Mini Project Documentation

Sound activated lights
1. INTRODUCTION
The main aim of this project is to develop a simple electronic circuit for controlling light based on the audio signals or sound signals. Condensed microphone is used to convert the audio signals into electrical signals. These signals are used as input to the transistor for amplifying. Voltage from audio signals will activate the transistor and turn on the relay. Block diagram consists of input audio signals, filtering stage, amplifying stage, switching stage and output stage. Each block having its own function. n first block, audio input is taken from condensed microphone, which coverts audio signals to electrical signals and output is sent for filtering stage. n second stage, the output is stabili!ed by stabili!ing and biasing circuit and it is fed to the differential amplifier. The differential amplifier gives the difference between two transistors outputs and this output is given the amplifying circuit. n this amplifying stage, the signal will be amplified and it is sensed by the relay. The output of this circuit is given to the bulb or fan which helps to test the variations of the audio signals.
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2.1:- CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF THE PROJECT:
"ig #.$ Circuit diagram of the project
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2.2:- BLOCK DIAGRAM:
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2.3:- OPERATING PROCEDURE OF PROJECT:

The #%&v, '& (! single phase supply is stepped down to $#v using transformer. The condenser microphone fitted in a place to monitor sound and generates )C signals, which pass through *C blocking capacitor C$ to the base of transistor BC'+, -T$.. Transistor T# amplifies the sound signals and provides amplified signal from collector of T#. /hen sound is produced in front of the microphone then relay is activated and it activates the bulb or 0E* to glow.
2.4:- KIT PROCEDURE:

$. The )C #%&V, '&(!, single phase supply is stepped down to $#V )C supply using transformer.
#. This $#V )C given to rectifying circuit to convert it to $#V *C.
%. /henever we make any sound or clap in front of the condensed microphone, this phone converts the audio signals to electrical signals.
+. These electrical signals passed through different types of transistors to amplify the signal.
'. "inally amplified signals are given to operate the relay.
1. f the relay is closed the bulb will glow or 0E* glows. 2. f the relay is open, 0E* turns off.
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3.1:- Princi !" #$ Tr%n&$#r'"r:

) transformer is a static device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through inductively coupled conductors transformer3s coils. ) varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flu4 in the transformer3s core and thus a varying magnetic field through secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force -E5". or 6voltage7 in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction. f a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the transformer to the load. n an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding -Vs. is in proportion to the primary voltage -Vp. and is given by the ratio of number of turns in the primary -8p. as follows9
By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating current -)C. voltage to be 6stepped up7 by making 8 s greater than 8p or 6stepped down7 by making 8s less than 8p.
B%&ic Princi !"&:

The transformer is based on two principles9 first, that an electric current can produce a magnetic field -electromagnetism. and second that a changing magnetic field within a coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil -electromagnetic induction.. Changing the current in the primary coil changes the magnetic flu4 that is developed. The changing magnetic flu4 induces a voltage in the secondary coil.
The ideal model not only neglects basic physics factors in terms of primary current re:uired to establish a magnetic field in the core and the contribution to the field due to current in the secondary circuit but also assumes a core of negligible reluctance with two windings of !ero resistance. The changing magnetic field induces an electromotive force -E5". across each winding. ;ince the ideal windings have no impedance, they have no associated voltage drop, and so the voltages V< and V; measured at the terminals of the transformer, are e:ual to the corresponding E5"s.
"ig. %.$.$ =verview of transformer
)n ideal transformer is shown in the above figure. Current passing through the primary coil creates a magnetic field. The primary and secondary coils are wrapped around a core of very high magnetic
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permeability, such as iron, so that most of the magnetic flu4 passes through both the primary and secondary coils.
In()c*i#n !%+:
The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated from faraday3s law of induction, which states that9
/here V; is the instantaneous voltage, 8; is the number of turns in the secondary coil and > is the magnetic flu4 through one turn of the coil. f the turns of the coil are oriented perpendicular to the magnetic field lines, the flu4 is the product of the magnetic flu4 density B and the area ) through which it cuts. The area is constant, being e:ual to the cross?sectional area of the transformer core, whereas the magnetic field varies with time according to the e4citation of the primary. ;ince the same magnetic flu4 passes through both the primary and secondary coils in an ideal transformer, the instantaneous voltage across the primary winding e:uals
Taking the ratio of the e:uations for V; and Vp gives the basic e:uation for stepping up or stepping down the voltage.
is known as the turns ratio and is the primary functional characteristic of any transformer. n the case of step?up transformer, this may sometimes be stated as the reciprocal, . Turns ratio is commonly e4pressed as an irreducible fraction or
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ratio9 for e4ample, a transformer with primary and secondary windings of, respectively, $&& and $'& turns is said to have a turns ratio of #9% rather than &.112 or $&&9$'&.
I("%! P#+"r E,)%*i#n:
"ig %.$.# Circuit representation of transformer
f the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow, electrical power is transmitted from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit, ideally the transformer is perfectly efficient@ all the incoming energy is transformed from the primary circuit to the magnetic field and into the secondary circuit, if this condition is met the incoming electric power must be e:ual to the outgoing power. <incoming A pVp A <outgoing A sVs giving the ideal transformer e:uation.
Page !
Transformers normally have high efficiency, so this formula is a reasonable appro4imation. f the voltage is increased, then the current is decreased by the same factor. The impedance in one circuit is transformed by the s:uare of the turns ratio. "or e4ample, if an impedance Bs is attatched across the terminals of the secondary coil.
D"*%i!"( # "r%*i#n:
The simplified description above neglects several practical factors, in particular the primary current re:uired to establish a magnetic field in the core, and the contribution to the field due to current in the secondary circuit. 5odels of an ideal transformer typically assume a core of negligible reluctance with two windings of !ero resistance. /hen a voltage is applied to the primary winding, a small current flows driving flu4 around the magnetic circuit of the core. The current re:uired to create the flu4 is termed the magneti!ing current9 since the ideal core has been assumed to have near?!ero reluctance, the magneti!ing current is negligible, although still re:uired to create the magnetic field. The changing magnetic field induces an electromotive force -E5". across each winding. ;ince the ideal windings have no impedance. They have no associated voltage drop Vp and Vs measured at the terminals of the transformer, are e:ual to the corresponding E5"s. The primary E5", acting as it does in opposition to the primary voltage, is sometimes termed the 6back E5".7 This is due to 0en!3s law which states that the induction of E5" would always be such that it will oppose development of any such in magnetic field.
En"r-. !#&&"&:
)n ideal transformer would have no energy losses, and would be $&&C efficient. n practical transformers, energy is dissipated in the windings, core, and
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surrounding structures. 0arger transformers are generally more efficient, and those rated for electricity distribution usually perform better than ,DC. E4perimental transformers using superconducting windings achieve efficiencies of ,,.D'C. The increase in efficiency can save considerable energy, and hence money, in a large heavily loaded transformer@ the trade?off is in the additional initial and running cost of the superconducting design. 0osses in transformers vary with load current, and may be e4pressed as Eno? loadE or Efull?loadE loss. /inding resistance dominates load losses, whereas hysteresis and eddy current losses contribute to over ,,C of the no?load loss. The no?load loss can be significant, so that even an idle transformer constitutes a drain on the electrical supply and a running cost. *esigning transformers for lower loss re:uires a larger core, good?:uality silicon steel, or even amorphous steel for the core and thicker wire, increasing initial cost so that there is a trade?off between initial cost and running cost -also see energy efficient transformer.. Transformer losses are divided into losses in the windings, termed copper loss, and those in the magnetic circuit, termed iron loss.
/in(in- r"&i&*%nc":
Current flowing through the windings causes resistive heating of the conductors. )t higher fre:uencies, skin effect and pro4imity effect create additional winding resistance and losses.
H.&*"r"&i& !#&&"&:
Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost due to hysteresis within the core. "or a given core material, the loss is proportional to the fre:uency, and is a function of the peak flu4 density to which it is subjected.
E((. c)rr"n*&:
"erromagnetic materials are also good conductors and a core made from such a material also constitutes a single short?circuited turn throughout its entire length. Eddy currents therefore circulate within the core in a plane normal to the flu4, and are responsible for resistive heating of the core material.
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The eddy current loss is a comple4 function of the s:uare of supply fre:uency and inverse s:uare of the material thickness. Eddy current losses can be reduced by making the core of a stack of plates electrically insulated from each other, rather than a solid block@ all transformers operating at low fre:uencies use laminated or similar cores.
M%-n"*# &*ric*i#n:
5agnetic flu4 in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it to physically e4pand and contract slightly with each cycle of the magnetic field, an effect known as magneto striction. This produces the bu!!ing sound commonly associated with transformers that can cause losses due to frictional heating.
M"c0%nic%! !#&&"&:
n addition to magneto striction, the alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating forces between the primary and secondary windings. These incite vibrations within nearby metalwork, adding to the bu!!ing noise and consuming a small amount of power.
1*r%. !#&&"&:
0eakage inductance is by itself largely lossless, since energy supplied to its magnetic fields is returned to the supply with the ne4t half?cycle. (owever, any leakage flu4 that intercepts nearby conductive materials such as the transformerFs support structure will give rise to eddy currents and be converted to heat. There are also some other types of losses like radioactive losses due to the oscillating magnetic field but these are usually small.
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3.2:- C#n("n&"( 'icr# 0#n":
%.#.$ Condenser microphone
$ %icrophone is an acoustic&to& electric transducer or sensor that converts sound into an electrical signal. 'icrophones are used in %an( applications such as telephones, tape recorders, karaoke s(ste%s, hearing aids, motion picture production, live and recorded audio engineering, "G; radios, megaphones, in radio and television )roadcasting and in co%puters *or recording voice, speech recognition, Vo <, and *or non&acoustic purposes such as ultrasonic chec+ing or knock sensors. 5ost microphones today use electromagnetic induction, capacitance change, pie!oelectric generation, or light modulation to produce an electrical voltage signal from mechanical vibration.
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The condenser microphone is also called a capacitor microphone or electrostatic microphone ? capacitors were historically called condensers. (ere, the diaphragm acts as one plate of a capacitor, and the vibrations produce changes in the distance between the plates. There are two types, depending on the method of e4tracting the audio signal from the transducer9 *C?biased microphones, and radio fre:uency -G". or high fre:uency -(". condenser microphones. /ith a *C?biased microphone, the plates are biased with a fi4ed charge. The voltage maintained across the capacitor plates changes with the vibrations in the air, according to the capacitance e:uation -C A HIV.. The capacitance of the plates is inversely proportional to the distance between them for a parallel? plate capacitor. The assembly of fi4ed and movable plates is called an EelementE or EcapsuleE.
O "r%*i#n:
Condenser microphones use a comparatively low G" voltage, generated by a low?noise oscillator. The signal from the oscillator may either be amplitude modulated by the capacitance changes produced by the sound waves moving the capsule diaphragm, or the capsule may be part of a resonant circuit that modulates the fre:uency of the oscillator signal. *emodulation yields a low?noise audio fre:uency signal with a very low source impedance. The absence of a high bias voltage permits the use of a diaphragm with looser tension, which may be used to achieve wider fre:uency response due to higher compliance. The G" biasing process results in a lower electrical impedance capsule, a useful by?product of which is that G" condenser microphones can be operated in damp weather conditions that could create problems in *C?biased microphones with contaminated insulating surfaces.
T. "&:
The different types of microphones are as follows9
1. D.n%'ic 'icr# 0#n":

