25%) with high probability there is an Eavesdropper and data transmission is
aborted. The data is sent using Vernam chippering with the BB84 key on a Classic
public channel. The Slave Station stores and decodes the ciphered message with the
BB84 secret, private & secure key (Fig. 2).
5. Implementing the BB84 protocol in a student oriented experimental
apparatus
5.1. Background
The experimental setup will follow the initial idea that was used in the Optical
Institute of Orsay, France. In that case, the photons were transmitted between two
windows of two separate buildings. For coding the qubits the experiment used the
four polarization states (horizontal, vertical, circular left and circular right).
Physically, they were created by applying a voltage on an electro-optical modulator.
The qubit sequence resulting from the coded polarization is generated by hardware
means, by using two Fibonacci configured linear registries. Each registry has an
output of
20
2 1 bits, and the 4 states of the protocol suffer 2-bit coding, each of the
bits being a part of a pseudo-random sequence. For minimizing diffraction effects, the
radius of the photon beam is extended to 2 cm, by using a two-lens system, before
being transmitted 30 m through open air. The photons are collected by Bob through
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the same system, at which 4 avalanche photo-diodes were added. Measurements of
polarization were made by selecting the states, as the photons are either transmitted or
reflected by a beam splitter at the incidence angle of 45. Horizontal and vertical
states were created by the beam splitter, while the circular left and right states were
separated by a special splitter that converts circular polarization into linear
polarization, and then discern them through the same splitting method.
5.2. The efficiency of the single photon source and the Poisson statistics
Primary characteristics of the single photon source quality made by Alice consist of
measuring the single and multi-photon emission probabilities, compared with weak
coherent pulses (WCP), with the same amount of photons per pulse. For a
transmission sequence of 0.2 s and pulse frequency of 5.3 MHz, a total of
4
8.8 10
photons are recorded by Alice. By correcting the efficiency of the photo-diodes
(APD) 0.6
APD
q = the global efficiency adds up to 2.8%. After passing through the
modulator, characterized by 0.9
EOM
T = and 0.94
optic
T = , the mean of the sent
photons per pulse was 0.0235 = . Reduction of the multi-photon emissions can be
set in Alice's part of apparatus. Photon statistics can be counted precisely by Bob's
measurements, thus resulting in the distribution of the photon numbers. Evaluations
were carried out on
6
40 10 pulses recorded by Bob [1]. For a time sample, detection
probabilities for a photon or photon pair are
3
1
7.6 10
d
P

= and
6
2
2.7 10
d
P

= .
Configuration of the photo-diodes shows that the detection probability
2d
P is 5/8 of
the reception probability of the same pair, while the probability that a photon pair
falls on the same photo-diode is of 3/8. The reduction factor is given by:
2
1
2
5
6.7
8 2
d
d
P
R
P
= = . This result is in accordance with the Poisson distribution, and
thus can be used in further calculus. Information leak to an intruder connected to the
quantum channel is
( ) m
S , which shows the probability that a photon leaves Alice's
system. For an equivalent WCP we have
( ) 4
1 (1 ) 2.7 10
m
WCP
S e

= + = , while for
the SPS
( ) 5
1
[1 (1 ) ] 4.1 10
6.7
m
SPS
S e

= + = [4].
5.3. Detection probabilities of Bob's system
Detection probability of Bob's apparatus over a time threshold is
3
exp
7.6 10 p

~ .
Assuming that the absorption of the beam is negligible through the 30 m
transmission, and taking into account that the mean 0.0235 = , an estimate of the
detection apparatus is 0.3
Bob
q ~ . While measuring photons, errors might appear,
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because of unpolarized light. This contributes to compromising the security of the
transmission, and decrease the maximum transmission distance. By filtering and
spectral insulation, the optical environment can be protected. Measurements were
made at night time, the probability of recording an incorrect photon per time
threshold is
5 1
3.8 10
dark
p s

= [4].
6. Our experimental proposal setup
The experiment will take place on a lab table, so there is no need to have
complicated alignment system. A simple laser diode and the transmitter can be
used for alignment, by moving the two supporting legs.

Fig. 2. Experimental proposal.
The experiment consists of two main modules: Alice and Bob, in our case,
transmitting and receiving student, that communicate over open air, at the
designated distance for laboratory of about 1 m.
The classical channel is a basic TCP/IP connection (coaxial or UTP cable). The
experiments for optical fibers transmissions are also considered.
6.1. Transmitter Module

Fig. 3. The Alice module.
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The module is designed to produce a stream of single polarized photons according
to the choice of basis and bit value. Because no source can produce single
photons, we use pulses that have the property of coherency. They are called weak
coherent pulses (WCP), of Poisson distribution and mean photon number
0.0235 = . To produce the pulses, we will use four laser diodes, oriented around
a conical mirror at the desired polarization angles. The polarization problem is
solved by the laser diodes, that have intrinsic polarization. After the beams are
reflected by the conical mirror, they pass a spatial filter, which consists of two
100 m at 0.9 cm apart. It serves a special purpose, that of making the pulse from
the four diodes indistinguishable from the others, in spatial terms. This measure
has to be taken because without the spatial filtering, the code can be broken quite
easily. In order to get as much light as possible through the spatial filter, there is a
lens with a focal length f = 2.75 mm between the conical mirror and the pinholes
of the spatial filter. Because of the very strong spatial filtering, the alignment of
the pinholes is crucial, otherwise the desired mean photon count will not be
achieved for all polarizations. [4]
6.2. Receiver Module

