Overgrazing

Overgrazing occurs when plants are exposed to intensive grazing for extended periods of time, or without sufficient recovery periods. It can be caused by either livestock in poorly managed agricultural applications, or by overpopulations of native or non-native wild animals. Overgrazing reduces the usefulness, productivity, and biodiversity of the land and is one cause of desertification and erosion. Overgrazing is also seen as a cause of the spread of invasive species of non-native plants and of weeds. Ecological Impacts Overgrazing typically increases soil erosion. Reduction in soil depth, soil organic matter and soil fertility impair the land's future natural and agricultural productivity. Soil fertility can sometimes be mitigated by applying the appropriate lime and organic fertilizers. However, the loss of soil depth and organic matter takes centuries to correct. Their loss is critical in determining the soil's water-holding capacity and how well pasture plants do during dry weather.

To avoid overgrazing on areas of natural or semi-natural vegetation, you should:

only graze as many animals as the vegetation will support, taking into account the most sensitive habitats reduce livestock numbers in autumn and winter, when plant growth slows or stops - use away wintering and housing where possible avoid using supplementary feeding to support animals on unproductive land, except when the weather is particularly hard reduce stock numbers if there is frequent bare ground, suppressed heather or grass sward heights under five centimetres for rough grassland, and three centimetres reduce stock numbers in woodlands if animals frequently strip bark and/or destroy young sapling trees maintain boundary fences to control movement of stock shepherd open hill land to distribute grazing pressure evenly and avoid localised overgrazing control the spread of bracken to maintain grass and heather areas

Deforestation
Deforestation is the removal of a forest or stand of trees where the land is thereafter converted to a non-forest use. Examples of deforestation include conversion of forestland to farms, ranches, or urban use. Causes of Deforestation Deforestation is brought about by the following: conversion of forests and woodlands to agricultural land to feed growing numbers of people; development of cash crops and cattle ranching, both of which earn money for tropical countries; commercial logging (which supplies the world market with woods such as meranti, teak, mahogany and ebony) destroys trees as well as opening up forests for agriculture; felling of trees for firewood and building material; the heavy lopping of foliage for fodder; and heavy browsing of saplings by domestic animals like goats. Effects of Deforestation Erosion of Soil When forest areas are cleared, it results in exposing the soil to the sun, making it very dry and eventually, infertile, due to volatile nutrients such as nitrogen being lost. In addition, when there is rainfall, it washes away the rest of the nutrients, which flow with the rainwater into waterways. Because of this, merely replanting trees may not help in solving the problems caused by deforestation, for by the time the trees mature, the soil will be totally devoid of essential nutrients. Ultimately, cultivation in this land will also become impossible, resulting in the land becoming useless. Large tracts of land will be rendered permanently impoverished due to soil erosion. Disruption of the Water Cycle Trees contribute in a large way in maintaining the water cycle. They draw up water via their roots, which is then released into the atmosphere. A large part of the water that circulates in the ecosystem of rainforests, for instance, remains inside the plants. When these trees are cut down it results in the climate getting drier in that area. The groundwater tables are affected and soon get depleted. The trees help in prevention of running off of water and help the soil absorb the flowing water. When there are no trees, water just runs off, leaving no chance for the groundwater tables to absorb more water. Thus, ultimately leading to reduction in water resources. Loss of Biodiversity The unique biodiversity of various geographical areas is being lost on a scale that is quite unprecedented. Even though tropical rainforest make up just 6 percent of the surface area of the Earth, about 80-90 percent of the entire species of the world exist here. Due to massive felling of trees, about 50 to 100 species of animals are being lost each day. The outcome of which is the extinction of animals and plants on a massive scale. The effects on animals is very heartbreaking. They not only lose their

habitat and protective cover, they are pushed to extinction. Many beautiful creatures, both plants and animals have vanished from the face of the earth. Flooding and Drought One of the vital functions of forests is to absorb and store great amounts of water quickly when there are heavy rains. When forests are cut down, this regulation of the flow of water is disrupted, which leads to alternating periods of flood and then drought in the affected area. Thus, leading to disruption of human settlements and loss of life in thousands. Climate Change It is well-known that global warming is being caused largely due to emissions of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. However, what is not known quite as well is that deforestation has a direction association with carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere. Trees act as a major storage depot for carbon, since they absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, which is then used to produce carbohydrates, fats, and proteins that make up trees. When deforestation occurs, many of the trees are burnt or they are allowed to rot, which results in releasing the carbon that is stored in them as carbon dioxide. This, in turn, leads to greater concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