D.n%'ic 'icr# 0#n"& work via electromagnetic induction. They are robust, relatively ine4pensive and resistant to moisture. This, coupled with their potentially high gain before feedback, makes them ideal for on?stage use.
Sound activated lights 2. Ri22#n 'icr# 0#n":

Gibbon microphones use a thin, usually corrugated metal ribbon suspended in a magnetic field. The ribbon is electrically connected to the microphoneFs output, and its vibration within the magnetic field generates the electrical signal. Gibbon microphones are similar to moving coil microphones in the sense that both produce sound by means of magnetic induction.
3. C%r2#n 'icr# 0#n":

) carbon microphone, also known as a carbon button microphone, use a capsule or button containing carbon granules pressed between two metal plates. Carbon microphones were once commonly used in telephones@ they have e4tremely low? :uality sound reproduction and a very limited fre:uency response range, but are very robust devices.
4. Pi"3#"!"c*ric 'icr# 0#n":

) cr.&*%! 'icr# 0#n" or i"3# 'icr# 0#n" uses the phenomenon of pie!oelectricity ? the ability of some materials to produce a voltage when subjected to pressure ? to convert vibrations into an electrical signal. Fi2"r # *ic 'icr# 0#n":
) fiber optic microphone converts acoustic waves into electrical signals by sensing changes in light intensity, instead of sensing changes in capacitance or magnetic fields as with conventional microphones.
L%&"r 'icr# 0#n":

0aser microphones often called spy gadgets, because they can be used to pick up sound at a distance from the microphone e:uipment. ) laser beam is aimed at the surface of a window or other plane surface that is affected by sound. The vibrations

of this surface change the angle at which the beam is reflected, and the motion of the laser spot from the returning beam is detected and converted to an audio signal.
Li,)i( 'icr# 0#n"&:

Early microphones did not produce intelligible speech, until )le4ander Jraham Bell made improvements including a variable resistance microphoneKtransmitter. BellFs li:uid transmitter consisted of a metal cup filled with water with a small amount of sulfuric acid added. ) sound wave caused the diaphragm to move, forcing a needle to move up and down in the water.
MEM1 'icr# 0#n":