Fig. 4. Receiver module schematic.
The module is the heart of the receiver unit is connected directly to a receiver lens
and a spatial filter (SF), that are positioned so that the transmitted beam is focused
on the primary device of the module. The primary device is an interference filter
with a red color glass filter. This is important to allow for daylight operation,
because it rejects stray light, while permitting polarized light to pass. The
remaining optical devices divide the photon beams into bases H/V and +/-, the
construction being based on the idea by John Rarity and Paul Tapster. An incident
photon sees the 50/50 beam splitter (BS). If it is reflected it will see the polarizing
beam splitter(PBS) of the photon in the H/V basis, which in combination with the
two silicon avalanche photo diodes (APD) H and V. If APD V detects a photon it
is supposed to be in the V basis, whereas if APD H detects a photon, it is
supposed to be in the H basis.
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Any photon that is transmitted through the beam splitter passes through a half-wave
plate, set at an angle of 22.5, so that it rotates the linear polarization by 45 degrees.
Afterwards, a +45 degrees polarized photon is detected by APD 1 and converted into
the horizontal basis H, while a - 45 degrees polarized photon is detected by APD 3
and converted into the vertical basis V. Whenever a photon is measured in the wrong
basis, the measurement outcome is completely random. The APD-s have to be cooled
in order to reduce dark counts, at a temperature between - 25 and - 10 degrees. To
reach these temperatures, the photo-diodes are put into an aluminum block which is
cooled by a Peltier element glued to it from below [4]. The bit error rate (BER) [6] for
each channel was estimated from data taken during key exchange. It is given by the
expression:
wrong
total
N
BER
N
= , where N
wrong
is the number of bits in error and N
total
is the
number of bits received in total. This gives a measure of the likelihood of receiving a
zero when a one was sent from the transmitter. All but one of the BER values in table
1 are sufficiently low showing that optical imperfections from the equipment will
contribute little to the error in the sifted key. The system will operate in natural light
and artificial light in the lab, thus the background error rate must be considered. This
is a factor that could limit the entire experimental setup. We start from the signal
count for this rig [8]:
4
RMT
S
q
= , where R is the repetition rate, M is the average
number of photons per pulse, T is the lumped transmission and is the detection
efficiency of Bob's APDs. The product is divided by 4 because there are 4 detectors
(or 4 polarization states). The background rate is given by
b
P Bt = , where B is the
background the background count rate per APD and t is the time synchronization
gate. Half the counts induce errors and half of there are thrown away. The error
rate is:
b
base
P
E E
S
= + . E must be less the 0.07 therefore the maximum acceptable
background rate is:
75.5
MT
B
t
q
< . In considering the system presented here,
estimates can be made for the following values [8]:
1. M ~ 0.3, an accepted value for guaranteed security of low loss systems.
2. T ~ 1 since the source can be imaged on to the receiver and the system is
short range and thus atmospheric loss is negligible.
3. ~ 0.045 taking into account the quantum efficiency of the detectors and the
presence of the narrow band filter and polarizers.
4. t = 5 ns gate synchronization time.
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Thus the maximum background count rate per detector can be given as roughly
B 36000 counts/s. In this system, the data is recorded first during the quantum
transmission and processed afterwards in a few seconds. The start of the
transmission is determined approximately by searching for a jump in the
frequency of time tags as Bob starts measuring before Alice begins her
transmission. Alice transmits sub-5 ns pulses every 200 ns, therefore a time
synchronization gate of 5 ns reduces the probability of registering a background
event within the gate by a factor of 40 [8]. The clock at the receiver is thus
synchronized with the clock at the transmitter by searching for time tags that sit at
separations of 200 ns and adjusting the time separation slightly every ~100 ms to
compensate for clock drift. The advantage of this set-up is that no timing
reference signal is needed. To determine the exact start time of the data, the
receiver reveals a random subset of his measured bit values and the basis he used
to the transmitter. The transmitter then finds the data start by performing a sparse
correlation against her stored data. This random subset can also be reused to
estimate the error rate.

Fig. 5. Full experimental rig.
It should be noted that our implementation of error correction requires that the two
parties both generate the same random factor graph. Once both of them know the
number of message bits they are error correcting over, and the measured error rate,
they seed a pseudo-random number generator from their OTP and use this to generate
an appropriate factor graph.
The eavesdropper, is assumed not to know which of the 2
256
, say, different factor
graphs the communicating parties are using [8].
For implementing this type of encryption we also can use fiber optics, as used in
Clavis [9, 10] devices for BB84 code implementation.
Fiber optics may provide a much longer distance for light propagation, thus
facilitating the wide area implementation for this type of secured data
transmissions.
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7. Improving BB84 by using photon echo
Our optical channel can be improved using the photon echo effect [3]. The code
encrypting can be made by introducing a supplementary key if we use the photon
echo. We have three states associated to the 1 and 0 qubits that are available for
encrypting. That correspond to the possibility of associating to the two input
impulses two or three output impulses, the third one corresponding to the photon
echo, generated after an algorithm or by our own will. Excitement of super radiant
states by irradiating a probe with an coherent optical impulse, with its duration
and intensity conveniently chosen can be shown with the photon echo [3]. In
principle, we consider the exciting of a ruby crystal, for example, with two
coherent, identical optical impulses A and B (emitted by a ruby laser), having a
duration of t (ns), the delay of B impulse when passing through the probe, will
be T t, showing in the figure 6 [12, 13].

Fig. 6. Principle of photon echo.
We can see at the exit, beside the two impulses A' and B', which correspond to the
emitted impulses A and B, a third impulse A'', symmetrical positioned to A' and
B', named photon echo [3]. For explaining the photon echo, we use the precession
equation, for a circular polarized radiation field, in a reference system which
rotates round the z axis with the frequency :
0
(
i
d
P P E k
dt
ee
= _ +
_
.
Due to the unequal width of the transition frequency for ruby atoms, and due to the
local field, variation, P and
0
will be affected by index k , which defines the k atom.
If before applying impulse A, the atoms were all in the fundamental state, the
vector
1
N
k
k
P P
=
=
is oriented in the negative direction of z axis. Applying the A