Solutions to Deforestation Reforestation Many countries in the world have started reforestation and forestry, and East Asian nations are leading in this regard. Many East Asian countries, including China, have successfully managed to reverse deforestation. Legislation By making suitable changes in the law, so that cutting trees in a forest area becomes a major crime, in my opinion, will not only lead to deforestation being controlled in a major way, but its flow may also be reversed. Wildlife Sanctuaries Sanctuaries are very important, not only to save wildlife, but to save trees as well. Sanctuaries go a long way in protecting all wildlife. Cities All cities, let alone new cities, have to be managed properly. Their expansion has to be curtailed or at least done in a systematic manner, so that there is enough green cover, and new trees are planted where ever possible.

 Incentive to Corporates Tax cuts should be granted to corporations, to get them actively interested in reforestation. Commercial Forest Plantations There can be special forest plantations for all the wood that is needed for the industry. This way the wood can be cut in a controlled and regulated environment. Water Management Improper water management affects deforestation in a big way. If the wildlife doesn't have water, then the entire ecosystem will falter. The construction of new dams should be planned properly, so that any one area isn't deprived of water, while another area has abundance of it.

Desertification
Desertification is a type of land degradation in which a relatively dry land region becomes increasingly arid, typically losing its bodies of water as well as vegetation and wildlife. It is caused by a variety of factors, such as climate change and human activities. Desertification is a significant global ecological and environmental problem. Desertification is also the process of fertile land transforming into desert typically as a result of
deforestation, drought or improper/inappropriate agriculture Causes of Desertification

Overgrazing is the major cause of desertification worldwide. Plants of semi-arid areas are adapted to being eaten by sparsely scattered, large, grazing mammals which move in response to the patchy rainfall common to these regions. Early human pastoralists living in semi-arid areas copied this natural system. They moved their small groups of domestic animals in response to food and water availability. Such regular stock movement prevented overgrazing of the fragile plant cover. Cultivation of marginal lands, i.e lands on which there is a high risk of crop failure and a very low economic return. Destruction of vegetation in arid regions, often for fuelwood. Incorrect irrigation practices in arid areas can cause salinization, (the build up of salts in the soil) which can prevent plant growth.

The Effects of Desertification Soil becomes less usable The soil can be blown away by wind or washed away rain. Nutrients in the soil can be removed by wind or water. Salt can build up in the soil which makes it harder for plant growth. Vegetation is Lacked or Damaged Loosened soil may bury plants or leave their roots exposed. Also, when overgrazing occurs, plant species may be lost. Causes Famine Places that have war and poverty are most likely to have famine occur. Drought and poor land management contribute to famine. Food Loss The soil is not suited for growing food; therefore the amount of food being made will decline. If the population is growing, this will cause economic problems and starvation. People near Affected Areas Desertification can cause flooding, poor water quality, dust storms, and pollution. All of these effects can hurt people living near an affected region

Solution to Desertification Tree planting o Wind breaks, which involve the establishment of lines of fast-growing trees planted at right angles to the prevailing surface winds. They are primarily used to slow wind-driven soil erosion but may be used to inhibit the encroachment of sand dunes o Prevent erosion, trap airborne dirt No till/low till farming o Less soil disturbance Alternative energy (to relieve fuelwood fuelwood pressure) o Solar cookers for food o Wind turbines yield energy and wind breaks Livestock management o Non-trampling o Feed cut forage in an enclosure