The 5E5; -5icro Electrical?5echanical ;ystem. microphone is also called a microphone chip or silicon microphone. The pressure?sensitive diaphragm is etched directly into a silicon chip by 5E5; techni:ues, and is usually accompanied with integrated preamplifier. 5ost 5E5; microphones are variants of the condenser microphone design.
!ic%*i#n&:
) lavalier microphone is made for hands?free operation. These small microphones are worn on the body. =riginally, they were held in place with a lanyard worn around the neck, but more often they are fastened to clothing with a clip, pin, tape or magnet. ) wireless microphone transmits the audio as a radio or optical signal rather than via a cable. t usually sends its signal using a small "5 radio transmitter to a nearby receiver connected to the sound system, but it can also use infrared waves if the transmitter and receiver are within sight of each other. ) contact microphone picks up vibrations directly from a solid surface or object, as opposed to sound vibrations carried through air. =ne use for this is to detect sounds of a very low level, such as those from small objects or insects. The microphone commonly consists of a magnetic -moving coil. transducer, contact plate and contact pin. The contact plate is placed directly on the vibrating part of a musical instrument or other surface, and the contact pin transfers vibrations to the coil. ) parabolic microphone uses a parabolic reflector to collect and focus sound waves onto a microphone receiver, in much the same way that a parabolic antenna -e.g. satellite dish. does with radio waves. Typical uses of this microphone, which has unusually focused front sensitivity
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and can pick up sounds from many meters away, include nature recording, outdoor sporting events, eavesdropping, law enforcement, and even espionage. ) stereo microphone integrates two microphones in one unit to produce a stereophonic signal. ) stereo microphone is often used for broadcast applications or field recording where it would be impractical to configure two separate condenser microphones in a classic L?M configuration -see microphone practice. for stereophonic recording. ;ome such microphones have an adjustable angle of coverage between the two channels.
3.3:- Di#(":
"ig.%.%.$9 *iode
n electronics, a diode is a two?terminal electronic component that conducts electric current in only one direction. The term usually refers to a semiconductor diode, the most common type today. This is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material connected to two electrical terminals. ) vacuum tube diode -now little used e4cept in some high?power technologies. is a vacuum tube with two electrodes9 a plate and a cathode. The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction -called the diode3s forward direction. while blocking current in the

opposite direction -the reverse direction.. Thus, the diode can be thought of as an electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating current to direct current@ and to e4tract modulation from radio signals in radio receivers. (owever, diodes can have more complicated behavior than this simple on?off action. This is due to their comple4 non?linear electrical characteristics, which can be tailored by varying the construction of the p?n junction. These are e4ploited in special purpose diodes that perform many different functions. "or e4ample, speciali!ed diodes are used to regulate voltage -!ener diodes., to electronically tune radio and television receivers -varactor diodes. to generate radio fre:uency oscillations -tunnel diodes., and to produce light -light emitting diodes.. Tunnel diodes e4hibit negative resistance which makes them useful in some types of circuits.
*iodes were the first semi?conductor devices. The discovery of crystals rectifying abilities was made by Jerman physicist "erdinand Braun in $D2+. The first semi?conductor diodes called cat3s whisker diodes developed around $,&1 were made of mineral crystals such as galena. Today most diodes are made of silicon but other semiconductors such as Jermanium are sometimes used.
;emiconductor *iodes9
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) modern semi?conductor diode is made of a crystal of semi?conductor like silicon that has impurities added to it to create a region on one side that contains negative charge carriers -electrons., called n?type semi?conductor, and a region on the other side that contains positive charge carriers -holes., called p?type semiconductor. The diode3s terminals are attached to each of the regions. The boundary between the crystals between these, two regions, called a <8 junction, is where the action of diode takes place. The crystal conducts conventional current in a direction from the p?type side -called the anode. to the n?type side -called the cathode., but not in the opposite direction.
C)rr"n*-4#!*%-" c0%r%c*"ri&*ic:
) semiconductor diode3s behavior in a circuit is given by its current?voltage characteristic, or ?V graph. The shape of the curve is determined by the charge carriers through the so called depletion layer or depletion region that e4ists at the p?n junction between differing semiconductors. /hen a p?n junction is first created, conduction band electron from the 8?doped region diffuse into the <?doped region where there is a large population of holes with which the electrons 6recombine.7 /hen a mobile electron recombines with a hole, both hole and electron vanish, leaving behind an immobile positively charged donor on the 8?side and negatively charged acceptor on the <?side. The region around the p?n junction becomes depleted of charge carriers and thus behaves as an insulator. (owever, the width of the depletion region cannot grow without limit. "or each electron?hole pair that recombines, a positively charged dopant ion is left behind in the 8?doped region, and a negatively charged dopant is left behind in the <?doped region. f an e4ternal voltage is placed across the diode with the same polarity as the built?in potential, the depletion !one continues to act as an insulator, preventing any significant electric current flow. This is the reverse bias phenomenon.
3.4:- TRAN1I1TOR:
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%.+.# ;ymbol of transistor
) transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals. t is made of semiconductor material, with at least three terminals for connection to an e4ternal circuit. ) voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor3s terminals. Because the controlled output power can be much more than the controlling input power, the transistor provides amplification of a signal. Today some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated circuits. I' #r*%nc": The transistor is the key active component in practically all modern electronics, and is considered by many to be one of the greatest inventions of the twentieth century. ts importance in today3s society rests on its ability to be mass produced using a highly automated process that achieves astonishingly low pre?transistor costs. )lthough several companies each produce over a billion individually packaged transistors every year, the vast majority of transistors now produced are in integrated circuits, along with diodes, resistors, capacitors, and other electronic components, to produce complete electronic circuits. The transistor3s low cost, fle4ibility and reliability have made it a ubi:uitous device. Transistori!ed mechatronic circuits have replaced electromechanical devices in controlling appliances and machinery. t is often easier and cheaper to use a standard microcontroller and write a computer program to carry out a control function than to design an e:uivalent mechanical control.
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U&%-":
The bipolar junction transistor or BNT was the most commonly used transistor in the $,1&s and 2&s. Even after 5=;"ETs became widely available, the BNT remained the transistor of choice for many analog circuits such as simple amplifiers because of their greater linearity and ease of manufacture. *esirable properties of 5=;"ETs such as their utility in low power devices, usually in the C5=; configuration, allowed them to capture nearly all market share for digital circuits, more recently 5=;"ETs have captured most analog and power applications as well, including modern clocked analog circuits, voltage regulators, amplifiers, power transmitters.
1IMPLIFIED OPERATION:
%.+.$ ;implified circuit of a transistor
The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to use a small signal applied between one pair of its terminals to control a much larger signal at another pair of terminals. This property is called gain. ) transistor can control its output in proportion to the input signal, it can act act as an amplifier. )lternatively, the transistor can be used to turn the current on or off in a circuit as an electrically