impulse, of E
a
amplitude, between t = 0 and t = t, a precession movement of P
around the pseudo field appears. If
0
/
A
E X >> ee , the procession is made
around the x axis with an X E
a
t angle so for an intensity of the impulse that
satisfies the condition X E
a
t = /2 (/2 impulse), P will be orientated after y
axis in t = t, the system being in a superradiant state .
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Fig. 7. Superradiance states.
When the E
a
field stops, the atoms will execute precession movement with different
speeds around the pseudo-field k
X
Ae
where
0k
Ae= ee . During these movements
in t = t and t = t + T interval,
k
P components will be dephased so P
diminishes [3]. B impulse which applies in the moment t = t + T must reflect the
k
P vectors in the xy plane, reported to the x axis. To obtain this effect the following
condition must apply: E
b
t = ( impulse), meaning that 4
B A
I I = ,
A
I and
B
I
specifying the two impulses intensities. In the interval t = 2 t + T and
t = 2 (t + T) the vectors
k
P are moving like in the dephase interval, getting in
phase after another interval equal to T. The corresponding state of the vectors
k
P
in rephasing is a superradiant state, highlighted by echo impulse emission
'
E
A [3].
We can use the photon echo to improve the code by adding either a controlled error
on the channel or transforming the channel from a binary channel to a ternary
channel. A ternary channel is more efficient in transmitting coded information but in
this form the ternary channel will be created on a binary one, using the echo to create
the third channel of communication. We also can improve a channel transmission
width using the photon echo to create a bit of data when we want, thus changing the
information meaning and receiving more information that was initially sent.
8. Conclusions
Quantum cryptography implemented with the BB84 protocol offers a high level of
security for data communications. Although it has not been implemented on a
commercial level, it is suitable for integration in optical fibers communications, with
a wide range of applications. Our experimental proposal offers a good student insight
into quantum cryptography, combining the already known and designed modules
Alice and Bob with the potential of the photon echo.
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R E F E R E N C E S
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THE MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF COMMUNICATIONS
VERSUS THE PHYSICAL THEORY OF INFORMATION.
THE UNIVERSE VERSUS THE MULTIVERSE
Dan Alexandru IORDACHE
1

Starting from the classical (mathematical) theory of information (C. Shannon, W. Weaver), this
work has replaced the definitions of the: a) apparent information as a decrease of the non-
determination (uncertainty) degree, by means of the overlap area of the true and found probability
distributions, respectively, b) agreement of a theoretical relation with the experimental data using
the correlation coefficients, by means of the error risks at the compatibility rejection, etc., taking
into account also the basic notions of the complex systems: (i) the uniqueness parameters, (ii) the
similitude criteria, (iii) the universality classes, (iv) the numerical phenomena intervening in the
computer simulations of such systems evolution, etc. [1]. The accomplished analysis pointed out the
existence of some surprising co-relations relating the fundamental interactions and particles. The
interpretation of these findings by means of the anthropic principles (leading to the notion of designed
Universe) or by means of some recent theoretical models (of quantum gravitation, self-
reproducing inflation, quantum cosmology with loops, etc., leading to Multi-verse models) was
also analysed by this work (see also [2]).
Keywords: Mathematical information theory, Compatibility with experimental results, Complex
systems, Fundamental interactions, Anthropic principles, Theoretical models of cosmology
1. Introduction
As it is well-known, after some preliminary works as [3], the mathematical theory
of information was rigorously formulated by C. Shannon and W. Weaver [4]
under the name of mathematical theory of communications , and completed by
the works [5] of A. J. Khincin, A. N. Kolmogorov, etc. The basic notion of this
theory is the so-called uncertainty function ( )
n
p p p H ,... ,
2 1
associated to the
complete statistical set (collective) { }
n
E E E C ,... ,
2 1
of incompatible events
i
E (i=1, 2, ... n), of appearance probability
i
p . According to the axioms of
A. J. Khinchin [5] (that allow a rather simple derivation of the expression of the
uncertainty function), the uncertainty function has properties of: 1) symmetry:
H(
2 1
, , ...
n
p p p ) = H(
1 2
, , ...
n
p p p ), 2) maximum value for the uniform distribution:
H(
1 2
, , ...
n
p p p ) = maximum for:
1 2
1
...
n
n
p p p = = = = , 3) prolongation:
H(
1 2
, , ...
n
p p p ,0) = H(
1 2
, , ...
n
p p p ), i.e. the addition of an impossible event (of null
probability) does not change the value of the uncertainty function, 4) continuity: the
function H(
1 2
, , ...
n
p p p ) has to be continuous relative to its variables:

1
Professor, Physics Department, University Politehnica of Bucharest, Romania; Honorary Member
of Academy of Romanian Scientists, Section of Information Science and Technology (IT).
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108 Dan Alexandru Iordache
n
p p p ,... ,
2 1
, 5) linearity: ( ) ( )
=
+ =
n
i
i i
E C H p C H C C H
1
' ) ( '

, where
) ' ( C C H
and ( )
i
E C H ' are the uncertainty functions corresponding to the set { }
'
j i
E E =
Cartesian product of the statistical collectives C and C, and to the statistical
collective C, in conditions when the event
i
E appeared.
It was found [5] that the uncertainty function H(
1 2
, , ...
n
p p p ) fulfilling the above
indicated conditions is: H(
1 2
, , ...
n
p p p ) =
n
i
i b i
p p a
1
log , where a and b are
almost arbitrary constants, that satisfy the conditions: a > 0 and b > 1. One finds so
that the uncertainty function H(
1 2
, , ...
n
p p p ) represents the average (theoretical)
value of the so-called information entropy, defined by the relation:

i b i
p a S log = (1)
Similarly, for the continuous statistical collectives (described by the probability
density p(x)), the uncertainty function is given by the expression:
}

A = dx x x p x p a x p H
b
) ) ( ( log ) ( )) ( ( [where x is the (conveniently chosen)
quantum of the variable x] and the information entropy by the expression:
) ) ( ( log )) ( ( x x p a x p S
b
A = . (2)
We have to underline also that the expression (2) is absolutely similar to the
(previous) Planck-Boltzmann expression: = ln
. B therm
k S of the thermo-
dynamic entropy (k
B
is the Boltzmanns constant, while stands for the
probability density of micro-states localisation in the phases space).
2. Logical scheme of the humankind information accumulation
It is well known that the information processing and storage abilities of each
individual people brain are drastically limited. For this reason, the humankind
advance in its race for the complex systems knowledge and use imposes the
strong cooperation of the human beings by information transmission. Taking into
account that the information transmission is a resonance process (see fig. 1), it is
necessary to ensure: a) the obtained (got) information (see fig. 2) cleaning before
a new experiment (measurement, embryo development, Universe genesis, etc.),
b) a sufficiently broad and well-located information receiver bell, c) an implant
(inside the information receiver bell) of several connecting relays, achieving the
cross-fertilization between the information source(s) and its virtual applications,
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The Mathematical theory of Communications versus the physical theory of Information.
Universe versus Multiverse 109
so that Toute la suite des hommes depuis le cours de tant de sicles est comme
un seul homme qui vit toujours et qui apprend continuellement (Blaise Pascal).

Fig. 1. Information transmission as a resonance process. Fig. 2. Magnetic memory
example of got information.
3. Main Conceptual Differences between Mathematics and Nature Sciences
3.1. Typical elementary object
While in Mathematics the typical elementary object (the problem unknown) is a
well-defined number or segment, in Nature Sciences this elementary object is a
parameter , described by a certain probability distribution P(p) of the individual
values p (see figure 3).
While the value of the unknown of a mathematical problem with a right
formulation is obtained exactly by means of the problem solution, the most
probable individual value (named also true value, or mathematical hope)
p
t
of the physical parameter p cannot be never exactly obtained!
For this reason, the definition of the real information amount has to be given by
means of the overlap area of the normalised to 1 probability distribution functions
corresponding to measurements and to the true parameter, respectively (fig. 4).

Fig. 3. Probability distribution Fig. 4. Definition of the true information amount
of a parameter p individual values. obtained by measurements.

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3.2. Uniqueness parameters
While the number of the uniqueness parameters of a mathematical problem is
fixed [e.g.: 3 for an arbitrary triangle (the lengths of the 3 sides, or the lengths of 2
sides and the angle between them, etc.)], the number of the uniqueness
parameters of a physical system depends on the required accuracy for the
considered system description [e.g., the thermodynamic state of the air is
described by: (i) only 2 parameters (usually the temperature and the pressure) in a
first order approximation, (ii) by 3 physical parameters (adding e.g. the humidity)
in the frame of a better approximation, (iii) 4 physical parameters (adding also the
carbon dioxide content) in the frame of a still better approximation, etc.
3.3. Well-formulated problems
While in mathematics a well-formulated problem corresponds usually to a system
of compatible and non-redundant equations, the number of this system equations
being equal to the number of unknowns of the mathematical problem, in nature
sciences a well-formulated problem corresponds to a system of (slightly)
incompatible (and non-redundant) equations, and the number of equations has to
be considerably larger than that of unknowns. This fact is due to the fluctuations
of the individual values of the physical parameters and even to the presence of
some hysteretic behaviour (the individual values could depend on the system
previous history) of the physical systems.
3.4. Position of the incomplete induction method
While in mathematics the incomplete induction method represents only the first
step towards the inference (particularly, by the complete induction method) of a
theorem, in Physics this (incomplete induction) method represents an essential
method, because it allows the discovery of some truths which are not equivalent to
the information set used to formulate the respective hypothesis. The incomplete
induction method represents one of the most fertile methods used by the nature
sciences for the identification of some new plausible hypotheses and the
subsequent discovery of some new physical phenomena and laws.
4. On the bridge between the mathematical theory of communications
(information) and the physical theory of information
For a uniform distribution of the true value t
X
inside its corresponding confidence
interval:
} }
= = =

+

)
~
(
~
)
~
(
~
)
~
( 2 ) ( 1
n L n
n L n
x s z x
x s z x
n L X X X
x s z C dt C da t p ,
hence the corresponding expression of the uncertainty function is:
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}
A
= A =
x
x s z
a dt x t p t p a t p H
n L
b X X b X X
)
~
( 2
log ) ) ( ( log ) ( )) ( ( . (3)
It results that the apparent information obtained in frame of the n
th
physical
determination can be expressed by means of the square mean errors corresponding
to the sets of the obtained results obtained after the (n-1) determination and after
the n
th
determination as:
n
n
b n n n app
a H H I
o
o
1
1 .
log

= = .
One finds so that the usual I
app.n
> 0 values (corresponding to the convergence towards
the true value), it is possible to meet also values I
app.n
< 0, which could be due to:
a) rough errors (hence misinformation),
b) random gathering of the first individual values, the decision being
established by means of some statistical tests.
It results that the additional elements brought by the physical theory of
information refer mainly to: (i) experimental measurements, (ii) the corresponding
errors, (iii) the necessary statistical tests.
For this reason, the compatibility of a given theoretical relation y = f(x) with a certain
set of experimental individual values pairs x
s
, y
s
(s=1, 2, N) should be decided not
starting from the usual correlation coefficient which does take into account the
existing experimental errors, but from the error risks at the compatibility rejection of
each suspect pair x
s
, y
s
:
( )(
(
=
2
1 2
exp
r
p
q
s
s
, where (see also fig. 5):

(

+
(

=
) (
~
) (
~
2
) (
~
) (
~
2 2
y
y y
x
x x
r
y
y y
x
x x
p
s s s s
s
o o o o
. (4)

Fig. 5. Evaluation procedure of the error risk at the compatibility rejection
of a theoretical relation Y = f(X) relative to some local data.

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5. Main features of the complex systems description
Because several completely different complex systems [computer arrays, robots,
networks, social sciences, biology (with some specific topics: colonies, swarms,
immunology, brain, genetics, proteomics), non-linear dynamics, economics,
mathematics, glasses, agents, cognition, etc.] have some common features centred
on their statistical behaviour and the corresponding phase transforms [6], [7], it
results that these complex systems have certain universality properties, which
due to their generality (see e.g.[7a]) - can be described only by some specific
numbers (the so-called similitude numbers, or criteria [8]).
If: | | | |
i
n
i
i
U
U P
o
[ =
=1
, where [P] is the physical dimension of a parameter P specific
to the studied state (or process), then 2 states (or processes) , are named
similar if the values of the parameters { } n i U
i
, 1 | = and P corresponding to these
states fulfil the relation [8]: ( )
i
U
n
i
i i
U U
P
P
o
[ =
=1
" '
"
'
. Some of the uniqueness
parameters could be similitude criteria, i.e. non-dimensional parameters: [s] = 1,
with equal values: s = s in all similar states or processes. While the first known
similitude criterion was introduced by Archimedes (287-231 b. Chr.):
2
3
v

A
=
gl
Ar , the first (existence) theorem of the similitude theory was stated by
Newton, all these theorems being presented in work [9].