controlled switch, where the amount of current is determined by other electronic circuit elements. The two types of transistors have slight differences in how they are used in a circuit. ) bipolar transistor have terminals labeled base, collector and emitter. ) small current at the base terminal can control or switch a much larger current between the collector and emitter terminals. "or a field?effect transistor, the terminals are labeled?gate, source and drain and a voltage at the gate can control between source and drain. The image to the right represents a typical bipolar transistor in a circuit. Charge will flow between emitter and collector terminals depending on the current in the base. ;ince internally the emitter and base connections behave like a semiconductor diode, a voltage drop developed e4ists. The amount of voltage depends on the material the transistor is made from as is referred as V BE. Transistors are commonly used as electronic switches, for both high power applications including switched O mode power supplies and low power applications such as logic gates. n a grounded O emitter circuit, such as the light O switch circuit shown, as the base voltage rises, the base and the collector current rises e4ponentially, and the collector voltage drops because of the collector load resistor. f V c could fall to !ero, then c could go no higher even with base voltage and current.
T. "& #$ *r%n&i&*#r&:
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%.+.% Types of transistors
) transistor consists of two <?8 junctions formed by sandwiching either < type or 8 type semiconductor between a pair of opposite types. )ccordingly, there are two types of transistors namely -a. n?p?n transistor -b. p?n?p transistor. ) n?p?n transistor is composed of two n? type semiconductors separated by a thin section of p?type. (owever a p?n?p transistor is formed by two sections of p?type separated by a thin section of n?type. ) transistor has three sections of doped semiconductors. The section on one side is emitter and the section on the other type is collector. The middle section is called base and forms two junctions between the emitter and collector.
Transistors come in many different packages. The two main categories are through?hole -or leaded., and surface?mount, also known as surface mount device -;5*.. The hall grid array -BJ). is the latest surface mount package -currently only for large transistor arrays.. t has solder 6balls7 on the underside in place of leads. Because they are smaller and have shorter interconnections, ;5*3s have better high fre:uency characteristics but low power rating. Transistor packages are made of glass, metal ceramic, or plastic. The package often dictates the power rating and fre:uency characteristics. <ower transistors have larger packages that can be clamped to heat sinks for enhanced cooling. )dditionally, most power transistors have the collector or drain physically connected to the metal

canK metal plate. )t the other e4treme, some surface O mount microwave transistors are as small as grains of sand.
3.5:- RECTIFIER:
) rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current -)C., which periodically reverses direction, to direct current -*C., which flows in only one direction. The process is known as rectification. <hysically, rectifiers take a number of forms, including vacuum tube diodes, mercury?arc valves, solid? state diodes, silicon?controlled rectifiers and other silicon?based semiconductor switches. Gectifiers have many uses, but are often found serving as components of *C power supplies and high?voltage direct current power transmission systems. Gectification may serve in roles other than to generate direct current for use as a source of power. )s noted, detectors of radio signals serve as rectifiers. n gas heating systems flame rectification is used to detect presence of flame. The simple process of rectification produces a type of *C characteri!ed by pulsating voltages and currents. *epending upon the type of end?use, this type of *C current may then be further modified into the type of relatively constant voltage *C characteristically produced by such sources as batteries and solar cells.
R"c*i$i"r circ)i*&:
Gectifier circuits may be single?phase or multi?phase. 5ost low power rectifiers for domestic e:uipment are single?phase, but three?phase rectification is very important for industrial applications and for the transmission of energy as *C -(V*C..
1in-!"- 0%&" r"c*i$i"r&:

H%!$-+%4" r"c*i$ic%*i#n:
n half wave rectification of a single?phase supply, either the positive or negative half of the )C wave is passed, while the other half is blocked. Because only

one half of the input waveform reaches the output, mean voltage is lower. (alf?wave rectification re:uires a single diode in a single?phase supply, or three in a three?phase supply. Gectifiers yield a unidirectional but pulsating direct current@ half?wave rectifiers produce far more ripple than full?wave rectifiers, and much more filtering is needed to eliminate harmonics of the )C fre:uency from the output.
"ig %.'.$ (alf wave rectifier
) real rectifier will have a characteristic which drops part of the input voltage -a voltage drop, for silicon devices, of typically &.2 volts plus an e:uivalent resistance, in general non?linear., and at high fre:uencies will distort waveforms in other ways@ unlike an ideal rectifier, it will dissipate power.
F)!!-+%4" r"c*i$ic%*i#n:
) full?wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant polarity -positive or negative. at its output. "ull?wave rectification converts both polarities of the input waveform to *C -direct current., and yields a higher mean output voltage. Two diodes and a center tapped transformer, or four diodes in a bridge configuration and any )C source -including a transformer without center tap., are needed. ;ingle semiconductor diodes, double diodes with common cathode or common anode, and four?diode bridges, are manufactured as single components. "or single?phase )C, if the transformer is center?tapped, then two diodes back? to?back -cathode?to?cathode or anode?to?anode, depending upon output polarity re:uired. can form a full?wave rectifier. Twice as many turns are re:uired on the

transformer secondary to obtain the same output voltage than for a bridge rectifier, but the power rating is unchanged.
"ig %.'.# "ull?wave rectifier using a center tap transformer and # diodes.
4.1:Bi #!%r 6)nc*i#n *r%n&i&*#r 2i%&in-:

Bipolar transistor amplifiers must be properly biased to operate correctly. n circuits made with individual devices -discrete circuits., biasing networks consisting of resistors are commonly employed. 5uch more elaborate biasing arrangements are used in integrated circuits, for e4ample, bandgap voltage references and current mirrors. The operating point of a device, also known as bias point, :uiescent point, or H?point, is the point on the output characteristics that shows the *C collectorO

emitter voltage -Vce. and the collector current - c. with no input signal applied. The term is normally used in connection with devices such as transistors.
7#!*%-" (i4i("r 2i%&in-:
Fi- 4.1 7#!*%-" (i4i("r 2i%&
The voltage divider is formed using e4ternal resistors G$ and G#. The voltage across G# forward biases the emitter junction. By proper selection of resistors G $ and G#, the operating point of the transistor can be made independent of P. n this circuit, the voltage divider holds the base voltage fi4ed independent of base current provided the divider current is large compared to the base current. (owever, even with a fi4ed base voltage, collector current varies with temperature so an emitter resistor is added to stabili!e the H?point, similar to the above circuits with emitter resistor. n this circuit the base voltage is given by9 Voltage across provided .
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)lso "or the given circuit,
M"ri*&:
Qnlike above circuits, only one dc supply is necessary. =perating point is almost independent of P variation. =perating point stabili!ed against shift in temperature.
D"'"ri*&:
n this circuit, to keep met9
C
independent of P the following condition must be
/here G$ RR G# denotes the e:uivalent resistance of G$ and G# connected in parallel. )s P?value is fi4ed for a given transistor, this relation can be satisfied either by keeping GE fairly large or making G$RRG# very low.
f GE is of large value, high VCC is necessary. This increases cost as well as precautions necessary while handling.
f G$ RR G# is low, either G$ is low, or G# is low, or both are low. ) low G$ raises VB closer to VC, reducing the available swing in collector voltage, and limiting how large GC can be made without driving the transistor out of active mode.

) low G# lowers Vbe, reducing the allowed collector current. 0owering both resistor values draws more current from the power supply and lowers the input resistance of the amplifier as seen from the base.
5. Di$$"r"n*i%! %' !i$i"r:
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"ig '.$ *ifferential amplifier symbol.
The inverting and non?inverting inputs are distinguished by ESE and ETE symbols -respectively. placed in the amplifier triangle. V sT and VsS are the power supply voltages@ they are often omitted from the diagram for simplicity, but of course must be present in the actual circuit. ) differential amplifier is a type of electronic amplifier that amplifies the difference between two voltages but does not amplify the particular voltages
Configurations:
Di$$"r"n*i%! #)* )*:
) differential -long?tailed, emitter?coupled. pair amplifier consists of two amplifying stages with common -emitter, source or cathode. degeneration. /ith two inputs and two outputs, this forms a differential amplifier stage. The two bases -or grids or gates. are inputs which are differentially amplified by the pair@ they can be fed with a differential -balanced. input signal, or one input could be grounded to form a phase splitter circuit. )n amplifier with differential output can drive floating load or another stage with differential input.
1in-!"-"n("( #)* )*:

f the differential output is not desired, then only one output can be used taken from just one of the collectors -or anodes or drains., disregarding the other output without a collector inductor@ this configuration is referred to as single?ended output. The gain is half that of the stage with differential output. To avoid sacrificing gain, a differential to single?ended converter can be utili!ed.
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"ig '.# ) classis long tailed pair.
O "r%*i#n:
To e4plain the circuit operation, four particular modes are isolated below although, in practice, some of them act simultaneously and their effects are superimposed.
Bi%&in-:
n contrast with classic amplifying stages that are biased from the side of the base, the differential pair is directly biased from the side of the emitters by sinkingKinjecting the total :uiescent current. The series negative feedback -the emitter degeneration. makes the transistors act as voltage stabili!ers@ it forces them to adjust their VBE voltages -base currents. so that to pass the :uiescent current through their collector?emitter junctions. ;o, due to the negative feedback, the :uiescent current depends slightly on the transistorFs P. The biasing base currents needed to evoke the :uiescent collector currents usually come from the ground, pass through the input sources and enter the bases. ;o, the sources have to be galvanic -*C. to ensure paths for the biasing currents and low resistive enough to not create significant voltage drops across them. =therwise, additional *C elements should be connected between the bases and the ground.
Sound activated lights C#''#n '#(":

)t common mode -the two input voltages change in the same directions., the two voltage -emitter. followers cooperate with each other working together on the common high?resistive emitter load. They all together increase or decrease the voltage of the common emitter point. n addition, the dynamic load EhelpsE them by changing its instant ohmic resistance in the same direction as the input voltages thus keeping up constant total resistance between the two supply rails. There is a $&&C negative feedback@ the two input base voltages and the emitter voltage change simultaneously while the collector currents and the total current do not change. )s a result, the output collector voltages do not change as well.
Di$$"r"n*i%! '#(":
819N#r'%!: )t differential mode, the two voltage -emitter. followers oppose each other ? while one of them tries to increase the voltage of the common emitter point, the other tries to decrease it and v.v. ;o, the common point does not change its voltage@ it behaves like a virtual ground with a magnitude determined by the common?mode input voltages. The high?resistive emitter element does not play any role since it is shunted by the other low?resistive emitter follower. There is no negative feedback since the emitter voltage does not change at all when the input base voltages change. The common :uiescent current vigorously steers between the two transistors and the output collector voltages vigorously change. The two transistors mutually ground their emitters
(2)Overdriven: f the input differential voltage changes significantly, the base?
emitter junction of the transistor driven by the lower input voltage becomes backward biased and its collector voltage reaches the positive supply rail. The other transistor saturates and its collector voltage begins following the input one. This mode is used in differential switches and EC0 gates. 839Br"%:(#+n: f the input voltage continues increasing and e4ceeds the base? emitter breakdown voltage, the base?emitter junction of the transistor driven by the lower input voltage breaks down. f the input sources are low resistive, an unlimited current will flow directly through the Ediode bridgeE between the two input sources and will damage them. )t common mode, the emitter voltage follows the input voltage variations@ there is a full negative feedback and the gain is minimum.
Sound activated lights 1in-!"-"n("( in )*:

The differential pair can be used as an amplifier with a single?ended input if one of the inputs is grounded or fi4ed to a reference voltage. This arrangement can be thought as of cascaded common collector and common?base stages or as a buffered common?base stage. The emitter?coupled amplifier is compensated for temperature drifts, VBE is cancelled, and the 5iller effect and transistor saturation are avoided. That is why it is used to form emitter?coupled amplifiers, phase splitter circuits -obtaining two inverse voltages., EC0 gates and switches, etc.
;. LED INDICATOR:
) !i-0*-"'i**in- (i#(" -LED. is a semiconductor light source. 0E*s are used as indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. )ppearing as practical electronic components in $,1#, early 0E*s emitted low? intensity red light, but modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.
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/hen a light?emitting diode is forward?biased -switched on., electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. )n 0E* is often small in area -less than $ mm#., and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern. 0E*s present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller si!e, and faster switching. 0E*s powerful enough for room lighting are relatively e4pensive and re:uire more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. 0ight?emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive lighting, advertising, general lighting, and traffic signals. 0E*s have allowed new te4t, video displays, and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology. nfrared 0E*s are also used in the remote control units of many commercial products including televisions, *V* players, and other domestic appliances.
The components of a 0E* is shown in the figure with its internal structure in the diagram9
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"ig 1.$ 0ight emitting diode
COMMERCIAL LED:
The first commercial 0E*s were commonly used as replacements for incandescent and neon indicator lamps, and in seven?segment displays, first in e4pensive e:uipment such as laboratory and electronics test e:uipment, then later in such appliances as TVs, radios, telephones, calculators, and even watches. Qntil $,1D, visible and infrared 0E*s were e4tremely costly and so had little practical use. The 5onsanto Company was the first organi!ation to mass?produce visible 0E*s, using gallium arsenide phosphide -Ja)s<. in $,1D to produce red 0E*s suitable for indicators. (ewlett <ackard -(<. introduced 0E*s in $,1D, initially using Ja)s< supplied by 5onsanto. These red 0E*s were bright enough only for use as indicators, as the light output was not enough to illuminate an area. Geadouts in calculators were so small that plastic lenses were built over each digit to make them legible. 0ater, other colors grew widely available and also appeared in appliances and e:uipment. n the $,2&s commercially successful 0E* devices at less than five cents each were produced by "airchild =ptoelectronics. These devices employed compound semiconductor chips fabricated with the planar process. The combination of planar processing for chip fabrication and innovative packaging methods enabled to achieve the needed cost reductions. These methods continue to be used by 0E* producers.
T<PE1 OF LED&:
Mini%*)r":
These are mostly single?die 0E*s used as indicators, and they come in various si!es from # mm to D mm, through?hole and surface mount packages. They usually do not use a separate heat sink. ) typical current rating ranges from around $m) to above #&m). The small si!e sets a natural upper boundary on power consumption due to heat caused by the high current density and need for a heat sink. There are three main categories of miniature single die 0E*s9