Fig. 6. Plots of different pseudo- convergent Fig. 7. Gradual installation of instability in
simulations of elastic pulses propagation. simulations of elastic pulses propagation.
The accomplished study [1] of the typical study procedure of complex systems
pointed out that it involves the following main stages: a) identification of the
uniqueness parameters, b) identification of the characteristic similitude criteria, c)
obtainment of the set of irreducible criteria, d) translation of all relations of
scientific and/or technical interest in terms of similitude criteria, e) check of the
theoretical and experimental similitude models, f) test of compatibility of
theoretical relations and models relative to the existing experimental data.

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Fig. 8. Distortions in the simulations of some random walk processes [10].
6. Main numerical phenomena intervening in the Data Processing
A detailed study of the main numerical phenomena: pseudo-convergence (fig. 6),
instability (fig. 7), distortions (fig. 8), intervening in the computer evaluations of
certain physical parameters and/or some simulations of different physical
phenomena was accomplished by work [10].
Taking into account the various errors types and numerical phenomena
intervening in the data processing, we consider as the most accurate data
processing procedure that presented in the frame of fig. 9.

Fig. 9. Basic Stages of the present Scientific Information Processing.
7. Interpretation of the physical information about Complex Systems
Unlike the classical (mathematical) information, the physical information (referring to
complex systems, especially) requires a very careful interpretation. First of all, it is
necessary to answer to the basic questions about the observed features:

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a) are they random or reproducible?
b) could they be connected to other results, obtained by different methods?
c) could they be explained by natural causes or it seems to intervene some
transcendent reasons?
We have to underline that the acceptance of a physical interpretation needs
multiple completely different experimental results, whose explanations converge
to this interpretation. E.g., the existence and parameters (charge, mass) of
electrons were established as a result of AT LEAST 5 completely different
experiments:
(i) the electrolysis (Faradays) laws leading to the elementary electrical charge
e = F/N,
(ii) the J.J. Thomsons experiment concerning the cathodic rays deviations in
an electrical field, which pointed out the existence of the electron,
(iii) the Millikans experiment which led to the electrical charge of the
electron,
(iv) the Lenards method of crossed (electrical and magnetic) fields, which
allowed the evaluation of the specific charge e/m of the electron,
(v) the Comptons effect which allowed the evaluation of the rest mass of the
electron.
Without redundant (completely different) experimental methods, the Physics is
often subject to major errors; some recent examples:
a) the so-called anomalons (1970-1980), erroneous interpretation supported
initially by several very good Physics reviews,
b) the so-called fusion nuclear reactions at low temperatures (Palladium
compounds, 1980-1990), again a mis-interpretation,
c) the trans-uranium 118 element, initially claimed by a research group of the
Berkeley University and vanished after 2-3 years.
For this reason, the interpretation of some new Physics experiments has to be
cautiously examined; some examples:
(i) the Palo Alto results concerning the magnetic monopoles and the exotic
particles, generally,
(ii) the very recent (2011) results of Pamelas orbital station, referring to the
anomalous strong fluxes of accelerated cosmic radiations around our planet,
which seem to indicate that the Earth has an absolutely singular location in our
(Milky Way) galaxy, etc.
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8. Just Six Numbers seem be able to describe the Universe structure [12].
The Anthropic principle(s) [15]
In 1937, the British Physics Nobel prize laureate Paul A. M. Dirac had noted that the
number of baryons (basically protons plus neutrons) in the universe (~ 10
77
) is almost
equal to the inverse square of the gravitational coupling constant
|
|
.
|
\
|
~
=
39
2
10 906 . 5
c
m k
C
p
g
[11]. Later it was found that amazingly the

electromagnetic intersection parameters are also strongly connected to the basic
quantum parameters, the electromagnetic coupling constant (,
o
being the vacuum
electromagnetic impedance):
036 . 137
1
2
2 2
~ =
=
h
e
c
e
C
o o
e

being also given by a

transcendent number (the so-called Sommerfelds fine structure constant). The
synthesis of the results obtained during the last decades indicates that a set of only 6
numbers is able to describe the Universe structure. These constitutive constants
may be chosen: a) starting from the 4 fundamental interactions coupling constants C
s

1,
036 . 137
1
~
e
C , that of the weak nuclear interactions C
w
310
-7
and the
gravitational one C
g
5.90610
-39
, and adding the ratio of rest-masses of the
proton and electron: m
op
/m
oe
~ 1836.15 and the number of physical dimensions of
the Universe: D = 4 (usually) and D = 10 or 11 around the Plancks time t
P
~
0.53310
-43
s, characteristic to the Big Bang process, b) by means of the
M. Rees [12] parameters: (i) the relative strength of the electric coupling constant
to the gravitational one: C
emg
/C
g
~ 1.235610
36
, (ii) the nuclear efficiency (percent
of the mass of the nuclear constituents that is converted to heat when they react
via nuclear fusion to form heavier nuclei) ~ 0.007, (iii) the parameter O and the
dark matter (known matter ~ 4% of the critical mass for Universe to expand
forever), (iv) the cosmological constant (introduced by Einstein in the expression
of the Universe acceleration: 3a/R = - 4tk( + 3p/c
2
) + A): A ~ 0.7,
(v) proportion of energy to their rest mass energy needed to break up and disperse
clusters: Q ~ 10
-5
, and of course: (vi) the Universe physical dimension(s).
Given being that: a) even in 1961 R.H. Dicke [13] derived that these relations
would imply a narrow time window in the development of the Universe during
which life could exist, b) some later accomplished calculations [14] seem to
indicate that intelligent life exists only on the earth, it aroused the idea that the earth
too, in addition to the Universe, has experienced divine design (anthropic
principle(s) [15]). We have to underline that - in opposition to the Anthropic
principle(s) - there appeared very soon (even earlier [16]) some theoretical models
assuming the existence of multiple parallel Universes, the so-called Multiverse.
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9. Basic Present Cosmological Models leading to the Hypothesis of the
Multiverse existence
In order to synthesise the basic assumptions and results of the main present
cosmological models, Table 1 below presents their basic features.
Table 1. Comparison of basic assumptions and results of the main present cosmological models
Nr
Theoretical Model
Number of
dimensions
t < t
Planck
t > t
Planck
Main Authors
Basic Specific
1
Strings
Theory
Quantum
Gravitation
10D Space
1D Time
t ln t
Infinite time
before Big
Bang
Possible 10
500
10
1000