0ow?current U typically rated for #m) at around # V -appro4imately +m/ consumption.. ;tandard U #&m) 0E*s at around # V -appro4imately +&m/. for red, orange, yellow, and green, and #&m) at +O' V -appro4imately $&&m/. for blue, violet, and white. Qltra?high?output U #&m) at appro4imately #V or +O'V, designed for viewing in direct sunlight.
MID-RANGE:
5edium?power 0E*s are often through?hole?mounted and used when an output of a few lumen is needed. They sometimes have the diode mounted to four leads for better heat conduction and carry an integrated lens. These 0E*s are most commonly used in light panels, emergency lighting, and automotive tail?lights. *ue to the larger amount of metal in the 0E*, they are able to handle higher current. The higher current allows for the higher light output re:uired for tail?lights and emergency lighting.
HIGH-PO/ER:
(igh?power 0E* can be driven at currents from hundreds of m) to more than an ampere, compared with the tens of m) for other 0E*s. ;ome can emit over a thousand lumens. ;ince overheating is destructive, the (<0E*s must be mounted on a heat sink to allow for heat dissipation. f the heat from a (<0E* is not removed, the device will fail in seconds. =ne (<0E* can often replace an incandescent bulb in a flashlight, or be set in an array to form a powerful 0E* lamp. 0E*s have been developed by ;eoul ;emiconductor that can operate on )C power without the need for a *C converter. "or each half?cycle, part of the 0E*

emits light and part is dark, and this is reversed during the ne4t half?cycle. The efficacy of this type of (<0E* is typically +&lmK/.
Fi- ;.2 T. "& #$ LED&
AD7ANTAGE1:
E$$ici"nc.: 0E*s emit more light per watt than incandescent light bulbs. Their efficiency is not affected by shape and si!e, unlike fluorescent light bulbs or tubes. C#!#r: 0E*s can emit light of an intended color without using any color filters as traditional lighting methods need. This is more efficient and can lower initial costs. 1i3": 0E*s can be very small -smaller than # mm#. and are easily attached to printed circuit boards. On=O$$ *i'": 0E*s light up very :uickly. ) typical red indicator 0E* will achieve full brightness in under a microsecond. 0E*s used in communications devices can have even faster response times. C.c!in-: 0E*s are ideal for uses subject to fre:uent on?off cycling, unlike fluorescent lamps that fail faster when cycled often, or ( * lamps that re:uire a long time before restarting. Di''in-: 0E*s can very easily modulation or lowering the forward current. be dimmed either by pulse?width
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C##! !i-0*: n contrast to most light sources, 0E*s radiate very little heat in the form of G that can cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics. /asted energy is dispersed as heat through the base of the 0E*. 1!#+ $%i!)r": 0E*s mostly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt failure of incandescent bulbs. Li$"*i'": 0E*s can have a relatively long useful life. =ne report estimates %',&&& to '&,&&& hours of useful life, though time to complete failure may be longer. "luorescent tubes typically are rated at about $&,&&& to $',&&& hours, depending partly on the conditions of use, and incandescent light bulbs at $,&&& to #,&&& hours. 10#c: r"&i&*%nc": 0E*s, being solid?state components, are difficult to damage with e4ternal shock, unlike fluorescent and incandescent bulbs, which are fragile. F#c)&: The solid package of the 0E* can be designed to focus its light. ncandescent and fluorescent sources often re:uire an e4ternal reflector to collect light and direct it in a usable manner.
DI1AD7ANTAGE1:
Hi-0 ini*i%! ric": 0E*s are currently more e4pensive, price per lumen, on an initial capital cost basis, than most conventional lighting technologies. The additional e4pense partially stems from the relatively low lumen output and the drive circuitry and power supplies needed. T"' "r%*)r" (" "n("nc": 0E* performance largely depends on the ambient temperature of the operating environment ? or Ethermal managementE properties. =ver?driving an 0E* in high ambient temperatures may result in overheating the 0E* package, eventually leading to device failure. 7#!*%-" &"n&i*i4i*.: 0E*s must be supplied with the voltage above the threshold and a current below the rating. This can involve series resistors or current?regulated power supplies. Li-0* ,)%!i*.: 5ost cool?white 0E*s have spectra that differ significantly from a black body radiator like the sun or an incandescent light. The spike at +1& nm and dip at '&& nm can cause the color of objects to be perceived differently under cool?white 0E* illumination than sunlight or incandescent sources. (owever, the color rendering properties of common fluorescent lamps are often inferior to what is now available in state?of?art white 0E*s.
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Ar"% !i-0* &#)rc": ;ingle 0E*s do not appro4imate a point source of light giving a spherical light distribution, but rather a lambertian distribution. E!"c*ric%! #!%ri*.: Qnlike incandescent light bulbs, which illuminate regardless of the electrical polarity, 0E*s will only light with correct electrical polarity. To automatically match source polarity to 0E* devices, rectifiers can be used. B!)" 0%3%r(: There is a concern that blue 0E*s and cool?white 0E*s are now capable of e4ceeding safe limits of the so?called blue?light ha!ard. B!)" #!!)*i#n: Because cool?white 0E*s with high color temperature emit proportionally more blue light than conventional outdoor light sources such as high?pressure sodium vapor lamps. Dr## 9 The efficiency of 0E*s tends to decrease as one increases current.
APPLICATION19
Visual signals where light goes more or less directly from the source to the human eye, to convey a message or meaning. llumination where light is reflected from objects to give visual response of these objects. 5easuring and interacting with processes involving no human vision.
8arrow band light sensors where 0E*s operate in a reverse?bias mode and respond to incident light, instead of emitting light.
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>.1:- CAPACITOR1:
) capacitor -originally known as condenser. is a passive two? terminal electrical component used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric -insulator.@ for e4ample, one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. /hen there is a potential difference -voltage. across the conductors, a static electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. )n ideal capacitor is characteri!ed by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them.
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"ig 2.$.$ Capacitors
F)nc*i#n:
Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits because it takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth varying *C supplies by acting as a reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter circuits because capacitors easily pass )C signal but they block *C signals.
C% %ci*%nc":
This is a measure of capacitor3s ability to store charge. ) large capacitance means that more charge can be stored. Capacitance is measured in "arads, symbol ".
E!"c*r#!.*ic C% %ci*%nc":
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"ig 2.$.# Electrolytic capacitors
Electrolytic capacitors are polari!ed and they must be connected the correct way round, at least one of their leads will be marked T or ?. They are not damaged by heat when soldering. There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors@ a4ial, where the leads are attached to each end and radial where both are at the same end. Gadial capacitors tend to be a little smaller and they stand upright on the circuit board. t is easy to find the value of electrolytic capacitors because they are clearly printed with their capacitance and voltage rating. The voltage rating can be :uite low and it should always be checked when selecting an electrolytic capacitor. f the project parts list does not specify a voltage, choose a capacitor with a rating which is greater than the project3s power supply voltage.
C"r%'ic c% %ci*#r&:
) capacitor also called a storage cell, secondary coil or condenser, is a passive electronic component that is capable of storing an electric charge. t is a filter, blocking direct current -*C. and allowing alternating current -)C. to pass. ) capacitor is composed of two conductive surfaces called electrodes, separated by an insulator, which is called a dielectric. Qnlike some capacitors, a ceramic capacitor is not polari!ed, which means the two electrodes are not positive and negatively charged@ and it uses layers of metals and ceramic as dielectrics.
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"ig 2.$.% Ceramic capacitors
>.2 RE1I1TOR1:
) resistor is a passive two?terminal electrical implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. component that
The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the resistorFs terminals. This relationship is represented by =hmFs law9 /here is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference measured across the conductor in units of volts, and G is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms. The ratio of the voltage applied across a resistorFs terminals to the intensity of current in the circuit is called its resistance, and this can be assumed to be a constant -independent of the voltage. for ordinary resistors working within their ratings.
"ig 2.#.$ Types of resistors
Gesistors are those circuit elements which introduce electrical resistance into the circuit. There are many types of resistors, each one suitable for its particular application. They vary with regard to their resistance in ohms, their power rating in watts, the material of the resistance elements and whether they are of the fi4ed or variable resistance type.
R"&i&*#r? c% %ci*#r %n( in()c*#r:

t is sometimes not obvious whether a color coded component is a resistor, capacitor or inductor, and this may be deduced by the knowledge of its circuit function9 physical shape or by measurement. Gesistor values are always coded in ohms -symbol V., capacitors in picofarads -p"., and inductors in microhenries -W(..
Page 43
"ig 2.#.# <hysical shape of resistors
=ne decade of the preferred E$# values -there are twelve preferred values per decade of values. shown with their electronic color codes on resistors.
"ig 2.#.% Gepresentation of resistor bands
The value of a resistor can be measured with an ohmmeter, which may be one function of a multimeter. Qsually, probes on the ends of test leads connect to the resistor. ) simple ohmmeter may apply a voltage from a battery across the unknown resistor -with an internal resistor of a known value in series. producing a current which drives a meter movement. The current, in accordance with =hmFs 0aw, is inversely proportional to the sum of the internal resistance and the resistor being tested, resulting in an analog meter scale which is very non?linear, calibrated from

infinity to & ohms. ) digital multimeter, using active electronics, may instead pass a specified current through the test resistance. The voltage generated across the test resistance in that case is linearly proportional to its resistance, which is measured and displayed. n either case the low?resistance ranges of the meter pass much more current through the test leads than do high?resistance ranges, in order for the voltages present to be at reasonable levels -generally below $& volts. but still measurable.
>.3:- P.C.B:
In*r#()c*i#n:
The design of printed circuit board can be considered as a last step in electronic circuit design as well as first major step in production of pub3s. t forms a distinct fact in electronic circuit performance and reliability. The productivity of a <CB and its assembly and serviceability also depends upon the design. ) printed circuit board, or <CB, is used to mechanically support and electrically connect electronic components using conductive pathways, tracks or signal traces etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non?conductive substrate. t is also referred to as printed wiring board -</B. or etched wiring board. <rinted circuit boards are used in virtually all but the simplest commercially produced electronic devices. ) <CB populated with electronic components is called a printed circuit assembly -<C)., printed circuit board assembly or <CB )ssembly -<CB).. n informal use the term E<CBE is used both for bare and assembled boards, the conte4t clarifying the meaning. )lternatives to <CBs include wire wrap and point?to?point construction. <CBs must initially be designed and laid out, but become cheaper, faster to make, and potentially more reliable for high?volume production since production and soldering of <CBs can be automated. 5uch of the electronics industryFs <CB design, assembly, and :uality control needs are set by standards published by the <C organi!ation.
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Circuit properties of the PCB:

Each trace consists of a flat, narrow part of the copper foil that remains after etching. The resistance, determined by width and thickness, of the traces must be sufficiently low for the current the conductor will carry. <ower and ground traces may need to be wider than signal traces. n a multi?layer board one entire layer may be mostly solid copper to act as a ground plane for shielding and power return. "or microwave circuits, transmission lines can be laid out in the form of strip line and micro strip with carefully controlled dimensions to assure a consistent impedance. n radio?fre:uency and fast switching circuits the inductance and capacitance of the printed circuit board conductors become significant circuit elements, usually undesired@ but they can be used as a deliberate part of the circuit design, obviating the need for additional discrete components.
Prin*"( circ)i* %&&"'2!.:
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2.%.$ <CB with test connection pads
)fter the printed circuit board -<CB. is completed, electronic components must be attached to form a functional printed circuit assembly, or <C). n through?hole construction, component leads are inserted in holes. n surface?mount construction, the components are placed on pads or lands on the outer surfaces of the <CB. n both kinds of construction, component leads are electrically and mechanically fi4ed to the board with a molten metal solder. There are a variety of soldering techni:ues used to attach components to a <CB. (igh volume production is usually done with ;5T placement machine and bulk wave soldering or reflow ovens, but skilled technicians are able to solder very tiny parts by hand under a microscope, using twee!ers and a fine tip soldering iron for small volume prototypes. ;ome parts may be e4tremely difficult to solder by hand. =ften, through?hole and surface?mount construction must be combined in a single assembly because some re:uired components are available only in surface? mount packages, while others are available only in through?hole packages.
)fter the board has been populated it may be tested in a variety of ways9
Page 4
/hile the power is off, visual inspection, automated optical inspection. NE*EC guidelines for <CB component placement, soldering, and inspection are commonly used to maintain :uality control in this stage of <CB manufacturing. /hile the power is off, analog signature analysis, power?off testing. /hile the power is on, in?circuit test, where physical measurements -i.e. voltage, fre:uency. can be done. /hile the power is on, functional test, just checking if the <CB does what it had been designed to do. To facilitate these tests, <CBs may be designed with e4tra pads to make temporary connections. /hen boards fail the test, technicians may de&solder and replace failed components, a task known as rework.
R"!%.:
Vaagdevi Engineering College, EEE Dept. Page 4!

) r"!%. is an electrically operated switch. 5any relays use an electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Gelays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low?power signal -with complete electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits., or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits, repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re? transmitting it to another. Gelays were used e4tensively in telephone e4changes and early computers to perform logical operations.
"ig D.$ Gelays
) type of relay that can handle the high power re:uired to directly control an electric motor or other loads is called a contactor. ;olid?state relays control power circuits with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Gelays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults@ in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by digital instruments still called Eprotective relaysE.
@.1:B%&ic ("&i-n %n( # "r%*i#n:

Vaagdevi Engineering College, EEE Dept. Page 4"
"ig D.# ;imple electromechanical relay
"ig D.% Circuit symbols of relays
) simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire wrapped around a soft iron core, an iron yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flu4, a movable iron armature, and one or more sets of contacts. The armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving contacts. t is held in place by a spring so that when the relay is de?energi!ed there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. n this condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open. =ther relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their function. The relay in the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit between the moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on the printed circuit board -<CB. via the yoke, which is soldered to the <CB. /hen an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that activates the armature, and the conse:uent movement of the movable contact-s. either makes or breaks a connection with a fi4ed contact. f the set of contacts was closed when the relay was de?energi!ed, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. /hen the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a force, appro4imately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its rela4ed position. Qsually this force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. 5ost relays are manufactured to operate :uickly. n a low?voltage application this reduces noise@ in a high voltage or current application it reduces arcing. /hen the coil is energi!ed with direct current, a diode is often placed across the coil to dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would otherwise generate a voltage spike dangerous to semiconductor circuit components. ;ome automotive relays include a diode inside the relay case.