parallel Universes,
each with its laws
(L. Susskind,
Stanford

U.)
Lee Smolin, Ca [17b]
Th. Damour, Fr;
M. Henneaux,
Be, Solvay;
H. Nicolai, D.
2
3D Branes
flowing in a
10D space
10D Space
1D Time
Collisions Big Bang
2001: Neil Turok
(Cambridge,

UK)
Paul Steinhardt
(Stanford U.)
3 Black Holes
Compressing
initially
extremely
diluted gas
Compression limit
~ 10
12
Sun masses/ proton
volume
a) Multiple black
holes,
b) Worms holes,
c) Multiverse
(Stephen Hawking)
G. Veneziano
(Coll. Fr.),
M. Gasperini
(U. Bari) >1990
4
Quantum
with loops
Oscillating
Gravitation
Pre-existing
compressing
Universe
Compression limit
~ 10
12
Sun masses/ proton
volume
a) Repulsive
gravitation;
b) Pre-existing
Universe cleaning
(M. Bojowald,
Pennsylv. U.)
A. Ashtekar,
T. Pawlowski,
P. Singh
(Pennsylvania Univ.)
5
Inflation
Theory
A.H. Guth
[18]
Self-
reproducing
Inflationary
Universe
10D Space
1D Time
Quantum
Fluctuations of the
Scalar Field
Fractal Inflation
12
10
10 times!
(fig. 8)
multiverse

Andrei Linde
(U. Stanford) > 1980
[19]
Taking into account that:
a) the present cosmological models represent extrapolations over a huge number
(larger than 25) of magnitude orders of the somewhat classical Einsteins
gravitation and quantum theories, as well as that:
b) the religion (mainly the Bible) predicts some of the Universe basic features, the
comparison of their arguments in favour of the different present basic Universe
evolution models - synthesized by Table 2 - could present a certain interest.
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Table 2. Comparison of the arguments of the main types of present Universe evolution models
Models type ARGUMENTS
Theoretical Experimental Proofs
Multiverse
models
FAITH (!) in the continuity (over a huge
number of magnitude orders) of some
theoretical models
No one and: a) probably not in future,
outside our Universe, b) hopes to find
some proofs inside our Universe
Possible
transcendent
religions
(mainly,
the Bible)
Information (e.g. AND, the Bible, etc.) is
the starting element of any design
(Genesis 1:3-26, John 1:1). AND is
implicitly present in chapters 4 and 5 of
Genesis.
Checked experimental evidence for
some millenary predictions: a) Big Bang
(see fig. 11), b) Relativity, c) Possible
transcendent relations.

Fig. 10. The Alan Guths model Fig. 11. Microwave Map of the Whole Sky made from One Year
[18] of the Universe evolution. (1992) of Data taken by Cosmic Background Explorer-COBE
Differential M.W. Radiometers 10
5
yrs after Big Bang.
10. Transcendent Integers and possible Transcendent Information,
Relations and Insertions in Bible
As it is known, the transcendent mathematical numbers have the properties: a) do
not depend on any human artifacts (a true collection of remarkably misleading
numerical artifacts is presented inside the book: M. Gardner The magic numbers
of dr. Matrix, Prometheus Books, Buffalo, New York, 1985), as the numeration
system, choice of numerical figures, personal data, etc., b) are unique for a given
mathematical property, c) are irrational. We will define here the transcendent
integers as the natural numbers which fulfil the first 2 [a) and b)] requirements.
Examples of transcendent integers in Bible: (i) 153 (John 21:11) defined as the
unique solution M of the equations system in integer numbers: = =
= =
n
j
m
i
j i M
1 1
!,
(ii) 276 (Acts 27:37) unique solution N of the equations system:

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= =
= =
q
j
p
i
j i N
1
5
1
. Of course, the accurate quantitative explanation of the pointed
out transcendent integers requires a rather difficult
1
additional study.
The most important possible (or even probable) transcendent information
elements in Bible refer to the cosmological predictions; some examples:
a) Genesis 1:3 And God said: Let there be light, and there was light; Genesis
1:14 And God said: Let there be lights in the expanse of the sky to separate the
day from the night , hence the light appeared before the stars, agreeing with
the present Big Bang theory, which has found that the light appeared through
the photons escape from atoms (fig. 9) much earlier than the stars;
b) 2 Peter 3:8 With the Lord a day is like a thousand years, and a thousand years
are like a day - particular statement of the Special Theory of Relativity (see also
Psalm 90:4);
c) Hebrews 11:3 what is seen was not made out of what was visible -
appearance of matter, space and time from nothing known, during the Big Bang
process;
d) Job 9:8 He alone stretches out the heavens; Isaiah 40:22 He stretches out
the heavens like a canopy, and spreads them out like a tent to live in; Isaiah 42:5
He who created the heavens and stretched them out - the Universe expansion.
Example of possible transcendent relations:
It is known that inside the extremely complex Bible structure are embedded some
amazing information (see e.g. [23] for the Old Testament). This work brings a
new example of possible transcendent relation embedded in Bible.
Consider the 20
th
century when the humankind succeeded [24] to evaluate the
Universe age. Then (20
th
century), the Genesis 7
th
yowm [the Hebrew word yowm
may be translated both by day (usually) or age/epoch] duration (according to

1
We will mention that many problems in the field of Numbers Theory are extremely difficult. E.g.,
the statement of the (Pierre de) Fermats last (greatest) theorem was published in 1670 [20], by
his eldest son Clment Samuel Fermat, but its solution was found only in 1995 [21] by the
American professor Andrew Wiles. Wiles describes ([22], p. 236) his experience of doing
mathematics in terms of a journey through a dark unexplored mansion: One enters the first room
of the mansion and its dark. Completely dark. One stumbles around bumping into the furniture,
but gradually you learn where each piece of furniture is. Finally, after six months or so, you find
the light switch, you turn it on, and suddenly its all illuminated. You can see exactly where you
were. Then you move in the next room and spend another six months in the dark. So each of these
breakthroughs, while sometimes theyre momentary, sometimes over a period of one day or two,
they are the culmination of, and couldnt exist without, the many months of stumbling around in
the dark that precede them.
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Christian chronologies, as the Archbishop Usshers one [25]) is between 6000 and
7000 years (indicated by God). Multiplying this duration with:
a) 365.25 (number of days/year),
b) then with 10
3
Earth years/God day (2 Peter 3:8), and finally:
c) with 7 yowm in Genesis (2:2),
one finds: 60007000 years indicated by God 365.2510
3
Earth years/God day
7 Genesis yowm = (15.3417.9)10
9
Earth years, hence exactly the presently
evaluated Universe age! Is this calculation a transcendent one? Yes! Is it
meaningful? To answer it is necessary to know if its insertion in the Bible
structure was transcendent, and we do not know!
This answer is valid also for the beast number 666. It is obvious that this
number is not transcendent (being significant in the decimal numeration system),
but if it could have a transcendent insertion, it would have the role to represent
numerically the false being - main humankind enemy (Satan).
Conclusions
It is well-known that at the beginning of the 20
th
century, the Physics Nobel prizes
were awarded only to works experimentally confirmed; e.g. the absolutely
outstanding physicist Albert Einstein received (in 1921) the Physics Nobel prize
for the theory of photoelectric effect (experimentally checked up) and not for his
Special and General Relativity theories, which were still considered as
insufficiently proven. Later, the successes of the theoretical Physics were so
striking that in 1979 the theoreticians S.L. Glashow, A. Salam and S. Weinberg
were awarded by the Physics Nobel prize for their theory of unified weak and
electromagnetic interaction, though the intermediary vector bosons
W and Z
0

predicted by them were not still discovered (they were experimentally found by
C. Rubbia and S. van der Meer only 4 years later). For such reasons, the
confidence of physicists in the unified theories was so high that it was a deep
disappointment [17], [26] to find that these unified theories are not valid for the
Universe evolution descriptions.
Taking into account that:
a) while the masses of the intermediary vector bosons predicted by the unified
theory of weak and electromagnetic interactions are only 2 magnitude orders
larger than that of protons,
b) the parameters of the Big Bang processes are more than 25 magnitude orders
distant to somewhat usual ones, c) the Physics advance from Democrits
atomistic theory to the quantum atomic Physics (over 7 magnitude orders) require
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more than 20 centuries, we dont have to be exaggerate: even if now the Physics
progresses are much accelerated, its advance over more than 25 magnitude orders
(up to the Big Bang field) will require probably several decades (perhaps even
centuries)! We have to be patient to be accumulated in the following decades and
(probably) centuries sufficient experimental data to be able to formulate valid
theoretical cosmological models.
As it concerns the Bible, it seems that: a) inside the Bible structure are hidden
some important information, b) the modern Physics and the Bible predictions are
convergent. That is why the Bible deserves a thorough study, for its scientific
information, and not only for its outstanding ethics recommendations (cultivate
empathy, fight our selfishness, etc.). Despite the main goal of Bible is to improve
the human beings ethical behaviour, it involves also some (rather few) scientific
elements. However, one finds that the number of Bible sentences initially without
any scientific meaning that got in the last centuries such a connotation is
monotonically increasing, and even in an accelerated manner [e.g. (few examples)
from the: a) transcendent integers (John 21:11, Acts 27:37) to the: b) role of
Information in the building of complex systems (Genesis 1:3), c) appearance
order of light sources (Genesis 1:3 and 1:14), d) chromosomes (Genesis 2:22), d)
ADN defects and repairs, implicitly (Genesis 4 and 5), e) the special relativity
theory (2 Peter 3:8), f) main features of the Big Bang process (see above), etc.].
Either it happened that between a tremendous number of parallel Universes,
with different features [19a] our Universe be the unique (accidental) one [26]
with suitable conditions for the life existence and (on Earth) of the intelligent life
presence, or this Universe and Earth were created by supernatural design, it results
that the humankind has a huge responsibility to run optimally the only one
World experiment, whose main actors we are.
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R E F E R E N C E S
1. a) DOBRESCU R., IORDACHE D., eds, Complexity Modelling (in Romanian), Politehnica
Press Printing House, Bucharest, 2007; b) DOBRESCU R., IORDACHE D., Complexity and
Information, Romanian Academy Printing House, 2010.
2. IORDACHE D., Main complexity features of the thermo-mechanical evolution of the universe,
chap. 5 in Research Trends in Mechanics, vol. 2, Romanian Academy Printing House, 2008.
3. HARTLEY R.V.L., Transmission of Information, Bell System Techn. J., July 1928.
4. a) SHANNON C., The Mathematical Theory of Communication, Bell Syst. Techn. J., 27, 379-
423, 623-56(1948); ibid., 30, 50(1951); b) SHANNON C. E., WEAVER W., The mathematical
theory of communications, Illinois Urbana Univ. Press, 1949.
5. a) KHINCHIN A.J., Mathematical Foundations of Information Theory, Dover, New York,
1957; b) KHINCHIN A.J., in Arbeiten zur Informationstheorie I, VEB Verlag, Berlin, 1961, pp. 7-
85; c) KOLMOGOROV A.N., ibid., pp. 91-116; d) GUIAU S., Information theory with
applications, McGraw Hill, New York, 1977.
6. a) ANDERSON P.W., Science, 177, 293(1972); b) ANDERSON P.W., Proc. Natl. Acad.
Science (USA), 92, 6653-6654(1995).
7. a) SOLOMON S., SHIR E., Europhysics News, 34(2) 54-57(2003); b) SOLOMON S., Annual
Reviews of Comp. Physics II, 243-294, D. Stauffer ed., World Scientific, 1995.
8. a) GUKHMAN A. A., Introduction to the Theory of Similarity, Academic Press, New York,
1965; b) BARENBLATT G. I., Dimensional Analysis, Gordon and Breach, New York, 1987; c)
BARENBLATT G. I., Scaling, Self-Similarity and Intermediate Asymptotics, Cambridge Texts in
Applied Mathematics, 1996.
9. BODEGOM E., IORDACHE D., Physics for Engineering Students, vol. 1, Classical Physics,
Politehnica Press, Bucharest, 2007
10. IORDACHE D., Contributions to the Study of Numerical Phenomena intervening in the
Computer Simulations of some Physical Processes, Credis Printing House, Bucharest, 2004.
11. DIRAC P.A.M., The Cosmological Constants, Nature 139, 323(1937).
12. REES M., Just Six Numbers, Basic Books, 2000.
13. DICKE R.H., Diracs Cosmology and Machs Principle, Nature 192, 440-441(1961).
14. a) ROOD R.T., TREFIL J.S., Are we alone? The possibility of Extraterrestrial Civilisations,
Scribners sons, New York, 1986; b) TIPLER F.J., The search for extraterrestrial life: recent
developments, Physics Today, 40, 92, December 1987.
15. WHEELER J.A., Foreword, in The Anthropic Cosmological Principle, Oxford, Clarendon
Press, UK, 1986.
16. EVERETT H., Many-World Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics, PhD Dissertation at
Princeton, 1956.
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17. SMOLIN L.: a) The Trouble with Physics, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2006; b) Thread-Bar
theories, IEEE Spectrum, January 2007, www.Spectrum.ieee.org/geek-life/tools-toys/ threadbar-
theories.0
18. a) GUTH A. H., Inflationary Universe: A possible solution to the Horizon and Flatness
problems, Physical Review D, 23, pp. 347-356(1981); b) GUTH A. H., STEINHARDT P. J., The
Inflationary Universe, Scientific American, p. 116, May 1984; c) GUTH A. H., The inflationary
universe. The quest for a new of cosmic origins, Addison-Wesley, Reading, 1997.
19. a) LINDE A., The Self-Reproducing Inflationary Universe, Scientific American, pp. 48-55,
November 1994; b) LINDE A., Particle physics and Inflationary cosmology, Physics Today, 40(9)
61-68 (Sept. 1987), & treatise, Harwood Academic Publishers, 1990; c) LINDE A., Inflation and
Quantum cosmology, Academic Press, 1990.
20. FERMAT C.S., Diophantus Arithmetica containing (48) observations by P. de Fermat,
Toulouse, 1670.
21. A. WILES A., Modular elliptic curves and Fermats last theorem, Annals of Mathematics,
142, 443-551(1995).
22. SINGH S., Fermats Enigma: the Epic Quest to Solve the Worlds Greatest Mathematical
Problem, Walker Publishing Company, New York, 1997.
23. a) WITZTUM D., RIPS E., ROSENBERG Y., Equidistant letters sequences in Genesis,
Statistical Science, 9(3) 429-438(1994); b) M. Drosnin, The Bible code, World Media Inc., vol. 1
(1997), vol. 2 (2002).
24. HUBBLE E., A relation between the distance and radial velocity among extra-galactic
nebulae, Proc. National Academy of Sciences, 15, pp. 168-173(1929).
25. JOHNSON P., A History of Christianity, Athenaeum, New York, 1976, p. 413.
26. LIGHTMAN A.P., The accidental Universe: Sciences crisis of faith, Harpers Magazine,
December 2011; d) www.harpers.org/archive/2011/12/0083720

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CHAOS AND STABILIZATION
OF
SELF-REMISSION TUMOR SYSTEM
BY
SLIDING MODE
M.R. JAFARI
1
, M.R. ZARRABI
1,2
, S. EFFATI
1,3

Abstract. In this paper a pray-predator system that called self-remission tumor is
considered, and a new approach in order to stabilizing the unstable equilibrium
points of self-remission tumor system with sliding mode control is introduced.
The stability analysis of the biologically feasible equilibrium points is presented by
using the Lyapunov function.
A Lyapunov function is supposed for designing a sliding surface (SS).
Lyapunov function is constructed to establish the global asymptotic stability of the
uninfected and infected steady states by describing sliding surface (SS), after that
by considering the derivation of SS as zero, someone can achieve the equivalent
control that inbreed system stays on SS and tends to equilibrium point in infinite
horizon.
In addition, numerical examples are presented to illustrate the effectiveness of the
proposed method.
Keywords: Chaos, Tumor, Equivalent control, Sliding surface
1. Introduction
Cancer is one of the greatest killers in the world and the control of tumor growth
requires special attention [9].
The mathematical modeling of cancer self-remission and tumor has been
approached by a few numbers of researchers under using a variety of models over
the past decades [8, 9, 13, 18].
Many authors have discussed the problem of the chaotic behavior and stability
analysis of some biological models such as cancer and tumor model, genital
herpes epidemic, stochastic lattice gas prey-predator modes [7, 8, 13] and many
other models.

1
Department of Applied Mathematics, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad (see above picture),
Mashhad, Iran, (mreza.jafari26@gmail.com).
2
(mo.za870@gmail.com).
3
(s-effati@um.ac.ir).

124 M.R. Jafari, M.R. Zarrabi, S. Effati
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Chaos and Stabilization of self-Remission Tumor System by Sliding Mode 125
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ACADEMY OF ROMANIAN SCIENTISTS

SERIES ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF INFORMATION

emitted in a semiconductor [with the intrinsic Fermi level E

pdg ), starting from the improved

was achieved by means of the least-squares fit (using the gradient

have the same sign, hence:

of the capture cross-sections polarization degree. Using these

is oriented in the negative direction of z axis. Applying the A

[11]. Later it was found that amazingly the

being also given by a

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