)lternatively, a contact protection network consisting of a capacitor and resistor in series -snubber circuit. may absorb the surge. f the coil is designed to be energi!ed with alternating current -)C., a small copper Eshading ringE can be crimped to the end of the solenoid, creating a small out?of?phase current which increases the minimum pull on the armature during the )C cycle.
@.2:T<PE1 OF RELA<1:
L%*c0in- r"!%.:
) latching relay has two rela4ed states. These are also called EimpulseE, EkeepE, or EstayE relays. /hen the current is switched off, the relay remains in its last state. This is achieved with a solenoid operating a ratchet and cam mechanism, or by having two opposing coils with an over?center spring or permanent magnet to hold the armature and contacts in position while the coil is rela4ed, or with a remanent core. n the ratchet and cam e4ample, the first pulse to the coil turns the relay on and the second pulse turns it off. n the two coil e4ample, a pulse to one coil turns the relay on and a pulse to the opposite coil turns the relay off. This type of relay has the advantage that one coil consumes power only for an instant.
R""( r"!%.:
) reed relay is a reed switch enclosed in a solenoid. The switch has a set of contacts inside an evacuated or inert gas?filled glass tube which protects the contacts against atmospheric corrosion. Geed relays can switch faster than larger relays, re:uire very little power from the control circuit.
M"rc)r.-+"**"( r"!%.:
) mercury?wetted reed relay is a form of reed relay in which the contacts are wetted with mercury. ;uch relays are used to switch low?voltage signals where the mercury reduces the contact resistance and associated voltage drop, for low?current signals where surface contamination may make for a poor contact, or for high?speed applications where the mercury eliminates contact bounce. Because of the to4icity and e4pense of li:uid mercury, these relays are now rarely used.
P#!%ri3"( r"!%.:

) polari!ed relay placed the armature between the poles of a permanent magnet to increase sensitivity. <olari!ed relays were used in #&th Century telephone e4changes to detect faint pulses and correct telegraphic distortion. The poles were on screws, so a technician could first adjust them for ma4imum sensitivity and then apply a bias spring to set the critical current that would operate the relay.
M%c0in" *##! r"!%.:

) machine tool relay is a type standardi!ed for industrial control of machine tools, transfer machines, and other se:uential control. They are characteri!ed by a large number of contact which are easily converted from normally?open to normally? closed status, easily replaceable coils, and a form factor that allows compactly installing many relays in a control panel. ) relay allows circuits to be switched by electrical e:uipment.
R%*c0"* r"!%.:
This is again a clapper type relay which does not need continuous current through its coil to retain its operation.
C#n*%c*#r r"!%.:
) contactor is a very heavy?duty relay used for switching electric motors and lighting loads, although contactors are not generally called relays. Continuous current ratings for common contactors range from $& amps to several hundred amps. (igh? current contacts are made with alloys containing silver. Contactor relays can be e4tremely loud to operate, making them unfit for use where noise is a chief concern.
1#!i(-&*%*" r"!%.:
"ig D.+ ;olid state relay with no moving parts
) solid state relay -;;G. is a solid state electronic component that provides a similar function to an electromechanical relay but does not have any moving components, increasing long?term reliability. Every solid?state device has a small voltage drop across it. This voltage drop limits the amount of current a given ;;G can handle. The minimum voltage drop for such a relay is a function of the material used to make the device. ;olid?state relays rated to handle as much as $,#&& )mperes have become commercially available. Compared to electromagnetic relays, they may be falsely triggered by transients.
U1B r"!%.:
) U1B r"!%. is a Q;B Gelay is a small hardware device to turn other devices on and off, using your computer. t is connected to your computer via usb.
B)c00#!3 r"!%.:
) B)c00#!3 r"!%. is a safety device sensing the accumulation of gas in large oil?filled transformers, which will alarm on slow accumulation of gas or shut down the transformer if gas is produced rapidly in the transformer oil.
Page 53
Sound activated lights O4"r!#%( r#*"c*i#n r"!%.:

Electric motors need over current protection to prevent damage from over? loading the motor, or to protect against short circuits in connecting cables or internal faults in the motor windings. =ne type of electric motor overload protection relay is operated by a heating element in series with the electric motor. The heat generated by the motor current heats a bimetallic strip or melts solder, releasing a spring to operate contacts. /here the overload relay is e4posed to the same environment as the motor, a useful though crude compensation for motor ambient temperature is provide.
Page 54
CONCLU1ION
This project helps us to convert the audio signals to electrical signals to produce light. t is simple in construction, and also economical. t has few applications and its main advantage is it helps the handicapped people. ?pod controlled and sound activated *5L lights, 8ight club lightening design, ;ound activated light?up e:uali!er shirts are its other applications.
Page 55
BIBLIOGRAPH<
$. Electronic *evices and Circuits ?;. ;alivahanan ?8. ;uresh Xumar #. Electrical circuits ? ;udhakar and ;hyammohan
%. <ower Electronics ? <.;. Bimbra +. <ower ;ystem <rotection and ;witchgear ? Badri Gam - ;unil ; Gao
/EB1ITE1: www.google.com www.wikipedia.com www.electroschematics.com www.datasheets.com
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Vaagdevi Engineering College, EEE Dept.

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2.1:- CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF THE PROJECT:

"ig #.$ Circuit diagram of the project

Vaagdevi Engineering College, EEE Dept.

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2.2:- BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Vaagdevi Engineering College, EEE Dept.

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2.3:- OPERATING PROCEDURE OF PROJECT:

2.4:- KIT PROCEDURE:

#. This $#V )C given to rectifying circuit to convert it to $#V *C.

'. "inally amplified signals are given to operate the relay.

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3.1:- Princi !" #$ Tr%n&$#r'"r:

B%&ic Princi !"&:

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"ig. %.$.$ =verview of transformer

Vaagdevi Engineering College, EEE Dept.

Sound activated lights

Vaagdevi Engineering College, EEE Dept.

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I("%! P#+"r E,)%*i#n:

"ig %.$.# Circuit representation of transformer

Vaagdevi Engineering College, EEE Dept.

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Sound activated lights

Sound activated lights

Vaagdevi Engineering College, EEE Dept.

Sound activated lights

3.2:- C#n("n&"( 'icr# 0#n":

%.#.$ Condenser microphone

Vaagdevi Engineering College, EEE Dept.

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1. D.n%'ic 'icr# 0#n":

Sound activated lights 2. Ri22#n 'icr# 0#n":

3. C%r2#n 'icr# 0#n":

4. Pi"3#"!"c*ric 'icr# 0#n":

L%&"r 'icr# 0#n":

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Li,)i( 'icr# 0#n"&:

MEM1 'icr# 0#n":

Vaagdevi Engineering College, EEE Dept.

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Sound activated lights

Vaagdevi Engineering College, EEE Dept.

Sound activated lights

Sound activated lights

%.+.# ;ymbol of transistor

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%.+.$ ;implified circuit of a transistor

Sound activated lights

Vaagdevi Engineering College, EEE Dept.

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%.+.% Types of transistors

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1in-!"- 0%&" r"c*i$i"r&:

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"ig %.'.$ (alf wave rectifier

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4.1:Bi #!%r 6)nc*i#n *r%n&i&*#r 2i%&in-:

Sound activated lights

4.1:Bi #!%r 6)nci#n r%n&i&*#r 2i%&in-:

R"&i&#r? c% %ci#r %n( in()c*#r:

Prin"( circ)i %&&"'2!.:

Sound activated lights O4"r!#%( r#"ci#n r"!%.: